1.0 TEACHING AND LEARNING.

1.1 Introduction.

In this lecture, we are going to learn three key concepts, which are considered useful to the
practicing or prospective teacher. The three key concepts are teaching, learning and
training. These words are frequently used in everyday discussions. It is important that you
as a student teacher or as a practicing teacher should have a clear understanding of what
teaching, learning and training mean.

As we define the three words, it will be necessary to show how they are related You should
then be able to describe accurately your role in a teaching situation. This will facilitate
accurate description of these terms in a teaching situation.

1.2 Objectives

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define the term ‘teaching’.
• define the term ‘learning’
• define the term ‘training’..
• show the relationships between teaching, learning and training.
• describe the teacher’s role in a teaching –learning situation.

1.3 Teaching

Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either through

talking, telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating. The ‘something’ is
either content, facts, skills and processes. Although teaching is a process, the word is
sometimes used to represent a system. In this connection, when one refers to another as a
teacher’, we automatically take this to mean someone involved in teaching. This involves a
series of steps which the teacher has to go through so as for effective teaching to take
place. Some of the steps are;
• consultation of the syllabus.
• Choice of the topics to teach.
• Interpretation of the objectives.
• Selection of the teaching methods.
• Selection of resource materials and
• Actual classroom presentation of the lesson.

For teaching to take place, there must be harmony among the various components
involved. The teacher should motivated to teach and adequately equipped with the
necessary knowledge and skills, the learner should be interested to learn.

Note

It is very important to note from the above definition, we realise that;

• a teacher teaches learners.
• the teacher is assumed to have information or message or skill that he or she passes to
the learners.
Therefore, for one to be able to teach, there must be at least a learner, content and a
teacher as a facilitator of the learning process (with his intentions or objectives). It is
commonly said that learners are taught by a teacher, but they also acquire information from
other sources such as books. In a teaching-learning situation, resources are very useful.

Activity

Who is the teacher in a situation where the pupils is learning by use

of
• a video tape ?
• a computer program?
• Distant learning by use of a radio?
• Correspondence?

Question?

What is the teacher’s role during a teaching situation?

1.3.1 The teacher’s role in a teaching situation.

A teacher plays several roles in a teaching situation. It is very important that we consider
some of these roles.

1.3.1.1 The teacher as a student.

It is important that you know the teacher’s role while teaching is taking place. You should
realize that the needs to continually improve himself or herself in terms of knowledge of his
subject matter. This is particularly so as new knowledge is coming up every now and then.
However, the teacher is also a student of the following;

a. The students.

A good teacher needs to know the student’s development, their characteristics and
behaviour. From this knowledge, the teacher will able to tell about the students’ ages, What
they already know?, What types of homes they come from? This information will assist the
teacher in making his explanations and examples clearer and relevant to the student.

b. The society.

The students belong to a society which has a certain structure, characteristics, aspirations
and is also evolving. The teacher will need to know what are
the major characteristics of the Kenyan society and what types of education does it want for
her children?. This will enable the teacher to contextualise the content according to the
needs of the society.

c. The Nation’s educational policy

The teacher needs to know the objectives of the National policy document and interpret
them. The teacher be trying to answer the questions:
• What exactly does the National policy document say on each aspect of education?
• How can these be implemented?
• How can this be implemented in a learning encounter ( class room situation)

d. Subject matter.

The various fields of knowledge he/she has to teach. Here, the teacher will be trying to find
out on:
• What specific aspects of subject matter should be taught and to what depth?
It is important to note that knowledge is not static, as new information is being generated
continuously. The organization of school subjects is also constantly changing. Teachers are
required to teach new subjects for which, they were not prepared for at the colleges they
attended. For example, in Kenya, Aids Education, drug abuse demands that teachers have
to employ all available methods of self-improvement to learn these new subjects and how to
teach them.

