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nd
2 Mates
HANDOUT
Second Mates - HANDOUT
FUNCTION I
Prepared at ARI; Saket, New Delhi - 110030 Page 2

BRIDGE EQUIPMENT
(BEQ)

Disclaimer
Copyright ARI. All other copyrights and trademarks acknowledged.

The purpose of this book is to use it as study material for ready reference during the study
program only and not for commercial distribution by MASA. Title, interest and relevant
rights for this work and compilation reside with ARI.
All rights reserved.

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
BACKGROUND
In 2000, IMO adopted a new requirement (as part of a revised new Regulation 19 of
chapter V of SOLAS) for all ships, according to ship type, to carry automatic
identification systems (AIS), through a phased implementation period spanning from 1
July 2002 to 1 July 2008, capable of providing information about the ship to other ships
and to coastal authorities automatically. Resolution MSC.74 (69) includes
Recommendation on Performance Standards for Universal Automatic Identification
System (AIS)
The regulation requires that AIS shall:
• provide information - including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed,
navigational status and other safety-related information - automatically to appropriately
equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft;
• receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships; · monitor and
track ships;
• Exchange data with shore-based facilities.
SOLAS CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT

The carriage of AIS on board ships is governed by SOLAS regulation V/19.2.4. The
regulation requires AIS to be fitted aboard all ships of
• 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages,
• cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international
voyages and
• All passenger ships irrespective of size.
The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.
PURPOSE:
AIS are intended to enhance:
- safety of life at sea
- safety and efficiency of navigation, and
- Protection of the marine environment.
Therefore, the purpose of AIS is to help identify ships, assist in target tracking, assist in
search and rescue operation, simplify information exchange (e.g. reduce verbal
mandatory ship reporting) and provide additional information to assist situation
awareness. In eneral, data received via AIS will improve the quality of the information
available to the OOW, whether at a shore surveillance station or on board a ship.
WHAT IS AIS?
Very simply, the Automatic Identification System is a broadcast transponder system,
operating in the VHF maritime mobile band.
It is capable of sending information such as identification, position, course, speed and
more, to other ships and to shore. AIS operates principally on two dedicated VHF
frequencies or channels:
AIS 1 - 161.975 MHz - channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship) and
AIS 2 - 162.025 MHz - channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore).

AIS use Self-Organizing Time Division Multiple Access (SOTDMA) technology to
meet this high broadcast rate of 9600 bits per second and ensure reliable ship-to-
ship operation. It normally works in an autonomous and continuous mode, regardless of
whether it is operating in the open seas, coastal or inland areas.
Although only one radio channel is necessary, each station transmits and receives over
two radio channels to avoid interference problems and to allow channels to be shifted
without communications loss from other ships.
Each station determines its own transmission schedule (slot), based upon data link traffic
history and knowledge of future actions by other stations.
A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots established every
60 seconds.
AIS stations continuously synchronize themselves to each other, to avoid overlap of slot
transmissions.
Slot selection by an AIS station is randomized within a defined interval. When a station
changes its slot assignment, it pre-announces both the new location and the timeout for
that location.
In this way, new stations including those stations which suddenly come within radio
range close to other vessels will always be received by those vessels.
WHAT DOES AIS CONSIST OF?

Each AIS system consists of one VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA receivers, one VHF
DSC receiver, VHF antenna, a GPS antenna if fitted with in-built GPS and a standard
marine electronic communications link to shipboard display and sensor systems.

HOW DOES AIS WORK?
Position and timing information is normally derived from a built-in or external global
GPS receiver, including a differential GPS receiver for precise position in coastal and
inland waters.
Other information broadcast by the AIS, if available, is electronically obtained from
shipboard equipment through standard marine data connections.
Heading, course and speed over ground would normally be provided by all AIS equipped
ships.
Other information, such as rate of turn, angle of heel, pitch and roll, and destination and
ETA could also be provided as detailed below.
DATA TRANSMITTED
AIS transmit following categories of information:
Static information
Dynamic information
Voyage related information
Short safety-related messages
Static information: (Every 6 min and on request)
 MMSI
 IMO number (where available)
 Call sign & name
 Length and beam
 Type of ship and
 Location of the position-fixing antenna
Dynamic information: (Dependent on speed and on speed/course alteration)
 Ship’s position with accuracy indication and integrity status
 Position time stamp (in UTC)
 Course over ground (COG)
 Speed over ground (SOG)
 Heading
 Navigational status (e.g. at anchor, underway, aground etc. And
 Rate of turn (where available).
Voyage related information (Every 6 min, when is data amended, or on request)
 Ship’s draught
 Hazardous cargo (type)
 Destination and ETA and
 Route plan (waypoints)
Short safety-related messages: Free format text message (sent as needed) addressed to
one or more specified destinations or to all stations in the area. The content should be
relevant to safety messages e.g. buoy missing, ice-berg sighted etc.

REPORTING INTERVAL
SHIP MANOEUVRING REPORTING
INTERVAL
At Anchor / Moored 3 minutes
At Anchor / moored and moving faster 10 seconds
than 3 konts
Speed 0 – 14 Konts 10 seconds
And changing course 3 1/3 seconds
Speed 14 - 23 Knots 6 seconds
And changing course 2 seconds
Speed > 23 Knots 2 seconds
And changing course 2 seconds
MODES OF OPERATIONS
There are 3 modes of operation of AIS:
Autonomous and continuous mode: In this mode AIS automatically defines its own
reporting rate in accordance with its navigational mode, speed and course. The unit also
selects its own time slots. This is normal mode for operation in all areas but the mode
may be switched from/to Assigned or Polled/Controlled mode by a competent authority
via a base station on shore.
Assigned/ Controlled Mode: A competent authority responsible for traffic monitoring
may remotely set transmissions intervals and/or time slots for the vessel mobile stations.
In Assigned mode the mobile station does not change its reporting rate when changing
course and speed.
Polled Mode: In this mode, mobile station will automatically respond to interrogation
(polling) messages from a ship or competent authority. The response is transmitted on the
channel where the interrogation message was received. Operation in Polled mode does
not conflict with the operation in other two modes.
OPERATION OF AIS
AIS should always be on when underway or at anchor unless the Master feels the
operation might compromise with security, such as piracy areas. Entry in log book should
be made stating time and reasons. It must be switch on as soon as possible.
PSEUDO AIS AND VIRTUAL AIS
VTS centres may send information about vessels which are not carrying AIS and which
are tracked only by VTS radar, via the AIS to vessels equipped with AIS. These are
Pseudo AIS. Any pseudo AIS target broadcast by VTS should be clearly identified and
particular care should always be taken when using information which has been relayed by
a third party. Accuracy of these targets may not be as accurate as actual directly-received
targets and the information content may not be as complete.
A Virtual AIS aid to navigation (Virtual A to N) does not physically exist but is a digital
information object promulgated by an authorized service provider that can be presented
on navigational systems service provider that can be presented on navigational systems.
AIS AID TO NAVIGATION
AIS as an aid to navigation (A to N) provide an opportunity to transmit position and
status of buoys and lights through the same VDL, which can then show up on an

electronic chart, computer display or compatible radar. This message (message 21 of the
AIS reports) is used by ships as an aid to navigation (A to N) AIS station. It is generally
transmitted autonomously at a rate of once every three minutes and should not occupy
more than two slots.
AIS AS SURVEILLANCE TOOL
In coastal waters, shore side authorities may establish automated AIS stations to monitor
the movement of vessels through the area. These stations may simply monitor AIS
transmissions from passing ships, or may actively poll vessels via the AIS channels,
requesting data such as identification, destination, ETA, type of cargo and other
information. Coast stations can also use the AIS channels for shore-to-ship transmissions,
to send information on tides, notices to mariners and local weather forecasts.
Coastal nations may use AIS to monitor the movement of hazardous cargoes and control
commercial fishing operations in their territorial waters.
Multiple AIS coast stations and repeaters may be tied together into Wide Area Networks
(WAN) for extended coverage.
AIS data can be logged automatically for playback in investigating an accident, oil spill
or other event.
AIS will also be a useful tool in search and rescue (SAR) operations, allowing SAR
coordinators to monitor the movements of all surface ships, aircraft and helicopters
involved in the rescue effort.
AIS AS AN AID TO COLLISION AVOIDANCE
AIS have potential to significantly contribute to safety of navigation. It provides positive
identification of targets fitted with AIS along with their static and dynamic information.
This enhances the navigational effectiveness and it can greatly improve situational
awareness and decision making abilities.
AIS also assist OOW in tracking and monitoring targets, as it also provides information
on CPA and TCPA.
When using the AIS in the ship-to-ship mode for anti-collision purposes, the following
should be borne in mind:
1) Do not rely on AIS as the sole information system, making use of all safety-relevant
information available.
2) AIS is an additional source for navigational information. AIS does not replace, but
supports, navigational systems such as radar target-tracking and VTS.
3) The use of AIS on board ship is not intended to have any special impact on the
composition of the navigational watch, which should continue to be determined in
accordance with the STCW Convention.
The use of AIS does not negate the responsibility of the OOW to comply, at all times,
with the Collision Regulations.
AIS SART
Search and Rescue Transmitters using AIS can be used to assist in determining the
location of a vessel in distress. Search and Rescue Aircrafts may use AIS to assist in
their operations.
LIMITATIONS OF AIS
1) The accuracy of AIS information received is only as good as the accuracy of the AIS
information transmitted.
2) Position of ships received on AIS display may not be referenced to WGS 84 datum.

3) Over reliance on AIS information for navigational safety should be avoided until steps
can be taken to ensure that all transmitting ships provide the necessary degree of data
accuracy and integrity for all connected sensors.
4) The users must be aware that transmission of wrong information implies a risk to other
ships as well as their own. The users remain responsible for all information entered into
the system and the information added by the sensors.
5) Certain elements of the dynamic information transmitted by AIS may be provided
from sensors which lack comprehensive integrity monitoring and whose accuracy has not
been tested.
6) Not all ships will be fitted with AIS, particularly small craft and fishing boats. Other
floating objects which may give a Radar echo will not be detected by AIS.
Mariners should be aware of this Imitation when viewing information on ship borne
navigational display. Thus OOW should be on guard against making a picture of traffic
scenario on the basis of AIS alone.
7) The OOW should always be aware that other ships, fitted with AIS as a mandatory
carriage requirement, might switch off AIS under certain circumstances by professional
judgment of the master.
8) It would not be prudent for the OOW to assume that the information received from
other ships is of a comparable quality and accuracy as that which might be available on
own ship.
AIS TYPES
Class A mandated by the IMO for vessels of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on
international voyages, cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on
international voyages and passenger ships irrespective of size.
Class B provides limited functionality and is intended for non-SOLAS vessels. It is not
mandated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and has been developed for
vessels such as work craft and pleasure craft.
AIS TYPES A/B – DIFFERENCES
The Class B is nearly identical to the Class A, except the Class B:

 Has a reporting rate less than a Class A (e.g. every 30 sec. when under 14 knots,
as opposed to every 10 sec. for Class A).
 Does not transmit the vessel's IMO number.
 Does not transmit ETA or destination.
 Does not transmit navigational status.
 Does not transmit rate of turn information.
 Is only required to receive, not transmit, text safety messages.
 Does not transmit maximum present static draught.


AIS BASE STATION (REPEATERS)
Base Stations are provided by an “aids to navigation authority” to enable the ship to shore
/ shore to ship transmission of information. Networked AIS Base Stations can assist in
providing overall maritime domain awareness.
A virtual aid to navigation (Virtual A to N) does not physically exist but is a digital
information object promulgated by an authorized service provider that can be presented
on navigational Systems service provider that can be presented on navigational systems.
COMPARISION BETWEEN AIS AND LRIT
LRIT AIS
Satellite based System VHF based System
Near global coverage (INMARSAT) Only where AIS coverage is Provided
Secure Data Public Data
Transmits Transmits: Position, IMO Number, Date/
Position, IMN Number, Date/ Time Time, Vessel Type, Speed, Course etc.
Unlimited range Line of sight, up to 40NM
Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

Purpose : Purpose :
Maritime Security and Awareness Navigation and Anti- collision Tool
Uses elaborate communication Simplified direct point-to-point
infrastructure (CSP/ASP/DC/IDE/ etc.) communication
Comparatively costlier equipment Cost effective equipment
Monitoring is done by flag state or Self-monitored system (SOTDMA)
appointed agency
No human intervention for data update Voyage Data and navigation status has to be
updated by the user
There is a recurring cost for maintaining Negligible operating cost after equipment
the system Installation
Mostly being satellite system, may not Being terrestrial system, always capable of
work in A4 areas. being in operation.

AUTOPILOT
DESCRIPTION & PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The autopilot is equipment used to maintain the ship’s set course electronically and
electrically for a long period of time when alteration of course is not required.
This is achieved by comparing the course to steer with the ship’s heading obtained by
gyro or magnetic compasses. Any difference between the two will cause an error signal
voltage to be created and accordingly correcting helm will be applied to the rudder to
bring the ship back to the set course.
The error signal is fed to the error amplifier which also gets feedback signals from the
rudder regarding the rudder’s current position and its movement. The output of the error
amplifier is fed via telemotors to the steering gear unit which in turn operates the rudder.
The telemotor has two units- transmitter (situated on the bridge) and receiver (in the
steering compartment).
When the difference between the two signals, i.e., the course to steer and present gyro (or
magnetic) course, is nil, there will be no output from the control unit and hence no
movement of the rudder.
THE AUTOPILOT CONTROL SYSTEM – THE PID CONTROL UNIT
In order to maintain the ship’s course accurately, the deviation signal has to be generated
under the following conditions:
a) When the set course is changed (by the navigator)

b) When the ship deviates from the set course (due to external factors)
For this purpose, the helm must be provided with data regarding the ship’s movement
relative to the course to steer line.
This is achieved by electronic circuits with the help of the following:
 Proportional control
 Derivative control
 Integral control
Proportional Control
The effect on steering, when only the proportional control is applied, causes the rudder to
move by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the course to steer.
When the ship has gone off-course to port, an error occurs and helm, proportional to the
deviation and hence error signal, is used to bring her back to the set course. As the ship
starts to return to the set course, the helm is gradually eased and finally removed when

the ship is back on the set course. The rudder will be amidships when the ship reaches its
set course and then the heading overshoots resulting in the vessel to go more to starboard.
Correcting helm is now applied causing the ship to return to port and back to the original
course. The vessel thus keeps on oscillating to port and starboard of the course line.
Derivative Control
In derivative control, the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of

change of the ship’s deviation from the course. Any deviation of course to port will
cause correcting rudder to be applied to starboard.
As the rate of change of course decreases, the automatic rudder control decreases and at a
point X, the rudder will return to amidships before the vessel reaches its set course. The
ship will now make good a course parallel to the required course.
Integral Control
Certain errors due to the design of the ship (bow going to port due to transverse thrust,
shape of the hull, current draft, etc.) have an impact on the steering capabilities of the
ship and have to be corrected for effective overall steering performance.
In order to achieve this, signals are produced by sensing the heading error over a period
of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm. The rudder used to
correct the course will now be about this permanent helm. That is, the permanent helm
will now act as amidships.
Additionally, there are various controls provided on the autopilot system along with a
filter system for the action of the winds and waves which supply more data to the
autopilot which optimizes the performance of integral control.

The output of these three controls is combined and the net resultant thus obtained drives
the rudder maintaining the ship on the set course. This type of auto pilot is referred to as
PID auto pilot.
Block diagram of an Autopilot PID system
USER CONTROLS ON THE PANEL
The autopilot system requires steering the ship in varied conditions such as
loaded/ballast, slow/fast speeds, good and bad weather, open and confined seas and so on.
The approach to steering by autopilot changes with these conditions. Therefore there are
controls provided in the PID autopilot for the user to set them optimally for the optimum
performance of the radar. Following are the user controls provided in the autopilot
system:
 Course selector knob – course to be steered is selected by this knob.

 Permanent helm – Used when the ship is being driven off-course by cross winds.
Rudder angle should be just enough to off-set the drift.
 Speed – Speed input usually given from the log or manually.
Speed of the ship determines the effectiveness of the rudder; lower the speed, less
effective the rudder and vice-versa.
 Rudder control – This control determines the amount of rudder to be used to
correct the slightest amount of deviation from the set course. The higher the setting, the
larger the rudder angle used to correct a course deviation and may result in over
correcting. Lesser the setting, lesser the rudder angle used and longer the time taken by
the ship to return to the set course. Hence the setting has to be optimum so that the ship
quickly returns to the set course with minimum overshoot.
 Counter rudder – This control determines the amount of counter action by the
rudder to be used to steady the ship on the set course keeping the overshoot to the
minimum. Too low a setting will allow the ship to overshoot and too high will bring the
ship back to set course slowly. Hence optimum setting is desired.

 Yaw – This setting depends on wind and weather conditions. In bad weather a
higher value should be selected; in calm waters a low value is preferred.
 Rudder limit – This setting specifies the maximum amount of rudder to be used
when correcting the ship’s head or when altering course on autopilot. That is, if a setting
of 10° is applied for rudder limit, when altering course the rudder will move to a
maximum of 10°. This limit can be varied according to the requirements of the navigator.
 Off-course alarm – This alarm is activated when the ship deviates from the set
course by more than the pre-set value fed into the equipment. This alarm also serves as a
warning if the autopilot system fails and the ship deviates from her set course by more
than the pre-set value. Again, the setting is dependent on weather. Higher in rough seas
and lower in calmer waters.
 Synchronization control – This control temporarily disconnects the gyro repeater
from the main gyro so that the heading of the repeater can be synchronized with the
master compass.
 Auto/Follow-up/Non follow-up – This switch allows the navigator to switch
between various steering modes.
 Dimmer – As the name stands used for illuminating the panel according to ones’
requirements.
AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM

This is an advanced version of the PID control which adapts to the steering capabilities of
the ship as well as the wind and weather conditions.
The ship’s hull dynamic characteristics keep changing with the change in the load
condition, speed, depth of water, wind and weather conditions etc. In the PID autopilot,
the controls have to be re-adjusted to get the optimum steering but in the adaptive
autopilot, the estimation algorithm is incorporated so that the optimum steering is
obtained without re-adjusting the controls.
Processing Unit in the ADAPTIVE mode and the control algorithm is divided into three
units as follows:-
• Estimation Unit
• Optimal Control Unit and
• Adaptive Kalman Filter
The ship’s hull dynamic characteristics keep changing with the change in the load
condition, speed, depth of water, wind and weather conditions etc. In the PID autopilot,
the controls have to be re-adjusted to get the optimum steering but in the adaptive
autopilot, the estimation algorithm is incorporated so that the optimum steering is
obtained without re-adjusting the controls.
PRECAUTIONS TO EXERCISE WHEN USING AUTOPILOT
Check the following frequently:
 Master and Gyro compasses are synchronized

 Try out hand steering and emergency steering

 Optimum settings of controls
 Try off-course alarm
 Maintenance be carried out as per the manual
The ship should not be on autopilot mode under the following situations:
 In narrow channels
 At slow speeds
 In areas of heavy traffic
 In rough weather conditions
 When vessel is under pilotage
 In poor visibility
The autopilot should not be used for following:

 For large alteration of course (unless the autopilot is designed for the purpose)
 Never for collision avoidance
Note:
Modern ships are being fitted with rate of turn indicators and large alteration of courses
can be made on autopilot by feeding a constant ROT or a constant radius turn technique.
.
************************************

LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING
PURPOSE OF LRIT
The Long Range Identification and Tracking (LRIT) system is a designated International
Maritime Organization (IMO) system designed to collect and disseminate vessel position
information received from IMO member States ships. The main purpose of the LRIT
ship position reports is to enable a Contracting Government to obtain ship identity and
location information in sufficient time to evaluate the security risk posed by a ship off its
coast and to respond, if necessary, to reduce any risks. LRIT has also become an essential
component of SAR operations and marine environment protection.
It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide

coverage (Inmarsat Coverage) that allows unique visibility to position reports of vessels
that would otherwise be invisible and potentially a threat.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT
Ships in international voyages
- Passenger ships
- Cargo ships over 300 t
- Mobile platforms
Ships fitted with AIS and sailing in sea A1 areas do not need to transmit LRIT data.
INFORMATION TRANSMITTED
 Identity (Ship’s LRIT Identifier)

 Position (Lat/Long)
 Date and time (UTC)
UPDATE INTERVAL
 Default value 6 hourly
 Update interval remotely selectable
 Minimum interval 15 min
 May be switched off by the Master under certain conditions
THE LRIT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:
1. The ship borne LRIT information transmitting equipment

2. Communications Service Providers (CSPs)
3. Application Service Providers (ASPs)
4. LRIT Data Centres (DC), including any related Vessel Monitoring System(s)
(VMSs)
5. The LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP)
6. The International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE), and,
7. LRIT Co-Ordinator

THE SHIP BORNE LRIT: The LRIT system is independent of the means of
transmission. It suffices so long as the position report is transferred to the ASP via CSP.
However, due to its polling feature, Sat-C, often used for GMDSS, is used for LRIT data
transmission. This option may be used when there is duplication of equipment under
GMDSS. Only one equipment may be used as a LRIT to avoid duplication of report (of
the same ship) at the DC.
COMMUNICATION SERVICE PROVIDER (CSP): The Communication Service

Provider (CSP) provides the communications services which transfer LRIT data securely
from ship to the ASP on shore.
APPLICATION SERVICE PROVIDER (ASP): The Application Service Provider
(ASP) receives the LRIT reports transmitted by the ship via the CSP, adds certain
additional information to each report, and forwards the reports to the Data Centre

nominated by the ship’s Flag State. The information to be added to each LRIT report by
the ASP includes:
1. ASP Id
2. CSP Id
3. Message Type
4. Message Id
5. IMO number for the ship
6. MMSI number for the ship
7. Two Time stamps (Report received and transmitted) - used for tracking and audit
purposes.
Additionally, ASP is also responsible for identifying the ships which fail in sending their
automatic position reports and reset the system if required.
LRTI DATA CENTRE (DC): The function of the Data Centre is to collect the position
report data and participate in proper dissemination of this information to authorized
entities. Each contracting government must nominate a DC to which all the ships flying
their flag must send their position report. The Data Centres may be –
National (NDC) – owned and operated by the contracting government (CG).
Regional Data Centre (RDC) – providing services to a number of CGs through a
regional entity of some kind.
Co-Operative Data Centre (CDC) – Governments may form one DC for their ships
e.g., EU CDC.
Additionally, there is International Data Exchange (IDC) for the ships of CGs not part
of any of the above DCs to send their position reports.
INTERNATIONAL DATA EXCHANGE (IDE): The LRIT Data Centres are the users
of the International Data Exchange (IDE). In order to be connected to the IDE, a Data
Centre must be included in the LRIT Data Distribution Plan. The IDE only routes the
communication via Internet, but does access or use the ship position reports. Only the
message headers may be accessed for handling exchange.
By international agreement amongst the contracting governments, the governments are
entitled to receive LRIT data within 1000 miles of their coast, provided that this does not
infringe the territory of another country.
DATA DISTRIBUTION PLAN (DDP): Each contracting Gov. specify and submit
their policy on data exchange at the DDP. The DDP is consulted by any DC in order to
determine whether a request for LRIT information should be allowed under the rules for
the distribution of LRIT data.
The DDP information includes:
1. A list of the unique identification codes assigned to key elements in the LRIT
system;
2. A list of the ports and port facilities within the territory and places under the
jurisdiction of each Contracting Government; and
3. The coordinates which define the various geographical areas declared by
Contracting Governments within which they wish to exercise their rights to receive or
restrict the distribution of LRIT information as a Flag or Coastal State

BENEFITS OF LRIT:
 As a Flag Administration, layout of higher security risk geographic areas,
worldwide, and associated ship notification
 As a Port State, more effective management of Port State control activity,
including security risk assessment
 Locating overdue ships
 As a Coastal State, to monitor coastal traffic for safety, security and
environmental protection needs
 Reducing risk of piracy attacks
 As a Flag Administration, locating ships for Flag and Class compliance surveys –
safety, security, environment
CERTIFICATION:
 There are number of steps in the process for any ship to be certified for LRIT
participation, including:
 Equipment type approval
 Equipment conformance testing
 Annual Radio
 Copy of Conformance Test Report on board, Record of Equipment (SEQ,
Form-E) amended
LRIT V/s AIS – COMPARISION
LRIT AIS
Satellite based System VHF based System
Near global coverage (INMARSAT) Only where AIS coverage is Provided
Secure Data Public Data
Transmits Transmits: Position, IMO Number, Date/
Position, IMN Number, Date/ Time Time, Vessel Type, Speed, Course etc.
Unlimited range Line of sight, up to 40NM
Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

Purpose : Purpose :
Maritime Security and Awareness Navigation and Anti- collision Tool
Uses elaborate communication Simplified direct point-to-point
infrastructure (CSP/ASP/DC/IDE/ etc.) communication
Comparatively costlier equipment Cost effective equipment
Monitoring is done by flag state or Self-monitored system (SOTDMA)
appointed agency
LRIT AIS
No human intervention for data update Voyage Data and navigation status has to be
updated by the user
There is a recurring cost for maintaining Negligible operating cost after equipment
the system Installation
Mostly being satellite system, may not Being terrestrial system, always capable of
work in A4 areas. being in operation.

********************************************
VOYAGE DATA RECORDER
WHAT IS A VDR?
A VDR or voyage data recorder is an instrument installed on a ship to continuously
record critical Information related to the operation of a vessel.
It consists of a recording system for a period of at least last 48 hours which is

continuously overwritten by the latest data. This recording is recovered and made use of
for various purposes, especially for investigation in the events of accidents.
Purpose/benefits of VDR
VDR data can be used for:

1. Accident investigations
2. Response Assessment
3. Training support
4. Promotion of best practices
5. Reduction of insurance cost
HOW DOES A VDR WORK?
There are various sensors placed on bridge of the ship and on prominent location from
which the required data is continuously collected. The VDR has to be very flexible in
order to be interfaced with the existing equipment and sensors for recording of relevant
data.
The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation.

Means are provided whereby recorded data may be saved by an appropriate method
following an incident, with minimal interruption to the recording process.
The data collected by VDR is digitalized, compressed, and is stored in a protective

storage unit which is mounted in a safe place. This tamper proof storage unit can be a
retrievable fixed or floating unit connected with EPIRB for early location in the event of
accident.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF VDR:
1. DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT (OR DATA COLLECTION UNIT)

2. AUDIO MODULE
3. FINAL RECORDING MODULE
4. REMOTE ALARM MODULE
5. REPLAY STATION
6. RESERVE SOURCE OF POWER
Data Management Unit: This data which comprises of voices, various navigational
parameters, ships location etc. are fed to a unit called Data management unit. The data
collected by Data Management Unit is digitalized, compressed, and is stored in a
specified format in two protective storage units (called “Final Recording Medium”)

which are mounted in safe place. A copy of the data is also recorded in a hard drive
housed in the data management unit.
Audio Module: It consists of an audio mixer for recording audio from microphones
placed in the wheelhouse, bridge wings, ECR and various other locations. VHF audio
signals are also interfaced with this unit.
Bridge Audio should be recorded through the use of at least two channels of audio
recording. Microphones positioned outside on bridge wings, should be recorded on at
least one additional separate channel.
VHF Communications audio VHF communications relating to ship operations should be
recorded on an additional separate channel to those referred to in point above.
Final Recording Medium: The final recording mediums, also sometimes called VDR
CAPSULES, comprises of two independent recording units (fixed and float-free) and an
long term medium.
a) Fixed recording medium:
• Should record data for at least 48 Hrs. which is continuously overwritten with
new data.
• Should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least two years following
termination of recording.
• data should be electronically tamper-proof
This fixed tamper-proof electronic storage medium is encased in a protecting casing. A
fixed VDR Capsule is capable of withstanding heavy weather, collisions, fires and
pressure conditions even when a ship is at a depth of several meters in water. This unit is
fixed with an underwater locator which can be used to retrieve in case of sinking of the
ship.
Properties of Final Recording Unit:
 Highly visible colour
 Can withstand temp. up to 1100ºC
 Can sustain deep sea pressure of 6000 m
 Electronically tamper-proof data
 Easily accessible / Float-free
b) Float-free recording medium;

• data recorded for at least 48 Hrs. and continuously overwritten with new data
• should maintain the recorded data for a period of at least six months following
termination of recording;
• Data should be electronically tamper-proof or floating unit with an in-built EPIRB
for early location in the event of accident.
C) Long-term recording medium.

• Data recorded for 30 days / 720 Hrs. and continuously overwritten with new data
• be capable of being accessed from an internal, easily accessible area of the ship;
Remote Alarm Module: This is a small panel connected to the Data Management Unit
that will sound an audio-visual alarm should any error or fault develop in the equipment
or if the sensor inputs are missing.
Replay Station: The VDR should provide an interface for downloading the stored data
and playback the information to an external computer. The interface should be

compatible with an internationally recognized format, such as Ethernet, USB, FireWire,
or equivalent. A playback software should be provided with VDR with the capability to
download the stored data and play back the information. The software should be
compatible with an operating system available with commercial off-the-shelf laptop
computers and where non-standard or proprietary formats are used for storing the data in
the VDR, the software should convert the stored data into open industry standard formats.
WHAT DATA IS RECORDED BY VDR?
VDR installed before 1st July, 2014 must record following data:
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Date & time every 1s Preferably external to ship (e.g. GNSS)
Ship’s position Electronic Positioning system. The source of data
is identified on playback.
Speed (through water or over ground) Ship’s SDME. Recorded every 1s to 0.1k
resolution.
Heading Ship’s compass. Recorded at intervals of 1s to a
resolution of 0.1 deg.
Bridge Audio 1 or more bridge microphones. Recorded in real
time, both internal & external (150-6000Hz). The
mike test beeps every 12 hrs. & this is recorded.
Communications Audio From 2 VHFs is recorded for both transmitted and
received audio signals. Audio is compressed and
labelled VHF 1 & VHF 2
Radar / ARPA data- post display Master radar display. Includes range rings, EBLs,
selection, every 15s VRMs, radar maps, parts of SENC & other
essential navigational indications.
Water depth Echo Sounder. Recorded to a resolution of 0.1m
Rudder order & response Steering gear & autopilot
Engine order & response Telegraphs, controls and thrusters
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Hull openings status All mandatory status information displayed on
bridge
Watertight & fire door status All mandatory status information displayed on
bridge. Recorded every 1s and stored with time
stamps.
Acceleration & hull stresses Hull stress and response monitoring equipment
where fitted. Recorded with time stamp.
Wind speed & direction Anemometer when fitted. Stored individually with
time stamps.
Auto pilot settings Autopilot - for speed, latitude, rudder limit, off-
course alarms etc.

Thruster status Bow/Stern thrusters - Can be recorded for their
order and response.
Rudder order Ship’s steering / wheel- response angle is recorded
to a resolution of 1 degree
Engine order Telegraph or direct engine control with shaft
revolution and ahead and astern indicators are
recorded to a resolution of 1 rpm
AIS target data (If radar picture is not AIS - Recorded as a source of information
recorded) regarding other ships
Alarms Bridge VDR Microphones- Recorded with time
stamps. All IMO mandatory alarms as well as
other audible alarms are stored individually.
VDR installed after 1st July, 2014 must record, in addition to, or alternately,
following data:
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Bridge Audio Should be recorded through the use of at least two
channels of audio recording. Microphones
positioned outside on bridge wings, should be
recorded on at least one additional separate
channel.
VHF Communications audio VHF communications relating to ship operations
should be recorded on an additional separate
channel to those referred to in point above.
RADAR - Recording of the main displays of both ship's radar
installations as required by SOLAS regulations.
AIS - All AIS data should be recorded
ECDIS Display in use at the time as the primary means of
navigation.
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Rolling Motion - VDR should be connected to an electronic
inclinometer if installed.
Configuration data: In addition to the data items, a data block defining
the configuration of the VDR and the sensors to
which it is connected should be written into the
final recording medium during commissioning of
the VDR.
Electronic logbook: Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook
in accordance with the standards of the
Organization the information from this should be
recorded.

Additionally, following requirements shall be fulfilled by the VDRs installed after 01st
July, 2014:
RADAR -Recording of the main displays of both ship's radar installations as required by
SOLAS regulations.
AIS- All AIS data should be recorded.
ECDIS display in use at the time as the primary means of navigation.
Rolling Motion - VDR should be connected to an electronic inclinometer if installed
Configuration data: In addition to the data items, a data block defining the configuration
of the VDR and the sensors to which it is connected should be written into the final
recording medium during commissioning of the VDR.
Electronic logbook: Where a ship is fitted with an electronic logbook in accordance with
the standards of the Organization the information from this should be recorded.
S-VDR
An S-VDR (Simplified VDR) is the same as a VDR. There is no principle difference
between a VDR and an S-VDR except the amount of information required to be recorded
by S-VDR is less.
DATA RECORDED BY S-VDR:
DATA ITEM SOURCE

Date and time Preferably external to ship (e.g. GNSS)
Ship's position electronic positioning system
Speed (Through the water or over the Ship's SDME
ground)
Heading Ship's compass
Bridge Audio 1 or more bridge microphones
Communications audio VHF communications
DATA ITEM SOURCE
Radar data: post-display selection Master radar display
AIS Data AIS to be recorded if it is impossible to
record radar data.
If radar is recorded AIS may be recorded as
an additional source of information.
Other items Additional items required for VDR when
interfacing available.
CARRIAGE REQUIREMENTS
The following vessels are required to carry a VDR:

• All Passenger ships and Ro-Ro passenger ships
• Ships of 3,000 GT and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2002.

The following vessels are required to carry an S-VDR:
• Ships over 3,000 GT constructed before 1 July 2002
S-VDR – FAQs (Additional Material)

General

Should a "fixed" or "float-free" data storage capsule be used?
There is no Type Approved float-free solution currently available and there are varying
views on which solution would be most easily retrieved. Indications are that both options
are similarly priced.
To what degree does the choice of S-VDR depend on the make of the existing bridge
equipment?
The technical specification of the S-VDR has been determined with the express aim of
maximising the connectivity with other equipment. The choice of S-VDR can therefore
be based with emphasis on the functionality of the particular S-VDR and the worldwide
service support available.
What benefits can be expected from fitting S-VDR?
The operational experience gained from ships equipped with VDR has been well
recorded over many years and in summary confirm the positive benefits particularly
relating to accident investigation, training and monitoring, assessment of response to
safety and environment emergencies, promoting best practice and accident prevention
and reduction in insurance losses.
VDRs have also proved invaluable to ship owners as a management tool in analysing
hazardous incidents and bridge team procedures. Additionally VDR recordings have
provided irrefutable evidence in pollution incidents as well as providing an indisputable
record of a Master's action. There have also been a number of instances where disclosure
of VDR recordings precluded court actions with the subsequent significant savings in
costs.
Can the recorded data be accessed remotely?
Remote access to data is not a requirement of the IMO but a limited number of
manufacturers do offer this facility as an option. Kelvin Hughes “MantaDigital™ S-
VDR” has the capability of being interrogating through GSM or satellite communications
from the shore. This optional feature also allows on board technical problems to be
diagnosed remotely, enabling spares or other support to be arranged in advance of the
ship’s arrival in port.
What time period can be recorded?
The IMO requires a minimum of 12 hours recording but most manufacturers provide
larger storage options often with removable media, which may be used as a management
and training tool. This latter option, sometimes referred to as a “white-box”, has found
favour in the past where ships’ staff are able to retain a record of an event without
disturbing the main (mandatory) data contained within the S-VDR.
How is the performance of the equipment monitored?
The IMO Performance Standard for S-VDR requires a built in test facility to be provided
to allow for continuous monitoring of the performance of the equipment. An audible and
visual alarm is automatically triggered in the event of a malfunction of the S-VDR.
How and where can the data be replayed?

