Hartlepool Geology

A Brief Introduction to the Geology of the Hartlepool Area
Contents:
1. Introduction
1.1 Topography
1.2 Geological History
2. Carboniferous
3. Permian
4. Triassic
5. Pleistocene and Recent (Holocene)
6. Economic Geology
6.1 Coal
6.2 Rock Salt
6.3 Gypsum and anhydrite
6.4 Limestone
6.5 Dolomite
6.6 Refractories
6.7 Fire and brick clay
6.8 Building stone, roadstone and aggregates
6.9 Ores
6.10 Peat, water, etc.
7. Sources
Index of tables:
Classification and correlations of Upper Permian strata in North-East England

Jurassic of the United Kingdom
Tertiary of Great Britain
Stratigraphy of the Carboniferous of Great Britain
Distribution of Epigenetic Minerals in the Permian
Permo-Triassic sequence in South-East Durham
The glacial and interglacial stages of Europe and the United States of America
Index of figures:
Figure 1, Geological Map of Britain and Ireland

Figure 2, Physiographic Map of Northern England
Figure 3, Geological map of Northern England
Copyright © Alan Johnson 2001 except where indicated otherwise. October 2001 1
1. Introduction
Hartlepool is a medium-sized town on the North-East coast of England, situated about 50 km
south of Newcastle, just to the North of the River Tees and the Tees estuary, and the towns of Billingham
and Middlesborough. It has a population of about 90 000. Once an important industrial town, it suffered
severe depression during the nineteen-seventies and into the eighties, due to closure of the steel plant
(blast furnace) and the demise of associated industries (rolling, pipe and plate mills, chemical industry,
foundries, coal mines, with associated unemployment in places up to 30%). Between 1975 and 1985, the
population dropped by 10% from 100 000, to the current 90 000. The town shipyards were closed during
the fifties and those on the Tees mainly during the sixties and early seventies, along with several other
important employers. The town lies on the southern edge of the Durham coalfield, which has been
worked at least since Roman times and is said to be the oldest known commercially worked coalfield, at
least in Britain. Not far afield, but outside of the area being looked at (South of the Tees), iron ores were
discovered early, which helped in the industrial rise of the town. Another factor contributing to the early
importance of the town was the excellent natural harbour. The world’s first railway line, the Stockton to
Darlington railway, was only a few miles away. The demise of the collieries began in the late sixties and
early seventies, and carried on into the eighties. The employment situation improved somewhat during the
nineties, with the arrival of new, light industries (although many of these quickly disappeared again), but
the changes to industrial structure have left many older people bewildered and unhappy. The area has an
interesting and varied geology and is well worth a visit for those interested in such matters, especially
with the appropriate literature to hand. The "Hartlepool area" in this "paper" is quite large (and very
loosely defined), running (very) roughly along a line southwards from Durham in the West, and eastwards
from Durham to the North Sea coast in the North. It is bordered (equally roughly) to the South by the
River Tees. Any correlation with North American Standard stratigraphy is only an attempted rough
equivalent; please do not accept it as exact!
Fig. 1 Geological Map of Britain and Ireland (c) NERC 1995
1.1 Topography
Topography is varied but rather small scale by most measures. Heights range from 0 ft on the
coast in the East to approximately 400 ft AOD (Above Ordnance Datum) in the West and North. The
Southeast of the area is comprised of flat alluvial plain, upon which West Hartlepool (as opposed to
Hartlepool – don’t confuse these when visiting, you could find yourself in trouble with the older
population!) was largely built; this can be excellently viewed when coming over the ridge of higher
ground at Elwick or Hart villages. In the West and North, somewhat hilly ground is to be found. On the
coast, low to medium height cliffs are widespread, except at Hartlepool itself, which enjoys about 4 - 5
miles of golden, sandy beach, running almost from the "old town", down to the Tees estuary in the South,
where mud flats gradually take over the scene (the “Seal sands” upon which the nuclear power station
was built!). There is also sandy beach to the North of the Hartlepool headland. Most streams drain to the
East through small gorges (denes) to the North Sea, in places cutting down to Permian strata, except in
the South, where drainage is into the Tees. See Figure 2.
Fig. 2 Physiographic Map of Northern England (c) NERC 1995
1.2 Geological History
Pre-Carboniferous and Carboniferous