Note

It is important to note that the teacher has to know about

i. the learners,
ii.. the nation’s educational goals and the society in which he/she works because
the teaching of the subject has to be closely related to these

1.3.1.2 The teacher as a planner.

In this sub-section, we are going to see the teacher as a planner. What the teacher does in
the classroom, has to be carefully planned to ensure that teaching is not done in a
haphazard manner. For the teacher to plan well, he/she has to make major decisions based
on major questions which he/she has to seek answers to.
Some of the decisions which the teacher has to make.

i. The teacher has to consider; the meanings and implications of the national educational
goals and objectives. What for example does “promotion of national unity mean in relation
to the subject matter.

ii. specific activities should be carried out, by the teacher and the students both inside and
outside the classroom?

iii. Who should carry out each form of activity and what form [writing, collecting, observing
etc] should each activity take?

iv. How long should each activity last [a period, a week, a term, a few minutes] ?

To arrive at appropriate decisions on any of these, the teacher will be guided by his /her
earlier study of the learners, their society, the general educational policy, and the relevant
subject matter.

1.3.1.3 The teacher as a craftsman

As a craftsman, the teacher has to assist the students to learn. To achieve this, he/she has
to play the role of a skilled craftsman. He/she does this in a variety of ways. Below are
some of the ways by which the teacher acts as a skilled craftsman.
i. By presenting learning materials in an interesting way.
ii. By illustrating, demonstrating and explaining.
iii. By asking and answering questions.
iv. By giving assignments.
v. By correcting assignments.
vi. By praising learners who behave properly and helping or punishing those who
do not behave properly.

A teacher who has planned adequately, will know precisely the most appropriate means of
interacting with the students and helping them learn. If the teacher has studied his learners
well, his/her society and his nation’s educational goals and objectives correctly, his/her plan
will tend to work better than would have been if he/she had not previously performed all
these tasks.

1.3.1.4 The teacher as decision – maker.

The teacher is constantly making decisions. As he studies his society, the school system and
the subject matter, he has to decide on how to relate these to one another. Out of a variety
of possible procedures, he has to decide on which one. At the end of the learning, he has to
decide if learning has actually taken place.

A diagrammatic representation would help illustrate the decision making process.

Note

It is very important to realise that teaching has many sides to it. It is best seen as a process
as opposed to specific teacher’s roles. Even if one of the teacher’s roles is taken in isolation,
we will find that it has several components and stages.
In this lecture, we have seen the definition of teaching and the role of the teacher in a
teaching episode. Let us now define learning and see how it relates to teaching.

Activity

Choose a topic from one your teaching subject and identify specific components and stages
of the teaching process

1.4 Learning.

Psychologists have been investigating the subject of learning over the years. They have
given a psychological definition of learning as a change or modification of behaviour or
response as a result of some form of experience’. From this definition, several key words
have to be understood.

Question.

What does change in behaviour as a result of learning mean?

As a teacher you should know which changes in behaviour will signify that learning has
taken place. It is therefore very important that we examine the meaning of change in
behaviour as a result of learning.

The word “change”

The word ‘change’ implies that the learner goes out of a learning situation as a different
person from the one he/she was before he/she went into it. If we look at the learner as a
different person at two different extreme ends of a continuum in a learning situation, then it
will help us to understand what the teacher does during the teaching/learning process. Let
us now examine what ‘change in behaviuor’ means.

i. Change in behaviour

The change in behaviour referred to does not mean a change in physical characteristics such
as the child growing bigger or stronger. Rather, it refers to change in intellectual and
emotional functioning. For example, as a result of some new form of experience, the
individual reasons in a different way, and looks at a problem from a different perspective or
becomes a ware of the complexity of a particular problem and interacts in a more socially
acceptable way with others in his environment.

iii. The change in behaviour is the result of some form of experience.

A person’s behaviour can deviate from normal because of the effects of drugs. For example
a quiet person can become noisy and quarrelsome after smoking marijuana. Similarly, an
individual can change in behaviour as a result of fatigue.