Playback facilities are offered by all manufacturers, usually free of charge, as part of the
S-VDR package. This enables incident analysis to be undertaken on board, ashore and in
a Court of Law.
Installation
Who can carry out annual performance checks?
All maintenance, service and commissioning of S-VDR equipment must be carried out by
engineers approved by the Manufacturer concerned. This may be delegated to a
nominated service agent although some manufacturers, such as Kelvin Hughes, have the
added advantage of a well-established and proven worldwide support network with
factory-trained engineers located in key ports.
Can an S-VDR be installed whilst the vessel is in service?
In the majority of cases, the installation of an S-VDR can be carried out whilst the vessel
is in service. The majority of the work centres on the running of cables for microphones
on the bridge and the collection of data from a number of sources. The only restriction on
installing during service is when it may become necessary to weld fixings or cut cable
penetrations (hot-work) on vessels carrying hazardous cargo e.g. Tankers and gas
carriers.
How long does installation & commissioning take?
A typical installation, which would include cable running, mounting of units, termination
of cables and commissioning is estimated to take 5/7 days with two engineers. If
preparatory work is completed in advance with the running of cables and provision of
foundations for units then termination and commissioning is estimated to take 3 days.
Legislation
How will compliance be enforced and monitored?
Compliance with Carriage Requirements for S-VDR will be enforced by the appropriate
Flag State and Port Control authorities may also prevent vessels from operating who do
not have a suitably working S-VDR.
What Type Approval or Classification Certification is necessary?
All S-VDR equipment fitted to satisfy IMO requirements must be Type Approved.
Kelvin Hughes is the first to receive Type Approval for its MantaDigital™ S-VDR
through QinetiQ, the UK government nominated testing organisation. Other
manufacturers are following and submitting equipment for test to QinetiQ and other test
organisations, including the German testing house, BSH. Individual Classification
Societies can endorse Type Approved equipment by reference to the results obtained by
the test organisation.
What are the requirements?

IMO through MSC at its 79th session in December 2004 agreed the following amendment
to SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 20
To assist in casualty investigations, cargo ships, when engaged on international voyages,
shall be fitted with a VDR, which may be a simplified voyage data recorder (S-VDR) as
follows:
1. in the case of cargo ships of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before
1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1 July 2006 but not later than 1 July
2009;
2. in the case of cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2002, at the first scheduled dry-docking after 1
July 2007 but not later than 1 July 2010; and
3. Administrations may exempt cargo ships from the application of the requirements
of sub-paragraphs 1 and 2 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service
within two years after the implementation date specified in sub-paragraphs 1 and 2 above.
To what types of vessels does the Carriage Requirement apply?
All vessels involved in international trade over 3,000 tons gross tonnage will be affected
by the requirement (except where an exemption is granted by the flag state)
Legal
Will fitting S-VDR impact on insurance premiums? - A Marine Underwriter's

Perspective!
There is no doubt, that the shipping industry can learn a lot from the world of Aviation
and this is certainly a point of view held by eminent parsonages such as Lord Carver and
Lord Donaldson. The lessons learnt from, “black-box” information following air crashes
has obviously done a lot to improve the safety in this industry.
The lessons learnt have also given the operators data to enable them to reduce the human
element proportion of air disasters. So how can anyone argue against a similar initiative
in the Marine world?
As underwriters, we can see the potential advantages that VDRs will bring in reducing
the insurance risks.
There is always room for improvement, and, as lessons are learned from VDR playbacks
ship operators will be able to respond with meaningful loss prevention actions, which will
have a beneficial effect on their insurance results.
VDRs will also provide a reliable and unbiased witness at times of accidents involving
other parties. Here again VDR evidence will do a lot to reduce legal costs and the sterile
wrangles about who is to blame.
Is the recorded data recognised as legal evidence?
Yes - extensively, there have been a number of instances already experienced where the
disclosure of the existence of VDR recorded data has precluded court action. Clearly,

there is an advantage in the situations where systems are installed with the additional
removable memory, sometimes referred to as the "white-box".

In the event of an incident - who owns the recording?
"Ownership and recovery" (Abstracts of IMO FSI Sub - Committee 9)
Recovery of VDR
In the case of non-catastrophic accident, recovery of the memory should be

straightforward. This action will have to be taken soon after the accident to best preserve
the relevant evidence for use by both the investigator and the ship owner. As the
investigator is very unlikely to be in a position to instigate this action soon enough after
the accident, the owner must be responsible, through its on-board standing orders, for
ensuring the timely preservation of this evidence in this circumstance.
In the case of abandonment of a vessel during an emergency, masters should be
instructed, where time and other responsibilities permit, to recover the memory and
remove it to a place of safety and to preserve it until it can be passed to the investigator.
In the case of a catastrophic accident, where a vessel has sunk and the data has not been
retrieved prior to abandonment, a decision will need to be taken by the Flag State in
consultation with any other substantially interested states on the viability of recovering
the protective capsule against the potential use of the information. If it is decided to
recover the capsule, the investigator should be responsible for its recovery. The
possibility of the capsule having sustained damage must be considered and specialist
expertise will be required to ensure the best chance of recovering and preserving the
evidence. In addition, the assistance and co-operation of the owners, insurers and the
manufacturers of the VDR and those of the protective capsule may be required.
Custody of VDR/data
In all circumstances, during the course of an investigation, the investigator should have
custody of the original VDR data, perhaps in the form of the whole or part(s) of the VDR
itself, in the same way as he has custody of other records or evidence under the Code for
the Investigation of Marine Casualties and Incidents.
Ownership of VDR/data
The ship owner will, in all circumstances and at all times, own the VDR and its data.
Read-out of VDR/data
In all circumstances the responsibility to arrange down loading and read-out of the data
from the recovered memory in whatever form should, in the first instance, be undertaken
by the investigator who should keep the ship owner fully informed. Additionally,
especially in the case of a catastrophic accident where the memory may have sustained
damage, the assistance of specialist expertise may be required to ensure the best chance
of success.
Access to the data
Although the investigator will have custody of the original VDR memory in whatever
form for the duration of the investigation, a copy of the data must be provided to the ship
owner in all circumstances.
Further access to the data will be governed by the applicable domestic legislation of the
flat state, coastal state and the lead investigating state as appropriate and the guidelines
given in the Code for the Investigation of Marine Casualties and Incidents.

Products
What are the key factors to be considered when selecting an S-VDR?

• Is the equipment type approved?
• Does the supplier have a proven track record?
• Does the supplier offer worldwide support?
• Can the supplier guarantee to fit in time to meet agreed deadlines?
• Will the fitting delay the vessel’s operation?
• What does the price include?
• Is there a fixed price package?
• Does the supplier understand interfacing to marine bridge equipment?
• What additional options are available/provided?
• Does the supplier have an established customer base?
• Does the supplier have a reference list?
• Will the supplier be here in the future to support the system?
• Does the equipment offer all the facilities that may be required?
What is the typical price for an S-VDR system?
These vary from manufacturer to manufacturer and are also dependent upon the degree of
sophistication demanded. It is suggested that a budget of up to US$50k be allocated for a
complete fit.

BRIDGE NAVIGATION WATCH ALARM SYSTEM
PURPOSE OF BNWAS
The purpose of a bridge navigational watch alarm system is to monitor bridge activity
and detect operator disability which could lead to marine accidents.
The system monitors awareness of the Officer of the Watch (OOW) and automatically
alerts the Master or another qualified person if, for any reason, the OOW becomes
incapable of performing OOW duties.
This purpose is achieved by series of indications and alarm to alert first the OOW and, if
he is not responding, then to alert Master or another qualified person.
IMO REQUIREMENTS
OPERATIONAL MODES
The BNWAS should incorporate the following operational modes:
- Automatic (Automatically brought into operation whenever the ship’s heading or track
control system is activated and inhibited when this system is not activated)
- Manual ON (In operation constantly)
- Manual OFF (Does not operate under any circumstances)
OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE OF INDICATIONS AND ALARMS
Once operational, the alarm system should remain dormant for a period of between 3
and 12 min (Td).
At the end of this dormant period, the alarm system should initiate a visual indication on
the bridge.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a first stage audible alarm on the
bridge 15 s after the visual indication is initiated.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a second stage remote audible
alarm in the back-up officer’s and/or Master’s location 15 s after the first stage audible
alarm is initiated.
If not reset, the BNWAS should additionally sound a third stage remote audible alarm
at the locations of further crew members capable of taking corrective actions 90 s after
the second stage remote audible alarm is initiated.

ALLOWABLE DEVIATIONS
In vessels other than passenger vessels, the second or third stage remote audible alarms
may sound in all the above locations at the same time. If the second stage audible alarm
is sounded in this way, the third stage alarm may be omitted.
In larger vessels, the delay between the second and third stage alarms may be set to a
longer value on installation, up to a maximum of 3 min, to allow sufficient time for the
back-up officer and/or Master to reach the bridge.
EMERGENCY CALL FACILITY

Means may be provided on the bridge to immediately activate the second, and
subsequently third, stage remote audible alarms by means of an .Emergency Call. Push
button or similar.
RESET FUNCTION
It should not be possible to initiate the reset function or cancel any audible alarm from
any device, equipment or system not physically located in areas of the bridge providing
proper look out.
The reset function should, by a single operator action, cancel the visual indication and all
audible alarms and initiate a further dormant period. If the reset function is activated
before the end of the dormant period, the period should be re-initiated to run for its full
duration from the time of the reset.

To initiate the reset function, an input representing a single operator action by the OOW
is required. This input may be generated by reset devices forming an integral part of the
BNWAS or by external inputs from other equipment capable of registering physical
activity and mental alertness of the OOW.
A continuous activation of any reset device should not prolong the dormant period or
cause a suppression of the sequence of indications and alarms.
ACCURACY
The alarm system should be capable of achieving the timings stated in section containing
dormant period and alarm durations with an accuracy of 5% or 5 s, whichever is less,
under all environmental conditions.
SECURITY
The means of selecting the Operational Mode and the duration of the Dormant Period
(Td) should be security protected so that access to these controls should be restricted to
the Master only.
MALFUNCTIONS, ALARMS AND INDICATIONS
4.4.1 Malfunction
If a malfunction of, or power supply failure to the BNWAS is detected, this should be
Indicated. Means shall be provided to allow the repeat of this indication on a central
alarm panel if fitted.
5 ERGONOMIC CRITERIA
5.1 Operational controls
5.1.1 A protected means of selecting the operational mode of the BNWAS.
5.1.2 A protected means of selecting the duration of the dormant period of the BNWAS.
5.1.3 A means of activating the Emergency Call function if this facility is incorporated
within the BNWAS.
5.1.4 Reset facilities
Means of activating the reset function should only be available in positions on the bridge
giving proper look out and preferably adjacent to visual indications. Means of activating
the reset function should be easily accessible from the conning position, the workstation
for navigating and manoeuvring, the workstation for monitoring and the bridge wings.
5.2 PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION
5.2.1 Operational mode

The operational mode of the equipment should be indicated to the OOW.

5.2.2 Visual indications
The visual indication initiated at the end of the dormant period should take the form of a
flashing indication. Flashing indications should be visible from all operational positions
on the bridge where the OOW may reasonably be expected to be stationed. The colour of
the indication(s) should be chosen so as not to impair night vision and dimming facilities
(although not to extinction) should be incorporated.
5.2.3 First stage bridge audible alarm
The first stage audible alarm which sounds on the bridge at the end of the visual
indication period should have its own characteristic tone or modulation intended to alert,
but not to startle, the OOW. This alarm should be audible from all operational positions
on the bridge where the OOW may reasonably be expected to be stationed. This function
may be engineered using one or more sounding devices. Tone/modulation characteristics
and volume level should be selectable during commissioning of the system.
5.2.4 Second and third stage remote audible alarm

The remote audible alarm which sounds in the locations of the Master, officers and
further crew members capable of taking corrective action at the end of the bridge audible
alarm period should be easily identifiable by its sound and should indicate urgency. The
volume of this alarm should be sufficient for it to be heard throughout the locations above
and to wake sleeping persons.2
6 DESIGN AND INSTALLATION
6.1 General
The equipment should comply with IMO resolutions A.694 (17), A.813 (19), their
associated international standards3 and MSC/Circ.982 regarding Guidelines for
Ergonomic Criteria for Bridge Equipment and Layout.
6.2 Specific requirements
6.2.1 System physical integrity: All items of equipment forming part of the BNWAS
should be tamper-proof so that no member of the crew may interfere with the system’s
operation.
6.2.2 Reset devices: Reset devices should be designed and installed so as to minimise the
possibility of their operation by any means other than activation by the OOW. Reset
devices should all be of a uniform design and should be illuminated for identification at
night.
6.2.3 Alternative reset arrangements may be incorporated to initiate the reset function
from other equipment on the bridge capable of registering operator actions in positions
giving proper look out.
6.3 Power supply

The BNWAS should be powered from the ship’s main power supply. The malfunction
indication, and all elements of the Emergency Call facility, if incorporated, should be
powered from a battery maintained supply.

DOPPLER LOG
PRINCIPLE
Doppler log is based on the principle of “Doppler Shift

Effect”, i.e., apparent change in frequency received
(from what was transmitted) when the distance
between source and observer is changing due to the
motion of either source or observer or both. In Doppler
log an observer is moving with a source of sound
towards a reflecting plane, then the received
frequency:
fr = ft (c+v) / (c - v)
where,
fr = received frequency
ft = transmitted frequency
c= velocity of sound in seawater and
v = velocity of the vessel
By measuring the received frequency (fr) & knowing the value of transmitted frequency
(ft) and velocity of sound in seawater (C), the speed of the vessel y can be determined.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
A transducer is fitted on the ship’s keel which transmits a beam of acoustic wave at an
angle c usually 60° to the keel in the forward direction, this gives the component “ v cos
𝜶” of the ship’s velocity towards the sea bed thus causing the Doppler shift and the
received frequency
fr = ft ( c + v Cos 𝜶)/(c - v Cos 𝜶.) ................ (i)
Figure 1
Acoustic beam transmitted at an angle a towards seabed
If the waves are transmitted directly towards the seabed perpendicular to the keel, there
will be no Doppler shift and the transmitted and received frequency will be the same.
This is because the component of ship’s speed towards the seabed is zero (i.e. v cos 90º).

According to the Binomial expansion, we have
1 / (1 - x) = 1 + x2 +x3 ...xn ................ (ii)
Dividing numerator and denominator of equation (i) by C, we get
fr = ft {1 + v cos α} x 1 .
c (1 - v cos α)
c
By using the formula (ii) in this equation and on simplification we get,
fr = ft ( 1 + 2 v cos α / c + 2 v2 cos2 α / c2 + ...)
since v cos α << C, neglecting higher powers of v cos α/c we get,
fr = ft + 2 v ft cos α / c
fr-ft = 2 v ft cos α / c ................(iii)
............... (iv)
v=C (fr - ft) / 2 ft Cos a
With the help of this formula we can calculate the speed of the ship, considering that
there is no vertical motion.
In practice the ship has some vertical motion and the Doppler shift measurement will
have a component of this vertical motion. In this case Doppler shift measurement will be
fr-ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 vv ft sin α / c ................
fr-ft = (2 v ft cos α + 2 vv ft sin α) / c ................ (v)
where Vv represents the vertical motion of the ship.
This problem is overcome by installing two transducers, one transmitting in the forward
direction and another in the aft direction at the same angle. This arrangement is known as
Janus configuration as shown in figure 2. In this case the forward transducer will give
Doppler shift
i.e. frf - ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c
frf - ft = (2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin α) / c ................(vi)
where frf is the frequency received by the forward transducer while the aft transducer
will have the component “v cos α” with negative sign since the transducer is moving
away from the reflecting surface i.e. the seabed and hence the Doppler shift measured
will be
fra- ft = - 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c

fra- ft = (- 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin α) / c ................ (vii)
where fra represents frequency received by the aft transducer.

In formula (vi) and (vii) Vv will have the same sign since both the forward and aft
transducers will move upwards or downwards together. By measuring the difference
between the two Doppler shift frequencies, the vertical component will cancel out while
the horizontal will add i.e.
(frf - ft) - (fra - ft) = (2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin a ) / c

- (-2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin α) / c
(frf - ft - fra + ft) = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c
+ 2 v ft cos α / c - 2 Vv ft sin α / c
frf - fra = 4 v ft cos α / c
i.e. ...........(viii)
v = c (frf - fra) / 4 ft cos a
Thus v, i.e., speed of the ship can be calculated. The speed of the ship as determined by
the above formula is the speed over ground, unaffected by set and drift since the echoes
are coming from the seabed. This is also referred to as bottom track or ground track.
The transmitted pulse has certain power and can go up to a limited depth usually 200
meters. Beyond this depth, the echoes from the seabed become very weak and the
strength is not sufficient to calculate the Doppler shift. In such a case echoes are also
available from water layers between 10 and 30 meters below the keel and hence Doppler
shift is possible, enabling measurement of speed. But this will give us speed over water.
This is referred to as water track and does not allow for set and drift. The equipment
automatically changes over to water track when the echoes from the sea-bed are not
strong enough.
When the ship moves at high seas at the usual sea speed it carries some mass of
surrounding water with it and thereby providing a distinct layer of water between 10 and
30 meters below the keel and this depth depends on the draft and speed of vessel. Below
this depth the water is still and hence there is a distinct separation between the two layers
of water which provides the echoing surface of the acoustic waves. These echoes are of
course weak since the echoing surface is actually liquid, but stronger than the echoes

coming from the depths of over 200 meters. The speed worked out does not depend on
the depth from which the echoes are received. The strength of the echoes indicates
whether the ship is on bottom track or on water track.
ATHWARTSHIP'S SPEED
Doppler log on ground track mode can provide athwartship speed as well which could be
useful especially during berthing and unberthing operations and for this purpose a similar
Janus configuration is used on the port and starboard sides. The athwartship speed is
calculated in the similar manner as mentioned above.
This four transducer configuration is called Duel-Axis Doppler Log.
EFFECT OF VARIOUS SHIP CONDITION AND SHIP MOTION
Heaving
Any vertical movement Vv will have component Vv sin α in the direction of the acoustic
wave, resulting in an error in Doppler shift
= 2 Vv ft sin α / c.
Hence the Doppler shift measurement at forward transducer will be given by
frf - ft = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c
and that at the aft transducer will be given by
fra – ft = - 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c
By measuring the difference between the two Doppler shift frequencies, the vertical
component will cancel out while the horizontal will add i.e.,
(frf - ft) - (fra - ft) = ( 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin α ) /c
- (- 2 v ft cos α + 2 Vv ft sin c ) / c
frf - ft - fra + ft) = 2 v ft cos α / c + 2 Vv ft sin α / c
+ 2 v ft cos α / c - 2 Vv ft sin α / c
frf - fra = 4 v ft cos α / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft cos α

Therefore,
Thus any vertical movement has got no effect on the speed indicated.
Trim
The trim of the vessel has very less effect on fore and aft speed and no effect on
athwartship speed. Let’s check out how.
• When down by stern
When trimmed by an angle β, the forward transducer will transmit at an angle (α - β)
while the aft transducer will transmit at an angle (α + β) as shown in figure 4 and the
Doppler shift frequency measurement by the forward transducer will be
frf - ft = 2 v ft cos ( α – β ) / c
while the Doppler shift frequency measurement by the aft transducer will be: -
fra - ft = - 2 v ft cos (α + β ) / c
Thus frf - fra = 2 v ft [ cos (α - β) + cos ( α + β) ] / c
= 2 v ft [ Cos a Cos Β + Sin a Sin Β
+ Cos a Cos Β - Sin a Sin Β]/c
= 2 v ft (2 Cos α Cos β) / c
= 4 v ft Cos α Cos β / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α Cos β
Note: Cos (α + β) = Cos α Cos β - Sin α Sin β, and

Cos (α - β) = Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β

Figure 4
Ship trimmed- down by stern at angle β
The above formula gives the actual speed in trimmed condition while the speed indicated
is calculated by given formula
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α
Hence Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β.
• When down by head
When trimmed by head at angle β, the forward transducer is now transmitting at angle (α
+ β) while the aft transducer is transmitting at an angle (α - β) as shown in figure 5.
hence
frf - ft = 2 v ft Cos ( α + β ) / c and
fra - ft = - 2 v ft Cos ( α - β ) / c
Thus,
frf - fra =
= 2 v ft [ Cos (α + β) + Cos (α - β) ] / c
= 2 v ft [ Cos α Cos β - Sin α Sin β + Cos α Cos β + Sin α Sin β] / c
= 2 v ft (2 Cos α Cos β) / c
= 4 v ft Cos α Cos β / c
v = (frf - fra) c / 4 ft Cos α Cos β

Once again indicated speed is less than actual speed by factor of 1 / Cos β i.e. whether
down by head or down by stern,
Actual speed = Indicated speed / Cos β
Maximum trim permitted under MARPOL Annex I Regulation 13 is 1.5% of ship’s
length. Hence
β = Tan -11.5 /100,
β = 0.86° and Cos β = Cos 0.86 ° = 0.9998874.
Now if the indicated speed is 16 knots, the actual speed
= 16/0.998874 = 16.001689 knots.
Figure 5: Ship trimmed-down by head at angle β
We notice that the difference is only in the third and fourth decimal places. In other
words it is negligible difference. In fact this difference may not be indicated on the
display, since the display shows only up to two decimal places. Note that change of trim
does not affect the athwartship speed.
Pitching
The effect of pitching is similar to a vessel with trim changing continuously.
When the vessel is pitching, the indicated speed will fluctuate between actual speed and a
value lower than the actual speed depending on the angle at which it is pitching. Pitching
does not affect athwartship speed.
List and rolling
Effect of list on athwartship speed will be the same as the effect of trim on the forward
and aft speed i.e.
Actual speed (ath) = Indicated Speed (ath) / Cos list
This is irrespective of the side to which the ship is listed. When the vessel is rolling, the
indicated athwartship speed will fluctuate between the actual speed and the indicated
lower speed worked out by the above formula depending on the angle of roll. List and
rolling does not affect the fore and aft speed.
ERRORS OF DOPPLER LOG
Error in transducer orientation: The transducers should make a perfect angle of 60°
with respect to the keel or else the speed indicated will be inaccurate.
Error in oscillator frequency: The frequency generated by the oscillator must be

accurate and constant, any deviation in the frequency will result in the speed indicated

being in error.
Error in propagation velocity of acoustic wave: The velocity of the acoustic wave at
the temp of 16°C and salinity of 3.4% is 1505 m/sec, but generally it is taken as 1500
m/sec for calculation. This velocity changes with temperature, salinity or pressure. To
compensate the error due to temperature variation, a thermistor (i.e. a resistance whose
value changes with temperature) is mounted near the transducer and change in velocity of
the acoustic wave through water from the standard value due to the change in seawater
temperature is accounted for. In modern transducers the angle at which the beam is
transmitted is controlled with the help of phase difference and the factor c / Cosα is not
used in calculating v.
Errors due to ship’s motion: During the interval between transmission and reception,
the ship may marginally roll or pitch and thereby the angle of transmission and reception
can change and for a two degree difference between the angle of transmission and
reception, the net effect will be an error of 0.10% of the indicated speed which is
marginal and can be neglected.
Errors due to the effect of rolling and pitching: The effect of pitching will cause an
error in the forward speed but it has no effect on the athwartship speed. Similarly rolling
will cause an error in athwartship, but not in forward speed.
Actual Speed = Indicated speed / Cos β Where β is the angle of pitching for forward
speed and angle of roll in case of athwartship speed, e.g., if the ship is pitching at an
angle of 10° and the indicated speed is 15 knots, then the
Actual speed = 15/ Cos 10°

i.e. Actual speed = 15.23 knots.
This error will increase with angle of pitch i.e. in rough seas. The digital readout will
fluctuate between the actual speed (i.e. at the instant when the pitch angle is zero) and a
value lower than the actual speed (i.e. when the angle of pitch is maximum).
The athwartship speed assumes importance only at the time of berthing where the rolling
is negligible and hence the above formula is generally used in case of forward speed only.
Error due to inaccuracy in measurement of comparison frequency: The difference in

the frequencies received by the forward and aft transducers must be measured accurately
as any error in this will be directly reflected in the speed of the vessel.
Error due to side lobes: When the side lobe reception dominates over the main beam
reception, there will be an error in the speed indicated. This error is more pronounced on
a sloppy bottom, where the side lobe will be reflected at a more favourable angle and will
have path length less than the main beam.

Figure 6
Side Lobe error
This error cannot be eliminated with the help of Janus configuration and to reduce this
error the beam of the transmitted acoustic wave is reduced. However a minimum beam
width of 4 to 6° is required.
CALIBRATION
It is very important for any instrument to be calibrated correctly before being used and in
a Doppler log the calibration has to be done in two steps:
Firstly the zero on scale should be set correctly and this can be done and checked
whenever the ship is berthed at a jetty or at anchor when the speed over ground is zero
and the second is the scale calibration and should be done during sea trial when time
taken to cover a measured mile is noted and the SI calculated. This calculated speed must
match with the displayed reading and in case of any discrepancy between the two, the
equipment can be adjusted. Once these two calibrations are done the Doppler log can be
used effectively.
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ELECTROMAGNETIC LOG
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC SPEED LOG

Electro-Magnetic Log is a device used to calculate the velocity of the ship. The EM Log
calculates the speed of ship with respect to the water, i.e., speed through water.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
As the name itself indicates, the EM Log works on Michael Faraday’s principle of
Electro-Magnetic Induction.
The operation relies upon the principle that any conductor which is moved across a
magnetic field will have induced into it a small electromotive force (e.m.f.).
Alternatively, the e.m.f. will also be induced if the conductor remains stationary and the
magnetic field is moved with respect to it. Assuming that the magnetic field remains
constant, the amplitude of the induced e.m.f. will be directly proportional to the speed of
movement.
The e.m.f. induced is directly proportional to strength of magnetic field, length of
conductor cutting the magnetic flux and velocity of conductor (rate of change of magnetic
flux cutting the conductor) and the direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Fleming’s
right hand rule.
PRACTICAL INSTALLATION AND WORKING:

In a practical installation, a constant e.m.f. is developed in a conductor (seawater flowing
past the sensor) and a minute current, proportional to the relative velocity, is induced in a
collector. The magnetic field created in the seawater is produced by a solenoid which
may extend into the water or be fitted flush with the hull. As the vessel moves, the
seawater (the conductor) flowing through the magnetic field has a small
e.m.f. induced into it. This minute e.m.f., the amplitude of which is dependent upon the
rate of cutting the magnetic lines of force, is detected by two small electrodes set
into the outer casing of the sensor.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VESSEL’S SPEED AND SENSOR OUTPUT:

The induced e.m.f. in an EM Log setup is very small, typically l00 μV per knot, but the
change with respect to the flow of seawater is very liner (proportional) as depicted in the
figure below. This indicates the speed of the vessel with very good uniformity.
Relationship between the vessel’s speed and the output from the sensors.
Limitations
However, it should be noted that the EM log suffers from following limitations:
1. The induced e.m.f. and hence the speed indication will vary with the conductivity
of the water and hence speed indication in waters of different salinity will vary.

2. The device measures the speed of the water flowing past the hull of the ship. This
flow can vary due to the non-linearity of a hull design. Therefore the flow sensor should
be installed at a location where three is minimum chance of uneven water flow which is
not indicative of actual speed of water past the hull of the ship.
3. The unevenness of water flow may be experiences in case of shallow waters
having uneven seabed, causing error in the indicated water speed.
4. The log does not show athwartship speed truly. This because the sensor is placed
in fore-aft direction. Any sideways flow of water will not be detected. If the current is at
an angle to the motion of ship, only a component of the current may be detected giving
rise to water track.
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SPEED MEASUREMENT USING WATER PRESSURE
When a tube, with an opening at its base, is vertically submerged in water, a pressure,
proportional to the depth to which the tube is submerged, will be developed in the tube. If
the tube is held stationary the pressure remains constant and is termed ‘static’ pressure. If
the tube is now moved through the water, whilst keeping the depth to which it is
submerged constant, a second pressure called ‘dynamic’ pressure is developed. The total
pressure in the tube, called a Pitot tube, is therefore the sum of both the static and
dynamic pressures.
To ensure that the dynamic pressure reading, and thus speed, is accurate, the effect of
static pressure must be eliminated. This is achieved by installing a second tube close to
the first in such a way that the static pressure produced in it is identical to that created in
the Pitot tube but without the pressure increase due to movement through the water (see
Figure 3.1).
In a practical installation, tube B, the Pitot tube, extends below the vessel’s hull to a depth
d,
whereas tube A, the static pressure intake tube, is flush with the hull. With the vessel
stationary, the static pressures from tube A to the top of the diaphragm and tube B to its
underside almost cancel. The unequal pressures, which cause a small indication of speed
to be displayed when the vessel is stationary, are compensated for in the log
electromechanical system and the erroneous indication is cancelled. As the vessel moves
through the water, in the direction shown, water is forced into tube B producing a
combined pressure in the lower half of the chamber equal to both the static and dynamic
pressures. The difference in pressure, between upper and lower chambers, now forces the
diaphragm upwards thus operating the mechanical linkage. Obviously the greater the
speed of the vessel through the water, the more the diaphragm will move and the greater
will be the speed indicated.

Unfortunately, the dynamic pressure developed in tube B, by the relative movement

through the water, is proportional to the square of the vessel’s speed. Pitot’s Law states
that this pressure p is proportional to the square of the ship’s speed v multiplied by the
coefficient K.
p = K × v2
where the constant K is derived from the vessel’s tonnage, shape of hull, speed of the
ship, and the length of the protruding part of the Pitot tube (distance d).
As the speed indication produced is not linear, it is necessary therefore to eliminate the
non-linear characteristics of the system and produce a linear speed indication. This is
achieved mechanically, by the use of precisely engineered cones or electronically using
CR (capacitive/resistive) time constant circuitry.
CONFIGURATION OF LOG DATA TO REMOTE DISPLAYS AND OTHER

EQUIPMENT

The Speed and distance given by the log is required at various key locations in the bridge
for safe navigation. Hence it is required that the master display of the log is distributed to
those location by means of repeaters. This is done using standard marine electronic
communications protocols over 9-pin RS232 ports.
Theses ports can also be used for other comm protocols, such as NMEA. NMEA
interfacing standard ensures that conforming instruments all speak the same language.
This language can be understood by PC programs and data from many different
instruments can be logged to one time-stamped file. For example, depth data from sonar
and position data from a GPS receiver can be combined to plot a contour map for
example.
The standard was developed by the US-based National Marine Electronics Association
(NMEA) in the 1980s. The NMEA 0183 standard uses ASCII messages which can be
sent over RS232 serial links. In 2000 a new standard was released - NMEA 2000. This
uses CAN, or, Controller Area Networks. (Refer diagram, above.)
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RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
INTRODUCTION:
IMO Recommendations on passage planning lay stress on controlled navigation. The
passages in narrow channels or harbours are either along straight courses or along arcs of
circles.
As per SOLAS 2000 Amendment Chapter V Regulation 19.2.9, it is mandatory for ships
over 50,000 GRT to have a rate of turn indicator. IMO recommends that large alteration
of courses have to be planned along circular tracks with wheel over point marked.
The Rate of Turn Indicator (ROTI) is a device which indicates the instantaneous rate at
which the ship is turning. It is fitted on ship as an independent fitment integrated with the
steering gear/auto pilot.
Figure – 1
When the wheel is turned over, the ship actually traverses along a curved track rather
than performing a sharp turn about a point. It is very useful knowing the nature of this
traversed path the ship takes which can help in planning:
1. The desired turn with given radius
2. Desired speed of the vessel to execute the planned turn.
3. When to apply the turn (wheel over point)
RATE OF TURN FORMULAE:
ROT = v/R
Where,
v - Speed of the vessel .
R - Radius from a fixed point around which to turn the ship.
Note: ROT is directly proportional to the speed.