No pre-Carboniferous strata have yet been discovered in the area. The Carboniferous strata
possibly rest unconformably on Caledonian granites (e.g. the Weardale Granite), which have been proven
further to the West, outside of this area. However, in other places, basal (Carboniferous) conglomerates
over Silurian rocks have also been bored. The area is bounded on the North, South, and West by a suite of
faults. It is assumed that a deep basin formed, presumably during the Devonian, surrounded by crustal
blocks, leading to the deposition of thick Carboniferous-Permian-Triassic strata. This basin roughly
follows the strike of the Caledonian orogeny, indicating the influence that this orogeny had on later
geological processes.
Permian
During the Permian period, the whole area was developed as a low, arid desert plain. The main
process at work here was the deposition of sands and breccias, which were later extensively reworked and
redistributed by the Zechstein (Upper Permian) transgression event. This period saw the deposition of the
Marl Slate as the first true marine strata, followed by carbonates and sulphates, and chlorides further to
the East. The Permian period comes to a close with the extensive deposition of fine-clastic, shallow water
beds. Excellent cryptozoon algal mats, in stromatalitic reef formations, can be viewed to the immediate
North of Hartlepool in the Middle Magnesian Limestone of Hesleden Dene sea front.
YORKSHIRE PROVINCE DURHAM PROVINCE YORKSHIRE PROVINCE NORTH GERMANY AND
VALE OF EDEN SERIES GROUPS (OUTCROP AREA) (COUNTY DURHAM, (EAST AND NORTH HOLLAND
EAST TYNE AND WEAR, YORKS, HUMBERSIDE ,
COUNTY CLEVELAND) ADJOINING NORTH SEA)
LITTLEBECK Z5
ESKDALE GROUP EZ5 ROXBY FORMATION ANHYDRITE ? GRENZANHYDRIT
SLEIGHTS SILTSTONE
SNEATON HALITE ALLER SALZE Z4
SHERBURN ANHYDRITE SHERBURN ANHYDRITE
SHERBURN ANHYDRITE PEGMATITANHYDRIT
E D E N S H A L E S (W I T H B R O C K R A M)
STAINTON-DALE EZ4 UPGANG FORMATION

GROUP UPGANG FORMATION Thin unnamed carbonate
ROTTEN MARL ROTTEN MARL
CARNALLITIC MARL ROTER SALZTON
UPPER PERMIAN
BLOCKY FACIES
BOULBY HALITE BOULBY HALITE LEINE SALZE Z3
D-BED BILLINGHAM BILLINGHAM
TEESSIDE GROUP EZ3 ANHYDRITE BILLINGHAM ANHYDRITE HAUPTANHYDRIT
BELAH ANHYDRITE BROTHERTON
DOLOMITE BROTHERTON FORMATION PLATTENDOLOMIT
FORMATION SEAHAM FORMATION GRAUER SALZTON
GRAUER SALZTON
C-BED SEAHAM RESIDUE STASSFURT SALZE AND Z2
EDLINGTON FORMATION FORDON EVAPORITES BASALANHYDRIT
AISLABY GROUP EZ2 ROKER DOLOMITE AND HAUPTDOLOMIT AND
CONCRETIONARY KIRKHAM ABBEY EQUIVALENTS
LIMESTONE FORMATION
B-BED HARTLEPOOL HAYTON ANHYDRITE WERRAANHYDRIT Z1
ANHYDRITE
DON GROUP EZ1 MARL SLATE FORD FORMATION CADEBY FORMATION ZECHSTEINKALK
A-BED RAISBY FORMATION
AND HILTON MARL SLATE MARL SLATE KUPFERSCHIEFER
PLANT BEDS
LEMAN SANDSTONE
PERMIAN
LOWER
PENRITH SANDSTONE BASAL PERMIAN YELLOW (BASAL AND SILVERPIT ROTLIEGENDES

AND BROCKRAM (YELLOW) SANDS AND PERMIAN) SANDS AND FORMATION;
BRECCIAS BRECCIAS BASAL BRECCIAS
Classification and correlations of Upper Permian strata in North-East England (simplified after D. B. Smith in P. McL. D. Duff & A. J. Smith (editors)
Geology of England and Wales, The Geological Society, 1992)
Triassic
During the Triassic period, sandstones and mudstones (Keuper Marl - Upper Triassic) were
deposited. The European (North German) "Muschelkalk" (Middle Triassic) is not proved, or known, in
the area. During this period, the area is assumed to have been completely continental, so that a correlation
of strata, if present, with the marine "Muschelkalk" of Western Europe is at best difficult.
Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary

No strata from the Jurassic to Tertiary periods are known in the area. Tectonic movement is
known to have taken place (e.g. Butterknowle fault). These movements are mainly Tertiary in age. A very
small amount of Jurassic strata is known in the Northwest of England, near Carlisle, but well outside the
area in question here.
Jurassic of the United Kingdom
SERIES STAGE
Tithonian
UPPER
Kimmeridgian
Oxfordian
Callovian
MIDDLE
Bathonian
Bajocian
Aalenian
Toarcian
LOWER
Pliensbachian
Sinemurian
Hettangian
Simplified after S. P. Hesselbro in Nigel Woodcock & Rob Strachan (editors) Geological History of Britain and Ireland,
Blackwell Science Ltd., 2000
The Tertiary of Great Britain
BRITAIN INTERNATIONAL
STRATIGRAPHIC CHART
PIACENZIAN GELASIAN
PLIOCENE PIACENZIAN
ZANCLIAN ZANCLIAN
MESSINIAN MESSINIAN
NEOGENE
TORTONIAN TORTONIAN
SERRAVALIAN SERRAVALIAN
MIOCENE
LANGHIAN LANGHIAN
BURDIGALIAN BURDIGALIAN
AQUITANIAN AQUITANIAN
OLIGOCENE CHATTIAN CHATTIAN
RUPELIAN RUPELIAN
PRIABONIAN PRIABONIAN
PALEOGENE
BARTONIAN BARTONIAN
EOCENE
LUTETIAN LUTETIAN
YPRESIAN YPRESIAN
THANETIAN THANETIAN
PALEOCENE DANIAN SELANDIAN
DANIAN
Simplified and altered after R. Anderton in Nigel Woodcock & Rob Strachan (editors) Geological History of Britain and Ireland,
Quaternary
The Quaternary period is the period that has most influenced the topography of the region.
Massive drift deposits and the various types of moraines, etc., cover the area. During this period, there
were several minor, fast moving glacials and interglacials, which modelled the present landscape, formed
deep gorges and valleys and, later, buried these valleys once again under drift. In the South, the Upper
Coal Measures (Desmoinesian, Atokan, Uppermost Carboniferous), and possibly as far down as the
Jurassic, were removed through glacial action.
Fig. 3 Geological Map of Northern England (c) NERC 1995
2. Carboniferous
Stratigraphy of the Carboniferous of Great Britain
COAL MEASURES UPPER