Note

A man who had earlier lifted twenty logs into a truck and who finds it impossible
to lift the twenty first log would be described as having changed in behaviour
You will therefore need to understand that ‘experience’ as used in learning means that the
individual will have been helped to:
• realize that a particular activity can be carried out in a variety of ways.

• realize that it is possible to arrive at the solution to a particular problem, by adopting a

new method.
• see the other side of an argument,
• appreciate the beauty of a poem, a piece of music or a work of art.
Our focus therefore is on a positive change in behaviour as a result of learning.
For example, a child who has been violent or withdrawn due to drugs abuse and has
stopped the habit as a result of effective counseling, will interact in a friendly manner with
other people. This friendly relationship is a positive change in behaviour.

The learner’s encounter with a new experience will involve his interacting with other persons
for example by way of listening to a talk and act, by asking and answering questions or
perhaps by arguing with people. Interaction with others may also take the form of observing
natural scenes eg forests, rivers, situations such as people drinking together or dancing or
phenomena such as thunder, rainfall, the individual carrying out some investigation or
experiment.

Note:
It is very important to recognise that learning can be defined as a process by which, an
individual acquires and retains knowledge, skills, values, attitudes etc which cannot be
attributed to natural growth and development.

Activity

Identify some changes in behaviour which are as a result of natural growth

and development
You should know that there are changes, which seem to come about ‘naturally’. For
example, a baby’s efforts to move about such as in crawling or walking tend to start at a
particular period in life. Menstruation and getting married as a result of maturation are
normal processes of the individual growing up developing Whereas maturation is different
from learning, it may facilitate learning. For example, the legs must be strong enough for a
toddler to learn to walk.

1.5 Theories of learning.

Psychologists have attempted to study learning mostly by studying animals and by putting
people in experimental conditions [as opposed to normal, everyday conditions] in the
laboratory. They have then generalised their findings to apply to conditions under which
students learn in classroom situations. Such theories as stimulus – response ( Povlov:
1959), gestalt, programmed learning (Skinner :1966) have raised heated controversies over
what the right theory on learning should be.

You, as the classroom teacher need not bother with the controversy over the theories of
learning. Instead, you should see the different theories as complementary to one another.
i.e., no single theory of learning can explain to you everything that you may needs to know
about a particular concept.

Note

It is important to recognise that as the class room teacher, you should focus more on;
i. a clear understanding of what learning is,
ii. a clear idea of the factors which make learning easier.

Relationship between teaching and learning

You may have realised that learning is very important in teaching. It is therefore necessary
for you to identify the relationship between the two concepts.
i. teaching is supposed to promote learning.
ii. Incidental learning helps in teaching as it provides the necessary foundational experience
for the learner and thus make the teacher’s task easier.
iii. Teaching in itself involves some amount of learning by the teacher.
Both teaching and learning are processes, which are continous in nature. The learner can
sometimes be the teacher since he/she also influences the teacher’s behaviour.
Let us now consider the concept of training, which is related to teaching and learning.

1.6 Training
As the teacher guides his/her learners through a teaching – learning situation, there may be
certain instances when a training situation may arise. The training here may involve the
learner being taught how to perform a certain task. In such a situation, we would have the
teacher as the trainer and the learner as the trainee.
The teacher (trainer) would be seen as assisting the learner (trainee) to perform a particular
task.

In this situation, we can see the learner going beyond listening and understanding (as is
necessary in teaching), to repeating the motions of performing a certain task as shown by
the teacher. In our earlier discussion of teaching, we explained it as telling, talking,
explaining or showing the content to your learners. In doing so, there may be certain
methods to be followed so as to perform the task of teaching easily and effectively. In
achieving this, the teacher would need to learn some basic teaching principles such as:
• Methods of planning
• Preparation
• Exposing
• Evaluating the teaching materials and
• Understanding your learners’ behaviours.

However, understanding these principles may not necessarily lead to you becoming a
confident teacher. Confidence is developed through performing the teaching task. The task
of teaching will therefore need to be defined, understood and then analysed into sub-tasks.