ROT is inversely proportional to radius.
Figure -2
TURNING WITH CONSTANT RADIUS

d =Rxα (α in Radian)
d = R θº / 57.3 …… …… …… …… …… …… (i) (1 Rad = 57.3º)
if vessel speed = “v” knots

Then, time taken ‘t’ to cover distance “d” (Ref figure above)
t = d/v hrs.
= ( d / v ) x 60 minutes (Hrs. converted to minutes)
t = R x θ x 60 / v x 57.3 minutes…… …… (ii) (Because, d = R θº / 57.3)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
Relation between DEGREES & RADIANS ?
e.g., 180º in radians? Just divide by 57.3.
180 / 57.3 = 3.14 (The value of π) A half circle has an angle of π radians.)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
Vessel has to turn through θº in the time (t) given above and has to move along the arc
(d).
ROT = Angle in degrees / time in minutes to cover the angle. Therefore,
ROT = θ / (R x θ x 60 / 57.3 x v )
= 57.3 x v / 60 R
= 0.96 v/R deg/min
Therefore, ROT = v / R deg/min (Approx)

Example:
Speed = 8 knots
Radius = 4 cables
ROT = 8 / 0.4
= 20o / min
When turning with Constant Radius, wheel, and hence ROT, is constantly adjusted so
that the turn maintains desired radius. (4 cables as in example)
TURNING WITH CONSTANT RATE
Alternative method of planning a turn is by maintaining constant rate of turn, instead of

constant radius. Since the speed of the ship varies during the turn, an average of the initial
and final speed is used to calculate the ROT.
When turning with Constant Rate, wheel is constantly adjusted so that the rate of turn
stays constant. (20º/min as in previous example)
Figure -3
Both methods are governed by the same formulae, i.e., ROT = v/R. or R = v/ROT
Since speed (v) variation during turn is not practical,
For constant Radius – Adjust ROT !!!
For constant ROT – Adjust Radius !!!
In both cases, ROTI is invaluable equipment.
ADVANTAGES OF ROT
 The turn and rate of turn can be pre-planned; execution becomes simple.
 Turn can be monitored easily.
 As pre-planned, use of helm is minimized.
 Even if the ship has drifted to ‘Port’ or ‘Stbd’, turn can be amended to join the
course on completion of turn.
WHEEL OVER POINT
When the wheel is turned, the ship moved on her initial course before beginning the turn.
This is primarily due to her inertia, denoted by ‘F’ and depends on various ship
parameters, such as:

 Length > Beam
 Displacement > Speed
 Trim and > Type of vessel
Therefore, the wheel should be given at some point before the actual commencement of
the desired turn. The Point at which the wheel is to be turned over is known as WHEEL
OVER POINT.
WHEEL OVER POINT- THE FORMULAE
T= R (1- Cos θ) + F Sin θ

Where:
T= Perpendicular distance of WOP from the new course
R = Radius of Turn
θ = Angle of alteration of course
F = Depends on type & size of vessel
Small ships - 0.1,
Large ships – 0.15, and
Very large ships – 0.2
Figure - 4
Refer to the above diagram. The length ‘T’ is the sum of two components – AG and BD.
T can be calculated by finding the values of AG and BD.
In triangle OMD, angle OMD is right angle. Therefore,

OM = R cos Θ
But OE = R (radius of the turn)

Therefore: EM = OE – OM
= R- R cos Θ
= R (1-CosΘ) = BD ….. …... (i) (OE, BD & BE, GM are
parallel)
In triangle AGD, angle AGD is right angle. Angle ADG is Θ, angle between initial and
final courses. Therefore,
Sin Θ = AG / AD
AG = AD sin Θ
However, the distance AD, travelled by ship after wheel over, denoted by letter ‘F’, and
depends on various ship parameters as explained above. The following values are
assumed for F:
Small ships - 0.1 NM
Large ships – 0.15 NM
Very large ships – 0.2 NM
Thus AD sin Θ = F sin Θ = AG ….. ….. ….. (ii)
Now, T = AG + BD.
From (i) and (ii) above we get,
T= R (1- Cos θ) + F Sin θ
ADVANTAGES – USES OF WHEEL OVER

• Transiting confined channels
• Conning a large vessel
• Elimination of cross track error (XTE) on the new course
• Can be plotted on the reflection plotter
• Can be plotted electronically on the ARPA
• Turning predictions can be made for a moderate value of helm (100 to 150)
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING RATE OF TURN INDICATOR
• The speed of the vessel for calculating ROT is “Speed over Ground” and not
“speed through Water”.
• Initially a large helm is required in order to achieve the desired ROT.
Approaching desired ROT, helm must be eased, to just enough to maintain the ROT.
• In case of constant radius turn, ground speed must be monitored carefully so that
if the speed reduces, ROT can be adjusted (reduced) accordingly.
• For large ships, it is easier to reduce ROT than to increase it. Therefore, it is safer
to over-estimate ROT than under-estimate it. This way if the vessel turns faster, ROT can
be reduced in order to control the vessel in more effective manner.
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GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
 Official name of GPS is NAVigational Satellite Timing And Ranging Global
Positioning System (NAVSTAR GPS). Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is a form of
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). First developed by the United States
Department of Defence
 Consists of two dozen GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit (The region of space
between 2000km and 35,786 km)
GPS FUNCTIONALITY
GPS systems are made up of 3 segments:
 Space Segment (SS)
 Control Segment (CS)
 User Segment (US)
SPACE SEGMENT It consists of 24 operational
satellites evenly placed in 6 different orbits. The
satellites have their own propulsion system to
maintain their orbital path and can be controlled
remotely. The angle between each of the 6 orbital planes and the equatorial plane i.e.,
Inclination, is 55°. GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km and at a
speed of 3.9 km/s. It takes 12 hours to complete one orbit. Each satellite makes two
complete orbits each sidereal day. It passes over the same location on Earth once each
day. The satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the
sun and their antenna toward the earth. Orbits are designed so that at the very least six
satellites are always within line of sight from any location on the planet.
CONTROL SEGMENT
The CS consists of 3 entities:
 Master Control System
 Monitor Stations
 Ground Antennas
Master Control Segment
The master control station, located at Falcon Air Force Base in Colorado Springs,
Colorado, is responsible for overall management of the remote monitoring and
transmission sites.
Monitor Stations
Six US Air Force monitor
stations are located at Falcon
Air Force Base in Colorado
Springs (MCS), Hawaii, Cape
Carnival (Florida), Ascension
Island, Diego Garcia, and
Kwajalein Island.
There are aditional monitor
stationa from NGA (National
Geospetial-Intelligence
Agency) are located at Alaska,

Australia, Bahrain, Argentina, Washington (USA), Equador, United Kingdom, South
Africa, South Korea and New Zeeland.
Each of the monitor stations checks the exact altitude, position, speed, and overall health
of the orbiting satellites. A station can track up to 11 satellites at a time. This "check-up"
is performed twice a day, by each station, as the satellites complete their journeys around
the earth.
The monitoring stations track the satellites, obtain the data and pass the information to the
MCS.
The MCS uses the data to compute and predict the future path of all the satellites. The
MCS also determines the error of the atomic clocks in all the satellites.
The ephemeris and clocks parameters are usually updated every two hours while
Almanac data is updated every six days through the upload station and ground antennas.
Ground antennas:
Ground antennas monitor and track the satellites from horizon to horizon and
send/transmit navigation data uploads and processor program loads, and collect telemetry
through S-Band communication links.
There are four dedicated GPS ground antenna sites co-located with the monitor stations at
Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral.
USER SEGMENT:
It consists of a receiving antenna, receiver with built-in Computer and display unit. The
receiver locks on to one satellite and from this satellite it obtains the almanac of all other
satellites and thereby selects the four most suitable for position fixing. The fix obtained
is displayed on the screen along with the course and speed made good. Receivers
designed to receive only one frequency are known as single frequency receivers. To
enhance position accuracy, there are dual frequency receivers that can receive both
frequencies.
SATELLITE NAVIGATION DATA STRUCTURE
GPS satellites broadcast three different types of data.

Almanac – The almanac contains information about the status of the satellites and their
approximate orbital information. The GPS receiver uses the almanac to calculate which
satellites are currently visible. This tells the GPS receiver where each satellite should be
at any time through the day. However, the almanac is not accurate enough to let the GPS
receiver get a fix.
Ephemeris – To get a fix, GPS receiver requires additional data for each satellite, called
the ephemeris. This data gives very precise information about the orbit of each satellite
and current date & time. GPS receiver can use the ephemeris data to calculate the
location of a satellite to within a metre or two. The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours
and is usually valid for 4 hours.

Pseudo Random Code –Each satellite broadcasts what is called pseudo random codes
(Coarse Acquisition code and Precision code) for timing purposes (each satellite has its
own distinct and unique pseudo random code). GPS satellites and receivers are
synchronized so they're generating the same code at exactly the same time. The distance
(or range) between the receiver and the satellite can be calculated from the time it takes
for the satellite signal to reach the receiver. To determine the time delay, all we have to
do is receive the codes from a satellite and then look back and see how long ago our
receiver generated the same code. The time difference is how long the signal took to get
down to us.
P Code and C/A Code: Each satellite transmits two codes, i.e. the Precision (P) code
and the Coarse Acquisition (C/A) code. These codes are a very complex series of data
bits in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ and hence referred to as Pseudo Random Codes or Pseudo
Random Noise!
All civilian GPS receivers decode the C/A code and it also helps the military receivers to
access the more accurate, encrypted, P code. These codes are modulated by phase
modulation technique on two carrier frequencies, L1 and L2. The L1 signal consists of
both the codes i.e. the P and the C/A codes while the L2 consists of only the P code. Data
transmitted are as follows:
 L1 (1575.42 MHz) - Mix of coarse-acquisition (C/A) code, encrypted precision
(P) code and Navigation Message.
 L2 (1227.60 MHz) – Precision (P) code only and Navigation Message.
C/A Code:
 C/A-Code is modulated over L1 carrier frequency by phase modulation.
 It is transmitted at the rate of 1.023 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ called a
‘Chip’.
 Length of a Chip is 1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 293 metres.
 1023 chips make a complete C/A code.
 Thus a complete C/A code is of 1 millisecond, and terms of length measures about
(1023 x 293 ~) 300 km.
 Each Satellite has its own unique C/A code.
 The GPS receiver locks on to this C/A code, synchronizes itself with code and
then uses it for timing and ranging purposes.
P-Code:
 P-Code is modulated over L1 and also L2 carrier frequency by phase modulation.
 It is transmitted at a faster rate of 10.23 Mbps in the form of ‘0’ and ‘1’ also
called a ‘Chip’.

 Length of a Chip is 0.1 micro-sec, and terms of length measures 29.3 metres.
 A complete P-code is of 267 days, and is of 2.35 × 1014 bits in length (approx.
26.716 Terra Bytes).
 The code length being so large, each satellite is assigned only a weekly segment
of the master P-Code (of 267 days length).
 In order to facilitate GPS receivers to synchronize faster with this long code, the
start time of the code is transmitted every 6 seconds.
 This helps the GPS Rx to identify which part of the code is being transmitted
currently (and synchronize) .
 However, P-Code is same for all the satellites as against the C/A codes which are
unique for each satellite.
Navigation Message: Essential purpose of the navigation message transmission by

satellites is to determine its position by the GPS receiver. Each satellite transmits a
navigational message of 30 seconds in the form of 50 bps data frame. This data, which is
different for each satellite, is previously supplied to the satellites by master control station
and is divided into 5 sub-frames. Each sub-frame commences with telemetry word (TLM)
containing satellite status followed by hand over word (HOW) data for acquiring P code
from C/A code. The sub-frames are:
The 1st sub-frame contains data relating to satellite clock correction.

The 2nd and 3rd sub-frames contain the satellite ephemeris defining the position of the
satellite.
The 4th sub-frame passes the alpha-numeric data to the user and will only be used when
upload station has a need to pass specific messages. Otherwise it contains the almanac
and health data of the standby satellites (SV25 to 32) to be used by monitoring stations
and master control stations.
The 5th sub-frame gives the almanac of all the other satellites which includes the identity
codes thus allowing the user the best choice of satellites for position fixing.
OPERATION OVERVIEW

A GPS receiver can tell its own position by determining the ranges to three satellites and
using Trilateration. To get the distance, each
satellite transmits a signal.
These signals travel at a known speed. The system measures the time delay between the
transmission of the signal by the satellite and its reception by the receiver.
The signals are carrying information about the satellite’s location. The GPS receiver
determines the position of and distance to, at least three satellites (to reduce error) and
computes the position using Trilateration.
POSITION CALCULATION:
The coordinates are calculated according to the World Geodetic System WGS84
coordinate system.
The satellites are equipped with atomic clocks while GPS receiver uses an internal crystal
oscillator-based clock that is continually updated using the error correction signals from
the satellites. To make the measurement we assume that both the satellite and our receiver
are generating the same pseudo-random codes at exactly the same time. Receiver
identifies each satellite's signal by its distinct C/A code pattern, then measures the time
delay for each satellite.
The distance is obtained by multiplying the travel time by the speed of light. Orbital
position data from the Navigation Message is used to calculate the satellite's precise
position. Knowing the position and the distance of a satellite indicates that the receiver is
located somewhere on the surface of an imaginary sphere cantered on that satellite and
whose radius is the distance to it.
When distances from four such satellites are measured at the same time, the point where
the four imaginary spheres meet is recorded as the location of the receiver. This method
is called Trilateration.
Pseudo Range: In order to obtain range of satellites with accuracy, the exact position of
the satellite has to be known to the GPS Rx and also the clocks of the satellite and the Rx
has to be perfectly synchronized. Both of these are obtained from the Navigation
Message of the satellite transmission. However, some error remains in the
synchronization of the two clocks. As a result, the range of satellite calculated by the GPS

Rx has an element of error due to the clocks difference. This range (with time error) is
called Pseudo Range.
The following range equation eliminates the error from the pseudo range:
R1 = C x t – C x Δt = √ (x1 –x)2 + (y1-y)2 + (z1-z)2

Where,
R1 = True range of satellite no.1
C= Speed of radio waves
t = total time taken by the signals to reach (includes clock error)
Δt = clock error (difference in satellite and user clocks)
x1, y1, z1 = 3D co-ordinates of the satellite-1
x, y, z = 3D co-ordinates of the GPS receiver
Similar process is repeated for three more visible satellites and with four such equations
the values of x, y and z are computed by the receiver. As can be seen, true position can be
calculated despite error in range due to clock error.
THE WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM
A geodetic datum is a tool used to define the shape and size of the earth, as well as the
reference point for the various coordinate systems used in mapping the earth. Throughout
time, hundreds of different datum have been used - each one changing with the earth
views of the times. The horizontal datum is the one that is used in measuring a specific
position on the earth's surface in coordinate systems such as latitude and longitude.
Because of the different local datum (i.e. those having different reference points), the
same position can have many different geographic coordinates so it is important to know
which datum the reference is in.
There are many datum in use around the world today. Some of the most commonly used
datum are:
• World Geodetic System,
• the North American Datum,
• Ordinance Survey of Great Britain,
• European Datum,
• Russian datum (PZ90), etc.
Within the World Geodetic System (WGS), there are several different datum that have
been in use throughout the years. These are WGS 84, 72, 70, and 60. The WGS 84 is
currently the one in use for this system. The GPS uses World Geodetic System 84. In
addition, it is one of the most widely used datum around the world. The modern GPS
receivers have many in-built datum, the WGS 84 being the default one. Therefore, it is
important to match the datum of the GPS and that of the chart before plotting GPS
position on the chart.
If the two datum are different, the plotted position may refer to some other position than
the actual position.

SPEED DETERMINATION
The carrier frequency is also used to determine the speed of the user by the measurement
of Doppler shift, i.e. change in the frequency of radio waves received when the distance
between the satellite and user is changing due to the relative motion between the two. The
position and velocity of the satellite as well as the position of the user are known to the
user’s receiver.
The velocity vector of the satellite can be resolved in two ways:
i) In the direction towards the user
ii) In the direction perpendicular to (i).
The 2nd component is not considered as speed in this direction will not cause Doppler
shift.
The receiver calculates the velocity vector of the satellite in the direction towards the
user.
If the relative approach speed between the satellite and the user’s speed (based on the
Doppler shift measurement) is not equal to the satellite speed vector towards the user; the
difference can only arise due to user’s speed towards or away from the satellite.
Similarly with the help of the other two satellites, the receiver can calculate two
additional speed vectors and these speed vectors will be towards or away from their
respective satellites. These velocity vectors are resolved into three other vectors, i.e. x, y
and z co-ordinates and with these three vectors the course and speed of the user is
calculated.
ERRORS OF GPS
1. Atmospheric Error: Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the

GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere and this affects the time
difference measurement and the fix will not be accurate.
Each satellite transmits its message on two frequencies and hence a dual frequency
receiver receives both the frequencies and correction is calculated and compensated
within the receiver thus increasing the accuracy of the fix.
 Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead.
 Becomes greater for satellites nearer the horizon. The receiver is designed
to reject satellites with elevation less than 9.5 degrees.
2. User Clock Error: This is the third largest factor causing error in GPS fix. If the
user clock is not perfectly synchronized with the satellite clock, the range measurement
will not be accurate.
GPS receivers are usually equipped with quartz crystal clocks, which are relatively
inexpensive and compact. For these types of clocks, the frequency is generated by the
piezoelectric effect in an oven-controlled quartz crystal. Their reliability ranges from a
minimum of about 1 part in 108 to a maximum of about 1 part in 1010, a drift of about
0.1 nanoseconds in 1 second. Even at that, quartz clocks are not as stable as the atomic
standards in the GPS satellites and are more sensitive to temperature changes, shock, and
vibration. Both a receiver’s measurement of phase differences and its generation of
replica C/A codes depend on the reliability of this internal frequency standard. Such an
error in a GPS receiver’s clock oscillator is also termed as receiver clock bias error. The

range measurement along with the clock error is called
pseudo range. There are four unknowns (x, y, z, and time)
and, therefore, four observations to make the solution.
This error can be eliminated within the receiver by
obtaining pseudo range from four satellites and is done
automatically within the receiver. Satellite Clock Error:
This error is caused due to the error in the satellite’s clock
w.r.t. GPS time. Satellite clock error is about 8.64 to
17.28 ns per day. The corresponding range error is 2.59m to 5.18m, which can be easily
calculated by multiplying the clock error by the speed of light. This is monitored by the
ground based segments and any error in the satellites clock forms part of the 30 seconds
navigational message. Applying the satellite clock correction in the navigation message
can correct the satellite clock errors.
3. GDOP Error: GDOP (geometric dilution of precision) describes error caused by

the relative position and thus the ‘angle of cut’ of the GPS satellites at the receiver.
Basically, the more signals a GPS receiver can “see” (spread apart versus close together),
the more
4. precise it can be. Wider the angular separation between the satellites, better the
accuracy of the fix. Or, conversely said, the lower the GDOP value, the greater the
Poor
Geometry of
satellites,
higher
GDOP, poor
accuracy
accuracy of the fix. The GDOP value is indicated on the display unit.
5. Multipath Error: This error is caused by the satellite signals arriving at the
ship’s antenna both directly from the satellite and those that get reflected by some objects
such as gravel roads, open water, snow fields, rock walls, buildings. Thus two signals are
received simultaneously which will cause the distortion of signal from which range
measurement is obtained. Siting the antenna at a suitable place can minimize this error.

6. Orbital Error: The satellites are monitored and their paths are predicted by the
ground based segment. However, between two consecutive monitoring of the same
satellite, there may be minor drifts from their predicted paths resulting in small position
inaccuracy.
Receiver Channel Noise

All receivers have internal equipment noise. If the receiver noise is high in comparison to
the satellite signal received, the usability of the those signal is reduced in the same ratio.
This comparison is expressed as “Signal-to-Noise” Ratio, denoted by “SNR”. The current
S/N should be displayed by the GPS Rx.
Situation of poor SNR develops if either the receiver noise is high (a low quality Rx) or if
the satellite signal level goes down (Satellites nearing the horizon). A value of above 20
is good SNR.
A GPS Rx can be configured to a pre-set value of SNR below which it will not use the
satellites’ signals, as low SNR degrades the accuracy of the position fix.
Following is the average values of range errors on account of various sources:
Error Source Typical Range DGPS Range

Error Error (<100km
ref-remote)
Satellite vehicle clock 1 mtr -
Satellite vehicle Ephemeris 1 mtr -
Selective availability 10 mtr -
Troposphere 1 mtr -
Ionosphere 10 mtr -
Pseudo range error 1 mtr 1 mtr
Receiver noise 1 mtr 1 mtr
Multipath 0.5 mtr 0.5 mtr
Error *PDOP = 4 60 mtr 6 mtr
*PDOP = Position Dilution of Precision (3-D); value of 4 is typical

ACCURACY OF GPS
The accuracy of the position your GPS reports is influenced by a number of factors, such
as the positions of the satellites in the sky, atmospheric effects, satellite clock errors and
ephemeris errors etc., as explained above. Under ideal conditions, this may be 5, or even
3 metres. GPS units often show on the screen an accuracy figure.
The accuracy of a GPS can be improved by using secondary data from external reference
stations. One such method is Augmented GPS called Differential GPS.
DIFFERENTIAL GPS (DGPS): DGPS uses a network of ground stations located at

precisely known positions. The DGPS reference station is situated at a fixed location and
from this position the GPS receiver tracks all the satellites within its sight, obtains the
data from them and calculates the corrections for each satellite.
These corrections are then broadcast by the DGPS stations on MF frequencies for use by
the DGPS receivers in the vicinity.
There are two methods employed for enhancing DGPS position accuracy.
1. Position Correction
2. Range correction.
In the first method, the reference station knows its exact position and compares it to the
position obtained by the GPS and determines the corrections based on the actual and GPS
calculated positions. These corrections are then broadcast to the users in terms of co-
ordinates (i.e. x, y and z). The accuracy decreases as the distance of the user from the
reference station increases.
Besides, the reference station and the user must select the same satellites, which is
practically not possible as the user does not have the option of manually selecting the
satellites.
In the second method, the reference station receives signals from all the visible satellites
and measures the pseudo range to each of them. The reference station also calculates the
true range to all the selected satellites. By comparing the calculated true range and the
measured pseudo range, corrections to each satellite can be determined. These corrections

are then broadcast to the users and applied to their pseudo range measurements before
calculation of the position.
As the above explanations warrants, the DGPS will be working only in coastal areas
where such services are provided.
INSTALLATION AND INITIALIZATION OF SHIPBOARD GPS RECEIVER
Installation
The GPS receiver display unit should be installed in a place where clear view is available
from all practical angles. The shipboard receiver also provides data to various other
equipment, such as the VDR, AIS, ECDIS, Sat-C, Radar/ARPA, etc. There are
communication interfaces provided in a shipboard for this purpose. Other such equipment
should be connected with GPS using NMEA electronic communication protocol which is
a standard in marine electronic communication.
The antenna of the received should be installed in a location where there is no obstruction
to the clear view of the sky.
Once the physical installation is complete, the system should be powered up. The
remaining process in the TTFF (time to first fix) takes time depending on the satellite
information available to the receiver at the start. Since this is first start of the receiver, it
may take fifteen to twenty minutes as there is no valid almanac or ephemeris data
available to the receiver. This type of GPS initialization is called Cold Start.
It locks on to the first available satellite and begins downloading the almanac data and
subsequently ephemeris data and navigation message from the best suited satellites to
take a fix. Completed downloading of navigation message from all satellites may take
about 12.5 minutes which comprising of 25 frames of 30 seconds each. Once the process
is complete, the GPS receiver should display the position, COG and SOG on the display.
*************************

ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY & INFORMATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION:
The International Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) includes a

requirement for all ships to carry to up-to-date nautical charts and publications for the
intended voyage. This requirement was satisfied by the ships by maintaining paper charts
which was kept updated by weekly corrections.
Progressively from 2012, the chart carriage requirement for certain classes of vessels is to
be satisfied by electronic means using an Electronic Chart Display and Information
System (ECDIS). This meant that the traditional paper charts are to be replaced by
electronic charts.
ECDIS, however, includes not only the visualisation of all paper chart information on a
computer screen, but also provides a wide range of other data required for navigational
purposes. ECDIS is a highly complex and sophisticated system, which besides the
navigational functions includes components of a computer-based information system
delivering a real-time display of the navigator’s own vessel located with reference to the
surrounding sea area.
In June 2009, vide Amendment to SOLAS chapter V/19, IMO declared Mandatory
ECDIS carriage requirements for all SOLAS vessels. SOLAS requires all ships engaged
in international voyages to be fitted with ECDIS in a phased manner from July 2012 to
July 2018.
In June 2010, vide Manila Amendments to STCW, ECDIS competence was made
mandatory for navigational Officers and Masters as from 01/2012.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS:
Electronic Chart System (ECS): In general, ECS is a term for all electronic equipment
that is able to display a ship’s position on a chart image. The term covers a wide range of
capabilities and even a smart phone can be an ECS. An ECS does not meet the
mandatory chart carriage requirements set by. An ECS cannot, therefore, be used as a
primary tool for navigation on SOLAS ships, meaning that navigation has to be
performed on paper charts.
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation

information system which with adequate back-up arrangements can be accepted as
complying with the up-to-date chart required by regulation V/20 of the 1974 SOLAS
Convention, by displaying selected information from a system electronic navigational
chart (SENC) with positional information from navigation sensors to assist the mariner in
route planning and route monitoring, and if required display additional navigation-related
information.
Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) means the database, standardized as to content,

structure and format, issued for use with ECDIS on the authority of government
authorized hydrographic offices. The ENC contains all the chart information necessary

for safe navigation and may contain supplementary information in addition to that
contained in the paper chart (e.g. sailing directions) which may be considered necessary
for safe navigation. Vector Charts are an example.
System Electronic Navigational Chart (SENC) means a database resulting from the
transformation of the ENC (a vector chart) by ECDIS for appropriate use, updates to the
ENC by appropriate means and other data added by the mariner. It is this database that is
actually accessed by ECDIS for the display generation and other navigational functions,
and is the equivalent to an up-to-date paper chart. The SENC may also contain
information from other sources.
ECDIS converts each ENC from S-57 ENC format into an internal format called the
System Electronic Navigational Chart (SENC), which is optimized for chart image
creation.
BENEFITS OF ECDIS
o Reduced workload for the navigator (charts and nautical publications updating,
voyage planning, all information in “one hand”)
o Navigation in real time increasing situational awareness in combination with
proper lookout
o Automatic route monitoring (warnings and indications of hazards to the operator,
in time arrivals)
o Automatic track control (reduces bunker costs), if ECDIS is connected to the
autopilot
o Prediction of special manoeuvres (predicted path, trial manoeuvre, docking mode)
o Availability of a chart during the night without night vision loss
o Access to additional information resources
POTENTIAL DISADVANTAGES OF ECDIS

o Too much information on the screen may cause clutter and can be distracting
o Submenus can be very complex
o The size of chart displayed on the screen monitor is very much reduced compared
with the paper chart
o Some symbols may be misinterpreted due to unfamiliarity
o Automatic plotting of position can lead to complacency concerning the vessel’s
position and proximity to dangers.
o Confusion with ECS, unauthorised use for primary navigation
TYPES OF CHARTS USED IN ECDIS:
Vector Chart:
A vector chart is a digital database of all the objects (points, lines, areas, etc.) represented
on a chart.
Vector charts store information, such as isolated dangers, depths, depth contours,
coastline features, cables and pipelines etc. in separate layers which can be displayed as
per the user’s requirements.
Vector charts are also referred to as intelligent charts as they can be interrogated for
information not displayed but stored in its memory.
Raster Chart:

Raster chart data is created by scanning the information on a paper chart and storing this
information in the form of pixels. Many thousands of pixels together make a flat digital
image. Each pixel contains all the data for a particular point; colour, brightness etc. They
are also geographically referenced which makes the raster chart identical in every way to
the paper chart on which it is based. Raster charts cannot be manipulated or queried. Also
referred to as the Raster Chart Display System (RCDS), the information is contained in
one single layer only. Information can only be added to this type of chart.
Radar/ARPA information can be overlaid on this type of chart format.
COMPARISION BETWEEN VECTOR AND RASTER CHARTS:
RASTER CHARTS- ADVANTAGES:

• All paper chart information is retained, including every depth sounding, buoy
number and description, and land features such as town names and streets bordering the
water.
• Because raster charts perfectly match the paper charts, it is easy when underway
to work back and forth between the wide view of large paper charts and the small section
seen on an electronic screen.
• There is no learning curve for mariners already familiar with paper charts.
RASTER CHARTS- DISADVANTAGES:

• Charts require significantly more storage room (than vector charts) on electronic
devices. The storage for all raster charts for a single region may exceed the space
required by vector charts for the entire country.
• The type size (font size) is fixed, so that letters and numbers become large when
you zoom in and small when you zoom out, becoming less readable at both extremes.
• Zooming in too far to see your boat's position on a small scale chart may give a
misleading impression - when a larger scale chart would be more accurate (vector charts
automatically change scale).
VECTOR CHARTS- ADVANTAGES:

• Less electronic storage room is required; most apps and programs using vector
charts include all U.S. waters, so you don't have to get more charts when you go to a new
area. (Some chart-plotter companies using proprietary versions of vector charts may still
charge you to get more regions.)
• Zooming in and out makes movement between small- and large-scale charts
unnoticeable and seamless.
• Vector charts have a "clean" look because they present less information on any
one screen.
• Programs and apps using vector charts often build in additional features or layers
including information about marinas, social features, etc.
VECTOR CHARTS- ADVANTAGES:

• Less information is presented, depending on whose vector version you are using.
As in the chart shown, land features and names are seldom included - this can be
disorienting to mariners used to paper charts and road maps.

• Some specific information (such as descriptive buoy data) does not appear on the
screen unless you select it or move a cursor to it - compared to always being there on a
raster chart.
• It can be confusing to look back and forth between the wide view of large paper
charts and the small section seen on an electronic screen.
• A learning curve is needed to use a vector chart accurately at the appropriate
levels of zoom.
ADVANTAGE OF VECTOR CHART OVER PAPER CHART:

o Continuous monitoring of the vessel’s position.
o Position fixing at desired intervals without the indulgence of the OOW.
o Charts can be corrected automatically electronically.
o Ease of passage planning, with alarms set for various parameters.
o All required publications are incorporated to facilitate passage planning.
o Passage plan can be monitored more effectively.
o If two position fixing systems are used, the discrepancy in positions (if any) can
be identified by ECDIS.
o Cross track limits and alarms can be set.
o More accurate ETA can be calculated considering the effect of wind, currents and
tidal streams.
o Many more features available to reduce the workload of OOW.
DUAL FUEL ECDIS

RNCs already cover much of the world and the concept of ECDIS operating in an RCDS
mode is seen as a way of letting mariners maximize the use of the system while ENC
coverage expands. This is referred to as the "dual-fuel" mode of operations.
The important benefit of the dual-fuel approach is that electronic chart navigation based
entirely on official and up-to-date charts is available for almost any voyage.
CHART UPDATING
The Chart information to be used in ECDIS should be the latest edition of information
originated by a government authorized hydrographic office and conform to IHO

standards. The contents of the SENC should be adequate and up-to-date for the intended
voyage.

The updating methods can be subdivided into two different categories:
Automatic
Manual
Automatic Updating
It consists of an updating process by which the updating information is applied, within
the ECDIS, to the SENC without operator intervention. Automatic updating can be
broken down into the following two sub-classes:
Fully-automatic Updating
Semi-automatic Updating
Fully-automatic Updating
The update data reaches the ECDIS directly from the distributor without any human
intervention via a broadcast transmission, INTERNET, etc.
Semi-automatic Updating
An updating method requiring human intervention to establish a link between the media
used for transferring the update information and the ECDIS, e.g., inserting an updating
diskette, or establishing a telephone communication link.
FEATURES OF ECDIS
Route Planning:
 Carry out route planning & monitoring in a simple & reliable manner for both
straight and curved segments. It is possible to adjust a planned route alphanumerically,
graphically, including :
 Deleting waypoints
 Adding waypoints
 Changing position of a waypoint
 Changing order of waypoints
 It should be possible to plan one or more alternative routes in addition to the
selected route & clearly distinguishable from the current & other routes.
 It should be possible for the mariner to specify a cross track limit of deviation
from the planned route at which an automatic off track alarm should be activated.
 An indication is required if the mariner plans a route across:
 Own ship's safety contour
 Closer than a user specified distance from the boundary of a prohibited area.
 Closer than a user specified distance from a point object, such as a fixed or
floating aid to navigation or isolated danger.
Route Monitoring:
 Real time position of the vessel
 Look ahead view possible
 All type of position lines can be plotted
 Alternative route and selected route can be shown side by side
 Time labels can be put on track
 Alarms as specified
 Alarm / Indication as specified

 OOW can select a safety contour
 ECDIS gives the safety contour more emphasis than other contours on the display
 It is possible for the mariner to select a safety depth
 ECDIS emphasizes soundings equal to or less than the safety depth whenever spot
soundings are selected for display
 For route monitoring the selected route and own ship's position should appear
whenever the display covers that area
 It should be possible to display a sea area that does not have the ship on the
display (e.g. for look ahead, route planning), while route monitoring.
 It should be possible to return to the route monitoring display covering own ship’s
position immediately by single operator action
 ECDIS should give an alarm if, within a specified time set by the mariner, own
ship will cross the safety contour.
 ECDIS should give an alarm or indication, if within a specified time set by the
mariner, own ship will cross the boundary of a prohibited
 An alarm should be given when the specified limit for deviation from the planned
route is exceeded.
 The ship's position should be derived from a continuous positioning system of
accuracy consistent with the requirements of safe navigation.
 Whenever possible, a second independent positioning method of a different type
should be provided
 ECDIS should be capable of identifying discrepancies between the two systems.
 ECDIS should provide an indication when the input from the position fixing
system is lost
 ECDIS should also repeat, but only as an indication, any alarm or indication
passed to it from a position fixing, heading or speed sources.
 An alarm should be given by ECDIS if the ship, within a specified time or
distance set by the mariner, will reach a critical point on the planned route.
 The positioning system and the SENC should be on the same geodetic datum.
 ECDIS should give an alarm if this is not the case.
 It should be possible to display an alternative route in addition to the selected
route.
 During the voyage it should be possible to modify the selected sailing route or
change to alternative route.
 The selected route should be clearly distinguishable from the other routes.
 It should be possible to display:
 Time-labels along ships track manually on demand and automatically at intervals
 An adequate number of points, free movable electronic bearing lines, variable and
fixed range markers and other symbols
 ECDIS should provide the capability to enter and plot manually obtained bearing
and distance LOP and calculate the resulting position of own ship.
 ECDIS should indicate discrepancies between the positions obtained by
continuous positioning systems and positions obtained by manual observations.
Voyage Recording
 The following data should be recorded at one minute interval:
1. to ensure a record of own ship’s past track: time, position, heading, and speed.

