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I. P HYSIOLOGY
A. B ODY F LUIDS - as primary body fluid, water is most important nutrient of life
- humans can survive for only a few days without water
1. F UNCTIONS OF W ATER
provide medium for transporting nutrients to cells, wastes from cells, and substances such as
hormones, enzymes, blood platelets, and red and white blood cells
facilitate cellular metabolism an d proper cellular chemical functioning
act as solvent for electrolytes and nonelectrolytes
help maintain normal body temperature
facilitate digestion and promote elimination
act as tissue lubricant
b. Extracellular fluid (ECF) - all fluid outside cells, including intravascular (plasma – liquid
component of blood) and interstitial (fluid that surrounds tissue cells and includes
lymph) fluids
total body water – total amt of water in body expressed as % of body weight
B. E LECTROLYTES
electrolyte – substance capable of breaking into electrically charged ions when dissolved in a solution
cations – ions that develop a positive charge anions – ions that develop a negative charge
1. S ODIU m (N A+) - chief electrolyte of ECF that moves easily between intravascular and
interstitial
spaces and moves across cell membranes by active transport
- influential in many chemical reactions in body, particularly nervous and muscle tissue cells
- controls and regulates volume of body fluids; maintains water balance throughout the body
- primary regulator of ECF volume and influences ICF
- participates in generation and transmission of nerve impulses
- essential electrolyte in sodium-potassium pump
- normal extracellular concentration: 135 – 145 mEq/L
2. P OTASSIUM (K +) – major cation of ICF working in reciprocal fashion with sodium (excessive intake of
sodium results in excretion of potassium, vice versa)
- chief regulator of cellular enzyme activity and cellular water content
- plays vital role in such processes as transmission of electric impulses, particularly nerve,
heart, skeletal, intestinal, and lung tissue; protein and carbohydrate metabolism, and
cellular bldg.
- adequate qty. usually in well-balanced diet
- food sources include bananas, peaches, kiwi, figs, dates, apricots, oranges, prunes, melons,
raisins, broccoli, potatoes, meat and dairy products
- excreted primarily by kidneys, however, there are large amts in GI secretions and some in
perspiration and saliva
- normal range for serum: 3.5 – 5 mEq/L
3. C ALCIUM (C A+) – most abundant electrolyte, with up to 99% of total found in iodized form of bones
and
teeth
- close link between concentrations of calcium and phosphorus
- necessary for nerve impulse transmission and blood clotting
- catalyst for muscle contraction
- needed for vitamin B12 absorption and its use by body cells
- acts as catalyst for most cell chemical activities
- necessary for strong bones and teeth
- determines thickness and strength of cell membranes
- adult avg. daily requirement about 1 g, higher amts. according to body wt. required for
children and pregnant and lactating women
- 1,500 mg/day recommended consumption for older adults, particularly postmenopausal
women and men older than 65
- sources include milk, cheese, and dried beans, some present in meats and vegetables
- excreted in urine, feces, bile, digestive secretions, and perspiration
4. M AGNESIUM (M G 2+) – most cation found within body cells – heart, bone, nerve, and muscle tissues
- 2nd most important cation in ICF
- important for metabolism of carbohydrates and proteins
- important for many vital reactions involving enzymes
- necessary for protein and DNA synthesis, DNA and RNA transcription, and translation of
RNA
- maintains normal intracellular levels of potassium
- helps maintain electrical activity in nervous tissue and muscle membranes
- adult daily avg. requirement about 18 – 30 mEq, with children requiring larger amts.
