Synopsis: ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Dr.

CKV
 Alternating current (AC): A current that alternates (i.e., changes or reverses) its direction with
time is called ‘alternating current’ (AC).
 Varying alternating currents can be in several forms:
(1) sinusoidal (2) square, (3) Triangular (4) saw-tooth etc.,
 Period (T) of AC: time-interval after which values of AC repeats (both in magnitude
and in sign)
 Frequency (f) of AC: the number of times of the alternations (repetitions) in 1
second; SI unit: Hz (hertz)
 Angular frequency (  ) of AC: a radian measure of angle described in unit time .It
is numerically equal to 2 f ; SI Unit : rad/s
 Peak value of AC (I0 or Im): the maximum possible value of AC[ considered , +ve)
 Peak-to –peak value of AC: voltage or current ‘swing’ between positive maximum to
–ve maximum
 ‘Instantaneous’ value (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): value at any particular ‘instant’;
this changes from ‘instant’ to ‘instant’( i or v )
 ‘Peak (or maximum) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): modulus of maximum
possible value (Im or Vm)
 ‘Mean (or average) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): average value of
instantaneous values considered over only(+ve) one-half cycle ( Imean or Vmean)
 ‘RMS (i.e., root mean square) value’ (of ‘current’ or ‘voltage’): square root of
mean of the squares of instantaneous values over a complete cycle (IRMS or VRMS)
 Phase of AC:Whenever we need to consider two sinusoidal variations such as
current and voltage variations, a term ‘phase’ ( or more commonly, phase
difference) of angular measure finds significance.
 For sinusoidal alternating voltages:
 v = Vm sin (t +)  equation for the ‘instantaneous value’ of AC at the instant ‘t’
 Vm (or V0)= Vmaximum or (Vpeak) peak voltage;  Initial ‘phase’ ; ω= 2π/T= 2πf angular
frequency
 For sinusoidal alternating current:
 i= I0 sin (t +) equation for the ‘instantaneous value’ of AC at the instant ‘t’
 Im (or I0)= Imax(Ipeak) Peak current;  Initial ‘phase; ω= 2π/T= 2πf angular frequency
Mean value over (+ve) RMS value for one
Physical
Instantaneous value half cycle for ‘sinusoidal complete cycle
Quantity
AC’ ‘sinusoidal AC’
Voltage v(t )  Vm sin(t   ) 2 Vm
Vmean =  Vm  0.637Vm VRMS   0.707Vm
 2

Current i (t )  I m sin(t   ) 2 Im
I mean =  I m  0.637Vm I RMS   0.707 I m
 2

1
Phasors: In the case of AC, Phasor vector of ‘voltage’ or ‘current’ is a ‘rotating vector’ [in X-Y plane] that
rotates anti-clockwise about an origin with angular speed ‘’ [= angular frequency of AC]. Its
‘magnitude’ is the maximum (‘peak’) value (Vm or Im).
‘Instantaneous value’ [v (t) or i(t)] is the y-component , and ‘phase angle’ ( v or I ) is the angle the
vector makes w.r.t. +ve X-axis
Vm or Im
v (t) or i (t) =t
Circuit Elements of AC: The electrical components that affect the flow of alternating current in AC circuit
Viz., Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor or any combination of them
Opposition for flow of AC :
(i) by ‘resistor’: Resistance R; this is frequency ‘independent’; ‘voltage’ and ‘current’ will be in phase
always
(ii) by Inductor: Inductive reactance XL; this is ‘frequency dependent’ as XL=2fL; ‘voltage’ and ‘current’
will be out of phase by/2; Voltage ‘leads’ the current by/2
𝟏
(iii) by Capacitor: Capacitive reactance, XC; this is ‘frequency dependent’ as 𝑿𝒄 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
‘voltage’ and ‘current’ will be out of phase by/2; Voltage ‘lags’ the current by/2

vL(t)= i(t) XL

vR(t)= i (t) i(t)

vC (t)= i(t) XC
R

Mnemonic for remembering phase difference in Capacitor and Inductor circuit applied with AC:
CIVIL  In Capacitor, Current(I) leads voltage(V) by /2 while in inductor (L), voltage leads the
current by /2
Capacitive reactance XC=1/(2fC)=1/(C); XC decreases hyperbolically with increase in frequency;
Capacitor behaves as a ’Open’ in steady DC
Inductive reactance XL=2fL=L; XL increases linearly with increase in frequency;
Inductor behaves as a ’short’ in steady DC
Frequency response of opposition to AC by R, C &L:
f0 is ‘resonant frequency’ where XL=XC; R=Z for series LCR
XC XL
X