2. to ensure a record of official data used: ENC source, edition date cell, update and
history.
 In addition, ECDIS should record the complete track for the entire voyage, with
time marks at intervals not exceeding 4 hours.
 It should not be possible to manipulate or change the recorded information.
 ECDIS should have a capability to preserve the record of the previous 12 hours
and of the voyage track.
 ECDIS should store and be able to reproduce certain minimum elements required
to reconstruct the navigation and verify the official database used during the previous 12
hours.
Recording Playback
 This feature automatically captures all own and other vessel data without crew
action, stores the data compressed and encrypted in archives and enables voyages to be
reconstructed from the playback function.
Radar Integration Board

The Radar Integrator board is interfaced with the Radar and converts the Radar video
signals into digital format and stores them. The advantage of this board is that it can
track targets that come within its range regardless of the range scale in use. When these
targets appear on the selected range scale, their CPA & TCPA are readily available
without any delay.
The Radar Integrator board can track up to 500 targets at any one time including land and
clutter echoes.
Radar/ARPA Integration
Radar/ARPA information and/or AIS information may be transferred from systems
compliant with the relevant standards of organization. Overlay of ARPA information on
ECDIS improves navigational safety in restricted visibility, congested waters, coastal
passages, port approaches and anchorages.
To prevent degradation of the ECDIS when superimposed with Radar picture, the user
can suppress the clutter. If required, only a particular sector of the Radar picture may be
superimposed on the ECDIS so that the other areas on the ECDIS chart appear without
the radar picture.
Integration- Advantages
Tracked targets appear on the chart screen in their correct position.
Radar picture can be recorded and stored for future reference and training purposes.
CAUTION !
 PERIODICAL CHECKS AND LOOKOUT MUST BE PERFORMED AND
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF WATCH KEEPING MUST BE OBSERVED
 ECDIS IS ONLY A NAVIGATION TOOL WHICH HELPS TO PERFORM
NAVIGATIONAL FUNCTIONS
 LIMITATIONS OF ECDIS AND ITS SENSORS MAKE OVER-RELIANCE
ON IT DANGEROUS

ACOUSTIC ECHO SOUNDER
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Acoustic depth measurement systems measure the elapsed time that an acoustic pulse
takes to travel from a generating transducer to the waterway bottom and back. The travel
time of the acoustic pulse depends on the velocity of propagation (v) in the water column.
This is illustrated in the figure below where the measured depth (D) is between the
transducer and some point on the acoustically reflective bottom.
If the velocity of sound propagation in the water column is known, along with the
distance between the transducer and the reference water surface, the corrected depth (d)
can be computed by the measured travel time of the pulse. This is expressed by the
following general formula:
Depth corrected to referenced water surface d = ½ (v · t) + k + dr

where:
d = corrected depth from reference water surface
v = average velocity of sound in the water column
t = measured elapsed time from transducer to bottom and back to transducer
k = system index constant
dr = distance from reference water surface to transducer (draft)

IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING ACCURACY
Velocity of sound in water. The sound velocity varies with the density and elastic
properties of the water. These properties are primarily a function of the water temperature
and suspended or dissolved contents, i.e., salinity, and pressure. Due to these effects, the
velocity (v) can range from about 1400 m/sec to 1525 m/sec.
At a temperature of 16º and salinity of 3.4% the velocity of sound in water is 1505 m/sec.
If the echo sounder is correctly calibrated for sea water, then it will show a 3% increase
in depth in fresh water. A 10-ppt salinity change can vary the velocity by some 12 m/sec.
For calculation purposes value of v is taken to be 1500 m/sec.
Time of wave travel (t): The elapsed time, t, is dependent on the reflectivity of the
bottom and related signal processing methods used to discern a valid return. It cannot be
perfectly determined during the echo sounding process.
System index constant (k): k must be determined from periodic calibration of the
equipment.
The Nature of Seabed: The shape, or sharpness, of the returning pulse shown in Figure
9-1 will play a major role in the accuracy and detection capabilities of depth
measurement which very well depend on the nature of the seabed.
The Angle of Incidence of the beam: If the signals strike the seabed vertically, the
energy of reflected echoes will be more than when the signals strike at an angle. It also
adds to decrease in accuracy of the depth measurement during rolling and pitching of the
vessel.
Attenuation: Attenuation is loss of acoustic wave energy as it travels through the water
and depends on various factors such as the frequency of the wave, beam width, reflecting
surface, shoals of fish etc. Attenuation is more for higher frequencies and low for lower
frequencies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ECHO SOUNDER
1. Pulse Length (PL): The duration of the pulse in an echo sounder is generally
from 0.2 to 2 milliseconds. The pulse length changes with range scale. For shallow
depths, short pulse is used and long pulse for greater depths.
The stylus is rotating at a scale speed equal to half the speed of the acoustic wave. That
is, the time taken by the stylus to move from top to bottom on the paper is exactly equal
to the time taken by the wave to travel twice the distance of the range scale selected.
The theoretical minimum measurable depth is half the pulse length and is calculated by
the formula:
Dmin = v x l/2, Where,
D = minimum measurable depth
v = velocity of acoustic wave
l = pulse length in seconds

For example, if pulse length is 2 milliseconds, then minimum depth will be
Dmin = v x l/2
= 1500 x (2/1000) x (½) = 1.5 m
2. Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF): The number of pulses transmitted per

second is called Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) and this determines the maximum
depth which can be measured.
Maximum depth (R) = v x t/2
Where, v = the velocity of acoustic wave
t = time between two successive pulses in seconds
For example, if the PRF is 1 per second, i.e., t = 1, then

R = v x t/2
= 1500 x 1/2
= 750 mtrs (max measurable)
Similarly, for a PRF of 2 per second, i.e., t = 1/2, i.e. 0.5 seconds, R = 375 mtrs
In other words, as the PRF increases the max depth that can be measured decreases and
vice-versa. Thus, in shallow waters, the PRF is high and low in deeper waters.
3. Beam Width: Energy concentration of a wide beam is less as compared to narrow

beam and hence directly affects the performance of the device.
Each transducer ping ensonifies an area of the bottom. The size of this ensonified area is
a function of the transducer beam width and transducer characteristics (i.e., side lobes).
The narrow beam ensonify a smaller area of the bottom; resulting in less distortion or
smoothing of bottom features within this area.
4. Transmission Frequency / Wavelength: If the frequency is within the audio

frequency range, then the receiving transducer will pick up the other audible noises such
as the engine noise, vibrations, waves hitting the hull etc. Therefore, transmission
frequency must be outside the audible range.
Higher frequency transducers (100 kHz to 1,000 kHz) provide more precise depth
measurement, due to both the frequency characteristics and more-concentrated (i.e.,
narrow) beam widths but are subject to severe attenuation. Narrow beam transducers (i.e.
less than 8 deg) may require roll and pitch correction since the more-focused beam will
measure a slope distance at non-vertical points. However, the side lobes shown in Figure
below could provide a vertical return in shallow water.
Lower frequency transducers (below 50 kHz) tend to have larger beam widths, which can
cause distortion and smoothing of features in irregular bottoms or on side slopes.
However, lower frequencies are less subject to attenuation, which allows greater depth
measurement and penetration of suspended sediments.
Modern echo sounders are often dual frequency for shallow and deep water depth
measurements.

The frequency range of commercial echo sounders is between 30 to 55 KHz.
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND FUNCTIONS
SEA - BED
Oscillator Unit
This unit produces a high voltage oscillation of desired frequency and the output is given
to the transmitting transducer.
Transmitting Transducer
This may be a electrostrictive (pierced hull) or magnetostrictive (internal installation)
type. It converts the electrical signals into acoustic waves and transmits them towards the
seabed.
Receiving Transducer
This receives the echoes from the seabed and converts them into electrical signals, which
are then sent to the amplifier unit.
Amplifier Unit

This unit amplifies the weak electrical signals received from the transducer and gives it to
the recorder unit.

Recorder Unit
This unit controls the transmission of the acoustic pulses and records the depth on the
paper.
Power Supply Unit

This unit gives the required voltages to the different stages of the echo sounding
equipment.
MORE ABOUT TRANSDUCERS
The function of the transducer is to convert the electrical energy to acoustic energy
during the transmission and reconvert into electrical energy during reception of the echo.
There are 2 types of transducers:
1. Electrostrictive, and
2. Magnetostrictive
ELECTROSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
This type of transducer works on the basic principle of piezo-electric effect, i.e., certain
crystals such as quartz, have a property that when pressure is applied to the two opposite
faces, a difference of potential is created which is proportional to the applied pressure or
when an alternating voltage is applied, the crystals start vibrating or oscillating. This type
of transducer is also known as Piezostrictive transducer.
The electrostrictive transducer uses the property of a crystal for transmission and
reception of acoustic waves in water. The crystal is firmly fixed between two steel plates
so that they act as a single unit.
The purpose of the steel plates is to provide solid and robust housing for the crystal as
well as a suitable contact surface for seawater.
When an alternating voltage is applied between the steel plates, the quartz and the steel
plates start vibrating together. The vibration will be of very high amplitude, if the
frequency of the alternating voltage is equal to the resonance frequency of the crystal.
The lower of the two steel plates is in direct contact with the water, which will cause the
vibration in the seawater. The vibration is always perpendicular to the plate and hence
always kept horizontally.
Generally only one transducer is used for transmission and reception of the signals and
this transducer is always mounted as pierced hull.

MAGNETOSTRICTIVE TRANSDUCER
This transducer works on the basic principle of magnetostriction, i.e. when a bar of
ferromagnetic material is wound with a coil in which an alternating voltage is applied, the
length of this material will always contract regardless of the direction of the current and it
comes back to its original length when the current is zero.
In the nickel ring type magnetostrictive transducer, a large number of thin annular disc of
Nickel are held together by well insulated windings of thick flexible wire. When an
alternating current is passed through the windings of the coil, the contraction and the
subsequent expansion in the Nickel plates takes place circumferentially.
Thus the whole outer area of the cylindrical pack is set in motion at its natural resonant
frequency and the vibrations are passed on to the surrounding medium i.e. water
(transducer fitted in water tank).
These vibrations are transmitted to the seabed through the ship’s hull plate and similarly
the echoes are also received through the ship’s hull plate.
Two transducers are used; one for transmission and the other for reception. It is fitted as
Internal installation.
Advantages and disadvantages of Internal Installation
 Ship’s hull is not cut hence continuity of the hull is maintained

 The transducer can be fitted and repaired whenever necessary without going to
dry-dock.
 Only 15% of total power output passes through the ship’s hull

 The loss occurs twice per sounding resulting in weak echoes.
SITING OF TRANSDUCER
The siting of the transducer will vary according to the size of the ship but it should be
away from any sound/noise source and away from any air bubbles.
 On large ships, between 1/4 and 1/8 of the ship’s length from bow
 On medium size ships, the foremost position is best or 3/4 length if vessel has
light draft.
 On slower ships, 3/4 length from the bow
 On very large ships, two transducers are fitted, one at forward and the other well
aft.
 On oil tankers, the transducer should be fitted at the forward end of E/R
 In case of pierced hull, the transducer is fitted near the centre line and flush with
the keel plate.
TYPES OF INDICATORS (RECORDERS)
Echometer: In an echometer, the depth is indicated by a neon lamp rotating at a constant

speed over a circular scale. A pulse is transmitted when the lamp passes the zero mark
and the arriving echo lights up the lamp indicating the depth on the circular scale.
Echograph: In an Echograph, the stylus is rotating at a certain constant speed and
transmission of the pulse takes place when it
passes the zero mark. The speed of the stylus is
such that the time taken for the stylus to travel
from top to bottom of the paper is exactly equal
to that for the pulse to travel twice the distance of
the range selected.
The received echo is converted into an electrical signal and a current is given to the stylus
which burns the coating on the paper (black mark) indicating the depth on the scale.
Digital Recorders: Modern Echographs are now digital devices. The principle of
operation however, remains the same.

The paper is replaced by the screen, the stylus by a tracing spot which moves from top of
the screen to the bottom at half the speed of the sound waves in water. This is performed
by the display processer of the echo sounder.
As the echo is received, the tracing spot brightens on the screen indicating the depth on
the range scale as selected.
The historical recordings are stored in the memory which can be reviewed and/or printed
out through a normal printer, if a dedicated printer is not provided.

ADVANTAGES OF ECHOGRAPH OVER ECHOMETER
 Permanent recording
 All echoes are displayed
 Rate of change of depth can be seen clearly
RANGING
In an echo sounder, the stylus is rotating at a certain constant speed and the transmission
takes place when the stylus passes the zero mark.
When a higher range scale is selected, the transmission will still take place when the
stylus passes the zero mark but the stylus speed is reduced because the stylus has to
remain on the paper for a longer period of time since the echoes are returning from a
greater depth.
This system is known as ranging and the range scales are generally provided as
0 - 50 m
0 - 100 m
0 - 200 m and so on.
Since the same length of paper now covers a larger depth, the graduations become closer
and it becomes difficult to read the depths accurately. Phasing arrangement is used to
avoid this.
PHASING
In phasing, the speed of the stylus motor is kept constant but the transmission point in
advanced.
Four sensors are positioned around the stylus belt and the stylus is rotating at a constant
speed. A magnet mounted on the belt generates the pulse when it passes the sensor which
in turn activates the transmitter.
When 0-100 m range is selected, sensor 1 is used and the delay circuit arrangement is
such that the transmission occurs exactly when the stylus passes the zero mark.
On selecting the higher scale (100-200 m), sensor 2 is used for activating the transmission
and the zero of the scale is so shifted that the top of the paper corresponds to 100 m.

Similarly for other ranges, different sensors are used and the transmission time will be
accordingly advanced.
The speed of the stylus will remain same as long as each range scale corresponds to
similar difference of depth, i.e. 0-100, 100-200 etc.
ECHO SOUNDER CONTROLS
 On-Off switch
 Range selector switch
 Paper speed control knob
 Stylus speed control adjustment
 Sensitivity control knob
 Draft setting control knob
 Fix marker
 Transducer selector switch
 Panel brilliance control knob
CROSS NOISE
If the sensitivity of the amplifier is high, several irregular dots appear near the zero line
and this is called cross noise. This is caused as part of the transmitted energy is picked up
by the transducer in addition to the aeration present. If cross noise is high, then shallow
depths close to the zero line will not be seen.
To avoid this, amplification should be less after transmission and gradually increased so
that weak echoes can be marked with clarity. This is done automatically by the swept
gain control unit.
AERATION
Vibration causes air bubbles in the water and echoes caused by these appear as dots. This
is called Aeration.
The density of air bubbles under the transducer varies along the length of the vessel and
the echoes suffer tremendous loss before reaching the receiver.

Sometimes the density of air bubbles is so high (e.g. going astern) that no penetration
takes place and hence no echo appears.
ERRORS
Equipment Errors
 Stylus speed error:
The stylus speed should be such that it travels from the top of the paper to the bottom in
exactly the time required for the acoustic waves to travel twice the distance of the range
scale in use. In case of voltage fluctuations, or for any other reasons, if the motor speed
changes, it will record wrong depth. Therefore the stylus speed should be periodically
adjusted as per the instruction manual.
 Pythagoras error:
This error occurs when two transducers are used, one for transmission and the other for
reception. It is a function of the distance between the two transducers. The error can be
found out by the formula-
----------------------
e = d- √ (d2 – x2 / 4)
where ‘d’ is the recorded depth and ‘x’ is the distance between the transducers.
The error is very prominent is shallow waters but not so significant in deep waters.
 Zero line adjustment error:

The stylus must be adjusted so that it is at zero mark when the transmission begins. If
there is any advance or lag, the depth recorded will be in error.
 Instrument Drift:
Once the zero line is adjusted, and speed of the stylus is also set, it is possible that over a
period of time the stylus will drift from the zero line and so no longer is aligned with the
zero-line. This kind of error will therefore show a flat horizontal seabed as slanting slope.
Operational Errors
 Velocity of propagation in water:
The velocity of acoustic waves changes with water temperature, salinity and pressure of
the water. In practical situation, these conditions are subject to changes and this affects
the accuracy of the recorded depth. The depth can be corrected to true depth from the
tables of the velocities of sound in pure water and seawater (Nautical Publication
NP139 (HD282))
 Multiple echoes:
The echoes, in right conditions can be reflected number of times between the keel of the
ship and the seabed. On each return the echoes are picked up by the receiving transducer
giving multiple depth marks on the recorder. Each depth mark will be at multiple of the
actual distance, the lowest depth being the correct one.
This situation can also happen when a range scale is selected which is more than the
depth of the seabed, e.g., range scale of 100-200 m while the depth is actually only 60 m.
In this case the depth will be marked at 120 m and 180 m. To avoid this, the equipment
should be started at the minimum depth when Phasing facility is provided.

 Thermal and density layers:
At sea there are layers of water having different temperatures and/or salinity which serve
as a reflecting surface to the acoustic waves. These result as a faint lines on the recorder
which are in between the zero mark and actual depth.
 Secondary Echo interference:

The PRF of the echo sounder depends of the range scale. When the range scale selected is
less than the depth of seabed, the pulses are being transmitted at a rate faster than that
would be required for the actual depth. Hence the echo of a pulse may be received at the
transducer after the second pulse has been transmitted. This echo would be printed on the
recorder at a wrong range.
Dynamic Errors
 Error due to roll and pitch

 Error due to Heave
 Error due to draught, settlement and squat
 Error due to Trim
Above errors (except trim) are dynamic in nature. Exact reading of these error values may
not be possible and hence cannot be corrected. However, on account of above factors,
caution needs to be exercised while using the echo sounder reading.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance and adjustments of Echo Sounder

Print-head / Stylus Cleaning
This is most important maintenance required on an echo sounder. As the printer is used,
small particles of dirt and grit can accumulate on the print head surface. If too much
debris collects on the printing surface, the printing quality deteriorates.
Printer or recording paper:

Sounder should be maintained with adequate Printer or recording paper level for the
intended voyage. Normally there is a water mark on the paper as it nears the end.
Cleaning of Transducer:
The transducer should be cleaned periodically as the deposits of the surface contributes to
deterioration of the performance of the recorder. Care should be taken not to damage it or
paint over it.

User Calibration
The only user calibration required is a DRAFT and SPEED OF SOUND modification
where such means are provided.
Zero-line adjustment:
The stylus should match with the zero mark on the paper when the pulses are transmitted.
Controls are provided to adjust the zero-mark by advancing or delaying the stylus.
Range Selection:
The range of the echo-sounder should be selected as per the depth of the water available
otherwise depth displayed/recorded will be in error.
Contrast adjustments:
Depending sometimes on the quality of the paper, the voltage level of the contrast control
should be maintained such that the sounder prints well on the paper.
Frequency Selection:
Where multi-frequency echo-sounders are installed on board, proper frequency should be
selected for different depths range as per the manufacturers instruction.
Gain Control:
Gain may have to be adjusted as per the depth of the water.
CALLIBRATION
Echo sounder need to be calibrated to make corrections in measuring the depth due to
sources of errors such as errors caused by position of transducer, errors due to varied
sound speed, errors caused by floating vehicle, etc. Some errors are systematic the effects
of which can be corrected calibrating the instrument. Underwater sound speed value
which input to echo sounder for measuring sea depth are in error due to difference in
conditions of salinity, temperature & pressure in the sea depth which affect the accuracy
of deep sounding.
There are three common methods to calibrate an echo sounder:
1. Bar-check is used for shallow range scale.

2. Using velocimeter to measure underwater sound speed is for practical use.
3. Computation method with some equation of sound speed.
The bar-check method is the effective one to calibrate depth sounding. Bar-check is made
from thick, square or circle metal which is hung in with the scaled rope and tied after a
transducer. Scaled rope readings are compared with the results of measured values from
echo sounder. Values are compared in every depth of water with interval of 1m. It starts
after setting the start pulse to zero and after the bar-check roped in 1 metre. Every 1m
interval until the seabed depth, values from bar-check and echo sounder is compared to
give corrections to the result of measurements.

Data which had been corrected after calibration, the instrument must be given again
correction errors caused by:
1. Proper position of transducer with measuring vertical position of transducer due to
surface of the sea.
2. Compared vertical position of transducer in the moment of moving ship and motionless
one.
3. Tide with mean sea level correction in terms of MSL references which acquired from
tabulated tide data.
**********************************

INTEGRATED NAVIGATION SYSTEM
PURPOSE OF INTEGRATED NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
The purpose of integrated navigation systems (INS) is to enhance the safety of navigation
by providing integrated and augmented functions to avoid geographic, traffic and
environmental hazards.
By combining and integrating functions and information the INS provides “added value”
for the operator to plan, monitor and/or control safety of navigation and progress of the
ship.
Integrity monitoring is an intrinsic function of the INS. The INS supports safety of
navigation by evaluating inputs from several sources, combining them to provide
information giving timely alerts of dangerous situations and system failures and
degradation of integrity of this information.
The INS presents correct, timely, and unambiguous information to the users and provides
subsystems and subsequent functions within the INS and other connected equipment with
this information.
The INS supports and improves mode and situation awareness.
The INS aims to ensure that, by taking human factors into consideration; the workload is
kept within the capacity of the operator in order to enhance safe and expeditious
navigation and to complement the mariner's capabilities, while at the same time to
compensate for their limitations.
SCOPE OF INS - NAVIGATIONAL TASKS

An INS comprises navigational tasks such as “Route planning”, “Route monitoring”,
“Collision avoidance”, “Navigation control data”, “Navigation status and data display”

and “Alert management”, including the respective sources, data and displays which are
integrated into one navigation system.
An INS is defined as such if work stations provide multifunctional displays integrating at
least the following navigational tasks/functions:
• “Route monitoring”
• “Collision avoidance”
• Manual and/or automatic navigation control functions. (Optional)
-
SCOPE OF INS - OTHER MANDATORY TASKS
• An alert management is a part of the INS.
• The presentation of navigation control data for manual control is part of the INS.
• Other navigational tasks/functions may also be integrated in the INS.
INS – Navigation Module

This module takes care of voyage planning, ship’s position fixing on a continuous basis
and ARPA plotting functions. This module performs the following tasks:
 Specifying the ships’ route and sailing mode
 Dead reckoning by inputs from gyro and log
 Position and speed determination by signals from GPS/DGPS
 Position fixing by inputs from terrestrial-based radio navigation systems
 Position and velocity determination using fixed Radar markers (along with
ARPA)
 Automatic selection of radio navigation facilities on the basis of accuracy criteria
 Storage of navigational parameters for a given time
 Data logging in log book format
 Warnings in case of exceeding the prescribed depth, route across track,
approaching critical points including alterations of course etc.
 Record and reproduction of cartographic information on a display and
 Automatic correction of nautical charts
INS – Anti-Collision Module

This module works out the best possible action to be taken in case of a close quarter
situation on the basis of the following:
 Collision regulations
 Sea room availability
 Trial-manoeuvre and
 Desired CPA
INS – Steering Module

This module is dedicated to steering the ship and will perform the following functions:
 Steering a given course, taking into account the ship dynamics, trim and external
conditions (winds, seas etc.)
 Automatic course alteration in accordance with planned track include large
alterations using Constant Rate of Turn technique and
 Alterations for collision avoidance and subsequent track keeping
CLASSES OF INS

• Class- A: Provides minimum integration of following information :
- Time and position
- Course and speed
• Class- B: Provides for automatic, continual and graphical indication and
integration of the following information:
- Time and position
- Course and speed
- Depths on planned route
- Known and detected hazards
• Class- C: Provides comprehensive integration of the following information:

- Time and position
- Course and speed
- Depths on planned route
- Known and detected hazards
- Means of automatically controlling the heading
- Track and/or speed
- Monitor the performance and status of these controls
In any class of INS, the integrity of the information should be verified by comparison of
data obtained independently from two or more sources.
Doubtful data should be highlighted and not used for automatic control purposes.
INTEGRATED BRIDGE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
IBS is basically a combination of INS and other shipboard systems available at a
centrally located place, aimed at increasing safe and efficient management of the ship,
reducing the work load, providing centralized control and a black box.
An integrated bridge system (IBS) is defined as a combination of systems which are
interconnected in order to allow centralized access to sensor information or
command/control from work- stations, with the aim of increasing safe and efficient ship's
management by suitably qualified personnel.
The IBS should include the following: (At least any two, as per IMO)
 Passage execution
 Communications
 Loading/discharging & cargo control
 Safety & security
This system will also be based on modules and generally failure of any one module
should not affect the functioning of other modules unless they are dependent on the
information provided by that defective module.
The system is user friendly giving prompts to the user as required.

Alarms are provided to indicate any malfunction and graded to indicate the order of
priority.
Audible and visual alarms are provided for any malfunction.

Once acknowledged the audible alarms are silenced while the visual alarms continue until
the defect is rectified.

INS & IBS - DIFFERENCES
The basic difference between INS and IBS is that INS is a combination of navigational
data and systems interconnected to enhance safe and efficient navigation of a ship
whereas IBS interconnects various other systems along with INS to increase the
efficiency of overall management of the ship.
That is, INS is specific in nature while IBS has a more generalized approach.
IBS - ADVANTAGES
 Centralized control unit
 Reduces navigational workload
 Increased accuracy in navigation, hence there is a saving in the steaming time and
fuel consumption
 OOW is in a position to take better decisions, since all parameters relating to
navigation and intraship are readily available to them
 More effective voyage planning
 All parameters are continuously monitored and maintained within safe limits,
hence reduction in unscheduled maintenance and emergencies
 Better overall risk assessment and risk management
 Alarms for every malfunction are available on a gradation system; more so in
view of improper action being taken
IBS - DISADVANTAGES
 Over reliance on automation results in lethargy setting in

 Increased tendency to by-pass alarms that are recurring often
 Limitations of equipment must be borne in mind when using any system
 Since various systems are used, it is difficult for users (particularly pilots) to pick
up in a short time.
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SHIP-HANDLING

PIVOT POINT
A ship’s pivot point is a point on the centre line about which the ship turns when the
rudder is put over. The pivot point scribes the ship’s turning circle.
Turning Circle A ship’s pivot point is nearly always located about one-third the ship’s
length from her bow when moving ahead, and at or near her stern when moving astern.
The location of the pivot point will vary with ship’s speed. An increase in speed will shift
the pivot point in the direction of the ship’s movement.
Unless stated otherwise each example assumes a ship on even keel in calm conditions and
still water. In this situation no forces are involved and the ship has its centre of gravity
approximately amidships.
Each example assumes a ship on even keel in calm conditions and still water. In this
situation no forces are involved and the ship has its centre of gravity approximately
amidships.
Pivot point - stopped
Making Headway
Two forces now come into play, firstly the forward momentum of the ship and secondly,
longitudinal resistance to forward momentum, created by the water ahead of the ship.
These two forces must ultimately strike a balance and the pivot point moves forward. As
a rough guide it can be assumed that 25% of the ships forward momentum, at constant
speed, is spent in overcoming longitudinal resistance and the pivot point will be
approximately 1/4L from forward.
Pivot point - making headway

Making Sternway
The situation is now totally reversed, the momentum of sternway must balance
longitudinal resistance, this time created by the water astern of the ship. The pivot point
moves aft and establishes itself approximately 1/4L from the stern.
Pivot point - making sternway
It should be stressed that other factors such as acceleration, shape of hull and speed may
all affect the position of the pivot point. The arbitrary figures quoted here however, are
perfectly adequate for a simple and practical working knowledge of the subject.
TURNING LEVERS AND MOMENTS

More important perhaps, than the position of the pivot point, is the effect its shifting
nature has upon the many turning forces that can influence a ship. These are rudder force,
transverse thrust, bow thrust, tug force, interactive forces and the forces of wind and tide.
Vessel Stopped
If we look at the ship used in our example, we can see that it has a length overall of 160
metres. It is stopped in the water and two tugs are secure fore and aft, on long lines,
through centre leads.
If the tugs apply the same bollard pull of say 15 tonnes each, it is to a position 80m fore
and aft of the pivot point.
Turning levers - vessel stopped
Thus two equal turning levers and moments of 80m x 15t (1200tm) are created resulting
in even lateral motion and no rate of turn.
Making Headway
With the ship making steady headway, however, the pivot point has shifted to a position
40m from the bow. The forward tug is now working on a very poor turning lever of 40m
x 15t (600tm), whilst the after tug is working on an extremely good turning lever of
120m x 15 t (1800tm).
This results in a swing of the bow to starboard.

Turning Levers: Making Headway.
Making Sternway
The efficiency of the tugs will change totally when the ship by contrast makes sternway.
Now the pivot point has moved aft to a position 40m from the stern. The forward tug is
working on an excellent turning lever of 120m x 15t (1800tm) whilst the after tug has
lost its efficiency to a reduced turning lever of 40m x 15t (600tm).
This now results in a swing of the bow to port.
Turning Levers : Making Sternway
TRANSVERSE THRUST
Ahead Movement of the Propeller
The effect of transverse thrust whilst making an ahead movement is arguably less
worrying than that of an astern movement, perhaps because the result is less noticeable.
It is sufficient to summarize the main factors which are evident with an ahead movement
of a right handed propeller.
(a) The helical discharge from the propeller creates a larger pressure on the port side of
the rudder.
(b) A slight upward flow from the hull into the propeller area puts slightly more pressure
onto the down sweeping propeller blades.
(c) It was evident during the tests that the speed or flow of water into the propeller area is
uneven in velocity.
The net result is a tendency for a right handed propeller to give a small swing to port
when running ahead. Whilst this may be noticeable in calm and near perfect conditions it
is easily influenced by other likely factors such as wind, current, shallow water, tugs, and
rudder errors and so on.

Astern Movement of the Propeller
The importance of transverse thrust when using an astern movement is of much greater
significance to the ship handler. The helical discharge, or flow, from a right handed
propeller working astern splits and passes forward towards either side of the hull. In
doing so it behaves quite differently.
On the port quarter it is inclined down and away from the hull whilst on the starboard
quarter it is directed up and on to the hull. This flow of water striking the starboard
quarter can be a substantial force in tonnes that is capable of swinging the stern to port
giving the classic 'Kick Round' or 'Cut' of the bow to starboard.
Force in Tonnes
Mainly a function of water flow, the transverse thrust can be increased or decreased by
varying propeller rpm. This in turn varies the magnitude of the force in tonnes applied to
the quarter and it can be viewed clinically as one of the forces available to the ship
handler in much the same manner as rudder, tug or bow thruster forces. It is, however, a
weak force and can be roughly calculated if the ship of a particular ship is known.
For example let us take a ship of 80,000 dwt with a full ahead of 20,000 ship. If full
astern is only 50% of this then it only has a maximum of 10,000 ship astern.
For practical purposes it can be taken as a rough guide that transverse thrust is only 5 to
10% of the applied stern power therefore in this case at best a force of 1,000 ship or 10
tonnes. (100 ship appx 1 tonne)
Whilst shaft horsepower is an important factor in determining the magnitude of
transverse thrust and how much a ship will cut when going astern a further consideration
must be the position of the pivot point.
Pivot Point and Transverse Thrust
Vessel Making Headway
Looking at another ship, this time of 26,000 dwt with a maximum of 6,000 ship astern, it
can be seen that ship relates to approximately 6 tonnes of force on the starboard quarter.
When the ship is making slow enough headway for the propeller wash to reach the hull,
it is acting upon a pivot point that is forward and thus a turning lever of 110 metres. This
creates a substantial turning moment of 660 tonne-metres.

EXAMPLE
6 tonnes x 110 metres = 660 tm
Figure 1 - Transverse thrust, vessel making headway
The forward speed of the ship must be considered because at higher speeds the full force
of propeller wash will not be striking the quarter. As the ship progressively comes down
to lower speeds and with the pivot point still forward, the magnitude of transverse thrust
will slowly increase reaching its peak just prior to the ship being completely stopped. It is
an unfortunate fact of life that at the slower speeds approaching a berth, if stern power is
applied, transverse thrust is likely to be at its maximum!
Vessel Making Sternway
With the same ship making sternway the pivot point will now move to a new position
somewhere aft of amidships. With the propeller working astern the flow of water on to
the starboard quarter is still maintaining its magnitude as a force of 6 tonnes but is now
applied to a reduced turning lever of 40 metres. Unlike the situation with headway we
now have a reduced turning moment of 240 tonne-metres with sternway.
In the first instance this may not seem strikingly important. It must be remembered,
however, that transverse thrust may be a poor force in comparison to other forces such as
wind and tide. With the example of sternway, a wind acting forward of the pivot force
may be strong enough to overcome that of transverse thrust. This will be investigated
more thoroughly in a later section concerning effect of wind.

6 tonnes x 40 metres = 240 tm
Figure 2- Transverse thrust, vessel making sternway
Wedge Effect
It is sometimes apparent that a ship when using stern power in the close proximity of
solid jetties, banks or shallow water will "cut" the wrong way. There are two possible
causes for this occurrence and only a pilot's local knowledge is likely to pinpoint them.
The first is a phenomenon known as "Wedge Effect". This occurs when the ship with a
fixed pitch right handed propeller has a solid jetty or other vertical obstruction close to
its starboard side. If excessive stern power is used, the wash created is forced forward
between the ship and the obstruction.
If we look at the figure 2, in the previous page, it can be seen that if the flow of water is
restricted then a force is exerted on the ship forward of the pivot point. This is
particularly apparent when the ship is stopped or making sternway. The force may be of
sufficient strength to kill normal transverse thrust and sometimes generate a swing of the
bow to port.
It will be worse if the ship has a bow-in aspect or is land-locked forward of the berth,
thus increasing the entrapment of water flow. Whilst a disadvantage in some respects it
can be turned to advantage in some parts of the world. Using the "wedge effect", a ship
can be lifted bodily off a solid jetty when backing out avoiding dragging the bow along
the dock side.
The second possible cause of a "cut" the wrong way may be attributed to the vicinity of
shallow water. The flow of water from the fixed pitch right handed propeller working
astern as we have seen, is up and on to the starboard quarter, but down and away from
the port quarter.
If the ship has a small under keel clearance it is possible that, in addition to such factors
as cavitation and restricted flow into the propeller, the flow of water on the port side is
being deflected off the bottom and back on to the hull. This clearly gives some prior
indication that the response of the ship may be unpredictable in shallow water and, once
again, the bow may swing the wrong way.
Alternative Design Features
Throughout these examples we have, for practical purposes, adopted a simplistic

approach by only considering a fixed pitch right handed propeller. There are of course
ships with fixed pitch left handed propellers, propeller tunnels and controllable pitch
propellers, the latter becoming increasingly more common.
Left Handed Propeller
With a left handed propeller it is simply a case of remembering that the results of
transverse thrust are the opposite in so much that the flow of water from the propeller
working astern is up and on to the port quarter and not the starboard quarter. In basic
terms the "cut" of the bow is therefore to port when working the propeller astern.

Controllable Pitch Propeller
The controllable pitch propeller rotates constantly in the same direction no matter what
movement is demanded of it. Viewed from astern, a clockwise rotating propeller is still
rotating clockwise with stern power, only the pitch angle of the blades has changed. This
gives the same effect as a conventional fixed pitch left handed propeller, which is also
rotating clockwise when going astern so the bow will swing to port.
Similarly if a variable pitch propeller constantly rotates counter clockwise when viewed
from astern, this will be the same as a fixed pitch right handed propeller which is also
rotating counter clockwise during an astern movement, the bow will thus swing to
starboard.
Shrouds
For economical purposes, propellers in shrouds or tunnels are growing in number, even
on large VLCCs. This ultimately has some bearing upon transverse thrust because they
alter significantly the flow of water exiting the propeller area. It may be more
concentrated and is likely to impose an equal thrust upon both sides of the hull thus
resulting in little or no transverse thrust.
Hull Design
Finally, hull design features may also play a significant part in altering this simplistic and
traditional concept of transverse thrust. It is possible, for example, because of a different
hull shape or length to breadth ratio, for the point of impact of water flow to be much
closer to the position of the pivot point when going astern. In such a case, transverse
thrust, although relatively pronounced with headway, may be surprisingly weak with
sternway, to the extent that the bow may literally fall off either way, particularly if
influenced by wind or shallow water.

EFFECT OF WIND
General
The ship handler faces many problems but there is none more frequently experienced and
less understood than the effect of wind. All too often when slowing down after a river
passage, whilst entering locks and during berthing, it can create a major difficulty. With
or without tugs, if the problem has not been thought out in advance, or if it is not
understood how the ship will behave in the wind, the operation can get out of control
extremely quickly.
Needless to say, with no tug assistance, it is wise to get this area of ship handling right
first time and also appreciate what the limits are.
Vessel Stopped
Looking at figure 1 we have a ship on even keel, stopped dead in the water. It has the
familiar all aft accommodation and we will assume, at this stage that the wind is roughly
on the beam.
Whilst the large area of superstructure and funnel offer a considerable cross section to the
wind, it is also necessary to take into account the area of freeboard from forward of the
bridge to the bow. On a VLCC this could be an area as long as 280 x 10 metres.
The centre of effort of the wind (W) is thus acting upon the combination of these two
areas and is much further forward than is sometimes expected. This now needs to be
compared with the underwater profile of the ship and the position of the pivot point (P).
With the ship initially stopped in the water this was seen to be close to amidships. The
centre of effort of the wind (W) and the pivot point (P) are thus quite close together and
therefore do not create a turning influence upon the ship. Although it will vary slightly
from ship to ship, generally speaking most will lay stopped with the wind just forward or
just abaft the beam.
Figure - 1 Vessel stopped

Vessel Making Headway
When the same ship is making headway, the shift of the pivot point upsets the previous
balance attained whilst stopped, figure 2. With the wind on the beam, the centre of effort
of the wind remains where it is but the pivot point moves forward. This creates a
substantial turning lever between P and W and, depending on wind strength, the ship will
develop a swing of the bow into the wind.
Figure - 2 Vessel making headway
At lower speeds the pivot point shifts even further forward, thereby improving the wind's
turning lever and effect. When approaching a berth with the wind upon or abaft the beam
that as speed is reduced the effect of the wind gets progressively greater and requires
considerable corrective action.
When approaching a berth or a buoy with the wind dead ahead and the ship on an even
keel such an approach should be easily controlled. Even at very low speeds the ship is
stable and will wish to stay with the wind ahead until stopped.