UPPER CARBONIFEROUS (Westphalian) MIDDLE
(US: Atokan, Desmoinesian) LOWER
YEADONIAN
MARSDENIAN
MILLSTONE GRIT KINDERSCOUTIAN
MIDDLE CARBONIFEROUS (Namurian) ALPORTIAN
(US: Chesterian, Morrowan) CHOKERIAN
ARNSBERGIAN
PENDLEIAN
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE
LOWER CARBONIFEROUS (Dinantian) VISEAN
(US: Kinderhookian, Osagean, Meramecian) TOURNASIAN
Carboniferous strata underlay about 75% of the area. This is the best-known system in the
Northeast of England (if not in Britain), due to the widespread occurrence of the economically important
coals and vein ores. Cyclic sedimentation followed throughout the Carboniferous, laying down limestone,
mudstone, sandstone, seatearth, ganister (high silica clay - very hard and fine-grained), and coal (except
during the Tournaisian, which was completely marine and contains no coal). Marine conditions became
shorter with each cycle, causing upward thinning of the limestones. In the Coal Measures, there is almost
no evidence of marine conditions. Carboniferous strata reach thicknesses of over 3000 ft. (~ 1000 m).
Herein are: Millstone Grit - 900 - 1400 ft., Lower Coal Measures - 600 ft., Middle Coal Measures - 1000
ft. I have found no reference yet to the Stephanium. In the South, Permian rocks overlie the strata
unconformably. The Coal Measures have been proved off the coast by deep offshore bores, and large
reserves are still available either below the North Sea, or below Permian strata. It is, however, unlikely
that these will be worked in the near future, for economic reasons. They are exposed in the West, striking
NE - SW and dipping East at 1.35° - 1.4°. In the Coal Measures, a cyclic succession of coals, sandstones
and dark grey mudstones is present, moving up to lighter siltstones. Under the Lower Coal Measures,
there are the limestones of the Carboniferous Limestone. The Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone
Grit both contain limestones and sandstones, although the type area is further to the South. The coals of
the Durham coalfields are known to have been worked by the Romans, and are the worlds first (known?)
commercially worked coalfield.
The sandstones are quartz with feldspar:
• orthoclase,
• microcline (potassium feldspar from highly potassic granites),
• oligoclase (a plagioclase).
They also contain:
• zircon,
• garnet,
• rutile,
• tourmaline,
• apatite,
• magnetite,
• sapphire and, in some places, so much
• muscovite (from granitic and metamorphic rocks further North) that the sandstones become fissile.
During the Carboniferous, many dykes (dikes) and sills were emplaced, as far as the Middle Coal
Measures. These rocks include quartz-dolerites, a medium grained basic rock, and tholeiites, an over-
saturated basalt containing glassy free silica, but consist in the main of olivine basalts. These include the
Kelso lavas, outside of the immediate area. In the area being considered, magmatites are restricted to the
above-mentioned dykes and sills. The rocks are very hard and have been used as roadstone. The best
known of these dykes and sills is the Whin Sill, which crops out in Northumberland and Cumberland, and
in Teesdale. It has also been proved in numerous bores, and has an area of > 5000 km². The average
thickness is thought to be around 25 - 30 m, with a maximum recorded of about 73 m. At first considered
a contemporaneous lava flow within the Carboniferous Limestone, it is now known to be intrusive and in
places changes position and direction dramatically along fault planes, including distinct layers, sometimes
separated by hundreds of meters. The Whin Sill was the subject of pioneer isotopic age determination by
Arthur Holmes.
3. Permian
The Permian and the Triassic periods are often collectively known as the Permo-Trias(sic) in the
United Kingdom, because of difficulties defining the boundary between the two in most of the country. It
is often taken to be at that point where red sandstones overlay red clays (mudstones) and silts. These,
however, have been proven diachronous with the sandstones. In parts of Britain, there is also ongoing
discussion as to the definition of the transition from Carboniferous to Permian. During the early Permian
(beginning in late Carboniferous), the area was uplifted and eroded, as a result of the development of the
Hercynian orogeny. There followed a period of continental deposition, with deep arid weathering
processes.
The Permian deposits measure up to 1400 ft. (~ 425 m). They consist mainly of:
• Basal Permian sands and breccias, the so-called "Yellow Sands", a sandstone of up to 160 ft. (~ 49 m)
• Lower Magnesian Limestone
• Middle Magnesian Limestone
• Upper Magnesian Limestone
• Upper Permian Marl (contains Marl Slate = Kupferschiefer (from the German for copper slate”), with
a high content of sygenetic and diagenetic sulphides and pyrite)
North of the Hartlepool Fault, everything above the Upper Magnesian Limestone is gone,
although there are breccia of Upper Permian Marl origin in the Middle and Upper Magnesian Limestone.
The Permian deposits lie unconformably on an eroded Carboniferous plain, which slopes gently to the
East. The basal sands ("Weissliegende", form the German for “white underlying” (of the copper slate))
and breccias (Zechstein conglomerate) contain many ventifacts ("Dreikanter", from the German for
“three-edged”) and show desert patination. These sandstones range from aeolian to subaqueous in facies.
The area lay in the shallow, coastal waters of the Zechstein Sea and developed many cyclic formations, as
is the case in most of (North-West) Europe. Because of the proximity to the coast, many cycles are not
complete. They consist mainly of carbonates, which are often highly dolomitised. Many of the cycles
were later removed by solution. Strongly represented in the Hartlepool area are:
o reef dolomites
o lagoonal dolomites
o concretionary and evaporative limestones
o evaporites such as:
+ Anhydrite
+ Gypsum
+ Halite
+ and other salts
The estimated average annual temperature during the period was approximately 23°C (~ 45°F).
Plant and animal fossils are present at the base of each cycle, slowly disappearing towards the top of each
cycle. It is supposed that moisture was carried from the Zechstein Sea to the immediate coastal area; as
the sea gradually evaporated less moisture was available, and hence the reduction in flora and fauna
towards the top of each cycle.
The Permian period is highly important for minerals in the North-East of England and a fair
variety is to be found.
Distribution of Epigenetic Minerals in the Permian
Basal Permian Lower Middle Upper