You ,as the student – teacher will then need to perform each sub-task. In the process, you
will be;
i. shown through a demonstration by the teacher, how the task is performed.
ii. put in a situation (simulated) where you will be guided through the sub-tasks until you
have mastered it ( you would have your peers as you learners for this purpose).
iii. required to perform the sub-task together (integrating all the sub-skills) to perform a
teaching task on your peers.
iv. perform the teaching task in an actual situation such as a normal classroom under the
direct supervision of your teacher.
v. once you have repeatedly performed the task to the satisfaction of your teacher, you will
then be described as a trained teacher.
In the situation described above, the trainee began by getting some basic information about
the task to be performed, understood it then performed the task repeatedly until he/she
attained skill in the task’s performance. This is the same as the procedure used in most
training programmes.
An understanding of the training process makes it possible to observe and know the results
of a performance on the basis of the final product.

Activity.

Identify and explain the key differences between teaching and training

1.7 Education.

Identify and explain the key differences between teaching and training 24
After being taught or trained, the individual will live in a society where he will apply the
acquired knowledge and skills. This close contact with other human beings will require him
or her to act, react and interact with others. The knowledge or skills acquired should be
skilfully channeled into helping his or her fellow human beings.
Education goes beyond teaching and training. It has to do with the individual using the
acquired knowledge and skills to increase, adjust and enrich his/her past knowledge so as to
be helpful to others. An educated person therefore should be seen as the one whose
interaction with others is socially acceptable.

Question.

• What is the relevancy of ‘education’ in a teaching – learning situation?

• How can the teacher modify his/her teaching process so as to ensure that the learners are
receiving ‘education’?
There are three forms of education. Let us now discuss briefly the three forms of education.

1.7.1 Formal education.

This is education carried out in institutions which follows a structured curriculum. Examples
are schools and colleges. In these institutions, there are syllabuses and time - tables to be
followed. Occasionally, there is supervision by inspectors, and the final mark of education is
formal evaluation and awarding of certificates.

1.7.2 Non - formal education.

This means any organised activity outside the structured or formal system but which is
meant to meet needs of a particular group of people. It could be a group of children, youth
or adults in the community. An example is the agricultural extension officer, who may be
meeting with some villagers to a lert them of a livestock disease outbreak and how to
protect their livestock. Another example

could be the health and family planning officer explaining to a group of people on new
methods of practising family planning.

1.7.3 Informal Education.

Most of the learning in informal education takes place unconsciously at home, among peers
and through the environment. It pursues its own course at its own pace by its own means
throughout each person’s life. The learning is not structured.

1.8 Summary

• Teaching involves passing knowledge in the form of facts, concepts, procedures and
principles.
• Training involves using the acquired knowledge in the form of applying learnt skills in a
repetitive action.
• Education goes beyond teaching and training. It may start with some basic knowledge
about the learner and his environment. The knowledge would assist the learner to increase
and apply the acquired knowledge.

1.9 Definition of key words and concepts.

Teaching Teaching is a process of telling or showing someone how to do something either

through talking, telling, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating.
Learning A process by which an individual acquires and retains knowledge, skills, values and
attitudes which cannot be attributed to natural growth and development.
Training A process of teaching someone how to perform a task efficiently through repeated
practice.
LECTURE FIVE

5.0 The classification of objectives according to domains of knowledge

5.1 Introduction.

Knowledge is divided into three main areas or domains. The criteria used is the nature of
knowledge in each category. The categories are cognitive which includes knowledge
involving simple recall, affective which is knowledge involving values, attitudes and
interests, and the third is psychomotor which covers knowledge involving practical skills.

Teaching-learning objectives also fall into the three areas or domains or taxonomies.
Lecture five deals with the classification of objectives into different domains.

5.3 Domains of knowledge.

There are three main areas or domains of knowledge, Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor.
Instructional objectives are classified according to these domains or taxonomies of
knowledge.

Question.

Why are instructional objectives classified according to the taxonomies of knowledge?