- found in most foods, but especially in vegetables, nuts, fish, whole grains, peas and beans
5. C HLORIDE (CI -) – chief extracellular anion, found in blood, interstitial fluid, and lymph and in minute
amts. in ICF
- acts with sodium to maintain osmotic pressure in blood
- plays a role in body’s acid-base balance
- has important buffering action when oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange in red blood cells
- essential for production of hydrochloric acid in gastric juices
- found in foods high in sodium, dairy products, and meat
- deficit leads to potassium deficit, and vice versa
- normal serum levels: 95 – 105 mEq/L
6. B ICARBONATE (HCO 3-) – anion that is major chemical base buffer within body
- found in both ECF and ICF
- essential for acid-base balance; bicarbonate and carbonic acid constitute body’s primary
buffer system
- losses possible via diarrhea, diuretics, and early renal insufficiency
- excess possible via overingestion of acid neutralizers, such as sodium bicarbonate
- normal levels range between 25 – 29 mEq/L
isotonic – solution that has about the same concentration of particles (osmolarity) as plasma
- remains in intravascular compartment w/out any net flow across semipermeable membrane
3. A CTIVE T RANSPORT – process that requires energy for movement of substances through a cell
membrane from an area of lesser solute concentration to an area of higher concentration
- adenosine triphosphate makes it possible for certain substances to acquire energy needed
- energy requirements for active transport are affected by characteristics of cell membrane,
specific enzymes, and concentrations of ions
- “pumping uphill”
- substances include amino acids, glucose (in certain places only - - kidneys, intestines), and
ions of sodium, chloride, potassium, hydrogen, phosphate, calcium, and magnesium
4. F ILTRATION – passage of fluid through permeable membrane from area of high pressure to lower
colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure) certain substances, such as plasma proteins, which
have high molecular weights on permeable membranes in the body
- filtration pressure is the difference between colloid osmotic pressure and blood hydrostatic
pressure
- these pressures are important in understanding how fluid leaves arterioles, enters interstitial
compartment, and eventually returns to venules
- positive pressure in arterioles - - helping to force or filter fluids into interstitial space
- negative pressure in venules - - helping fluid enter venules
D. F LUID B ALANCE
- desirable amt of fluid intake and loss in adults ranges from 1500 – 3500 mL each 24 hrs., with most
people averaging 2500 mL/day
- individual’s health state as well as balance between actual intake and loss must be
considered
- intake should normally be approx. balanced by output or fluid loss
- may not always occur in a single 24-hr. period but should be achieved within 2 – 3 days
1. F LUID S OURCES
a. Ingested Liquids – makes up largest amt of water intake
- primarily regulated by thirst mechanism - stimulated by intracellular dehydration and
decreased blood volume
c. Water from Metabolic Oxidation – occurs during metabolism of food substances, specifically,
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins - source varies among different types of nutrients
2. F LUID L OSSES – through kidneys as urine, intestinal tract in feces, and skin as perspiration (sensible
losses)
- insensible losses include ex. of invisible amt of water lost from skin constantly through
evaporation and from the lungs exhaled as breaths
- losses vary according to person and circumstances
- any deviations from normal ranges for a balanced water intake and output should alert nurse
to potential imbalances
3. H OMEOSTATIC M ECHANISMS – almost every organ and system in the body helps fluid homeostasis
function automatically and effectively:
kidneys (master chemists) selectively retain electrolytes and water and excrete
wastes and excesses
cardiovascular system is responsible for pumping and carrying nutrients and water
lungs regulate oxygen and carbon dioxide levels - - carbon dioxide is especially
crucial in maintaining acid-base balance
adrenal glands secrete aldosterone which helps body conserve sodium, helps save
chloride and water, and causes potassium to be excreted
thyroxine (from thyroid gland) increases blood flow leading to increased renal
circulation, resulting in increased glomerular filtration and urinary output
parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, regulating level of calcium in ECF
GI tract absorbs water and nutrients
nervous system (acting as switchboard to inhibit and stimulate mechanisms)
regulates sodium and water intake and excretion
- normal blood plasma is slightly alkaline and has a normal pH range of 7.35 – 7.45
- when blood plasma pH exceeds normal range in either direction, signs and symptoms of
illness appear
- if deviation goes unabated, death results
acidosis – condition characterized by excess hydrogen ions in ECF in which pH falls below 7.35
1. C ARBONIC ACID -S ODIUM B ICARBONATE B UFFER S YSTEM – most important buffer system
- buffers either act like a base and bind or soak up free hydrogen ions or act like an acid and
release hydrogen ions when too few are present in a solution
- normal ECF has a ratio of 20 parts bicarbonate to 1 part carbonic acid
- exact quantities are unimportant as long as they remain a 20:1 ratio
hypovolemia – deficit caused by deficiency in amt of both water and electrolytes in ECF
when water and electrolyte proportions remain near normal
- both osmotic and hydrostatic pressure changes force interstitial fluid into
intravascular space
- interstitial space is depleted, fluid becomes hypertonic, cellular fluid is drawn into
interstitial space, leaving cells without adequate fluid to function properly