Minerals Sands & Marl Slate Magnesian Magnesian Magnesian Localities
Breccias Limestone Limestone Limestone
Copper X Raisby Hill Quarry.
Many quarries along scarp;

Sphalerite C X X X Hesleden Dene No. 3 bore.
Many quarries along scarp;
Galena C C X most boreholes; Blackhall
rocks.
Many quarries along scarp,
Chalcopyrite X X including Raisby Hill
Quarry.
Many quarries along scarp
Pyrite C C C X X and most boreholes.
Quartz X Hesleden Dene.
Pyrolusite X Whelly Hill Quarry, Hart
Mainsforth Low Main

Magnetite X Series, No. 9 bore.
Chilton Quarry, many

Goethite X boreholes
Most surface exposures and

“Limonite” X boreholes
In most boreholes and in

Fluorite X X X several quarries along scarp
Several quarries along scarp,
Malachite X X X especially Raisby Hill
Railway cutting south of
Azurite X Raisby Hill Quarry
Most surface exposures and

Calcite X X C C C boreholes
Many surface exposures and

Dolomite X X boreholes
(with Ankerite)
Fishburn Nos 1 to 4 bores;
Kaolinite X X Hesleden Dene No 31 bore
Fishburn Nos 1 to 4 bores;
Dickite X X Hesleden Dene No 31 bore
Collophane X Hesleden Dene No 31 bore

(Francolite)
Offshore Nos 1 and 2 bores;
Anhydrite X X X Seaton Carew bore
Raisby Hill Quarry;
Gypsum X X X Offshore Nos 1 and 2 bores
Several quarries along scarp
Celestine X
Several quarries along scarp,

Baryte X C X X especially at Chilton and
Thrislington; many
boreholes
From: Geology of the Country between Durham and West Hartlepool, BGS, 1967
X = recorded C = common
1 Called Hesleden Dene No. 2 bore in descriptions and analyses given by Dunham and others (1948) and Guppy and Sabine (1956, pp. 65, 72-3)
4. Triassic
Bunter Sandstone and Keuper represent the Triassic period in this area. The wholly marine
"Muschelkalk", which is well represented in North-West Europe, is not present in Britain. The area
continued to be arid-continental. Some sources claim that the Muschelkalk was deposited here and there,
but was later removed by erosion. It is therefore not usually included in the British nomenclature.
The Bunter Sandstone occurs between the West Hartlepool fault and the South of the area. It
consists of the red sandstones that give this epoch its name (Bunter Sandstone comes from the German for
"coloured sandstone", where it is known as “Buntsandstein”). Only two exposures are known, both of
which are on the Hartlepool coast. The Bunter Sandstone reaches thicknesses of up to approximately 700
ft. (~200 m). It consists of red and grey fine-grained sandstones, and mud and siltstones. The latter show
current bedding, ripple marks and sun cracks, showing that a shallow water, semi-continental depositional
environment was prevalent.
The Keuper Marl also reaches a thickness of approximately 700 ft. and consists of mud and
siltstones.
Permo-Triassic Sequence in Southeast Durham
Formation Description Approximate thickness in

metres
Keuper Marl Dull reddish brown and banded siltstone and mudstone, with up to 100
much anhydrite and halite near base
Keuper Basal Beds Red, grey and green variegated gypsiferous pebbly sandstone 1 to 2
Unconformity Sharp irregular transgressive erosion surface
Brick-red soft, medium-grained sandstone, with many beds of dull