Vessel Making Sternway
The effect of the wind on a ship making sternway is generally more complex and less
predictable. In part this is due to the additional complication of transverse thrust when
associated with single screw ships.
Figure 3, we have already seen that with sternway the pivot point moves aft to a position
approximately 1/4 L from the stern. Assuming that the centre of effort (W) remains in
the same position, with the wind still on the beam, the shift of pivot point (P) has now
created a totally different turning lever (WP). This will now cause the stern to swing into
the wind.
Figure - 3 Vessel Making Sternway
Some caution is necessary, however, as the turning lever can be quite small and the effect
disappointing, particularly on even keel. In such cases the stern may only partially seek
the wind, with the ship making sternway 'flopped' across the wind. This situation is not
helped by the centre of effort (W) moving aft as the wind comes round onto the quarter.
This in turn tends to reduce the magnitude of the turning lever WP.
The other complicating factor is transverse thrust. If the wind is on the port beam, there is
every likelihood that transverse thrust and effect of wind will combine and indeed take
the stern smartly into the wind. If, however, the wind is on the starboard beam, it can be
seen that transverse thrust and effect of wind oppose each other. Which force wins the
day is therefore very much dependent upon wind strength versus stern power, unless you
know the ship exceptionally well, there may be no guarantee as to which way the stern
will swing when backing?

Trim and Headway
Figure - 4 Stern trim and headway
So far we have only considered a ship on even keel. A large trim by the stern may change
the ship's wind handling characteristics quite substantially.
Figure 4 shows the same ship, but this time in ballast and trimmed by the stern. The
increase in freeboard forward has moved W forward and very close to P. With the turning
lever thus reduced the ship is not so inclined to run up into the wind with headway,
preferring instead to fall off, or lay across the wind. Because the ship is difficult to keep
head to wind, some pilots will not accept a ship that has an excessive trim by the stern,
particularly with regards SBM operations.
Trim and Sternway
The performance when going astern is also seriously altered. With the wind on the beam
and W well forward, the turning lever WP is consequently increased (figure 5). Once the
ship is stopped and particularly when going astern, the bow will immediately want to
fall off the wind, often with great rapidity while the stern quickly seeks the wind.
Figure - 5 Stern trim and stern way
When berthing with strong cross winds, or attempting to stop and hold in a narrow
channel, it is best to plan well ahead as such a ship can prove very difficult to hold in
position. However, as long as we have some prior knowledge as to how the ship will
react to the influence of the wind it can be turned to advantage and readily employed to
aid rather than hinder ship handling.

Vessel Head to Wind with Headway
The middle diagram in Figure 6 shows a vessel making Headway through the water, and
Heading directly into the Wind. W is now well forward of amidships, and in fact very
close to P; the wind is exerting no turning moment, or sideways force, on the vessel. A
comparatively small change in relative wind direction (either by alteration of course, or
wind fluctuation), will place the wind on the vessel's bow; the whole of one side of the
vessel will now be exposed to the wind, and W will move aft as shown in the side
diagrams of Figure 6. The following effects will now be experienced:-
a) The Turning Force will now develop a turning moment about P, tending to turn the
vessel into the wind again.
b) The Wind Force will also develop a sideways force on the vessel, away from the
exposed side.
Figure 6 Headway with Wind Ahead - On Even Keel.
Head to Wind therefore, the vessel is "course stable", provided that she maintains
Headway through the water.
If the ship has a large Trim by the stern W will be further forward, with a reduction, or
even loss, of "course stability". This can sometimes result in a rapid and violent loss of
control.
Vessel Head to Wind with Sternway.
Consider the situation when our vessel remains Head to Wind, but now starts to make
Sternway through the water. W remains forward, whilst P has moved aft, as shown in

the middle diagram of figure 7: the wind is exerting no turning moment, or sideways
force.
Figure 7 Sternway with Wind Ahead - On Even Keel
A comparatively small change in the relative direction of the wind will move W aft, as
shown in the side diagrams of Figure 7: however P remains aft of W. The following
effects will now be experienced:-
a) The Wind Force will develop a strong turning moment about P, tending to turn the
vessel's bow further away from the wind.
b) The Wind Force will develop a sideways force on the vessel, away from the exposed
side.
Head to Wind, as soon as the vessel starts to make Sternway through the water, she loses
"course stability" and the bow will pay off away from the wind, sometimes quite rapidly.
If the ship has a large Trim by the stern W may move further forward, perhaps quickly,
and the loss of "courses stability" is even more pronounced. This can sometimes result in
a rapid and violent loss of control.

Vessel Stern to Wind with Headway
The middle diagram of figure 8 shows a vessel making Headway through the water, and
with the Wind directly Astern. P is forward, a long distance from W, which is well aft. A
comparatively small change in relative wind direction will move W forwards as shown in
the side diagrams of Figure 8: however W is still some distance abaft P. The following
effects will now be experienced:-
a) The Wind Force will develop a strong turning moment about P, tending to turn the
vessel's Stern further away from the Wind.
side.
Figure 8 Headway with Wind Astern - On Even Keel
Making Headway with Stern to Wind, the vessel loses "course stability" and is difficult to
steer, this effect is greater when there is also a following Sea or Swell.
If the ship has a large Trim by the Stern, W may move further forward, and loss of
"course stability" may be generally less pronounced, but still a potential danger.
Vessel Stern to Wind making Sternway
The middle diagram of Figure 9 shows a vessel making Sternway through the water, and
with the Wind directly Astern. P has moved aft, fairly close to W, which remains even
further aft. A change in relative wind direction will eventually move W forward of P, as
shown in the side diagrams of Figure 9, with the following effects:-
a) The Wind Force will develop a turning moment about P, tending to turn the vessel's
Stern back into the Wind.

side.
Figure 9 Sternway with Wind Astern - On Even Keel
Making Sternway through the water, with Stern to Wind, the vessel is again "course
stable".
If the ship has a large Trim by the Stern W may move further forward, generally
improving "course stability"; however with such a Trim there is always the possibility of
unpredictable loss of control.
Calculations
It is very useful to have a quantitative understanding of the actual force that a ship
experiences whilst influenced by the wind. This may be of considerable benefit to
pilots/masters when endeavouring to estimate the wind limitations of a particular class of
ship, establishing the size of tugs.
When confronted by the harbour authorities it is perhaps better, in the interests of

professionalism, to be armed with concrete facts rather than simply say "we do not think
it can be done". Worse is, to be forced to attempt a movement with unacceptable risks.
Whilst complicated formulae do exist, for calculating the force of wind upon a ship, it
would be more practical to have at hand a relatively simple method of achieving a
working figure. The first requirement is to obtain the best available estimation of the area
of the ship presented to the wind in square metres. This can be as simple as:
2
Length overall(m) x max. freeboard(m) = windage area(m )
2
An approximate wind force in tonnes per 1,000 m can then be calculated using:

If V = Wind Speed (metres / second) = Wind Speed (knots ) ÷2, then Force (tonnes)
2 2
per 1000m = V ÷ 18
It should be noted that the wind force varies as the square of the wind speed. Small
increases in wind speed can mean large increases in wind strength, especially in stronger
winds, when gusting can place an enormous strain on the ship.
Wind force
Wind force depends on: windage, wind velocity (wind pressure), angle between apparent
wind and heading. Wind pressure is proportional to wind velocity squared.
Centre of wind pressure depends on distribution of windage alongside the ship.
Ship in beam wind
Ship stopped
� Wind force is large.

� There is no longitudinal component.
� Behaviour of the ship depends on the centre of wind pressure, which could be in front
or behind of the point of application of transverse resistance force (pivot point). This
point is approximately at amidships.
� Ship is drifting and turning either way, depending on the relative position of these
points.

Ship with headway
� Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.

� Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.
3 Ship with sternway
 Point of application of wind force is in front of the pivot point.

 Ship has tendency to swing out of the wind line.
Wind from bow quarter
Ship with headway
 Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.

 Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.

Ship with sternway
 Point of application of wind force is behind the pivot point.

 Ship has tendency to swing towards the wind line.

SQUAT & SHALLOW WATER EFFECTS
SHIP SQUAT
When a ship proceeds through water, she pushes water ahead of her. In order not to leave
a 'hole' in the water, this volume of water must return down the sides and under the
bottom of the ship. The streamlines of return flow are speeded up under the ship. This
causes a drop in pressure, resulting in the ship dropping vertically in the water.
As well as dropping vertically, the ship generally trims for’d or aft. The overall decrease
in the static under keel clearance, for’d or aft, is called Ship Squat. It is not the difference
between the draughts when stationary and the draughts when the ship is moving ahead.
If the ship moves forward at too great a speed when she is in shallow water, say where
this static even-keel under keel clearance is 1.0 to 1.5 meters, then grounding due to
excessive squat could occur at the Bow or at the Stern.
For full-form ships such as Super tankers or OBO vessels, grounding will occur generally
at the BOW. For fine-form vessels such as passenger liners or container ships the
grounding will generally occur at the STERN. This is assuming that they are on even
keel when stationary.
Salient points
 Squat is the decrease in under-keel water, that is, the difference between her under-
keel clearances when making way and when stopped over the water.
 It is not the increase in draft as visually read or as shown on draft indicators.
 Bernoulli’s theorem states that in any moving fluid, the sum of the potential energy,
the kinetic energy and the pressure energy is a constant. As the water flows aft at greater
speed, its kinetic energy increases. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, when the kinetic
energy of the water increases, its pressure energy must reduce. Since the ship is supported
by the pressure energy of the water, as the pressure energy has reduced, the ship sinks to
a longer draft.
 In addition to the bodily sinkage that occurs, the ship also trims by the head or by the
stern.
 With a static even keel trim, full form vessels such as tankers and bulk carries with Cb
more than 0.7 trim by the head.
 Fine form vessels such as passenger ships and containers vessels with Cb less than 0.7
trim by the stern.
 The overall decrease in under –keel clearance due to sinkage and trim is the squat
forward or aft.
The factors that affect the amount of squat
1) The ships speed over the water

 The squat varies approximately directly as the speed over the water in knots
squared.
 Squat occurs even when the ship is moored, if a tide is running.
 Hence squat should be taken into account when conducting draft surveys.
 Also, when loading to a particular draft, squat could result in under loading if
the drafts are read when a tide is running.
2) The block coefficient, Cb

 The squat varies directly as the Cb. The Cb values generally vary from about
0.85 for very large tankers to about 0.75 for bulkers, about 0.7 for general cargo vessels
to about 0.6 or less for passenger vessels and container ships.
3) The blockage factor, S

 The blockage factor, S, is the ratio between the immersed cross sectional are
of the vessel and the cross sectional area of the water in the canal.
S = b x Static Draft / B x depth of Water
where
‘b’ is the breadth of the ship and
‘B’ is the width of the canal.
 Even in open waters, this factor is to be considered using the width of
influence ‘B’ in place of the width of the canal B.
 The width of influence ‘B’ in open waters is obtained as
‘B’ = [ 7.7 + 20 (1-Cb)2] b
where ‘b’ is the breadth of the ship.
 The ‘B’ value in open waters varies from about 8 b for large tankers to about
9.5 b for general cargo vessels to about 12 b for container and passenger ships.
 In open waters where the depth of water to draft of ship ratio is about 1.2, the
value of the blockage factor S will be around 0.1.
4) The static under keel clearance

 The lesser the under-keel clearance, the more is the squat because the stream
lines of return flow aft of the water, past the vessel increases due to the reduced clearance
under the vessel.
 This increases the kinetic energy and therefore further reduces the pressure
energy of the water.
 Thus as the ratio of depth of water to draft to ship reduces, the squat increases.
5) The at rest trim of the vessel

 The squat at the bow increases to a greater extant if her at rest trim was by the
head.
 The squat at the stern will increase to a greater extent if her at rest trim was by
the stern. The calculated maximum squat should therefore be applied to the greater of the
two end drafts to obtain the minimum under keel clearance.
6) Passing another ship in a river or canal

 When the ship is passing or overtaking another vessel in a river or canal, the
squat can increase up to twice the normal value as the combined blockage factor, S,
becomes the sum of the blockage factor of each ship.
7) The squat increases if the ship is close to the bank of a river or canal.
8) Formulae

 From the analysis of many measured squat values on ships and results of ship
model tests some empirical formulae have been developed for satisfactorily estimating
the maximum squat is confined and one waters.
 Obviously the squat is greater in confined waters and lesser in open waters.
 For a vessel at an even keel static trim when the ratio of the depth of water to
the draft of ship is in the range of 1.1 to 1.4, the maximum squat in open or confined
waters may be predicted fairly accurately by either of the expressions:-
(i) Maximum squat = Cb x S0.81 x V2.08
20
in the above expressions:
‘S’ is the blockage factor.
‘V’ is the ship’s speed over the water in knots.
 Other approximate formulae are:-

Maximum squat in open waters = Cb x V2
100
Maximum squat in confined waters
Where S is between 0.1 and 0.265 = Cb x V2
50
Both the above approximate formulae slightly over estimate the maximum squat thereby
erring on the safer side.
 At this point, a consideration may arise as to the depth of water, which can be
considered shallow.
 This depends on the depth of influence of the ship, which is approximately 5/Cb x
draft.
 In depths above the depth of influence the ship may be considered in shallow
waters.
 The depth of influence is more than 5 times the draft, though the ship’s squat may
commence to increase slightly at such depths it is not of much consequence.
 The increase in squat is significant when the depth to draft ratio is less than 2.
 It is much more pronounced and of consequence when this ratio is less than 1.5
 The best course of action to reduce squat is to reduce the ship’s speed, because the
squat varies directly as the ship’s speed squared.
 Halving the speed will reduce the squat to a quarter.
 However, the fact that manoeuvring which is already sluggish in shallow waters
may deteriorate further should also be considered when reducing the speed.
Signs that a ship has entered shallow water

 Maximum Ship Squat increases.
 Mean bodily sinkage increases.
 Ship will generally develop extra trim by the bow or the stern.
 Wave-making increases, especially at the forward end of the ship.
 Ship becomes more sluggish to manoeuvre - To quote a pilot, “almost like being
in porridge.”
 Draught indicators on the Bridge or echo-sounders will indicate changes in the
end draughts.

 Propeller rpm indicator will show a decrease. If the ship is in 'open water'
conditions i.e. without breadth restrictions, this decrease may be up to 15% of the Service
rpm in deep water. If the ship is in a confined channel, this decrease in rpm can be up to
20% of the Service rpm.
 There will be a drop in speed. If the ship is in open water conditions this decrease
may be up to 35%. If the ship is in a confined channel such as a river or a canal then this
decrease can be up to 75%.
 The ship may start to vibrate suddenly. This is because of the entrained water
effects causing the natural hull frequency to become resonant with another frequency
associated with the vessel.
 Any Rolling, Pitching and Heaving motions will all be reduced as ship moves
from deep water to shallow water conditions. This is because of the cushioning effects
produced by the narrow layer of water under the bottom shell of the vessel.
 The appearance of mud could suddenly show in the water around the ship’s hull
say in the event of passing over a raised shelf or a submerged wreck.
 Turning Circle Diameter (TCD) increases. TCD in shallow water could increase
100%.
 Stopping distances and stopping times increase, compared to when a vessel is in
deep waters.
 Effectiveness of the rudder helm decreases.
 Width of the wake increases considerably.

FOR CALCULATING SQUAT
 Assume
b = breadth of ship.
B = breadth of river or canal OR width of influence in open waters
H = depth of water.
T = ship's even-keel static draft.
Cb = block co-efficient.
V = ship speed relative to the water or current.
 S = Blockage factor = Cross section Ship = b X T

Cross Section Canal B X H
 If the ship is in open waters then B can be calculated by using below given
formula & is called width of influence.
B = [7.7 + 20 (1-Cb)2] b
 Maximum squat is given by = Cb x S0.81 x V2.08 (in metres)

20
9) Two short cut formulae with some restrictions are also used, they are
A) Applicable only for open water conditions where H/T is within 1.1 to 1.4
 Maximum squat = Cb x V2 in metres

100
B) Applicable only to confined channels where S = 0.1 to 0.265
 Maximum squat = Cb x V2 in metres

50
Note: The first formula is more accurate & preferred than the short cut formulae as it has
no restrictions.
The solved example below sums up both the methods.


Wall or bank effect
Bernoulli’s law and continuity law
In order to understand the effect of a solid bank or wall on the behaviour of moving ship
along it, it is necessary to study pressure distribution around ship's hull and relevant basic
laws governing flow phenomena.
Continuity law: Velocity x cross section = const

V1 x S1 = V2 x S2 = const.
Consequence: if cross section decreases, velocity increases and vice versa
Bernoulli’s law: static pressure + dynamic pressure = const.
Static pressure = atmospheric pressure + head of water
Dynamic pressure = C x velocity squared
Consequence: if velocity increases, dynamic pressure increases and static pressure and
head of water decreases and vice versa.

SUCTION FORCE
When the ship is moving close to a solid wall or bank suction force is created drawing the
ship closer to the bank. This is because of reduced cross section, accelerated flow and
reduced pressure in the space between the ship and bank.
Suction force is proportional to the speed of the ship squared and inversely proportional
to the distance from the bank.
Suction forces calculated for example ship are shown below:
SUCTION FORCE (Tanker 148000 Dwt)

Distance a (m) Speed Force
(Kn) (Ton)
50 5 21
10 83
30 5 31.6
10 124.5
5 5 63
10 250

RESTRICTED WATER EFFECT
Suction force together with bow cushion effect make stern to move closer to the bank.
Rudder is to be used to counter this effect.
Because of the proximity of the bank ship takes a sheer and suction force moves close to
the stern.

USING SUCTION FORCE TO THE ADVANTAGE
PASSING THROUGH NARROW PASSAGE
Entering the passage closer to the bank helps turning to starboard as needed. If the ship is
entering closer to the island, suction is in the wrong quarters and opposes turning to
starboard.

ENTERING OR LEAVING SHALLOW BANK
When the ship is entering a shallow bank then due to restricted cross-section and reduced
pressure under bow portion of the ship trim to bow may occur and the ship may hit the
bottom with the bow.
When the ship is leaving shallow bank and entering deep-water area, the opposite may
occur and the ship may hit the bottom with the stem.

INTERACTION
Behaviour of ships in close proximity of another ship or obstruction is called

interaction. It happens due to hydrodynamics based on Bernoulli’s theorem.
Interaction takes place between one ship and another body due to complex distribution
of dynamic pressure acting on the ship’s hull.
When the pressure fields around the hull change in any way due to the presence of
another vessel or transverse/vertical obstruction an imbalance of pressure results in net
forces (interactive forces).
Model tests have shown that, in general, ship to ship interaction varies
• As the square of the speed
• Inversely with distance off and
• Roughly as the inverse square root of the under keel clearance to draft ratio
This means that
• The faster the ship moves, the worse interaction becomes
• The greater the lateral separation between ships, the better
• The smaller the under keel clearance, the bigger the effect
Bank Effect
The problem in its most simplistic form is the boundary layer of water that surrounds a
ship when it is making headway. Forward of the pivot point a positive pressure area
builds up whilst aft of the pivot point the flow of water down the ship's side, creates a low
pressure area, figure 1. This area extends out from the ship and in deep open water clear
of other traffic is not a problem.
Figure 1 Pressure distribution with headway (simplified) Interaction
If, however, the ship commences to close a vertical obstruction, such as a shoal or canal
bank, the area experiences some degree of restriction and the ship will be influenced by
the resultant forces which build up. It is often thought that the positive pressure at the
bow is the main problem, probably because of the tendency to relate most channel work
to the bow and heading. Looking at figure 2 it can be seen that whilst pressure at the bow
is important it is only working on a short turning lever forward of the pivot point. The
low pressure or suction area is, on the other hand, working well aft of the pivot point and
consequently is a very strong force.

Figure 2 Bank effect
As a result of the two forces which have developed, the stern of the ship is likely to be
sucked into the bank. It can be very difficult to break out of its hold, the ship requiring
constant corrective rudder and power, sometimes hard over, in order to control heading.
Excessive speed, yet again, is a crucial factor in creating a 'Bank Effect' problem, because
the magnitude of the forces varies with the square of the ship's speed or water flow.
Squat
So far we have only considered a vertical obstruction in the vicinity of the ship. Should it
also be running in shallow water, depth less than twice the draft, an additional obstruction
exists which can seriously compound the problem. In figure 3 the ship is running on even
keel with a small under keel clearance and, therefore, water which would normally pass
under the ship is now severely restricted.
Normal steering
Figure 3 Shallow water lever
This results in two things, firstly the build of water ahead of the ship, longitudinal
resistance pushes, the pivot point back from P to PP and the steering lever is reduced.
Secondly the water being forced under the bow, at a higher speed than normal, creates a
low pressure and loss of buoyancy. The ship will now 'Squat by the Bow' which in turn
makes the problem even worse. Several cases have been reported of large ships running
in shallow water and experiencing bow sinkage of up to 2 metres!

Figure 4 The effect of squat (water pressure)
In addition to the possibility of grounding forward there also exists the possibility of
losing control and sheering violently out of a channel. If the helmsman allows a small
swing to develop, longitudinal resistance ahead of the ship will be brought round onto the
exposed bow, (as in figure 5) which in turn will encourage a violent swing in the same
direction as the helm. Counter helm to correct the swing may be sluggish because as we
have seen, the steering lever is reduced. Once the ship does respond, it may now sheer
violently the other way. A chain reaction then sets in, with the ship sheering badly from
one side to the other and failing to respond correctly to the helm. The effect can be
extremely rapid, with the ship out of the channel and aground in just a few minutes.
Excessive speed is the main contributing factor under such circumstance; reduced speeds
are essential to avoid such violent forces building up.
Figure 5 The effect of squat (helm response)
Trim is also important and in some districts the pilotage authority may refuse to handle
certain ships if they are trimmed by the head and may even request a small trim by the
stern. The latter does, in any case, improve the steering lever and therefore the handling
of a ship, it may also be intended as an allowance for squat by the bow and very much a
decision based upon local knowledge and experience.
Shallow Water
It would be wrong to imply that bank effect is only experienced within the domain of
canals and rivers with steep sided banks, as illustrated in figure 6. To a ship running in
shallow water, with adjacent but gently shelving mud or sand banks, such as low lying
estuarial areas, figure 7, the effect can be far more dangerous and violent.

There are many cases, in the archives of casualty investigation, where groundings and
collisions have occurred in such areas, due to drastic loss of control, whilst the ship was
under the combined influence of shallow water and bank effect.
One noticeable feature in some of these casualties, is the tendency of the Master to
immediately reduce revolutions, or even stop the engine, when faced with the ship
sheering the wrong way and apparently failing to respond to progressively larger angles
of helm. Whilst this is of paramount importance, if it is evident that grounding or
collision is imminent, in other circumstances it is suicide. Hard over rudder and a healthy
'kick ahead' are essential to regaining control.
These are of course generalities and every event is dictated by a set of unique
circumstances.
It is clear that many ships work daily in shallow water without any problems what so
ever, just occasionally however, all the ingredients, shallow water, bank effect, excessive
speed, poor trim, come together and combine in an insidious manner to create another
casualty.
Ship to Ship Interaction

It is clear thus far that a great deal of caution needs to be shown when operating in
narrow and shallow waters. It almost goes without saying, that extreme care is needed if
it is now intended to bring another ship into the same situation by getting involved in an
overtaking or passing situation as well.
Figure 6 Bank configuration - steep sided
Figure 7 Bank configuration - shallow shelving

Passing
In the interests of both simplicity and clarity the sequence of events during a 'meeting end
on' manoeuvre are contained in figures 8, 9 and 10.
Figure 8 Passing - Phase 1
1. Maintaining a centre of channel approach


The overtaking operation is shown in figures 11, 12 and 13.
Figure 11 Overtaking - Phase 1 Figure 12 Overtaking - Phase 2
Figure 13 Overtaking - Phase 3
The following general points should be noted.

a) Prior to the manoeuvre, each ship remains in the centre of the channel for
a long as possible. Failure to do so, could expose either ship to bank effect, leading to a
sheer across the path of the oncoming ship or grounding.
b) Speed should be low to reduce the interactive forces. There is then, plenty
of reserve power for corrective 'kicks ahead'.
c) If the ships pass from deep to shallow water, at any time during the
manoeuvre, the forces will increase drastically and extreme caution should be exercised.
d) The smaller of two ships and tugs, are likely to be the most seriously
affected. Large ships should be aware of this and adjust their speed accordingly.
e) Figures 8 to 13 illustrate the anticipated sheers that may develop
throughout each manoeuvre and the maximum corrective helm that may be required, in
this case 35°.
f) The engines should be brought to dead slow ahead for the manoeuvre,
particularly turbine or fixed pitch propeller ships, so that power is instantly available to
control the ship with 'kicks ahead'.
g) On completion of the manoeuvre each ship should regain the centre of the
channel as quickly as possible to avoid any furtherance of bank effect.
SHIP-TUG INTERACTION
Interaction Forward
In 1950 a leading tug manufacturer conducted a research programme into a large number
of tug accidents all of which had resulted in the loss of life. The most common cause of
these accidents was found to be "interaction". Since then the size of ships using tugs has
increased enormously and the tug, still relatively small and often working alongside,
must be very much more at risk from this invisible phenomenon.
In simple terms, a ship making headway through the water has zones of differing water
pressures surrounding it. This results in a positive pressure forward of its pivot point
extending out from the ship, whilst a low pressure or suction area exists all the way down
the ship's side from the pivot point to the propeller. Near the stern this suction area is
augmented by the flow of water into the propeller aperture whilst the engine is turning
ahead and, it should be noted, at any time whilst controllable pitch propellers are
engaged.
It should be remembered that the strength of these interaction zones and the distance they
extend out from the ship can increase dramatically, not only with a small increase in ship
speed but also if the ship passes into shallow water and the pressure zones are restricted.
When a tug is working its way in towards the ship's fore body, with the intention of
passing a line forward, it may pass through one or more of these important areas (see
figure 1) and experience adverse handling characteristics.

Figure 1 - Tug interaction, forward
In position 1, for example, and similarly all the way down the side of the ship, if the tug
is allowed to get in too close, it might, despite all the efforts to prevent it, be bodily and
inexplicably sucked into the ship's side. This might occur unintentionally in strong
winds, when a tug is in the lee of a large ship which is drifting down upon it. Once
trapped alongside it can be extremely difficult to get off again, unless the ship's speed is
substantially reduced thereby relaxing the strength of the suction area. For the
unfortunate tug master, this can be the start of a chain of handling difficulties which can
accumulate and end in disaster.
In position 2, the tug is again working in close to the ship's side and passing through an
area where it is half in and half out of the respective pressure and suction zones. A
positive force is pushing the bow out from the ship, while another force is pulling the
stern into the ship. This combined turning couple will create a strong shear away from
the ship which will require rapid and bold use of both helm and power to correct it.
When working close in under the bows, in position 3, the tug may have run slightly
ahead of the ship's bow pressure zone and consequently find a very strong positive force
being exerted on the stern and rudder. This will give a similar effect to that of putting the
helm hard over towards the bow of the ship and the tug could sheer rapidly across its
path. Bold corrective counter rudder with power will be needed instantly, but even then
may be ineffective against a force which can be very strong.
If the ship's speed is too high and the interaction forces correspondingly severe, or if the
tug master fails to keep control, the tug can find itself in position 4 with alarming and
fatal rapidity. The consequences may be flooded decks and serious collision damage,
particularly from underwater contact with the ship's bulbous bow, with the possibility of
capsize and loss of life.
A sudden and catastrophic loss of stability is the most likely cause of a capsize and this
can occur even with a very slight collision. Tugs, it should be noted, roll over and flood
extremely quickly, thus affording little time for the crew to escape!
Interaction Aft
When a tug is approaching to pass a line aft it is also likely to feel the effect of interaction
and may, similar to the forward tug, experience some handling difficulties. This will be
particularly evident if the ship's speed has not been sufficiently reduced. The resultant
interaction forces may be too strong, causing vigorous suction, or low pressure area,
around the after body of the ship (see figure 2). This is compounded by the more obvious

and widely recognised risk that is associated with working under the stern, in close
proximity of the ship's propeller.
Figure 2 - Tug interaction, aft
When a tug makes its approach and is in, for example, position 1, it will be influenced by
this suction and may start to take a sheer towards the ship's stern. As this maybe a low
pressure area, the tug will have less water resistance ahead of it and may also experience
an unexpected increase in speed. Unless quick action is taken, with counter rudder and
appropriate power, the tug will be drawn unwittingly into the stern of the ship and
become stuck somewhere alongside in the region of position 2.
Extreme cases are possible, when the forces are so strong that the tug fails to respond to
full rudder or power and may inadvertently land heavily alongside. If the ship is in
ballast, partly loaded or has a large overhanging stern the tug could be drawn into
position 3, with the possibility of serious structural damage to the tug's superstructure and
upper works.
The danger from the propeller is a more obvious threat and, naturally, care should be
exercised whenever a tug is working close under the stern. Whilst it is the safest 'best
practice' for a conventional propeller to be stopped it is not always practicable,
particularly with controllable pitch propellers, and the tug's master should always be kept
fully informed as to the status of the propulsion unit when coming in close. This is, in any
case, a good policy to adopt during all tug operations.
Whilst procedures vary from port to port, some tug masters may opt to make their
approach in relative safety from dead astern, on the centre line of the ship. When close in,
bow to stern, the first line is passed down to the tug's bow and then the tug eases out to a
safer position, to complete making fast and taking up station.
Girting a Tug
There have, in the past, been serious accidents involving tugs that have resulted in a
tragic loss of life, and which have been caused by a phenomenon known variously as
girthing, girding or girting, in differing parts of the world. With their towing hook
amidships conventional tugs have always been vulnerable to girting and their basic
manoeuvrability makes it all the more difficult to extricate this type of tug, should it be
caught in such an unenviable position. It can be caused by one, or both of the following
.....
* the ship turning independently and too quickly away from the tug.
* excessive straight line speed with a tug made fast.

Let us look, at an example of a common situation, with a conventional tug forward on a
long line.
Figure 3 - Girting a tug, secured forward
Position 1 - in this area the tug is relatively safe and regardless of whether the ship's
speed is too high it does not result in any immediate problem, provided it remains with a
small angle on the bow. Whilst it can remain in attendance such a small arc of relatively
safe effectiveness will naturally limit its operational capabilities.
Position 2 - if the tug is out in this position broad on the bow, the ship could as a result
of too much starboard helm or excessive speed, or both, outrun the tug which may have
neither the time nor manoeuvrability to turn and keep up with the rapidly swinging or
accelerating ship.
Position 3 - this is the worst possible situation where the tug is being pulled around on
the radius of the tow line and because of the position of its hook, is then dragged along
with the tow line out on its beam. Due to the nature of the forces involved, it will also be
pulled over to a dangerous angle of heel and unless the tow line breaks, or can be
released immediately, the tug which is powerless to respond and already listing heavily,
may capsize!
A conventional tug working aft, is perhaps more at risk than the forward tug, as its design
characteristics frequently oblige it to lay with the tow line much more inclined towards its
beam.
Figure 4 - Girting a tug, secured aft
Position 1 - provided the ship is either stopped or proceeding at extremely low speeds a
conventional tug can work quite efficiently with maximum bollard pull in all directions at
this and any other position around the stern.

Position 2 - if the ship's speed now increases, the tug will have to work around onto a
heading which is more in keeping with the ship, not only to keep up with the accelerating
ship but also to maintain a safe lead with the tow line. This does, however, have a
tendency to encourage the tug master to work with the tow line dangerously near the
tug's beam and unfortunately also results in substantial loss of bollard pull over what was
a previously large useful arc of operation.
Position 3 - should the ship's speed become excessive, or if the stern of the ship is swung
rapidly away from the tug, it may be unable to respond quickly enough and could fail to
keep the safe station previously illustrated. As a consequence, the tug might be dragged
around on the radius of the towline, to this dangerous position and capsized with
shocking rapidity.
It is also very important to note that a tug attending a ship aft, but in the close confines of
a lock, may find itself in a similar situation, but with even less ability to manoeuvre.
Should the tug get caught across the lock with a ship proceeding at too high a speed it
will be exposed to a very serious risk of girting.
For those unfortunate enough to have witnessed it, a tug being girted and capsized is an
awesome and frightening sight. It frequently happens too quickly to activate quick
release gear and allows absolutely no time whatsoever for the evacuation of the crew
who may become trapped in the submerged tug.
In all these cases, the danger of girting can be removed, by tripping the quick release gear
on the towing hook, thereby releasing the towing line.
The Gob Rope
The conventional tug, in comparison with the more manoeuvrable tractor tug and azimuth
stern drive tug, may be at a disadvantage as a result of .....
* interaction.
* girting.
* excessive ship speed.
* confined locks and dock areas.
* traditional manoeuvrability.
In certain cases, some conventional tug masters might be seen working a gob, or gob rope
in order to improve safety and performance (see figure 5). This is a rope of suitable
length and strength which a crewman will use on the towing deck, to bowse down or 'gob
down' the main tow rope and which may subsequently be adjusted in length when
required by the master.
Figure 5 - Conventional tug, working a gob rope
Its use brings the pivot point of the tug (see figure 6) aft to the area of the gob rope and
this encourages the tug to pivot around that point and keep its stern up to the tow.
Limitations and safety

Figure 6 - Gob rope, limitations and safety
Position 1 - once secured the gob rope clearly limits the manoeuvrability of the tug's
stern under the tow line to a relatively small arc. On the other hand it is a good
compromise as it helps to keep the tug's stern up to the ship. At suitably low speeds the
tug can be usefully employed to dig in and assist when needed. The tug master may
occasionally slacken the gob rope right off to regain full manoeuvrability if it is
necessary in order to reposition the tug before taking the weight again.
Position 2 and 3 - these two positions show the tug with its gob rope secured, exposed to
the risk of girting due to excessive ship speed and being swung around on the radius of
the tow line. In this instance, however, because the gob rope has kept the pivot point aft it
is being swung safely around by its stern thus giving the tug master valuable time during
which the tow may be safely slipped.