When you are teaching a topic or a course you need to have an in-depth coverage of the
content. There are skills and abilities which you need to identify and expose learners to.

The importance of classifying objectives is to be able to judge the depth and the variation of
the content you have to cover when planning so that students are exposed to all what they
need to know. Classifying objectives into taxonomies of knowledge helps you do this
effectively.

Each of the three taxonomies deals with knowledge in the following areas:
• Cognitive domain – Concepts, ideas, factual knowledge.
• Affective – appreciation, attitudes and morals.
• Psychomotor – skills.

Note:

Note that any objective which has to do with the learning of a concept, an idea or factual
knowledge is classified under cognitive domain, the one which has to do with appreciation or
attitudes, affective and the one which has to do with skill psychomotor.
Knowledge in cognitive domain is also classified into categories or levels of thinking. This is
according to complexity starting from the simple or simple knowledge level to the most
complex, evaluation. Here are examples of objectives in different levels of knowledge in
cognitive domain and also in the other two domains, Affective and Psychomotor. Go through
them and do the activity given below.

Activity:

State at least two objectives in:

• All the levels of knowledge in cognitive domain.
• Affective and Psychomotor domains.

Knowledge

Deals with ability to recognize and recall. It includes the recall of principles, generalizations,
theories and methodology. e.g.
• By the end of the lesson the learners will be able to define: digestion and excretion.
• The learners will be able to name six capital cities in Africa.

Comprehension

• Abilities higher than simple knowledge which include ability to translate or explain
information. e.g.
(i) The learners will be able to explain the function of the heart (human)
(ii) The students will be able to describe the growth process in his own words.

Application

• Higher than No.2 if a learner can be able or has understood information he can apply
it. e.g.
(i) The students will be able to translate simple word problems into algebraic
equations.
(ii) The student will be able to convert yards into meters accurately.

Analysis

Category higher than application.

It involves analysis of relationships, elements. e.g.
(i) Students will be able to spot inconsistencies in the explanation.
(ii) Students will be able to identify the major themes of a novel.
(iii) The students will be able to determine logical fallacies in an argument.

Synthesis

Involves the ability to produce unique communication.

Put together ideas in a constructive manner. e.g.
(i) Students will be able to propose a suitable method for determining the
chemical content of course.
(ii) The students will be able to design a plan for community participation in
Machakos District.
(iii) The students will be able to create a logical outline of describing the biological problem.

Evaluation

This is the highest taxonomy.

It includes the ability to make judgments. e.g.

(i) By the end of the lesson the students will be able to distinguish between a well
developed character and stereotyped one in a Bantu culture.
(ii) The student will be able to write a critique of the English programme.
(iii) By the end of the lesson the student will be able to distinguish between decision making
and problem solving (in History and Government).

Affective domain

(i) The students will be able to show interest in literature by doing extra reading.
(ii) The students will be able to participate wholeheartedly in the biology classroom
discussion.
(iii) The students will be able to find pleasure in studying ecology.

Psychomotor domain

(i) Students will be able to play golf.

(ii) Students will be able to swim 100 metres in four minutes.

Note:
There are action verbs, which are not suitable for stating objectives because they are not
measurable. E.g. understand, demonstrate comprehend. Those which are covert

Note this does not apply to affective domain.

5.4 Summary:

In this lecture, we have seen the classification of objectives into taxonomies of knowledge.
We have seen why instructional objectives should be classified. Some examples have been
given to assist you know how to state objectives belonging to different classes.

There are action verbs, which are not suitable for stating objectives because they are not
measurable. E.g. understand, demonstrate comprehend. Those which are covert Note this
does not apply to affective domain.

5.5 Definition of key words and concepts.

Domains of knowledge.

These are the taxonomies into which knowledge is categorised depending on its
nature.
Cognitive domain.

This is the kind of knowledge which involves recall of factual knowledge.

Affective domain.

Is the taxonomy or area of knowledge which deals with values, attitudes and interests.

Psychomotor domain.

Deals with knowledge which has to do with learning practical skills.