Bunter Sandstone reddish brown mudstone. Ripple marks and desiccation cracks 180 to 210
present throughout. Gradational base.
Dull reddish brown silty mudstone, with many red sandstone beds
Upper Permian Marl in upper part. Ripple marks and desiccation cracks present 45 to 120
throughout.
Upper Anhydrite Grey and purple fine-grained bedded anhydrite. 1 to 4
Rotten Marl Dull reddish brown blocky mudstone 3 to 10
Middle (or Main) Salt Massive halite, clay-rich in upper part, anhydritic in lower part. 0 to 55
Billingham Main Anhydrite Grey crystalline anhydrite, commonly with a nodular texture 3 to 10
suggesting a diagenetic origin.
Upper Magnesian Limestone Dark grey, finely crystalline cross-laminated limestone with
(Seaham Beds) abundant tubulites permianus and scattered calcitic concretions. 10 to 27
Locally collapse-brecciated.
Middle Marls Dull reddish brown mudstones and siltstones, with beds of 5 to 37
nodular and massive anhydrite and some dolomite.
? Middle Magnesian White to buff soft oolitic and pisolitic shallow-water dolomite, 0 to 46
Limestone? with scattered bivalves. Much secondary anhydrite at depth.
Lower Magnesian Limestone Buff well-bedded fine-grained dolomite, with scattered bivalves 0 to 50
and foraminifera.
Marl Slate Grey argillaceous laminated dolomite with abundant fish scales. 0 to 3
Grey hard breccia, locally with a matrix of dolomite. Many wind-

Basal Breccia polished sand grains. Fragments mainly of carboniferous 0 to 10
limestone.
5. Pleistocene and Recent (Holocene)
The whole area has been morphologically formed and reformed by glacial erosion and deposition.
A whole series of glacials and interglacials moved across the North of England, including many minor,
rapid moving, short-lived periods, often from local high ground. These glaciation centres were usually
around the Lake District, in the North-West of England, and the South of Scotland. The deposits left
behind are up to 300 ft (~91 m) deep, especially in buried valleys, but usually only reach around 10 - 15
ft. Overall, they consist of:
o Boulder clay
o Laminated clay
o Breccia
o Sand
o Gravel
The topographical features, which mark a once-glaciated landscape, are, amongst others:
o Hanging valleys
o Raised beaches
o Moraines (of several types)
o Raised river terraces
All of which are present in the Hartlepool area. In addition, off the coast, are submerged
"forests". In Hartlepool docks, these reach as much as 17 ft. in thickness and just off the coast they are up
to one mile wide and three miles long. They contain many bones, deer antler and stone tools. The forests
began to grow after the ice had melted away to the North, and the climate was warming, but before the
sea-level had risen to its current position. Many of the buried valleys cut the present coast well below sea-
level and have been proven for several miles off the coast.
The oldest glacial deposits are to be found mainly in fissures in the Magnesian Limestone. They
are filled with grey, gritty clay and erratics from Scandinavia; no British rocks have been found in these
deposits. The clays also contain animal bones and arctic shells not now found in Britain or in British
waters. Caves are also known in the Magnesian Limestone, most of which are filled with Pleistocene
deposits. Human bones have also been found, however, together with Iron Age tools.
The main Holocene (Recent) deposit is Boulder Clay, which consists of:
o Upper Boulder Clay

o Middle Sands
o Lower Boulder Clay
The glacial and interglacial stages of Europe and the United States of America
North-West Europe United States of America
(Standard Scale) Alpine Britain (North American Standard)
Flandrian Recent Holocene
Weichselian Würm Devensian Wisconsin Glacial
Eemian Riss/Würm Ipswitchian Sangamonian Interglacial
Saalian Riss Wolstonian Illinoisian Glacial
Holsteinian Mindel/Riss Hoxnian Jarmouthian Interglacial
Elsterian Mindel Anglian Kansan Glacial
Cromerian Günz/Mindel Cromerian Aftonian Interglacial
Menapian Günz Nebraskan Glacial
Waalian
Eburonian
6. Economic Geology
The most important components of the economic geology of the Hartlepool area are coal, rock
salt, gypsum and anhydrite. Limestone and dolomite also play a role, as well as brick and fireclay, various
stones and rocks for building and aggregates. Minerals and ores only play a minor role. I shall now deal
with these in their rough order of importance.
6.1 Coal
As has already been mentioned, coal has played an important part in the development of the
region and has been worked at least since Roman times. The seams in the Durham coalfield vary
considerably in thickness and quality, the best seams being those in the 250 m above and including the
Brockwell Seam. These include the Busty, Harvey, Bensham and High Main Seams. The highest rank
coal is produced in the West of Durham, supplying an exceptionally good coking coal, which is low in
ash, sulphur and phosphorus. In the South of Durham (closest to the area being considered here), the
volatiles increase and the carbon content and calorific value decrease. Most coal production is now open
cast. The larger number of pits has now closed and only one or two collieries are still operating, notably
in coastal areas.
6.2 Rock salt