- young children, elderly, and people who are ill are especially at risk
dehydration – decreased volume of water, but water is not decreased without electrolyte
changes also
3rd space fluid shift – distributional shift of body fluids into potential body spaces such as
pleural, peritoneal, pericardial, or joint cavities; bowel; or interstitial space
- once trapped, fluid is not easily exchanged with ECF, deficit occurs
- fluid is trapped but not lost - - essentially unavailable for use
- may occur as a result of severe burn, bowel obstruction, or pancreatitis
- decreased body wt does not occur, nor can fluid loss be measured
- treatment is directed toward correction of cause
Grading Scale: 1+ = slight indentation; normal contours; fluid volume 30% above norm
2+ = deeper pit after pressing; lasts longer than 1+; fairly normal contours
3+ = deep pit; remains several seconds after pressing; skin swelling obvious
by general inspection
4+ = deep pit; remains for prolonged time after pressing, possibly minutes;
frank swelling
Hypernatremia – surplus of sodium in ECF that can result from excess water loss or an
overall excess of sodium
d. Hypomagnesemia – magnesium deficit where potassium level also drops because the
kidneys tend to excrete more potassium when magnesium supplies are poor
- hypomagnesemia and hypokalemia often occur together
Hypermagnesemia – magnesium excess that can occur in end-stage renal failure when
kidneys fail to excrete magnesium and excessive amts are administered
therapeutically
II. A SSESSMENT
- imbalances can seriously compromise the patient’s health status and may prove life-threatening
- nursing assessment is directed toward:
identifying patients at high risk for fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base imbalance
determining that a specific imbalance is present and identifying the nature of the imbalance
along with severity, etiology, and defining characteristics
determining effectiveness of plan of care
- output should include urine, vomitus, diarrhea, drainage (fistulas, suction, lesions), perspiration
- prolonged hyperventilation should be noted
volume excess – when intake is substantially more than output
C. B ODY W EIGHT
- believed to be more accurate indicator of fluid gained and lost
- use same scale ea. time at the same time ea. day (in morning, before breakfast, after
voiding) wearing the same or similar dry clothing
- use a bed scale if patient is unable to stand
- rapid variations in wt. reflect changes in body fluid volume
- 2% loss of total body wt (TBW) = mild volume deficit
- 2% gain of TBW = mild volume excess
- 5% loss of TBW = moderate volume deficit
- 5% gain of TBW = moderate volume excess
- 8% loss of TBW = severe volume deficit
- 8% gain of TBW = severe volume excess
H. F ACIAL APPEARANCE
- severe volume deficit = pinched and drawn facial expression
- volume deficit of 10% = decreased intraocular pressure, eyes appear sunken and feel soft to touch
I. E DEMA
- measurement of extremity or body part with millimeter tape is more exact method of measurement
- edema not usually apparent until retention of 5 – 10 lbs of excess
- excess of interstitial fluid accumulating predominantly in lower extremities of ambulatory pts. and
presacral region of bed-ridden pts
- pitting edema not evident until at least 10% increase in wt
- may be localized (thrombophlebitis) or generalized (heart failure, cirrhosis)
- presence of periorbital edema or pedal edema should prompt investigation in other body parts
J. V ITAL S IGNS
1. B ODY T EMPERATURE – fever increases loss of fluids; important for early detection and interventions
- elevations probably related to lack of available fluid for sweating
- decrease temperature with volume deficit uncomplicated by infection
- elevation between 101 – 103 increases fluid requirements by 500 mL/day
- above 103 increases it by 1000 mL/day
2. P ULSE – tachycardia is the earliest sign of decreased vascular volume associated with volume deficit
- irregular pulse with potassium imbalances and magnesium deficit
- pulse volume is decreased in volume deficit and increased in volume excess
3. R ESPIRATIONS – deep, rapid respirations may be compensatory for metabolic acidosis or disorder
causing respiratory alkalosis
- slow, shallow respirations may be compensatory for metabolic alkalosis or disorder causing
respiratory acidosis
- moist crackles = volume excess
4. B LOOD P RESSURE – check while pt is lying down, sitting and standing
- a systolic fall greater than 15 mm Hg from lying to sitting or standing position = volume deficit
K. N ECK V EINS AND C ENTRAL V ENOUS P RESSURE (CVP) – position pt in semi-Fowler’s position (head 30 – 40°
angle) with neck straight and constricting clothing removed
- provide adequate lighting and measure levels of distention on neck or above manubrium
- low CVP may indicate a) decreased blood volume, b) drug-induced vasodilation
- high CVP may indicate a) increased blood volume, b) heart failure, c) vasoconstriction
- more accurate measurements by hemodynamic monitoring
L. N EUROMUSCULAR I RRITABILITY
- to test for Chvostek’s sign, facial nerve should be percussed anterior to ear lobe
- to test for Trousseau’s sign, blood pressure cuff is inflated for 3 minutes
- deep tendon reflex is elicited and may be hyperactive with hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia,
hypernatremia, and alkalosis
- muscle being tested should be slightly stretched and patient relaxed
- deep tendon reflex may be hypoactive with Hypercalcemia, hypermagnesemia, hypokalemia, and
acidosis
- reflex graded as: 0 = no response +1 = somewhat diminished but present
+2 = normal +3 = brisker than avg.; possibly indicative of disease
+4 = hyperactive
IV. I MPLEMENTING
- interventions include dietary modifications, modification of intake, medication admin., IV therapy,
blood and blood products replacement, and TPN
V. E VALUATION