TURNING CIRCLE
Turning Circles and Stopping Distances

The advance of a ship for a given alteration of course is the distance that her compass
platform moves in the direction of her original line of advance, measured from the point
where the rudder is put over.
The transfer of a ship for a given alteration of course is the distance that her compass
platform moves at right-angles to her original line of advance, measured from the point
where the rudder is put over.
DRIFT ANGLE
Consider the paths described by various parts of a ship turning under rudder when
steaming ahead, see figure above. Each point in the ship must follow a path
approximately concentric with that described by the centre of gravity. The angle made by

the tangent to the curved path of any point with the fore-and-aft line is known as the drift
angle at that point at any given instant.
The drift angle has its highest value at the stern and it diminishes gradually along the
Fore-and-aft line in the forward direction until a point is reached, usually nearer the bow
than the stern, where it is zero. Forward from this point the drift angle gradually increases
in the opposite direction. When drift angle is quoted the value given is normally that
measured at the centre of gravity.
The tactical diameter is the amount that the compass platform has moved at right-angles
to the ship’s original line of advance when she has turned through 180 degrees. In other
words, it is the transfer for an alteration of course of 180 degrees.
The following factors determine the acceleration powers of a ship.

The momentum of the ship depends upon the mass of the ship and the speed of the ship.
Thus a lighter ship will gain or lose speed faster than a deeply loaded ship.
If a large tanker is taken as an example then at the same speed it will travel longer after
the engine is stopped – when the tanker is in full load condition. The reverse will happen
when the tanker is on ballast – that is it will travel a lesser distance. For starting up also
after the first movement is given a loaded tanker will come to the designed speed slower
than the same tanker when it ballast.
The shape of the underwater part of the hull also plays an important part. Two tankers of
the same displacement would have entirely different accelerating and decelerating speeds.
The tanker which has finer lines than the other would be able to travel further after the
engines are stopped, as well as, start and reach the designed speed faster.
Another factor is the condition of the ships bottom and the underwater part of the hull. If
the undersides are fouled with marine growth then there would be a drag and the effect on
the start-up would not be that affected but the travel distance after the engines are stopped
would be shorter.
If the under keel clearance is low then the effect is both ways that is the ship will take
longer to reach her designed speed from stop as well as she travel longer when the
engines are stopped.
Rates of gaining and losing speed

Knowledge of the rate at which a ship gains or loses speed in different circumstances is
invaluable when manoeuvring in congested waters. These rates depend chiefly on the
displacement of the ship, her condition of loading, her draught, the power of her engines,
the size of her propellers and the depth of water. The corresponding rates for one ship
will differ largely from those of another, and the rates for a particular ship may change
considerably with her condition of loading.
FACTORS AFFECTING SPEED
Foul bottom
If a ship lies for long in harbour, particularly in a tropical harbour, her bottom becomes
fouled by weeds, barnacles and other marine parasites or growths, and the speed
attainable with a given number of revolutions is reduced.
Shallow water
When a ship is moving in shallow water the gap between the ship’s hull and the bottom is
restricted, the streamline flow of water past the hull is altered and the result is seen as a

greatly increased transverse wave formation at the bows and again at the stern. In fact, the
increased size of the stern wave is a sure indication of the presence of shallow water. The
energy expended in the waves formed by the ship is a loss from the power available to
drive her, and therefore in shallow water her speed is reduced.
Furthermore, the restricted flow of water past the stern reduces propeller efficiency,
which also tends to reduce her speed. Usually, the higher the speed the more pronounced
is the reduction of speed.
FACTORS AFFECTING A SHIP’S HANDLING QUALITIES
Draught, trim and loading

On a general cargo ship or tanker the difference between the turning qualities when
lightly laden and when fully laden is very marked. When deeply laden a cargo ship has a
much larger turning circle than when lightly laden, and she is more sluggish in answering
her rudder.
Trim by the stern usually increases the tactical diameter, but helps a ship to keep her
course more easily when on a steady course. When trimmed by the bows her turning
circle is likely to be decreased; she does not answer her wheel as readily as usual, and
once she has started to swing it is more difficult to check her. The effect of trimming is to
move the ship’s pivoting point towards the deeper end.
List
The effect of a list is to hinder a turn in the direction of the list and assist a turn away
from it. A list to port decreases the tactical diameter of a ship turning to starboard, and
vice versa.
Speed
The effect of speed on tactical diameter will vary from one type of ship to another. Often
higher speed may lead to a greater tactical diameter because the rudder may stall. Modern
rudders, on smaller ships, however, are able to operate satisfactorily at higher water
speeds and greater angles, and hence the tactical diameter may not vary much with speed.
Indeed, on some ships there is a best speed giving the minimum tactical diameter and at
higher or lower speeds the tactical diameter is greater. Watch keeping officers should be
fully aware of the, effect of speed on the turning qualities of their ship.
Shallow water
These effects may become excessive if the depth of water is less than one-and-a-half
times the draught, particularly if the ship enters such water at high speed. She may
become directionally unstable and fail to answer her rudder at all, and the draught aft
may increase so greatly as to cause the propellers to touch bottom.
The effects are likely to be particularly pronounced in ships where the propeller
slipstream does not play directly on to the rudder. The effects of shallow water on
steering in restricted waters such as canals or rivers are usually worse than in the open
sea, and are more likely to have dangerous results. The only way to regain control is to
reduce speed drastically at once.
When manoeuvring at slow speed or turning at rest in a confined space in shallow water,
the expected effects from the rudder and the propellers may not appear. Water cannot
flow easily from one side of the ship to the other, so that the sideways force from the
propellers may in fact be opposite to what usually occurs. Eddies may build up that
counteract the propeller forces and the expected action of the rudder. Stopping the

engines to allow the eddies to subside, and then starting again with reduced revolutions,
is more likely to be successful.
Effect of hull form on turning circle
A ship of fine underwater form (container ship) will turn in a larger circle than a ship of
similar length and draught but of fuller form (tanker). Modern container ships are
generally of great length in proportion to beam and thus tend to have large turning circles.
The shape of the underwater part of the hull aft, particularly the cut-up area, as shown in
Figure, has a most important effect on the size of the turning circle.
Effect of cut-up area on turning qualities
The ship with the larger cut-up area ABC will have a smaller turning circle than the one
with the smaller cut-up area ADC
Effect of single screw on turning circle
In a ship fitted with a single right-handed fixed-pitch screw (most of the ships) the
sideways force exerted by the propeller creates a tendency for the ship to turn to port
when going ahead. With a left-handed controllable-pitch propeller the effect is reversed,
the ship turning more easily to starboard, hence the turning circle with this type of
propeller is usually of smaller diameter when turning to starboard than when turning to
port.
TURNING
Effect of a turn on speed

The effect of the drag of the rudder and the sideways drift of the ship will result in a
progressive loss of speed while turning, even though the engine revolutions are
maintained at a constant figure. For alterations of course of up to 20 degrees the reduction
of speed may not be very great, but for those between 20 degrees and 90 degrees the
speed usually falls off rapidly. For alterations exceeding 90 degrees the speed may
continue to fall slightly, but it usually remains more or less steady. The rate of
deceleration depends upon the initial speed of the ship and the angle of rudder applied,
and it varies greatly between different types of ship.
Roughly, most medium sized ships when under full wheel will have lost about one-fourth
of their original speed after turning through 90 degrees, and about one-third after turning
through 180 degrees. Thereafter, the speed will then remain more or less steady as the
turn continues.
The time taken to turn through a given angle depends on the initial speed and the angle of
rudder applied; usually the faster the speed and the greater the rudder angle the sooner
will the turn be completed.
Heel when turning

The initial heel when the wheel is put over is inwards, because the rudder force is acting
at a point below the centre of gravity of the ship. As the ship begins to turn, the
centripetal force on the hull (which is greater than the rudder force), and acting through
water pressure at a point below the centre of gravity, overcomes the tendency to heel
inwards and causes her to heel outwards. This outward heel is very noticeable when
turning at good speed. If the wheel is eased quickly the angle of outward heel will
increase, because the counteractive rudder force is removed while the centripetal force
remains, until the rate of turning decreases. Should an alarming heel develop, speed
should be reduced instantly.
STOPPING ABILITY
Definitions
Stopping ability is measured by the “track reach” and “head reach” realized in a stop
engine-full astern manoeuvre performed after a steady approach at the test speed until
ahead speed in ship coordinates changes sign (i.e., vessel starts going backward).
• Track Reach is defined as a distance along the vessel’s track that the vessel covers from
the moment that the “full astern” command is given until ahead speed changes sign.
• Head Reach is defined as a distance along the direction of the course at the moment
when the “full astern” command was given. The distance is measured from the moment
when the “full astern” command is given until the vessel is stopped dead in the water.
Track Reach Criterion
The stopping ability of the vessel is judged using a full astern crash stop manoeuvre.
Based on IMO requirements the track reach should generally not exceed 15 ship lengths
(measured along the path).
However, in the case of low-powered large displacement vessels, this value may be
modified, but in no case should exceed 20 ship lengths, subject to special consideration
and approval by the Bureau.
Determination of whether a vessel falls into the category of “low powered large
displacement vessels” also will be done by the Bureau.
Head Reach Criterion
Head reach criterion in a form of rating is based on statistics of sea trials.
Stopping ability rating only if:
TR < 20L only for low-powered large displacement vessel
TR < 15L in all other cases
where
TR = track reach, in meters
L = vessel length, in meters


STS OPERATIONS
Ship to Ship Transfer Operations (sometimes called "Lightering", Lightening", or simply

"S.T.S.") take place frequently, on many parts of the world’s oceans, between very
different types of ships, and in very varied environmental conditions. Different
techniques are used to suit the prevailing conditions. These notes will look at some of the
Ship handling problems involved in such operations.
S.T.S. Operations on an Anchored Ship - in this case one ship (normally the larger)
remains at anchor throughout the operation, allowing the second ship (normally smaller,
and more manoeuvrable) to berth alongside. The main ship handling problem during this
berthing operation will probably be Yawing of the Anchored Ship. Such Yawing can
make a safe berthing very difficult, particularly if a combination of some of the following
unfavourable factors is present :-
a) The Anchorage is an exposed open roadstead.
b) Strong and Conflicting Environmental Conditions of Wind, Sea, and Current.
c) The use of Large Ships.
d) The Manoeuvring Characteristics of the Berthing Vessel being unsuitable for the task.
(Suitable Manoeuvring Characteristics for such a Vessel could include - size below
100,000 Dwt, Bridge Control of Main Engine, Controllable Pitch Propeller, High Engine
Power in relation to Dwt, Adequate Steerageway at Low Minimum Speed, and a
Powerful Bow Thruster).
If a wrong combination of the above factors is present, then a difficult operation could
become potentially very dangerous; it would be advisable to consider the alternatives, of
either postponing the operation, or carrying out the berthing with both ships underway.
Some aspects of berthing, with both ships underway, are described below.
Control of S.T.S. Operations - it is recommended that an officer, experienced in S.T.S.
Operations, is appointed to control the conduct of the operation. This officer could be the
Master of one of the two ships; alternatively he could be a "Lightering Master", specially
allocated to the Berthing Vessel for the operation. He normally needs to make the
following action before the "Berthing phase" can start :-
a) Arrange a rendezvous for the operation, where there is sufficient sea room,
b) Arrange and check efficient communications between ships.
c) Ensure that suitable Yokohama fenders are provided and rigged upon one of the ships.
d) Ordering the most suitable "Lightering Course" for the operation; this will depend on
prevailing weather conditions, and the characteristics and state of loading of the two
ships.
e) Determining the "Lightering Speed" for the operation; this will normally be the
minimum speed at which both ships are able to maintain steady engine revs, and
steerageway. During the "Berthing phase", the "Guide"(normally the larger ship) will
need to steer the "Lightering Course" at steady revs, to maintain the "lightering speed" -
these revs. should not be altered except in an emergency.
f) Ensuring that S.T.S. procedures are thoroughly understood aboard both ships by
Master. Officers, and Crew.
Dangerous Positions during S.T.S. Operations - it is important to be aware of two
potentially dangerous positions, which need to be avoided during the "berthing phase".

a) Diagram "X" shows the starboard bow of the Berthing Vessel getting too close to the
starboard quarter of the Guide. Strong Interaction forces will tend to attract the bow of
the Berthing Vessel into the side of the Guide - at the same time the Guide will tend to be
turned to Starboard across the bows of the Berthing Vessel.
b) Diagram "Y" shows that the Berthing Vessel has overshot the Guide during the final
approach. Strong Interaction forces will now tend to attract the bows of the Guide into
the after section of the hull of the Berthing Vessel - at the same time the Berthing Vessel
will tend to be turned across the bows of the Guide.
To avoid these two dangerous positions two distinct methods of approach, and berthing
have been developed, namely :-
i) The Parallel Approach - a safer slower method.
ii) The Angled Approach - a faster method, where considerable experience and expertise
are required.
The Parallel Approach - see diagram A. The Berthing Vessel approaches the Guide
from the quarter, and "takes station" about a ship's length off- this avoids passing through
the dangerous Interaction area around the Guide's stern. The Berthing Vessel does not
attempt to close the Guide until the following conditions are matched to the Guide :-
a) Speed.
b) Position.
The Berthing Vessel now starts to close the Guide at a fine angle of some 10 degrees or
less. As the distance closes, care must be taken for both Speed and Position of the
Berthing Vessel to match that of the Guide. Interaction Forces around the Bows of each
vessel will tend to oppose contact between the ships. It is essential for the Guide to use
effective rudder to counteract this force, and maintain a steady course. The Berthing
Vessel will need to use rudder to drive the ships together.
The Berthing Vessel should aim to make "first contact" on the forward shoulder fender,
and still maintaining the approach course at a fine angle to that of the Guide. Immediately
after "first contact" there will be a tendency for the Berthing Vessel to bounce off the
shoulder fender; this tendency will be reinforced by Interaction pressure forcing the Bows
apart, and Interaction suction bringing the sterns together. At this stage the Berthing
Vessel will need to be prepared to use considerable port rudder to stop the bows
separating, and a gap opening between the two ships.
It is considered advisable for the Berthing Vessel to remain bows in to the Guide at a fine
angle until all the forward mooring lines and springs are secured. The Berthing Vessel
can then ease gently parallel to the Guide assisted by Interaction suction at the stern.
After mooring lines and springs can now be secured.
Once the Berthing Vessel is fully secured to the Guide it is normal practice to proceed to
anchor the larger ship, prior to cargo transfer. However, circumstances may favour
transferring cargo underway.
The Angled Approach - see Diagram B. This method is faster than the Parallel
Approach, but does require considerable expertise and experience, and thus is potentially
more dangerous.

The Berthing Vessel closes the Guide from the quarter at a fine angle, aiming to make
"first contact" on the forward shoulder fender; the Berthing Vessel thus needs a slightly
greater speed than the Guide during this approach. The Berthing Vessel needs to maintain
this speed advantage when passing through the Guide's quarter wake, and then through
the dangerous Interaction area around the Guide's stern.
It is then necessary to reduce the Berthing Vessel's speed, so that by the time of "first
contact", the two ships speeds are matched. This is where expertise is required, as
effective steerageway must be maintained.
Once "first contact" is made, then the procedures described under Parallel Approach
apply.
Precautions during Cargo Transfer - Careful attention needs to be paid to Mooring
Lines during the transfer of Cargo, due to potential changes in the following factors :-
a) Weather Conditions.
b) Change of Tide.
c) The freeboards of both Vessels will be changing.
d) Stability changes may well affect the Rolling Periods of both vessels.
Unberthing - on completion of Cargo transfer it is important that the Unberthing
Operation is carefully planned, and safely executed. In particular the following points
need consideration: -
a) The Freeboards of both Vessels will have changed considerably since Berthing.
b) The Sequence for letting go Mooring Lines needs careful consideration, particularly
when only small deck crews are available.
c) All Personnel involved need thorough Briefing.
d) The Departing Vessel will probably be fully laden. Powerful Engine movements will
be required to get her moving initially, particularly when Wind and/or Current are
present.
e) Departure can be made, either with both vessels underway, or from one ship at anchor;
the actual method will depend on local conditions and procedures.
f) When all Mooring Lines have been let go, Interaction Forces may cause both Vessels
to remain locked together. In such circumstances care, patience, and skilled planned ship
handling are needed to ensure a safe departure.
g) The departure Procedure may involve "lifting off" the bow of the departing vessel.
Consideration needs to be given to the effect of the vessels' sterns closing - Boats and
Bridge Wings can come into contact, particularly when ships are Rolling in a seaway.
Appropriate fendering needs to be in place.

DANGEROUS POSITIONS IN LIGHTERING


ANCHOR WORK
Designated Purpose of Anchors
On the basis of generally accepted criteria, a ship is expected to remain at anchor:

(a) In good holding grounds.
(b) In sheltered and semi-sheltered waters.
(c) In winds up to gale force 8.
The master is expected to put to sea if severe storms are forecast.
The existing equipment is not intended by the classification societies to be suitable

as:
(a) A last means of defence in case of a machinery breakdown off a lee shore in a storm.
(b) A means of bringing a large moving ship to a stop.
Figure 1 - The Ordinary Stockless Anchor (OSS)

Figure 2 - The AC 14 High Holding Power Anchor
Knowledge of the type of anchor on your ship is necessary because the holding power of
each type is different. The holding power of an anchor is normally expressed in tonnes.
The maximum holding power is reached when the anchor starts to drag but without
reduction in its stability.
Holding efficiency = Holding power
Anchor deadweight
Maximum Holding Power is reached when the anchor starts to slip but without
reduction in its stability.
Cable Considerations
The anchor is most efficient when subjected to a horizontal pull by the cable on the
seabed. The aim should be to ensure that enough cable is veered to achieve this situation.
If insufficient cable is veered to exert a horizontal pull at the anchor, its holding power
will be reduced in accordance with the following scale:
Angle of inclination of cable at

Percentage of maximum holding pull of anchor
anchor
5° 80
10° 60
15° 40
When the ship drags her anchor, more cable is veered and the anchor holds. This action is
correct, but the belief that it is the resistance of the extra cable on the seabed that lets the
ship hold is a fallacy; the veering of the cable removed the shank/cable angle and the
anchor holds once more.

Amount of Cable to Use
In addition, the amount of cable to veer depends upon a number of factors:

(a) Holding characteristics of the anchor.
(b) Length of stay.
(c) Strength of wind, tidal stream or current, and sea / swell.
(d) Swinging room.
(e) Type of cable.
(f) Depth / draught ratio.
An approximate formula for forged steel cable is:

Amount of cable to veer in shackles is one and a half times the square root of the depth of
water in meters.
The Admiralty Manual of Seamanship quotes the amount of cable to veer in shackles is
twice the square root of the depth of water in fathoms.
Operational Aspects
When anchoring in an area where other ships are anchored, the approach course opposed
to the resultant of the wind and current can be visually appreciated. This is more
difficult to achieve when anchoring in an area devoid of other shipping, especially at
night. The larger the ship, the smaller the limiting speed before dropping anchor. In a
VLCC, the speed over the ground must be less than 0.5 knot. It is difficult to achieve a
situation with the ship stopped over the ground.
A rule of thumb method often used is to reverse the engines until the propeller wash
reaches the bridge or manifold (chosen by experience) and then let go the anchor.
However, even if the experience of the master is such that he knows the ship is stopped
through the water on these occasions, the ship is not necessarily stopped over the ground.
Prior to anchoring, the set and drift of the current and wind should be established as well
as possible and the ship placed on a heading opposed to the resultant of these forces. The
anchor position should be marked on the chart and the forecastle officer briefed on the
bridge.
In large ships, in order to establish that the ship is on the correct heading and the ship is
stopped over the ground, the anchor should be lowered to the seabed, brake applied and
taken out of gear. The cable should then be paid out slowly until the forecastle officer can
use the lay of the cable to ascertain the correct ship's heading. Provided that the length of
the cable does not exceed twice the depth of water, the anchor will trip or drag, thus
obviating undue stress on the tackle. Some pilots and masters prefer to carry out this
operation with the anchor still in gear. When the forecastle officer is satisfied that the
ship's heading and headway are correct, then the rest of the cable should be paid out and
finally brought up. Excessive sternway, once the anchor has dug into the seabed material,
can cause some part of the tackle to fail or carry away. The inertia of large ships is
considerable. A VLCC making one knot over the ground has the same kinetic energy as
Concorde at 1000 knots.
When the ship is brought up, the position of the bridge should be marked on the chart and
swinging circle annotated with clearing bearings.

DREDGING ANCHORS
In the coastal trades of Europe small ships frequently resort to dredging anchors when
berthing as an aid in confined areas, often in difficult tidal and wind conditions. On
larger tonnage, with the exception in cases of emergencies, it is an art which over the last
two or three decades has declined in usage.
It goes without saying that the type of sea bed is of paramount importance to dredging,
soft mud being the most obvious choice. The bottom must also be free of obstructions
such as power lines, pipes and rock. As the anchors normally dredge just inside the lines
of the ship, there must also be adequate under keel clearance to avoid damaging the hull.
The Windlass
Research has shown that whilst the anchors and the cable are relatively reliable, the
windlass is not. This is partly due to the disproportionate size of a windlass on the much
larger ship of today. It should be remembered that the Kinetic Energy created by a ship of
> 50,000 dwt moving over the ground in any direction, at more than say 0.3 knot, is
enormous. By comparison, windlasses may only be capable of lifting a minimum design
weight, which is specified by the Classification Societies. This is the weight of the anchor
and four shackles of cable, hanging dead in the water and therefore nothing in
comparison to the full weight of the ship. If all of this energy is imparted into the anchor
it has to go somewhere and it is usually to the windlass. The dissipation of such energy
results in as brake or gear failure!
Safety Parameters
Extensive research by the Classification Societies has established some safety parameters
within which to operate when dredging anchors.
a) The amount of cable in the water should not exceed 1½ x depth of water. (Some
sources quote 2 x depth). If this figure is exceeded the anchor is likely to dig in and
commence holding.
b) The design speed of a windlass gypsy in gear is about 30 feet/minute which is
approximately 3 minutes a shackle. This is equal to a ship speed of 0.3 knots over the
ground.
c) The windlass is only designed to lift the dead weight of the anchor and four shackles.
If therefore, the amount of cable in the water does not exceed 1½ x depth, we have a
safety factor which guards against speeds in excess of 0.3 knot, because the anchors will
not dig in and hold, but drag.
When the amount of cable exceeds 1½ x depth, the speed must be below 0.3 knot,
especially if the windlass is in gear or the brake is screwed up. The anchor will most
certainly dig in and attempt to hold the full weight of the ship.
Letting Go
On smaller ships, when pilots are putting out anchors for dredging purposes, it is
customary to 'let the anchor go' on the brake. On large ships, however, with unknown
equipment and crews of mixed nationality and capability, it may be appropriate to walk
out the anchors in gear rather than let them go on the brake. This affords the pilot much
more control over the operation, guarding against the crew 'screwing up' the brake with
the wrong amount of cable out, or worse still, letting the cable run away, leaving the pilot
with 12 shackles out on both anchors!

Each tanker company has its own specific Standing Orders for anchoring large
ships; their individual methods invariably work around these recommendations and
should be adhered to at all times.
DREDGING TWO ANCHORS
Dredging is remarkably effective at eliminating the two major problems that occur when
berthing without tugs, namely control of heading and speed. The effect of dredging can
be seen in figure 3.
The ship is conducting a dredge with two anchors, working into a port side berthing
position. By dredging the two anchors the pivot point is brought right forward between
the two windlasses. This gives the ship an excellent steering lever. The small weight of
the two anchors is also surprisingly effective in controlling the speed of the ship. Even
whilst maintaining dead slow revolutions, the ship may gradually slow down and stop.
This in turn ensures that the pivot point remains forward and that lateral resistance.
The net result is an ability to keep the speed down, but at the same time use main power
more efficiently when controlling heading with kicks ahead. The bow can virtually be
driven on the anchors, to the desired position. At the same time, the speed is kept well
under control !
Some may express concern as to whether two anchors being dredged will foul each other
while the ship is turning. The answer to this is no because, if the ratio of cable to depth of
water is correct, one anchor simply cannot reach the cable of the other; they should also
be easy to recover once alongside.

Figure 3 – Dredging two anchors

Dredging One Anchor
Generally speaking because pilots and masters have more experience of dredging one
anchor than two, the question is frequently asked, "Why dredge two anchors?". The
answer is relatively simple: because dredging one anchor only achieves 50 % of the
effect which could otherwise be gained by dredging two anchors. It is, therefore, not
possible to use anything like the same amount of power for positioning the bow and the
speed is nowhere near as easy to control.
By using one anchor, particularly on large beam ships, it should be remembered that the
pivot point is moved out to the side, figure 4. This creates an effective turning moment, in
much the same manner as a back spring. This can quite clearly be felt and needs constant
counter helm to correct, this can be irritating if a straight line approach is desired. On the
other hand, if a large turn in confined waters is necessary prior to berthing then this
tendency can obviously be utilised and turned to great advantage.
The single anchor can be viewed effectively as a back spring. The validity of these points
should be considered when deciding whether to deploy one/two anchors.
Figure 4 – Dredging one anchor

Important Points
There is a very fine line between the success or failure of a dredging operation. The
following points are crucial in order to achieve the desired results:-
a) Maintain the normal slow speed of approach prior to letting go, or walking out,
the anchors. If the ship is stopped the anchors will dig in and it is then difficult to get
underway again. The ship may also drift badly out of position.
b) Walk the anchors out as early as possible. This gives sufficient time to get the feel
of the ship before the berth is reached.
c) Do not let the ship stop too early. This lets the anchor flukes drop and dig in and it
then takes substantial power to get the ship underway again.
d) Do not let the speed build up. This pushes the pivot point back to its normal position.
Consequently the anchors cease to be effective and are of no use.
e) Do not exceed 1 1/2 x depth. It is possible however, especially on small ships, to 'feel'
the anchors and adjust the amount of cable accordingly.
f) Keep the weight on the anchors. Going astern the ship will take the weight off the
cables and they become ineffective.
g) Avoid rushing the operation, particularly swinging, on large ships. There should only
be a gentle and steady strain on the cable(s); the manoeuvre being slow but very
effective.
h) Once in position on the berth, slack back the cables as the tension in them is sufficient
to pull the ship off the berth.
Planning for Anchoring
Master Shall:
1. Identify a suitable anchoring position before entering the anchorage area
2. Conduct a planned approach including speed reduction in ample time and orienting the
ships head prior anchoring to
(a) Same as similar sized vessels around or
(b) Stem the tide or wind whichever is stronger
Decide on which method of anchoring to be used and the number of shackles depending
on the depth of water, expected weather and holding ground. A simple rule in
determining length of cable to use:
Standard condition:
Length of cable = [(Depth of water in meters * 2) + 90 ] / 27.5
When good holding power cannot be expected:
(e.g. Strong Wind, Strong Current, Harder Sea bottom)
Length of cable = [(Depth of water in meters * 3) + 140 ] / 27.5
Radar parallel indexing technique can be used, as it is an effective tool in manoeuvring
approach to anchoring position.
A fix reference point is necessary in establishing the intended anchoring position relative
to this fix point.
Preparation for Anchoring
The Chief Officer must supervise letting go or weighing the anchors and should only
assign experienced crew members to anchor work.
Prior to Anchoring, the Chief Officer should be aware of:
a. Approximate anchoring position
b. Method of approach
c. Which anchor to use?

d. Depth of water
e. Method of Anchoring
f. Final amount of Cables
Procedure of the Introduction to Anchoring
At the Forecastle:
Check brakes are on and clear the securing devices (Anchor Lashings, Bow Compressed
Bar etc.)
a. Start Hydraulic (Source of) Power of Windlasses
b. Check Anchor Shape / Light
c. Check Communication with the Bridge
d. Check Lighting on Forecastle including torch , at night time
e. Ensure all personnel are wearing Safety Helmets, Safety Shoes and Goggles.
Before Letting Go Anchor:
The Chief Officer shall confirm that there is no craft or any obstacle under the bow and
inform to the Bridge.
The Master shall ensure that the vessels GPS speed at the time of anchoring is near-zero
or indicates a slight sternway.
The speed should be verified by visual transits and/or Radar ranges of Landmarks, if
available or other fix conspicuous targets.
Where means of communication between Bridge and the Anchoring party is by Portable
radio, the identification of the ship should be clear to avoid misinterpretation of
instructions from other user of such equipment in the vicinity.
Routine Anchoring Operation
There are 2 methods for Anchoring according to depth of the water:
Method 1 (Preferable for Depths up to 50m )
a. Walk out the anchor to Half a shackle above the sea bottom
b. Hold the cable on the brake and take the windlass out of gear
c. Stop the vessel over ground
d. Drop the anchor
e. Control the speed of cable flow by the brake , while not allowing pile-up
f. Bring anchor cable direction forward and confirmed anchor holds its position
Disadvantages:
If the brake fails, or there is too much speed over ground, the cable will run out to the
bitter end with consequent damage. The brake lining could also be damaged due to this
Dynamic load.
Method 2 (Suggested for Depths over 50m )
a. Stop the vessel over ground
b. Walk out the anchor under power until the complete length of required cable is paid
out and anchor holds its position on the seabed.
c. Bring anchor cable direction forward and confirmed anchor holds its position.
Disadvantages:

Vessel must be completely stopped to avoid major damage to Windlass.
Particular Caution for VLCCs / big ships
VLCCs, because of their inertia require great caution while anchoring.

They can suffer equipment failure if attempting to anchor whilst moving at speeds as low
as half a knot over the ground.
Hence, the vessel must be nearly stopped not only in the linear direction but axial too,
meaning the bow should not be swinging much either while anchoring.
The depth at which the vessel can safely anchor is about 110m or less, beyond which the
windlass may have extreme difficulty in recovering the anchor.
Emergency Anchoring
Anchors should be ready for letting go on arrival and departure port, when in anchoring
depths. At least, any wire lashings are to be removed and the anchors held on brake.
In critical situations, to arrest the movement of the vessel, after stopping/reversing the
main engine, it is preferable to let go both anchors simultaneously instead of one.
Anchor retrieval
For weighing in the anchors, to reduce the load on the windlass, and keep the cable near
vertical, as required, short movements to be given on the main engine (and Bow Thruster
used, where is applicable)
The stay and direction of the cable and the residual shackles are to be continuously
reported to the bridge.
Anchor Wash to be run to clean the chain and the anchor.
When anchor is fully hove, the brake is to be applied and the windlass taken out of gear.
The bow stopper is to be put when it is deemed safe to do so.
Note:
If it does not engage properly on the chain, then it is to be lowered across the chain as far
as possible and lashed down in this position in such a manner, that if the cable does slip,
the bar will fall into place across the chain.
Walk Back speed

On the standard, the weighing chain speed is 15cm / second (= one shackle 27.5 meter / 3
minutes). Its corresponding to 0.3 knots of ship's speed.
It means ships speed with combining turning rate and drifting to wind and current lee side
should be controlled less than 0.3 knots against direction anchor chain is going.
Do not use propelling beyond manoeuvring Half Ahead / Astern Engine, except in
emergency cases, once walk back is commenced.
Communication between bridge and forward
For the good image as macro-wise to actual ship's pose and condition of anchoring
progress, Bow watchmen must report following to the Commander on the Bridge.
a) Approaching speed should follow a gradual decrease plan
b) Reducing speed for anchoring
c) Anchoring speed (Going walk-back)
d) Status chain number have been drawn on each shackle interval
It is preferable to report as "XX shackles in the water" in order for the commander to
easily visualize Length of chains being in the water and can estimate timing of touching
anchor with bottom.

e) Anchor chain direction and tightness after bottom touch
Report shall be combination of following factor

For Horizontal direction:
"clockwise" and "straight down" (or upright)
For Vertical direction :
"as Long hand (of the clock)"
"as Short hand (of the clock) "
For Tightness :
"Strong tight", "Moderate tight, "Easy tight" and "Slack"
Ex. Chain - 2 o'clock - as short hand - with moderate tight
Anchor watch check item - deck officer’s guideline

Following are the basic check item that should be taken into account by deck officer
while performing anchor watch
1. Instruction from the Master or Chief Officer
2. Ships position w.r.t swinging circle as marked on chart
3. Length of anchor chain in use
4. Signals, lights, and shapes now in use
5. Visitors identity, number, and business
6. On-board work
7. Carrying out Master's and Chief Officer's instruction?
8. Is deviation of the vessel's current position from measured position within the value
given by master?
9. Is any oil floating on sea around the vessel?
10. Is under keel clearance being monitored and any change in UKC on similar heading
investigated?
11. Are regulation signals, lights, and shapes being displayed?
12. Are VHF receivers set to the correct working / watch channels?
13. Is there any ship (anchored or underway) that is likely to collide with own vessel?
14. Reporting and record of necessary matters?
15. Is the accommodation ladder raised to deck level when not in use?
16. Is safety net fitted properly?
17. Is lighting sufficient?
18. Are any small crafts approaching vessel (ISPS vigilance maintained)?
19. Is anchor chain monitored for excess weight?
20. Has OOW confirmed matters to be turned over to successor?
21. Necessary items entered in Logbook?
22. Master call during excessive Wind Velocity, reduced visibility or in case Whirling
(Yawing) angle :

The factors to be considered in choosing an anchorage are:
Holding quality of the bottom:
The nature and the slope (irregular) of the bottom should be considered poor holding
ground
Adequacy of room for swing
Protection from wind land sea
Strength of tidal stream and wind
Duration of stay at anchor
Type of anchors and cable
Nature of bottom and anchor design
Older types of anchors will hold satisfactorily in firm sea beds such as:
Clay
Soft chalk
Sand
Sand/shingle
Heavy mud
But will drag in softer sea beds such as :
Soft mud
Shingle
Shell
Recent improvements in anchor design have resulted in obtaining satisfactory hold in any
kind of seabed
No anchor, no matter how well designed, will hold on rock, except by a fluke of the
anchor.
Amount of cable required
The cable must be long enough to ensure that a part of it near the anchor always remains
in the seabed.
The rest of the cable acts as a spring in preventing the anchor from being jerked when the
ship is yawing from side to side, or pitching.
ANCHOR WORK
Terms associated with anchoring:
a) Dragging
b) Scope
c) Walk back
d) Short Stay
e) Brought up
f) Securing Anchors
g) Bitter end of cable
h) Lead
i) Fouling
j) Bow Stopper
k) Long Stay
Dragging
An anchor is said to be dragging when, instead of holding the ship, the ship drags it along
the bottom; this may occur in heavy weather, in a strong current, or when insufficient

cable has been paid out. A small amount of dragging on anchoring is necessary, in order
to bury the anchor in the seabed.
Scope
Scope is the ratio of the length of the anchor cable to the vertical distance from the hawse
pipe to the seabed. (Depth plus height of hawse pipe above seabed).
Cable
Height
Scope = Cable Length/ Height
The scope used depends upon several factors:
• The nature of the holding ground. Stiff clay, rock, shells, very soft mud and stones
are considered poor holding ground.
• The amount of swinging room available as the wind or stream changes in
direction.
• The degree of exposure to bad weather at the anchorage.
• The strength of wind and stream.
• The duration of stay at anchorage.
Walk Back:
Is lowering the anchor or paying out the anchor cable on power (windlass clutched).
Brought Up
Vessel is said to brought up when the vessel starts to ride the anchor after anchor has
been let go and required amount of cable is paid out. This is determined when the vessel
is heading into the tide, current or wind and anchor cable has come to short stay.
Bitter End
Bitter end was originally the turn of a cable’s end around the bitts. It now refers to the
end of the anchor chain cable secured in the chain locker or the loose end of a line. In all
cases the inboard end is referred to as the bitter end.
Bitter end is secured to the pipe using pin so that it can be easily let go in emergency.
Securing Anchors

When vessel sails into deep waters for a long voyage then the anchors are secured by
housing them right in the hawse pipe, engaging bow stopper and lashing the cable using
devils claw or wire and bottle screws. The spurling pipe is covered and cemented to
prevent ingress of sea water during passage on shipping seas.
Devils Claw
Bow stopper
Is a deck fitting used to take the load of the anchor cable, anchor and the dragging forces
acting on the vessel after the vessel is brought up.
Foul Hawse
A ship has a foul hawse if the cables are crossed or otherwise foul of each other when she
is riding to two anchors. If the she swings 180 degrees she will have a foul hawse, and the
cables are then said to have a Cross in them: another 180 degrees more in the same
direction would cause an Elbow in the cable; a further 180 degrees would cause an elbow
and a cross, and yet another 180 degrees would cause a round turn.
Clear or foul Anchor
The anchor is reported clear or foul as soon as it is entirely sighted. To be clear the
anchor must be hanging from is its ring and clear of its own cable and of any obstruction
such as a bight of rope or chain picked up from the bottom.
Short Stay
When the anchor cable is leading close to vertical then the anchor is said to be at short
stay.
Long Stay
When the anchor cable is leading at acute angles then the anchor is said to be at long stay.
To decide whether the vessel is brought up or not
After anchor is let go and the required cable has been paid out. The vessel will swing into
tide and or current. At first the cable will stretch out on anchor biting the seabed and will
be leading almost right ahead at long stay and then she will come to short stay. When the
vessel is riding the anchor with bow into tide/current at short stay the vessel is said to be
brought up to the anchor. This can also be checked by plotting the position of the vessel
on chart or by bearings.