Production of rock salt is concentrated in the Greatham area, which borders directly on the South
of Hartlepool. The salt is removed by pumping of artificially induced brine solution. The salts are in a bed
of the Permian Middle Evaporite Group of up to 45 m thickness. This brine is used in the chemical
industries on the Tees, where it is an important raw material for the alkali trade and for chlorine and
chlorine products. Reserves are ample for several decades at least. Table and preserving salt production is
in decline in Teesside.
6.3 Gypsum and anhydrite

These hydrous and anhydrous forms of calcium sulphate occur as beds in the Permian rocks of
South-East Durham. The gypsum occurs near the surface close to the outcrops, changing to anhydrite at
depth. Gypsum finds its main use in plaster and plasterboard and as a retarder in Portland cement, as well
as several other minor uses. Anhydrite is used in the manufacture of ammonium sulphate fertilizer and
sulphuric acid, which has cement as a by-product. Gypsum is won both underground and open cast,
anhydrite almost exclusively underground. The Billingham Main Anhydrite is mined and used in the
Teesside and Billingham chemical plants. The total national output of anhydrite is produced in the area
and about 20% of that of gypsum. Annual production of both materials is about 2 million tons. Supplies
of anhydrite are almost "unlimited"; those of gypsum much less, due to the fact that they occur only close
to outcrop.
6.4 Limestone
Limestone is one of the most important raw materials, and one of the most abundant, in the
region. Between 1948 and 1969 production rose from 2.3 million tons to 6 million tons. It is used in
cement and lime production, as roadstone and railway ballast and for agriculture. High purity limestone is
used as flux in the steel works at Consett and Teesside (and formerly at Hartlepool). Most of the
limestones are of Carboniferous age (from the aptly named Carboniferous Limestone). The Permian
Magnesian Limestone of East Durham is also important and supplies an almost pure calcium carbonate to
high-grade dolomite. Uses range from building stone to aggregates, as a filler, mild abrasives and even
toothpaste and cosmetics
6.5 Dolomite
Dolomite is widely used in the iron and steel industry, especially for refractory bricks for furnace
and converter linings. Other uses include pharmaceutical, glass-making, tanning and textile industries.
Output is over half of the total national production for England and Wales. Reserves are again extremely
large. Some of the Magnesian Limestone in Durham is "true" dolomite, with over 40% magnesium
carbonate.
6.6 Refractories
Some of the Carboniferous sandstones fall into this category, although mainly in West Durham.
Their silica content is high enough for them to be worked as ganisters for the manufacture of firebricks
and furnace linings. In several places, sands are worked as refractory moulding sands, including from
glacial deposits and from the bed of the Tees. Reserves are high, and may include the Permian Yellow
Sands, which are already used for the production of silica bricks.
6.7 Fire and brick clays

Fireclay is generally associated with coal seams and is mined both underground and at the surface
from the Lower and Middle Coal Measures, and from the Millstone Grit. It is used to manufacture
refractory goods and sanitary ware. Reserves are adequate for many years. Brick clays occur very widely
in the region. These include Coal Measures shale, worked at many locations throughout the North of
England. Pleistocene laminated clays are also wisely used for brick making, as well as boulder clay, both
of which are widespread. There are many small, historical quarries spread about the area, many of which
are now used (or have been used) for other purposes, such as landfill (controlled or otherwise) or
recreation (see Rossmere Park pond in Owton Manor, Hartlepool – once a brick clay quarry)
6.8 Building stone, roadstone and aggregates