f0 f

2
Comparative study of R, L, C and series L-C-R circuits

Property R L C Series LCR

Applied AC v(t )  Vm sin(t ) v(t )  Vm sin(t ) v(t )  Vm sin(t ) v(t )  Vm sin(t )
inst. Voltage
v(t)
Corresponding i(t )  I m sin(t ) i (t )  I m sin(t   / 2) i (t )  I m sin(t   / 2) i(t )  I m sin(t   )
v  v 
AC current   m  sin(t   / 2)  m  sin(t   / 2)
 XC 
 XL 
1 1
where X L   L  2 fL where X C  
C 2 fC

Ph.d ∆=(v-I) ZERO /2 -/2  X L  XC 

  tan 1  
 R
Opposition in R X L   L  2 fL XC 
1

1 Z  R2   X L  X C 
2

 C 2 fC

Series L-C-R circuit apllied with sinusoidal AC

VL VC
VR VC=iXC
VL= iXL
L R
C vL-vC= i (XL-XC)
Vs 
Z  R 2  ( X L  X C )2
VC=iXC VR=iR
( X L  XC ) R
tan   ; cos  
R Z

RESONANT FREQUENCY in Series L-C-R circuit:

At f  f 0 ,
At resonant frequency f  f 0 ,
impedance Z  R 2  ( X L  X C ) 2v= i Z
1 1
 L 
X L  X C   2 f 0 L 
 =R
C 2 f 0C
 (X - X C ) 
1 Phase diffrence   tan -1  L 0
Resonant frequency f0 =  R 
2π LC
Quality Factor (Q) or Sharpness of Resonance
resonant frequency  X L X 1
Q  0  L  0  C 
band  width 2 R R R 0CR

3
Electrical Power in AC Circuit

In AC circuits where both v(t ) & i(t ) are sinusoidal variation functions of time,
instantaneous power p(t )  v(t )  i(t )   vm sin t   im sin(t   )
VRMS  I RMS   cos   apparent (or virtual ) power  cos 
pavg over a cycle  v 2
 I RMS 2 Z cos   RMS cos 
Z
True average power Paverage
Power factor cos   
Apparent power VRMS  I RMS
 At ‘RESONANCE
 cos   1; p  I RMS 2 R  maximum power is dissipated at resonance (throughR)
• With pure resistor in the circuit,  =0; Cos =1; P=V I.
• Such a circuit (e.g., pure ‘resistive’ or LCR circuit at resonance) where cos =1 is called
‘unity power factor circuit’.
• For pure inductor or capacitor in the AC circuit, = 90 0; Cos  = 0;
 Energy in a charged capacitor is stored in ‘electric field’ between plates as U E (t )  1 C v(t )2
• P = VRMS × IRMS×0 =0. 2
 •Energy Such a current in a pure inductor or pure capacitor is often referred to as ‘wattless
in a current flowing inductor coil is stored in ‘magnetic field’ inside the coil as
current’. Current does not do any work in the circuit. It is simply absorbed in one-half
1
) L
U B (tcycle i(t )given
and 2 out in the other half cycle.
2
 In an ideal ‘LC (oscillatory) circuit’, energy U alternates between charged capacitor as UE and
magnetized inductor as UB such that U=UB+UE =constant at any instant.
 Polarity (+ & -)on Capacitor plates, and polarity (N & S) at ends of the inductor alternates ,

with the same angular frequency   1 1 1

f  
L C 2 L C

Transformer: works for AC only on the principle of EMI- consists of a ‘primary coil’ (P) and a
‘secondary coil’ (S) connected ‘inductively’ by ‘mutual induction’- used to ‘step-up” or ‘step-
down’ AC voltage (Vp) applied at ‘P’ , and outputs ‘increased’ or ‘decreased’ voltage at the (S).
Ideally, P input at primary=P output across secondary  NP/NS=VP/VS=IS/IP

Power generated at ‘power generating station’ is usually ‘stepped-up’ in voltage, transmitted

through transmission cables, and ‘stepped-down’ in voltage to minimize energy loss during
transmission.

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