To check whether anchor is dragging
By watching the bearing of two fixed lights or objects in line. Beam bearings are the best.
If they change, the ship is dragging.
By dropping the deep sea lead on to the bottom, and noting if it trails ahead of the ship.
By putting the hand on the cable before the windlass. Listen for any sound of the anchor
dragging by bringing the ear close to the cable. Both these methods, however, may be
deceptive because vibration and sound are often caused by the cable moving on hard
ground even though the anchor is holding well. Also, in soft mud the anchor might drag
without causing any vibration or sound.
By observing the anchor cable if she comes to long stay then short stay and then long stay
repeatedly means she is dragging anchor.
By plotting position of vessel and confirming that the position is within the swinging
circle.

PILOTAGE & MASTER-PILOT RELATIONSHIP
PILOTAGE
The relationship between the master and the pilot is fraught with potential difficulties and
conflict. The pilot directs the navigation of the ship, but the master still retains overall
command and control. The freedom that the master gives to the pilot varies from master
to master but also depends upon the circumstances in which the pilotage takes place. The
master of a large foreign-going ship entering a difficult channel will tend to adopt a more
passive attitude to the pilot than a coastal master who knows the area intimately.
The way in which the law interprets this relationship, and the rights and responsibilities
of each to the other and to third parties, obviously differs from country to country and the
following is therefore offered as a general overview. In many legal systems, the
customary rules and statutory enactments provide a confused and sometimes
contradictory picture, which tends to the conclusion that a master, when considering how
to operate with a pilot, should be guided more by common sense and self-preservation
than by precise legal principles.
The pilot owes a professional duty of care to those whom he serves, which assumes a
knowledge and awareness of local conditions. The pilot is therefore generally liable to the
ship-owner, and to third parties, for a failure to exercise such care. In practice, however,
such a responsibility is largely illusory since the pilot, as an individual, has few assets
with which to satisfy any award of damages. Also the extent of his liability is often
restricted at law or limited in amount, although he may also be subject to criminal
sanctions under any relevant legislation as a result of his actions.
Where there is injury or damage to the property of a third party caused by the pilot’s
negligence, the third party will naturally look to the ship-owner for compensation. There
may be a possibility of a recourse action against the harbour authority, port commission
or canal company that employs the negligent pilot.
If, however, the relevant body merely acts as a licensing authority, it will not be liable for
pilot error. Pilot associations are also generally immune from liability for the actions of
their members.
Given the lack of accountability of the pilot, it is tempting to ignore any detailed legal
analysis of the relationship between the master and the pilot. This would be a mistake
since the principles which have been articulated in various legal jurisdictions provide a
well-considered view on the way in which the relationship should operate most
effectively.
In terms of engagement, the master is only legally bound to employ a pilot in an area of
compulsory pilotage. However, the master may be found liable for not employing a pilot
where it can be shown that such failure caused or contributed to an accident. Whilst the
pilot may assume control of the navigation of the ship, this does not relieve the master of
his command of the ship. The master therefore retains both the right and the
responsibility to intervene in the actions of the pilot, although it has been stressed on

many occasions that the master is only justified in intervening, when the pilot is in
charge, in very rare instances; for example, where he perceives the threat of an imminent
danger to the ship or when the pilot is obviously incapacitated in some way.
There is therefore a divided authority, with both the master and the pilot continuing to
have active roles that may potentially conflict. The pilot is responsible for, and should be
left in charge of, navigation in terms of speed, course, stopping and reversing, but the
ship’s master is responsible for all other matters such as maintaining a proper lookout.
And the pilot is entitled to expect a well-regulated and seaworthy ship that provides him
with proper assistance and information.
MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
These recommendations are for the guidance of masters, their supporting personnel and
pilots in laying down the minimum standards to be expected of the pilotage service given
on board ships in pilotage waters worldwide and aims to clarify the roles of the master
and the pilot and the working relationship between them.
1.0 Principles for the safe conduct of pilotage
.1 Efficient pilotage is chiefly dependent upon the effectiveness of the communications

and information exchanges between the pilot, the master and other bridge personnel and
upon the mutual understanding each has for the functions and duties of the others. Ship’s
personnel, shore based ship management and the relevant port and pilotage authorities
should utilise the proven concept of “Bridge Team Management”. Establishment of
effective co-ordination between the pilot, master and other ship’s personnel, taking due
account of the ship’s systems and the equipment available to the pilot is a prerequisite for
the safe conduct of the ship through pilotage waters.
.2 The presence of a pilot on the ship does not relieve the master or officer in charge of
the navigational watch from their duties and obligations for the safe conduct of the ship.
2.0 Provision of information for berth to berth passage planning
.1 Ships should provide the relevant port or pilotage authority with basic information
regarding their arrival intentions and ship characteristics, such as draught and dimensions,
as required by the port or other statutory obligations. This should be completed well in
advance of the planned arrival and in accordance with local requirements.
.2 In acknowledging receipt of this information, the appropriate port or pilotage authority

should pass relevant information back to the ship (either directly or via agents) as soon as
it becomes available.
Such information should include as a minimum: the pilot boarding point; reporting and
communications procedures; and sufficient details of the prospective berth, anchorage
and routeing information to enable the master to prepare a provisional passage plan to the
berth prior to his arrival.

However, masters should recognise that not all of this information may be available in
sufficient detail to complete the passage plan until the pilot has boarded the ship.
3.0 Master pilot information exchange
.1 The pilot and the master should exchange information regarding the pilot’s intentions,
the ship’s characteristics and operational parameters as soon as possible after the pilot has
boarded the ship.
The ICS Master/Pilot Exchange Forms (Annexes A1 and A2 of the ICS Bridge
Procedures Guide) or the company equivalent format, should be completed by both the
master and pilot to help ensure ready availability of the information and that nothing is
omitted in error.
.2 The exchange of information regarding pilotage and the passage plan should include
clarification of:
• roles and responsibilities of the master, pilot and other members of the bridge
management team;
• navigational intentions;
• local conditions including navigational or traffic constraints;
• tidal and current information;
• berthing plan and mooring boat use;
• proposed use of tugs;
• expected weather conditions.
After taking this information into account and comparing the pilot’s suggested plan with
that initially developed on board, the pilot and master should agree an overall final plan
early in the passage before the ship is committed. The master should not commit his ship
to the passage until satisfied with the plan. All parties should be aware that elements of
the plan may change.
.3 Contingency plans should also be made which should be followed in the event of a
malfunction or a shipboard emergency, identifying possible abort points and safe
grounding areas. These should be discussed and agreed between pilot and master.
4.0 Duties and Responsibilities
.1 The pilot, master and bridge personnel share a responsibility for good communications
and mutual understanding of the other’s role for the safe conduct of the vessel in pilotage
waters. They should also clarify their respective roles and responsibilities so that the pilot
can be easily and successfully integrated into the normal bridge management team.
.2 The pilot’s primary duty is to provide accurate information to ensure the safe
navigation of the ship. In practice, the pilot will often con the ship on the master’s behalf.
.3 The master retains the ultimate responsibility for the safety of his ship. He and his
bridge personnel have a duty to support the pilot and to monitor his actions. This should
include querying any actions or omissions by the pilot (or any other member of the bridge

management team) if inconsistent with the passage plan or if the safety of the ship is in
any doubt.

5.0 Preparation for pilotage
.1The pilot should:

• ensure he is adequately rested prior to an act of pilotage, in good physical and mental
fitness and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol;
• prepare information for incorporation into the ship’s passage plan by keeping up to date
with navigational, hydrographic and meteorological information as well as traffic
movements within the pilotage area;
• establish communication with the ship to make arrangements for boarding.
.2 In supporting the pilot, the master and bridge personnel should:

• ensure they are adequately rested prior to an act of pilotage, in good physical and
mental fitness and not under the influence of drugs or alcohol;
• draw upon the preliminary information supplied by the relevant port or pilotage
authority along with published data (e.g. charts, tide tables, light lists, sailing directions
and radio lists) in order to develop a provisional passage plan prior to the ship’s arrival;
• prepare suitable equipment and provide sufficient personnel for embarking the pilot in a
safe and expedient manner;
• establish communications with the pilot station to confirm boarding details.
6.0 Pilot boarding
.1 The boarding position for pilots should be located, where practicable, at a great enough
distance from the port so as to allow sufficient time for a comprehensive face-to-face
exchange of information and agreement of the final pilotage passage plan. The position
chosen should allow sufficient sea-room to ensure that the ship’s safety is not put in
danger, before, during or directly after such discussions; neither should it impede the
passage of other ships.
.2 The pilot should:

• take all necessary personal safety precautions, including using or wearing the
appropriate personal protective equipment and ensuring items are properly maintained;
• Check that boarding equipment appears properly rigged and manned;
• Liaise with the master so that the ship is positioned and manoeuvred to permit safe
boarding.
.3 In supporting the pilot, the master and ship’s personnel should:

• ensure that the means of pilot embarkation and disembarkation are properly positioned,
rigged, maintained and manned in accordance with IMO recommendations and, where
applicable, other port requirements;
• the master should liaise with the pilot station/transfer craft so that the ship is positioned
and manoeuvred to ensure safe boarding.
7.0 Conduct of passage in pilotage waters
.1 It is essential that a face-to-face master/pilot exchange (MPX) described in section 3.1

results in clear and effective communication and the willingness of the pilot, master and
bridge personnel to work together as part of a bridge management team. English
language; or a mutually agreed common language; or the IMO Standard Marine

Communication Phrases should be used, and all members of the team share a
responsibility to highlight any perceived errors or omissions by other team members, for
clarification.
.2 The master and bridge personnel should:

• within the bridge management team, interact with the pilot providing confirmation of
his directions and feedback when they have been complied with;
• monitor at all times the ship’s speed and position as well as dynamic factors affecting
the ship (e.g. weather conditions, manoeuvring responses and density of traffic);
• confirm on the chart at appropriate intervals the ship’s position and the positions of
navigational aids, alerting the pilot to any perceived inconsistencies.

• ensure that the master is able to participate in any discussions when one pilot
relinquishes his duty to another pilot;
• report to the relevant authority any irregularity within the passage, including
deficiencies concerning the operation, manning, or equipment of the ship.
8.0 Berthing and unberthing
.1 The necessity of co-operation and a close working relationship between the master and
pilot during berthing and unberthing operations is extremely important to the safety of the
ship. In particular, both the pilot and the master should discuss and agree which one of
them will be responsible for operating key equipment and controls (such as main engine,
helm and thrusters).

• co-ordinate the efforts of all parties engaged in the berthing or unberthing operation
(e.g. tug crews, linesmen, ship’s crew). His intentions and actions should be explained
immediately to the bridge management team, in the previously agreed appropriate
language.
.3 In supporting the pilot, the master and bridge personnel should:

• ensure that the pilot’s directions are conveyed to the ship’s crew and are correctly
implemented;
• ensure that the ship’s crew provide the bridge management team with relevant feedback
information;
• advise the pilot once his directions have been complied with, where an omission has
occurred or if a potential problem exists
9.0 Other matters

• assist interested parties such as port authorities, national authorities and flag
administrations in reporting and investigating incidents involving vessels whilst under
pilotage, subject to the laws and regulations of the relevant authorities;
• in observing the recommendations within this document pilots should meet or exceed
the requirements set down in IMO Assembly Resolution A.485(XII) and its annexes;

• should report to the appropriate authority anything observed which may affect safety of
navigation or pollution prevention, including any incident that may have occurred to the
piloted ship;
• refuse pilotage when the ship to be piloted is believed to pose a danger to the safety of
navigation or to the environment. Any such refusal, together with the reason, should
immediately be reported to the appropriate authority for further action.
.2 The master, having the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of the ship has a
responsibility to request replacement of the pilot, should he deem it necessary.

WHEELHOUSE POSTER
The wheelhouse poster is to be permanently displayed in the wheelhouse.
The following information for turning and emergency stopping manoeuvres is required to
be posted on the navigation bridge. The information on turning includes:
• Expected turn trajectory of the centre of gravity and another point furthest from it.
• These trajectories must be shown in a rectangular coordinate system with the origin at
the point where the rudder was deflected. Length units are cables.
• Time and speed when vessel turns 90, 180, 270 and 360 degrees from the original
course.
The following information on emergency stopping manoeuvres is to be available:
• Trajectories of full astern stopping manoeuvres plotted along with turning (maximum
rudder).
• Diagram of the stopping characteristics, including information on track reach (distance
travelled), speed and time to stop for approach speeds corresponding to slow ahead, half
ahead, full ahead and full sea ahead.
• Full astern manoeuvring is to be presented with the envelope (a line connecting all the
possible vessel-dead-in-the-water positions).
All the above information is to be presented for full load conditions.

If an optional class notation is requested on the basis of sea trials in full load conditions,
the above information is to be based on full scale sea trials.
If an optional class notation is requested on the basis of manoeuvring prediction, the
above information is to be based on manoeuvring prediction.


PILOT CARD
The pilot card, to be filled by the Master, is intended to provide information to the pilot
upon boarding the ship.
Availability of the empty card is required as a condition of optional class notations.
The pilot card is to contain information on the current condition of the ship with regards
to its loading, propulsion and manoeuvring equipment as well as other relevant
equipment.


CANAL NAVIGATION
anoeuvring in a Canal
Moving in the centreline of the canal
Moving off-centre of the canal

Suction force and bow cushion

BLIND PILOTAGE
Blind pilotage means the navigation of the ship through restricted waters in low visibility
with little or no recourse to the visual observation of objects outside the ship. The
principal non-visual aid to navigation that enables this to be done is high-definition
warning-surface radar, but all available non-visual aids are employed. The organisation to
achieve this is called the blind pilotage organisation, comprising a BP team, led by a BP
Officer (BPO).
Assessment of the risk involved in a blind pilotage passage
Although normally the accuracy of blind pilotage is such that a ship can be taken to an
open anchorage and anchored within 50 yards of the desired place, the degree of risk
involved, particularly in restricted waters, must be carefully assessed. Congestion due to
other shipping, the consequences of failure of radar or other vital aids once the ship has
been committed to her passage, and the number and quality of fixing marks must be taken
into account.
Parallel index technique
The key to blind pilotage is the principle of the parallel index. The running of a parallel
index line provides real-time information on the ship�s lateral position relative to the
planned track. On the chart (Fig. 1), a line is drawn from the edge of a radar-conspicuous
object, parallel to the planned track.
Parallel index technique
The key to blind pilotage is the principle of the parallel index. The running of a parallel
index line provides real-time information on the ship�s lateral position relative to the
planned track. On the chart (Fig. 1), a line is drawn from the edge of a radar-conspicuous
object, parallel to the planned track.

The perpendicular distance (or cross-index range) from the object to the track is then
measured. The range strobe on the radar is then set to this range, and a solid china graph
line drawn on the display parallel to the planned course on a scale appropriate to the
range in use.
Positions 1, 2 and 3 on the chart and radar display show the ship on track at various
instances up to the time that the island is abeam to starboard.
Positions 4 and 5 show the ship off track to port. The exact distance off track can be
measured by dividers from the radar echo of the island to the nearest point of Radar
clearing ranges Radar clearing ranges (Fig. 2) are similarly drawn at the maximum or
minimum distances from the radar conspicuous objects to keep the ship clear of dangers.
These are drawn as broken lines:_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ .
What is Blind Pilotage?
 Navigating the vessel in restricted visibility

 The principle non-visual aid to navigation is the ship’s radar.
 Other non-visual aids are also employed e.g. AIS, echo sounder, ROTI.
Factors to consider
 Degree of risk involved in restricted waters must be carefully assessed prior

entering. Bridge watches may be doubled up & watch level upgraded.
 Congestion due to other shipping should be considered. Both radars / ARPA
should be operational.
 Consequences of failure of radar or other vital aids should be considered & risk
assessment should be done.
 Availability of navigational aids, which can be used in restricted visibility, must
be taken into account. Racons, AIS buoys / stations, VTS etc.
 Parallel indexing can be used as a powerful tool for position monitoring &
execution of passage.
 Draw one set of parallel index lines ahead of those in use.
• Plan the passage so as to Steer a course to pass a given distance off a radar
conspicuous point, Alter course off a navigational mark or point of land.
• Use clearing & wheel over ranges.
• Use the ROTI to plan alteration of courses, mark wheel over points & wheel over
lines at alterations.
• Do not clutter the radar display, Remove the indexing lines as soon as they are
finished with
• Identify radar contacts as soon as possible.
• Fix the position at frequent intervals
• Fix immediately after any alteration of course.
• Maintain a steady, unhurried precise flow of information to the master.
• Check what lights and sound signals are expected on the passage & keep a
lookout for them.
• Echo sounder is also a valuable aid in restricted visibility in coastal waters. Check
what depths are expected on the passage and compare with echo sounder readings.
• If in doubt, immediately inform the Master.

WATCH-KEEPING

WATCH-KEEPING
ICS – BRIDGE PROCEDURES GUIDE
Section 1 Watch keeping arrangements and principles to be observed (Section A-VIII/2

of the STCW Code)
Section 2 Guidance regarding watch keeping arrangements and principles to be observed

(Section B-VIII/2 of the STCW Code)
Section 3 The Navigation and Radio Watch

This Section sets out for convenience those parts of Sections 1 and 2 that relate
to the navigational and radio watch
Section 4 The Engineering Watch
This Section sets out for convenience those parts of Sections 1 and 2 that relate to the
engineering watch
Watch keeping Arrangements and Principles to be Observed

Section A-VIII/2 of the STCW Code
Part 1 - Certification
1 The officer in charge of the navigational or deck watch shall be duly qualified in
accordance with the provisions of chapter II, or chapter VII appropriate to the duties
related to navigational or deck watch keeping.
2 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall be duly qualified in accordance
with the provisions of chapter III, or chapter VII appropriate to the duties related to
engineering watch keeping.
Part 2 - Voyage planning
General requirements
3 The intended voyage shall be planned in advance, taking into consideration all pertinent
information, and any course laid down shall be checked before the voyage commences.
4 The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation with the master, determine in advance
the needs of the intended voyage, taking into consideration the requirements for fuel,
water, lubricants, chemicals, expendable and other spare parts, tools, supplies and any
other requirements.
Planning prior to each voyage
5 Prior to each voyage the master of every ship shall ensure that the intended route from
the port of departure to the first port of call is planned using adequate and appropriate
charts and other nautical publications necessary for the intended voyage, containing
accurate, complete and up to date information regarding those navigational limitations
and hazards which are of a permanent or predictable nature and which are relevant to the
safe navigation of the ship.
Verification and display of planned route
6 When the route planning is verified, taking into consideration all pertinent information,
the planned route shall be clearly displayed on appropriate charts and shall be
continuously available to the officer in charge of the watch, who shall verify each course
to be followed prior to using it during the voyage.
Deviation from planned route

7 If a decision is made, during a voyage, to change the next port of call of the planned
route, or if it is necessary for the ship to deviate substantially from the planned route for
other reasons, then an amended route shall be planned prior to deviating substantially
from the route originally planned.
Part 3 – Watch keeping principles in general
8 Watches shall be carried out based on the following bridge and engine-room resource
management principles:
.1 proper arrangements for watch keeping personnel shall be ensured in accordance with
the situations;
.2 any limitation in qualifications or fitness of individuals shall be taken into account
when deploying watch keeping personnel;
.3 understanding of watch keeping personnel regarding their individual roles,
responsibility and team roles shall be established;
.4 the master, chief engineer officer and officer in charge of watch duties shall maintain a
proper watch, making the most effective use of the resources available, such as
information, installations/equipment and other personnel;
.5 watch keeping personnel shall understand functions and operation of
installations/equipment, and be familiar with handling them;
.6 watch keeping personnel shall understand information and how to respond to
information from each station/installation/equipment;
.7 information from the stations/installations/equipment shall be appropriately shared by
all the watch keeping personnel;
.8 watch keeping personnel shall maintain an exchange of appropriate communication in
any situation; and
.9 watch keeping personnel shall notify the master/chief engineer officer/officer in charge
of watch duties without any hesitation when in any doubt as to what action to take in the
interest of safety.
Part 4 – Watch keeping
Principles applying to watch keeping generally

9 Parties shall direct the attention of companies, masters, chief engineer officers and
watch keeping personnel to the following principles, which shall be observed to ensure
that safe watches are maintained at all times.
10 The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watch keeping arrangements are
adequate for maintaining a safe navigational or cargo watch. Under the master’s general
direction; the officers of the navigational watch are responsible for navigating the ship
safely during their periods of duty, when they will be particularly concerned with
avoiding collision and stranding.
11 The chief engineer officer of every ship is bound, in consultation with the master, to
ensure that watch keeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering
watch.

Protection of marine environment
12 The master, officers and ratings shall be aware of the serious effects of operational or
accidental pollution of the marine environment and shall take all possible precautions to
prevent such pollution, particularly within the framework of relevant international and
port regulations.
Part 4-1 - Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch

13 The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the master’s representative and is
primarily responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship and for complying
with the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended.
Lookout
14 A proper lookout shall be maintained at all times in compliance with rule 5 of the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and shall
serve the purpose of:
.1 maintaining a continuous state of vigilance, by sight and hearing as well as by all other
available means, with regard to any significant change in the operating environment;
.2 fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers to
navigation; and
.3 detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris and other
hazards to safe navigation.
15 The lookout must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper lookout and
no other duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interfere with that task.
16 The duties of the lookout and helmsperson are separate and the helmsperson shall not
be considered to be the lookout while steering, except in small ships where an
unobstructed all-round view is provided at the steering position and there is no
impairment of night vision or other impediment to the keeping of a proper lookout. The
officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the sole lookout in daylight provided
that on each such occasion:
.1 the situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that
it is safe to do so;
.2 full account has been taken of all relevant factors including but not limited to:
- state of weather,
- visibility,
- traffic density,
- proximity of dangers to navigation, and
- the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes;
.3 assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in
the situation so requires.
17 In determining that the composition of the navigational watch is adequate to ensure
that a proper lookout can continuously be maintained, the master shall take into account
all relevant factors, including those described in this section of the Code, as well as the
following factors:
.1 visibility, state of weather and sea;
.2 traffic density, and other activities occurring in the area in which the vessel is
navigating;
.3 the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes or other
routeing measures;

.4 the additional workload caused by the nature of the ship’s functions, immediate
operating requirements and anticipated manoeuvres;
.5 the fitness for duty of any crew members on call who are assigned as members of the
watch;
.6 knowledge of, and confidence in, the professional competence of the ship’s officers
and crew;
.7 the experience of each officer of the navigational watch, and the familiarity of that
officer with the ship’s equipment, procedures, and manoeuvring capability;
.8 activities taking place on board the ship at any particular time, including radio
communication activities and the availability of assistance to be summoned immediately
to the bridge when necessary;
.9 the operational status of bridge instrumentation and controls, including alarm systems;
.10 rudder and propeller control and ship manoeuvring characteristics;
.11 the size of the ship and the field of vision available from the conning position;
.12 the configuration of the bridge, to the extent such configuration might inhibit a
member of the watch from detecting by sight or hearing any external development; and
.13 any other relevant standard, procedure or guidance relating to watch keeping
arrangements and fitness for duty which has been adopted by the Organization.
Watch arrangements
18 When deciding the composition of the watch on the bridge, which may include
appropriately qualified ratings, the following factors, inter alia, shall be taken into
account:
.1 at no time shall the bridge be left unattended;
.2 weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness;
.3 proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in
charge of the watch to carry out additional navigational duties;
.4 use and operational condition of navigational aids such as ECDIS radar or electronic
position indicating devices and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the
ship;
.5 whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
.6 whether there are radio duties to be performed;
.7 unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators provided on the
bridge, procedures for their use and limitations; and
.8 any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special
operational circumstances.
Taking over the watch

19 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hand over the watch to the
relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is not capable of carrying out
the watch keeping duties effectively, in which case the master shall be notified.
20 The relieving officer shall ensure that the members of the relieving watch are fully
capable of performing their duties, particularly as regards their adjustment to night vision.
Relieving officers shall not take over the watch until their vision is fully adjusted to the
light conditions.
21 Prior to taking over the watch, relieving officers shall satisfy themselves as to the
ship’s estimated or true position and confirm its intended track, course and

speed and UMS controls as appropriate and shall note any dangers to navigation expected
to be encountered during their watch.
22 Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
.1 standing orders and other special instructions of the master relating to navigation of the
ship;
.2 position, course, speed and draught of the ship;
.3 prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of these
factors upon course and speed;
.4 procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines are on
bridge control; and
.5 navigational situation including, but not limited to:
.5.1 the operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used or
likely to be used during the watch,
.5.2 the errors of gyro and magnetic compasses,
.5.3 the presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity,
.5.4 the conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch, and
.5.5 the possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under keel clearance.
23 If at any time the officer in charge of the navigational watch is to be relieved when a
manoeuvre or other action to avoid any hazard is taking place, the relief of that officer
shall be deferred until such action has been completed.
Performing the navigational watch

24 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
.1 keep the watch on the bridge;
.2 in no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved; and
.3 continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of
the master on the bridge, until informed specifically that the master has assumed that
responsibility and this is mutually understood.
25 During the watch the course steered, position and speed shall be checked at
sufficiently frequent intervals, using any available navigational aids necessary, to ensure
that the ship follows the planned course.
26 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall have full knowledge of the
location and operation of all safety and navigational equipment on board the ship and
shall be aware and take account of the operating limitations of such equipment.
27 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not be assigned or undertake any
duties which would interfere with the safe navigation of the ship.
28 When using radar the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the
necessity to comply at all times with the provisions on the use of radar contained in the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972, as amended, in force.
29 In cases of need, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall not hesitate to
use the helm, engines and sound signalling apparatus. However, timely notice of intended
variations of engine speed shall be given where possible or effective use made of UMS
engine controls provided on the bridge in accordance with the applicable procedures.
30 Officers of the navigational watch shall know the handling characteristics of their
ship, including its stopping distances, and should appreciate that other ships may have
different handling characteristics.
31 A proper record shall be kept during the watch of the movements and activities
relating to the navigation of the ship.

32 It is of special importance that at all times the officer in charge of the navigational
watch ensures that a proper lookout is maintained. In a ship with a separate chartroom,
the officer in charge of the navigational watch may visit the chartroom, when essential,
for a short period for the necessary performance of navigational duties, but shall first
ensure that it is safe to do so and that proper lookout is maintained.
33 Operational tests of shipboard navigational equipment shall be carried out at sea as
frequently as practicable and as circumstances permit, in particular before hazardous
conditions affecting navigation are expected. Whenever appropriate, these tests shall be
recorded. Such tests shall also be carried out prior to port arrival and departure.
34 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall make regular checks to ensure
that:
.1 the person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course;
.2 the standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible,
after any major alteration of course; the standard and gyro-compasses are frequently
compared and repeaters are synchronized with their master compass;
.3 the automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
.4 the navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning
properly;
.5 the radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph 86 of this
section; and
.6 the UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.
35 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall bear in mind the necessity to
comply at all times with the requirements in force of the International Convention for the
Safety of Life at Sea, (SOLAS) 19741. The officer of the navigational watch shall take
into account:
.1 the need to station a person to steer the ship and to put the steering into manual control
in good time to allow any potentially hazardous situation to be dealt with in a safe
manner; and
.2 that with a ship under automatic steering, it is highly dangerous to allow a situation to
develop to the point where the officer in charge of the navigational watch is without
assistance and has to break the continuity of the lookout in order to take emergency
action.
36 Officers of the navigational watch shall be thoroughly familiar with the use of all
electronic navigational aids carried, including their capabilities and limitations, and shall
use each of these aids when appropriate and shall bear in mind that the echo-sounder is a
valuable navigational aid.
37 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall use the radar whenever restricted
visibility is encountered or expected and at all times in congested waters; having due
regard to its limitations.
38 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall ensure that the range scales
employed are changed at sufficiently frequent intervals so that echoes are detected as
early as possible. It shall be borne in mind that small or poor echoes may escape
detection.
39 Whenever radar is in use, the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall select an
appropriate range scale and observe the display carefully, and shall ensure that plotting or
systematic analysis is commenced in ample time.
40 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall notify the master immediately:
.1 if restricted visibility is encountered or expected;

.2 if the traffic conditions or the movements of other ships are causing concern;
.3 if difficulty is experienced in maintaining course;
.4 on failure to sight land, a navigation mark or to obtain soundings by the expected time;
.5 if, unexpectedly, land or a navigation mark is sighted or a change in soundings occurs;
.6 on breakdown of the engines, propulsion machinery remote control, steering gear or
any essential navigational equipment, alarm or indicator;
.7 if the radio equipment malfunctions;
.8 in heavy weather, if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage;
.9 if the ship meets any hazard to navigation, such as ice or a derelict; and
.10 in any other emergency or if in any doubt.
41 Despite the requirement to notify the master immediately in the foregoing
circumstances the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall, in addition, not
hesitate to take immediate action for the safety of the ship where circumstances so
require.
42 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall give watch keeping personnel all
appropriate instructions and information which will ensure the keeping of a safe watch;
including a proper lookout.
Watch keeping under different conditions and in different areas

Clear weather
43 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall take frequent and accurate
compass bearings of approaching ships as a means of early detection of risk of collision
and shall bear in mind that such risk may sometimes exist even when an appreciable
bearing change is evident; particularly when approaching a very large ship or a tow or
when approaching a ship at close range. The officer in charge of the navigational watch
shall also take early and positive action in compliance with the applicable International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended and subsequently check
that such action is having the desired effect.
44 In clear weather, whenever possible, the officer in charge of the navigational watch
shall carry out radar practice.
Restricted visibility
45 When restricted visibility is encountered or expected, the first responsibility of the
officer in charge of the navigational watch is to comply with the relevant rules of the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended with
particular regard to the sounding of fog signals, proceeding at a safe speed and having the
engines ready for immediate manoeuvre. In addition, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall:
.1 inform the master;
.2 post a proper lookout;
.3 exhibit navigation lights; and
.4 operate and use the radar.
In hours of darkness
46 The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch, when arranging
lookout duty, shall have due regard to the bridge equipment and navigational aids
available for use, their limitations; procedures and safeguards implemented.
Coastal and congested waters

47 The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with the latest
available information, shall be used. Fixes shall be taken at frequent intervals, and shall
be carried out by more than one method whenever circumstances allow. When using
ECDIS, appropriate usage code (scale) electronic navigational charts shall be used and
the ship’s position shall be checked by an independent means of position fixing at
appropriate intervals.
48 The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all relevant
navigation marks.
Navigation with pilot on board
49 Despite the duties and obligations of pilots, their presence on board does not relieve
the master or officer in charge of the navigational watch from their duties and obligations
for the safety of the ship. The master and the pilot shall exchange information regarding
navigation procedures, local conditions and the ship’s characteristics. The master and/or
the officer in charge of the navigational watch shall cooperate closely with the pilot and
maintain an accurate check on the ship’s position and movement.
50 If in any doubt as to the pilot’s actions or intentions, the officer in charge of the
navigational watch shall seek clarification from the pilot and, if doubt still exists, shall
notify the master immediately and take whatever action is necessary before the master
arrives.
Ship at anchor
51 If the master considers it necessary a continuous navigational watch shall be
maintained at anchor. While at anchor the officer in charge of the navigational watch
shall:
.1 determine and plot the ship’s position on the appropriate chart as soon as practicable;
.2 when circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether the ship is
remaining securely at anchor by taking bearings of fixed navigation marks or readily
identifiable shore objects;
.3 ensure that proper lookout is maintained;
.4 ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically;
.5 observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
.6 notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags anchor;
.7 ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery is in
accordance with the master’s instructions;
.8 if visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
.9 ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that appropriate
sound signals are made in accordance with all applicable regulations; and
.10 take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and comply with
applicable pollution regulations.
Part 4-3 - Principles to be observed in keeping a radio watch
General provisions
84 Administrations shall direct the attention of companies, masters and radio watch
keeping personnel to comply with the following provisions to ensure that an adequate
safety radio watch is maintained while a ship is at sea.
In complying with this Code account shall be taken of the Radio Regulations.
Watch arrangements

85 In deciding the arrangements for the radio watch, the master of every seagoing ship
shall:
.1 ensure that the radio watch is maintained in accordance with the relevant provisions of
the Radio
Regulations and the SOLAS Convention;
.2 ensure that the primary duties for radio watch keeping are not adversely affected by
attending to radio traffic not relevant to the safe movement of the ship and safety of
navigation; and
.3 take into account the radio equipment fitted on board and its operational status.
Performing the radio watch