Building stone has been largely replaced by such materials as concrete, but there is still a steady
demand. It is also used as kerb and flagstones, garden stone, and for ornamental purposes. There is a great
variety, and extremely large reserves, throughout the whole region, in the Hartlepool area mainly
limestones and sandstones. The coal measures, for example, provide excellent sandstone from which,
amongst others, Durham cathedral was built (well worth a visit!). The Permian Magnesian Limestone of
Durham is largely used in the chemical and metallurgical industries, as opposed to the construction
industry.
Roadstones and aggregates are to be had from the harder limestones and the igneous rocks of the
Whin Sill, and the Cleveland and Hett dykes. Aggregates are also won on a large scale from glacial till
and outwash from glaciers, which covered harder rocks. Some less hard rocks such as sandstone, which
are unsuitable as aggregates, are used locally as road ballast. By 1980, the production of sand and gravel,
mainly for use in concrete, was over 4 million tons in the North of England. Quality is variable, especially
in East Durham, due to amounts of coal and Magnesian Limestone in the deposits. Clay content can also
be relatively high. Sands and gravels are also obtained from local beaches (although in small amounts)
and from alluvial terrace deposits along the Tyne and Wear (outside of the immediate area), and the Tees.
6.9 Ores
Ores have played a very important role in the development of the area, in particular iron ores. The
sideritic clay ironstones in Durham, together with the coal deposits, were vital to the establishment of an
early iron industry. No ore is now worked in the immediate area; only hematite is still mined in West
Cumberland. It is one of the richest ores in the country, with an iron content of up to 48%. It occurs as
replacement deposits in the Carboniferous Limestones, in the form of veins or vein-like bodies along
faults, or as "flats" and "sops": flats are tabular bodies with lateral extension in limestone beds, whereas
sops are in the shape of inverted cones with irregular walls. Reserves are now very low and the prospect
of discovering new bodies in economic situations is not thought to be good.
In County Durham, about 25% of the total production of fluorspar for England and Wales is
mined. These are used for hydrofluoric acid and fluorine compound manufacture, as well as flux for the
steel industry.
6.10 Peat, water, etc.

Peat is widespread in the North of England but only patchy in the upland area of the subject of
this essay. It is not economically worked, but is cut for burning on some of the remoter farms. Its main
value is as a water retainer, gradually releasing it to catchments and thus acting as an effective restraint to
flash flooding in upland streams.
Durham has excellent and reliable aquifers in the Yellow Sands, with their good porosity. In the
immediate vicinity of Hartlepool, the Middle Magnesian Limestones are also very good aquifers, but with
high water hardness values.
7. Sources
British Regional Geology, Northern England, 4th Edition
Natural Environment Research Council, Institute of Geological Sciences, 1971
Geology of the Country between Durham and West Hartlepool, Explanation of the one-inch geological sheet 27
British Geological Survey, 1989 reprint
P. McL. D. Duff & A. J. Smith (editors)

Geology of England and Wales
The Geological Society, 1992
Nigel Woodcock & Rob Strachan (editors)

Geological History of Britain and Ireland

Hartlepool Geology

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A Brief Introduction to the Geology of the Hartlepool Area

Classification and correlations of Upper Permian strata in North-East England

Figure 1, Geological Map of Britain and Ireland

Fig. 2 Physiographic Map of Northern England (c) NERC 1995

Pre-Carboniferous and Carboniferous

STAINTON-DALE EZ4 UPGANG FORMATION

PENRITH SANDSTONE BASAL PERMIAN YELLOW (BASAL AND SILVERPIT ROTLIEGENDES

Jurassic, Cretaceous, Tertiary

Jurassic of the United Kingdom

OLIGOCENE CHATTIAN CHATTIAN

PALEOCENE DANIAN SELANDIAN

Fig. 3 Geological Map of Northern England (c) NERC 1995

COAL MEASURES UPPER

They also contain:

Basal Permian Lower Middle Upper

Copper X Raisby Hill Quarry.

Many quarries along scarp;

Quartz X Hesleden Dene.

Pyrolusite X Whelly Hill Quarry, Hart

Mainsforth Low Main

Chilton Quarry, many

Most surface exposures and

In most boreholes and in

Most surface exposures and

Many surface exposures and

Collophane X Hesleden Dene No 31 bore

Several quarries along scarp,

Formation Description Approximate thickness in

Unconformity Sharp irregular transgressive erosion surface

Brick-red soft, medium-grained sandstone, with many beds of dull

Upper Anhydrite Grey and purple fine-grained bedded anhydrite. 1 to 4

Rotten Marl Dull reddish brown blocky mudstone 3 to 10

Grey hard breccia, locally with a matrix of dolomite. Many wind-

o Upper Boulder Clay

6.2 Rock salt

6.3 Gypsum and anhydrite

6.7 Fire and brick clays

6.8 Building stone, roadstone and aggregates

6.10 Peat, water, etc.

British Geological Survey, 1989 reprint

P. McL. D. Duff & A. J. Smith (editors)

Nigel Woodcock & Rob Strachan (editors)

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