86 The radio operator performing radio watch keeping duties shall:
.1 ensure that watch is maintained on the frequencies specified in the Radio Regulations
and the SOLAS Convention; and
.2 while on duty, regularly check the operation of the radio equipment and its sources of
energy and report to the master any observed failure of this equipment.
87 The requirements of the Radio Regulations and the SOLAS Convention on keeping a
radiotelegraph or radio log, as appropriate, shall be complied with.
88 The maintenance of radio records, in compliance with the requirements of the Radio
Regulations and the SOLAS Convention, is the responsibility of the radio operator
designated as having primary responsibility for radio communications during distress
incidents. The following shall be recorded, together with the times at which they occur:
.1 a summary of distress, urgency and safety radio communications;
.2 important incidents relating to the radio service;
.3 where appropriate, the position of the ship at least once per day; and
.4 a summary of the condition of the radio equipment including its sources of energy.
89 The radio records shall be kept at the distress communications operating position, and
shall be made available:
.1 for inspection by the master; and
.2 for inspection by any authorized official of the Administration and by any duly
authorized officer exercising control under article X of the Convention.
Part 5 - Watch keeping in Port
Principles applying to all watch keeping
General
90 On any ship safely moored or safely at anchor under normal circumstances in port, the
master shall arrange for an appropriate and effective watch to be maintained for the
purpose of safety. Special requirements may be necessary for special types of ships’
propulsion systems or ancillary equipment and for ships carrying hazardous, dangerous,
toxic or highly flammable materials or other special types of cargo.
Watch arrangements
91 Arrangements for keeping a deck watch when the ship is in port shall at all times be
adequate to:
.1 ensure the safety of life, of the ship, the port and the environment, and the safe
operation of all machinery related to cargo operation;

.2 observe international, national and local rules; and
.3 maintain order and the normal routine of the ship.
92 The master shall decide the composition and duration of the deck watch depending on
the conditions of mooring, type of the ship and character of duties.
93 If the master considers it necessary, a qualified officer shall be in charge of the deck
watch.
94 The necessary equipment shall be so arranged as to provide for efficient watch
keeping.
95 The chief engineer officer, in consultation with the master, shall ensure that
engineering watch keeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering
watch while in port. When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which
may include appropriate engine-room ratings, the following points are among those to be
taken into account:
.1 on all ships of 3,000 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be an officer in
charge of the engineering watch; and
.2 on ships of less than 3,000 kW propulsion power there may be, at the master’s
discretion and in consultation with the chief engineer officer, no officer in charge of the
engineering watch; and
.3 officers, while in charge of an engineering watch, shall not be assigned or undertake
any task or duty which would interfere with their supervisory duty in respect of the ship’s
machinery system.
Note: Marine Orders Part 28 requires that, during watch keeping in port, on all ships of
750 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be an officer in charge of the
engineering watch.
Note: The STCW Code defines propulsion power as the total maximum continuous rated
output power in kilowatts of all the ship’s main propulsion machinery which appears on
the ship’s certificate of registry or other official document.
Taking over the watch

96 Officers in charge of the deck or engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to
their relieving officer if they have any reason to believe that the latter is obviously not
capable of carrying out watch keeping duties effectively, in which case the master or
chief engineer shall be notified accordingly. Relieving officers of the deck or engineering
watch shall ensure that all members of their watch are apparently fully capable of
performing their duties effectively.
97 If, at the moment of handing over the deck or engineering watch, an important
operation is being performed it shall be concluded by the officer being relieved, except
when ordered otherwise by the master or chief engineer officer.
Part 5-1 - Taking over the deck watch

98 Prior to taking over the deck watch, the relieving officer shall be informed of the
following by the officer in charge of the deck watch as to the following:
.1 the depth of the water at the berth, the ship’s draught, the level and time of high and
low waters; the securing of the moorings, the arrangement of anchors and the scope of the
anchor chain, and other mooring features important to the safety of the ship; the state of
main engines and their availability for emergency use;
.2 all work to be performed on board the ship; the nature, amount and disposition of cargo
loaded or remaining, and any residue on board after unloading the ship;

.3 the level of water in bilges and ballast tanks;
.4 the signals or lights being exhibited or sounded;
.5 the number of crew members required to be on board and the presence of any other
persons on board;
.6 the state of fire-fighting appliances;
.7 any special port regulations;
.8 the master’s standing and special orders;
.9 the lines of communication available between the ship and shore personnel, including
port authorities, in the event of an emergency arising or assistance being required;
.10 any other circumstances of importance to the safety of the ship, its crew, cargo or
protection of the environment from pollution; and
.11 the procedures for notifying the appropriate authority of any environmental pollution
resulting from ship activities.
99 Relieving officers, before assuming charge of the deck watch, shall verify that:
.1 the securing of moorings and anchor chain is adequate;
.2 the appropriate signals or lights are properly exhibited or sounded;
.3 safety measures and fire protection regulations are being maintained;
.4 they are aware of the nature of any hazardous or dangerous cargo being loaded or
discharged and the appropriate action to be taken in the event of any spillage or fire; and
.5 no external conditions or circumstances imperil the ship and that it does not imperil
others.
Part 5-3 - Performing the deck watch

102 The officer in charge of the deck watch shall:
.1 make rounds to inspect the ship at appropriate intervals;
.2 pay particular attention to:
.2.1 the condition and securing of the gangway, anchor chain and moorings, especially at
the turn of the tide and in berths with a large rise and fall, if necessary, taking measures to
ensure that they are in normal working condition,
.2.2 the draught, under-keel clearance and the general state of the ship, to avoid
dangerous listing or trim during cargo handling or ballasting,
.2.3 the weather and sea state,
.2.4 the observance of all regulations concerning safety and fire protection,
.2.5 the water level in bilges and tanks,
.2.6 all persons on board and their location, especially those in remote or enclosed spaces,
and
.2.7 the exhibition and sounding, where appropriate, of lights and signals;
.3 in bad weather, or on receiving a storm warning, take the necessary measures to protect
the ship, persons on board and cargo;
.4 take every precaution to prevent pollution of the environment by the ship;
.5 in an emergency threatening the safety of the ship, raise the alarm, inform the master,
take all possible measures to prevent any damage to the ship, its cargo and persons on
board, and, if necessary, request assistance from the shore authorities or neighbouring
ships;
.6 be aware of the ship’s stability condition so that, in the event of fire, the shore fire-
fighting authority may be advised of the approximate quantity of water that can be
pumped on board without endangering the ship;
.7 offer assistance to ships or persons in distress;

.8 take necessary precautions to prevent accidents or damage when propellers are to be
turned; and
.9 enter, in the appropriate log book, all important events affecting the ship.
Part 4-5 - Watch in port on ships carrying hazardous cargo

General
105 The master of every ship carrying cargo that is hazardous, whether explosive,
flammable, toxic, health threatening or environment-polluting, shall ensure that safe
watch keeping arrangements are maintained. On ships carrying hazardous cargo in bulk,
this will be achieved by the ready availability on board of a duly qualified officer or
officers, and ratings where appropriate, even when the ship is safely moored or safely at
anchor in port.
106 On ships carrying hazardous cargo other than in bulk, the master shall take full
account of the nature, quantity, packing and stowage of the hazardous cargo and of any
special conditions on board, afloat and ashore.
Part 4-6 - Cargo watch
107 Officers with responsibility for the planning and conduct of cargo operations shall
ensure that such operations are conducted safely through the control of the specific risks,
including when non-ship’s personnel are involved.
THE ENGINEERING WATCH
1 Certification
The officer in charge of the engineering watch must be qualified in accordance with the
provisions of Marine Orders, Part 3 (Seagoing Qualifications) appropriate tithe duties
related to engineering watch keeping.
2 Voyage Planning
The chief engineer officer shall, in consultation with the master, determine in advance the
needs of the intended voyage, taking into consideration the requirements for fuel, water,
lubricants, chemicals, expendable and other spare parts, tools, supplies and any other
requirements.
3 Watch keeping at Sea
3.1 General principles
3.1.1 Companies, chief engineer officers and watch keeping personnel must observe the
following principles to ensure that safe watches are maintained at all times.
3.1.2 The chief engineer officer of every ship is bound, in consultation with the master, to
ensure that watch keeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering
watch.
3.2 Protection of marine environment

Engineer officers and ratings must be aware of the serious effects of operational or
accidental pollution of the marine environment and shall take all possible precautions to
prevent such pollution, particularly within the framework of relevant international and
port regulations.

3.3 Watch arrangements
3.3.1 The composition of the engineering watch shall, at all times, be adequate to ensure
the safe operation of all machinery affecting the operation of the ship, in either automated
or manual mode and be appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
3.3.2 When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which may include
appropriately qualified ratings, the following criteria, inter alia, must be taken into
account:
(a) the type of ship and the type and condition of the machinery;
(b) the adequate supervision, at all times, of machinery affecting the safe operation of the
ship;
(c) any special modes of operation dictated by conditions such as weather, ice,
contaminated water, shallow water, emergency conditions, damage containment or
pollution abatement;
(d) the qualifications and experience of the engineering watch;
(e) the safety of life, ship, cargo and port, and protection of the environment;
(f) the observance of international, national and local regulations; and
(g) maintaining the normal operations of the ship.
3.4 Taking over the watch
3.4.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to the
relieving officer if there is reason to believe that the latter is obviously not capable of
carrying out the watch keeping duties effectively, in which case the chief engineer officer
must be notified.
3.4.2 The relieving officer of the engineering watch shall ensure that the other members
of the relieving engineering watch, if any, are apparently fully capable of performing
their duties effectively.
3.4.3 Prior to taking over the engineering watch, relieving officers shall satisfy
themselves regarding at least the following:
(a) the standing orders and special instructions of the chief engineer officer relating to the
operation of the ship’s systems and machinery;
(b) the nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems, the personnel
involved and potential hazards;
(c) the level and, where applicable, the condition of water or residues in bilges, ballast
tanks, slop tanks, reserve tanks, fresh water tanks, sewage tanks and any special
requirements for use or disposal of the contents thereof;
(d) the condition and level of fuel in the reserve tanks, settling tank, day tank and other
fuel storage facilities;
(e) any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(f) condition and mode of operation of the various main and auxiliary systems, including
the electrical power distribution system;
(g) where applicable, the condition of monitoring and control console equipment, and
which equipment is being operated manually;

(h) where applicable, the condition and mode of operation of automatic boiler controls
such as flame safeguard control systems, limit control systems, combustion control
systems, fuel-supply control systems and other equipment related to the operation of
steam boilers;
(i) any potentially adverse conditions resulting from bad weather, ice, contaminated or
shallow water;
(j) any special modes of operation dictated by equipment failure or adverse ship
conditions;
(k) the reports of engine-room ratings, relating to their assigned duties;
(l) the availability of fire-fighting appliances; and
(m) the state of completion of engine-room log.
3.5 Performing the watch
3.5.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that the established
watch keeping arrangements are maintained and that under direction, engine-room
ratings, if forming part of the engineering watch, assist in the safe and efficient operation
of the propulsion machinery and auxiliary equipment.
3.5.2 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall continue to be responsible for
machinery space operations, despite the presence of the chief engineer officer in the
machinery spaces, until specifically informed that the chief engineer officer has assumed
that responsibility and this is mutually understood.
3.5.3 All members of the engineering watch shall be familiar with their assigned watch
keeping duties. In addition, every member must with respect to the ship they are serving
in have knowledge of:
(a) the use of appropriate internal communication systems;
(b) the escape routes from machinery spaces;
(c) the engine-room alarm systems and be able to distinguish between the various alarms
with special reference to the fire-extinguishing media alarm; and (d) the number, location
and types of fire-fighting equipment and damage-control gear in the machinery spaces,
together with their use and the various safety precautions to be observed.
3.5.4 Any machinery not functioning properly, expected to malfunction or requiring

special service, shall be noted along with any action already taken. Plans shall be made
for any further action if required.
3.5.5 When the machinery spaces are in the manned condition, the officer in charge of the
engineering watch shall at all times be readily capable of operating the propulsion
equipment in response to needs for changes in direction or speed.
3.5.6 When the machinery spaces are in the periodic unmanned condition, the designated
duty officer in charge of the engineering watch must be immediately available and on call
to attend the machinery spaces.
3.5.7 All bridge orders shall be promptly executed. Changes in direction or speed of the
main propulsion units shall be recorded. The officer in charge of the engineering watch
shall ensure that the main propulsion unit controls, when in the manual mode of
operation, are continuously attended under stand-by or manoeuvring conditions.

3.5.8 Due attention shall be paid to the on-going maintenance and support of all
machinery, including mechanical, electrical, electronic, hydraulic and pneumatic systems,
their control apparatus and associated safety equipment, all accommodation service
systems equipment and the recording of stores and spare gear usage.
3.5.9 The chief engineer officer shall ensure that the officer in charge of the engineering
watch is informed of all preventive maintenance, damage control, or repair operations to
be performed during the engineering watch. The officer in charge of the engineering
watch is responsible for the isolation, by passing and adjustment of all machinery under
the responsibility of the engineering watch that is to be worked on, and shall record all
work carried out.
3.5.10 When the engine-room is put in a stand-by condition, the officer in charge of the
engineering watch must ensure that all machinery and equipment which may be used
during manoeuvring is in a state of immediate readiness and that an adequate reserve of
power is available for steering gear and other requirements.
3.5.11 Officers in charge of an engineering watch shall not be assigned or undertake any
duties which would interfere with their supervisory duties in respect of the main
propulsion system and ancillary equipment. They shall keep the main propulsion plant
and auxiliary systems under constant supervision until properly relieved, and must
periodically inspect the machinery in their charge. They shall also ensure that adequate
rounds of the machinery and steering gear spaces are made for the purpose of observing
and reporting equipment malfunctions or breakdowns, performing or directing routine
adjustments, required upkeep and any other necessary tasks.
3.5.12 Officers in charge of an engineering watch shall direct any other member of the
engineering watch to inform them of potentially hazardous conditions which may
adversely affect the machinery or jeopardize the safety of life or of the ship.
3.5.13 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that the machinery
space watch is supervised, and must arrange for substitute personnel in the event of the
incapacity of any engineering watch personnel. The engineering watch shall not leave the
machinery spaces unsupervised in a manner that would prevent the manual operation of
the engine-room plant or throttles.
3.5.14 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall take the action necessary to
contain the effects of damage resulting from equipment breakdown, fire, flooding,
rupture, collision, stranding, or other cause.
3.5.15 Before going off duty, the officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure
that all events related to the main and auxiliary machinery which have occurred during
the engineering watch are suitably recorded.
3.5.16 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall co-operate with any engineer
in charge of maintenance work during all preventive maintenance, damage control or
repairs. This includes but is not necessarily limited to:
(a) isolating and bypassing machinery to be worked on;
(b) adjusting the remaining plant to function adequately and safely during the
maintenance period;

(c) recording, in the engine-room log or other suitable document, the equipment worked
on and the personnel involved, and which safety steps have been taken and by whom, for
the benefit of relieving officers and for record purposes; and
(d) testing and putting into service, when necessary, the repaired machinery or
equipment.
3.5.17 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that if there are any
engine room ratings that perform maintenance duties they are available if required to
assist in the manual operation of machinery in the event of automatic equipment failure.
3.5.18 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall bear in mind that changes in
speed, resulting from machinery malfunction, or any loss of steering, may imperil the
safety of the ship and life at sea. The bridge shall be immediately notified, in the event of
fire, and of any impending action in machinery spaces that may cause reduction in the
ship’s speed, imminent steering failure, stoppage of the ship’s propulsion system or any
alteration in the generation of electric power or similar threat to safety. This notification,
where possible, must be accomplished before changes are made, in order to afford the
bridge the maximum available time to take whatever action is possible to avoid a
potential marine casualty.
3.5.19 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall notify the chief engineer
officer without delay:
(a) when engine damage or a malfunction occurs which may be such as to endanger the
safe operation of the ship?
(b) when any malfunction occurs which, it is believed, may cause damage or breakdown
of propulsion machinery, auxiliary machinery or monitoring and governing systems; and
(c) in any emergency or if in any doubt as to what decision or measures to take.
3.5.20 Despite the requirement to notify the chief engineer officer in the foregoing
circumstances, the officer in charge of the engineering watch shall not hesitate to take
immediate action for the safety of the ship, its machinery and crew where circumstances
require.
3.5.21 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall give the other watch keeping
personnel, if any, all appropriate instructions and information which will ensure the
keeping of a safe engineering watch. Routine machinery upkeep, performed as incidental
tasks as a part of keeping a safe watch, shall be set up as an integral part of the watch
routine. Detailed repair maintenance involving repairs to electrical, mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic or applicable electronic equipment throughout the ship shall be
performed with the cognizance of the officer in charge of the engineering watch and chief
engineer officer. These repairs shall be recorded.
3.6 Watch keeping under different conditions and in different areas
Restricted visibility
3.6.1 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that permanent air or
steam pressure is available for sound signals and that at all times bridge orders relating to

changes in speed or direction of operation are immediately implemented and, in addition,
that auxiliary machinery used for manoeuvring is readily available.

Coastal and congested waters
3.6.2 The officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that all machinery
involved with the manoeuvring of the ship can immediately be placed in the manual
mode of operation when notified that the ship is in congested waters. The officer in
charge of the engineering watch shall also ensure that an adequate reserve of power is
available for steering and other manoeuvring requirements. Emergency steering and other
auxiliary equipment must be ready for immediate operation.
Ship at anchor
3.6.3.1 At an unsheltered anchorage the chief engineer officer shall consult with the
master whether or not to maintain the same engineering watch as when underway.
3.6.3.2 When a ship is at anchor in an open roadstead or any other virtually “at sea”
condition, the engineer officer in charge of the engineering watch shall ensure that:
(a) an efficient engineering watch is kept;
(b) periodic inspection is made of all operating and stand by machinery;
(c) main and auxiliary machinery is maintained in a state of readiness in accordance with
orders from the bridge;
(d) measures are taken to protect the environment from pollution by the ship, and that
applicable pollution prevention regulations are complied with; and
(e) all damage control and fire fighting systems are in readiness.
4 Watch keeping in Port
4.1 General principles
4.1.1 On any ship safely moored or safely at anchor under normal circumstances in port,
the master shall arrange for an appropriate and effective watch to be maintained for the
purpose of safety. Special requirements may be necessary for special types of ships’
propulsion systems or ancillary equipment and for ships carrying hazardous, dangerous,
toxic or highly flammable materials or other special types of cargo.
4.1.2 The chief engineer officer, in consultation with the master, must ensure that
engineering watch keeping arrangements are adequate to maintain a safe engineering
watch while in port. When deciding the composition of the engineering watch, which
may include appropriate engine-room ratings, the following points are among those to be
taken into account:
(a) on all ships of 750 kW propulsion power and over there shall always be an officer in
charge of the engineering watch; and
(b) officers, while in charge of an engineering watch, must not be assigned or undertake
any task or duty which would interfere with their supervisory duty in respect of the ship’s
machinery system.
Note: The STCW Code defines propulsion power as the total maximum continuous rated
output power in kilowatts of all the ship’s main propulsion machinery which appears on
the ship’s certificate of registry or other official document.

4.2 Taking over the watch
4.2.1 Officers in charge of the engineering watch shall not hand over the watch to their
relieving officer if they have any reason to believe that the latter is obviously not capable
of carrying out watch keeping duties effectively, in which case the chief engineer must be
notified accordingly. Relieving officers of the engineering watch must ensure that all
members of their watch are apparently fully capable of performing their duties
effectively.
4.2.2 If, at the moment of handing over the engineering watch, an important operation is
being performed it must be concluded by the officer being relieved, except when ordered
otherwise by the chief engineer officer.
4.2.3 Prior to taking over the engineering watch, the relieving officer must be informed
by the officer in charge of the engineering watch as to:
(a) the standing orders of the day, any special orders relating to the ship operations,
maintenance functions, repairs to the ship’s machinery or control equipment;
(b) the nature of all work being performed on machinery and systems on board ship,
personnel involved and potential hazards;
(c) the level and condition, where applicable, of water or residue in bilges, ballast tanks,
slop tanks, sewage tanks, reserve tanks and special requirements for the use or disposal of
the contents thereof;
(d) any special requirements relating to sanitary system disposals;
(e) the condition and state of readiness of portable fire extinguishing equipment and fixed
fire-extinguishing installations and fire-detection systems;
(f) authorized repair personnel on board engaged in engineering activities, their work
locations and repair functions and other authorized persons on board and the required
crew;
(g) any port regulations pertaining to ship effluents, fire fighting requirements and ship
readiness, particularly during potential bad weather conditions;
(h) the lines of communication available between the ship and shore personnel, including
port authorities, in the event of an emergency arising or assistance being required;
(i) any other circumstance of importance to the safety of the ship, its crew, cargo or the
protection of the environment from pollution; and
(j) the procedures for notifying the appropriate authority of environmental pollution
resulting from engineering activities.
4.2.4 Relieving officers, before assuming charge of the engineering watch, shall satisfy
themselves that they are fully informed by the officer being relieved, as outlined above,
and:
(a) be familiar with existing and potential sources of power, heat and lighting and their
distribution;
(b) know the availability and condition of ship’s fuel, lubricants and all water supplies;
and
(c) be ready to prepare the ship and its machinery, as far as is possible, for stand-by or
emergency conditions as required.

4.3 Performing the watch
4.3.1 Officers in charge of the engineering watch shall pay particular attention to:
(a) the observance of all orders, special operating procedures and regulations concerning
hazardous conditions and their prevention in all areas in their charge;
(b) the instrumentation and control systems, monitoring of all power supplies,
components and systems in operation;
(c) the techniques, methods and procedures necessary to prevent violation of the pollution
regulations of the local authorities; and
(d) the state of the bilges.
4.3.2 Officers in charge of the engineering watch must:

(a) in emergencies, raise the alarm when in their opinion the situation so demands, and
take all possible measures to prevent damage to the ship, persons on board and cargo;
(b) be aware of the deck officer’s needs relating to the equipment required in the loading
or unloading of the cargo and the additional requirements of the ballast and other ship
stability control systems;
(c) make frequent rounds of inspection to determine possible equipment malfunction or
failure, and take immediate remedial action to ensure the safety of the ship, of cargo
operations, of the port and the environment;
(d) ensure that the necessary precautions are taken, within their area of responsibility, to
prevent accidents or damage to the various electrical, electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic
and mechanical systems of the ship;
(e) ensure that all important events affecting the operation, adjustment or repair of the
ship’s machinery are satisfactorily recorded.
5 Guidance on keeping a Watch
5.1 Particular guidance may be necessary for special types of propulsion systems or
ancillary equipment and for ships carrying hazardous, dangerous, toxic or highly
flammable materials or other special types of cargo. The chief engineer officer should
provide this operational guidance as appropriate.
5.2 It is essential that officers in charge of the engineering watch appreciate that the
efficient performance of engineering watch keeping duties is necessary in the interest of
the safety of life and property at sea and of preventing pollution of the marine
environment.
5.3 The relieving officer, before assuming charge of the engineering watch, should:
(a) be familiar with the location and use of the equipment provided for the safety of life in
a hazardous or toxic environment;
(b) ascertain that materials for the administration of emergency medical first aid are
readily available, particularly those required for the treatment of burns and scalds; and
(c) when in port, safely anchored or moored, be aware of:
(i) cargo activities, the status of maintenance and repair functions and all other operations
affecting the watch; and
(ii) the auxiliary machinery in use for passenger or crew accommodation services, cargo
operations, operational water supplies and exhaust systems.

SHIP REPORTING SYSTEMS
Ship reporting systems contribute to the safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation, and protection of marine environment.
SRS shall be used by all ships carrying certain cargoes in accordance with the provisions
adopted by IMO.
The initiation of action for establishing a ship reporting system is the responsibility of the
government concerned.
The master of a ship shall comply with the requirements of adopted ship reporting
systems and make reports as required.
General principles:
SRS and reporting requirements are used to provide, gather or exchange information
through radio reports.
This information is used to provide data for SAR, VTS, weather forecasting and
prevention of marine pollution.
Reporting Principles:
• Should contain only the information requested

• Standard reporting format should be used
• Number of reports should be kept to minimum
• Safety or pollution reports to be made without delay
• No charges for making reports
• Where language difficulties exist, English should be used and where possible
include the standard marine navigational vocabulary.
Procedure for Reporting:
1. Sailing Plan:
Before departure from a port within the area or when entering the area.
2. Position Report (PR):

When necessary to ensure effective operation of the system.
3. Deviation Report (DP):

When vessel’s position varies significantly from the position that would have been
predicted from previous reports, or when changing the reported route.
4. Final Report (FP):

On arrival at the destination and when leaving the area.

5. Dangerous Goods Report (DG):
When an incident takes place involving the loss of packages of dangerous goods, into the
sea.
6. Harmful Substances Report (HS):

When an incident takes place involving the discharge or probable discharge of oil (Annex
1) or NLS (Annex II).
7. Marine Pollutants Report (MP):

When an incident takes place involving the discharge or probable discharge of harmful
substances in packaged form, identified in the IMDG as marine pollutants (Annex III of
MARPOL)
Indian (Maritime) Search and Rescue (Computerised Ship Reporting System)

INDSAR
PARTICIPATION
INDSAR, the Indian (Maritime) Search and Rescue (Computerised Ship Reporting
System), developed by the Indian Coast Guard, is a unique computer-based, and
voluntary ship reporting system used by search and rescue authorities to arrange for
assistance to people in distress at sea. With INDSAR, rescue co-ordinators can identify
participating ships in the area of distress and divert the best-suited ship or ships to the
scene.
Participating ships send voyage messages to the INDSAR centre managed by the Coast
Guard at MRCC Mumbai via INMARSAT 'C' Toll Free Code 43.
WHY SHOULD MY SHIP PARTICIPATE

INDSAR's success is tied directly to the number of merchant vessels regularly reporting
their position. The more ships on plot, the greater the chance that a ship will be identified
near the position of distress.
Ships incur no additional obligation to respond than that already exists under the
international conventions. In fact, since INDSAR identifies the best ship or ships to
respond, it releases other vessels to continue their voyage, saving fuel, time and payroll
costs.
Information sent to INDSAR is protected, and used only by a bonafide maritime
emergency. INDSAR reports also satisfy arrival reporting requirement for entry to Indian
ports and INDSAR provides on additional measure of safety "assurance" by allowing
rescue coordinators to compress the search area in the event a participating ship is not
reported or is overdue.
WHO CAN PARTICIPATE
Ships transiting through the Indian Maritime Search and Rescue Region (ISRR).
Ships entering/leaving Indian ports
Ships operating within the ISRR.
Fishing vessels operating within the ISRR above 300 GRT

ISLEREP - ISLAND (M-SAR) REPORTING (SYSTEM)
ISLEREP is Island (M-SAR) Reporting (System), an integral sub-system of INDSAR,
applicable to all vessel closing the Islands of Andaman & Nicobar, and Lakshadweep
within 20 nautical miles.
THE IMO STANDARD SHIP REPORTING SYSTEM
This system is used throughout the Guide. An abbreviated version of the full system is
shown below.
A ALPHA Ship Name, call sign or ship station identity and flag
B BRAVO Date and time of a 6 digit group giving day of month (first two digits),
hours and minutes (last four digits). If other than UTC
state time zone used
C CHARLIE Position a 4 digit group giving latitude in degrees and minutes
suffixed with E (east) or W (west) and a 5 digit group giving longitude in degrees and
minutes suffixed with N (north) or S (south);
D DELTA Position True bearing (first 3 digits) and distance (state distance) in
nautical miles from a clearly identified landmark (state landmark)
E ECHO rue course A 3 digit group
F FOXTROT Speed in knots and A 3 digit group tenths of knots
G GOLF Port of departure Name of last port of call
H HOTEL Date, time and point Entry time expressed as in (B) and entry position of
entry into system expressed as in (C) or (D)
I INDIA Destination and Name of port and date time group expressed as in (B)
expected time of arrival
J JULIET Pilot State whether a deep sea or local pilot is on board
K KILO Date, time and point Exit time expressed as in (B) and exit position of exit
from system expressed as in (C) or (D)
L LIMA Route information Intended track
M MIKE Radio State in full names of communications stations/ frequencies guarded
N Time of next report Date time group expressed as in (B)
(NOVEMBER)
O OSCAR Maximum present 4 digit group giving metres and centimetres
static draught in metres
P PAPA Cargo on board Cargo and brief details of any dangerous cargoes as well
as harmful substances and gases that could endanger persons or the environment
Q QUEBEC Defects, damage, Brief details of defects, damage, deficiencies, or other
deficiencies, limitations
R ROMEO Description of pollution Brief details of type of pollution (oil, chemicals,
etc.) or dangerous goods dangerous goods lost overboard; position expressed as lost
overboard in (C) or (D)
S SIERRA Weather conditions Brief details of weather and sea conditions prevailing
T TANGO Ship’s representative Details of name and particulars of ship’s
representative and/or owner and/or owner for provision of information
U UNIFORM Ship size and type Details of length, breadth, tonnage and type etc. as
required
V VICTOR Medical personnel Doctor, physicians’ assistant, nurse, no medic
W WHISKEY Total number of persons on board

X X-RAY Miscellaneous Any other information
VTS
IMO Assembly Resolution A.857 (20) defines Vessel Traffic Service as, “A service
implemented by a Competent Authority, designed to improve the safety and efficiency of
vessel traffic and to protect the environment. The service should have the capability to
interact with the traffic and to respond to traffic situations developing in the VTS area.
Objectives : The objective of providing vessel traffic services, as with Ship’s Routeing
and Ship Reporting Systems, is
• To improve the safety and efficiency of navigation,

• Safety of life at sea and
• The protection of the marine environment, the adjacent shore areas, work
sites and offshore installations from possible adverse effects of maritime traffic.
• It also co-ordinates the response to pollution.
• Port and harbour surveillance
• Monitoring of navigational marks.
Auxiliary Purpose :
• SAR within the area

• Facilitate easy access to medical
• Facilitate dredging and other offshore operations
Types of VTS : These could be either of the following types or a combination of them:
(a) Coastal : It is mainly concerned with vessel traffic passing through the area. It
renders an information service only.
(b) Port/Harbour : This is mainly concerned with vessel traffic to and from a port or
harbour(s). It usually provides navigational assistance and/or a traffic organization
service.
Parts and Resources of VTS
• Area surveillance
• Traffic Separation Scheme
• Movement reporting scheme
• Vessel traffic centre
Resources of VTS
1. For surveillance: Radars, satellites, GPS Transponders, Weather sensors, closed

circuit T.V., patrol boats and low range air crafts.
2. For TSS: separation schemes, separation zones, coastal and inshore traffic,
precautionary areas, buoyage system.

3. For MRS: Radars, Patrol boats, VHF/ HF or satellite
4. For VTC: Control tower, visual sightings, Radars, computers, light vessels and
microwave links.
The advantages of implementing a VTS
• It permits identification and monitoring of vessels.

• Vessel movements can be planned and navigational information and assistance
provided.
• It is also useful in pollution prevention and the co-ordination of pollution
response.
• Collision avoidance
• More confidence instilled in the navigator
• Optimum use of space
• Increased turnover of ships
• Ready availability of navigational warnings
• Better monitoring and assistance to disabled ship
• Better monitoring and assistance to disabled ships
Reliability and continuity of communications is crucial, along with the ability to provide
good and unambiguous information. The system needs to detect a developing dangerous
situation and give timely warning of such dangers. SOLAS, 2002 Chapter V Regulation
12 states that the use of VTS may only be made mandatory in sea areas within the
territorial seas of a coastal state.
Liability : The element of liability of an accident resulting from complying with VTS
guidance has to be decided on a case-by-case basis according to the national laws, as the
VTS operators may not have been competent in their duty.
ASSISTANCE
Information : Waterway conditions, weather, hazards, intentions of other vessels, or any

other factor that may influence the vessel’s transit is broadcast at fixed times or when
considered necessary.
Navigational : This assistance is normally rendered if requested or when it is deemed

necessary, due to difficult navigational or meteorological conditions and in case of
defects or deficiencies. Required safe distances between moving vessels are also
intimated.
Traffic Organization : This helps in the operational management of traffic and forward
planning of vessel movements, which prevents congestion and dangerous situations. It
includes mandatory reporting of movements in the VTS area, routes to be followed and
speed limits to be observed or other appropriate measures considered being necessary by
the VTS authority.

The VTS instructions will be result-oriented only, leaving the execution details like
altering course and speed to the master or on board pilot. These should not encroach upon
the master’s responsibility for safe navigation, or disturb the traditional relationship
between master and pilot.
Communications : These should be limited to information essential to achieve the

objectives of the VTS and conducted on the assigned frequencies. Any VTS message to
vessels should make it clear whether it contains information, advance, warning or an
instruction.
Data acquired by the VTS is processed and evaluated to respond to developing traffic
situations and to decide upon appropriate actions. Conclusions drawn from the
evaluations are communicated to vessels, with a distinction made between mere
information extracted from various sensors and the provision of navigational advice,
where a professional opinion is included.
Database : The VTS authority maintains a database and constantly updates it. Any data
retained in the system is made available only on a selective and secure basis.
PARTICIPATING VESSELS
It is recommended that vessels make use of the vessels traffic services where provided.
Participation may be mandatory or voluntary. Decisions of actual navigation and
manoeuvring remain with the master.
Prior to entering the VTS area, vessels should make the required reports, including
deficiencies. During their passage through the area, they should follow the rules and
regulations, keep a continuous listening watch and report any deviations to the agreed
sailing plan.
Masters should report any observed dangers to navigation or pollution to the VTS centre.
In case of complete communication failure the master should endeavour to inform the
VTS centre and other vessels in the vicinity by any other available means, of her inability
to communicate on the assigned frequency. If the vessel is unable to continue
participating in a VTS, the master should make an entry in the vessel’s logbook of the
fact and reasons for not further participating in it.
Contracting Governments should ensure the participation in, and compliance with, the
provisions of VTS by ships flying their flags.
LIMITATIONS
The effectiveness of a particular VTS depends upon the size and extent of the service,
training and experience of the operators, and the scope within which it is allowed to
function.
Operator Shortcomings : It is observed that some operators do not give sufficient

warning to errant vessels. They do not fully understand seamanship, ship handling,

COLREGs and shallow-water limitations, as they are mostly just VHF operators without
any sea experience. They are sometimes reluctant to give instructions for fear of liability,
if such instruction leads to an accident.
Cautions : The name labels on VTS radar screens may jump targets due to target swap in
congested traffic. This may go unnoticed by the operator, who may then pass wrong
information due to mistaken identity. This can confuse a vessel if she uses the input for
collision avoidance. Some VTS radar screens may display the ground stabilized vector,
but the software may indicate this to be the heading of the ship. Such misconceptions can
lead to close-quarter situations.
SHIP’S ROUTEING
The practice of
following predetermined routes for shipping originated in 1898 and was adopted,
for reasons of safety, by shipping companies operating passenger ships across the
North Atlantic. Related provisions were subsequently incorporated into the original
SOLAS Convention.
Traffic separation schemes and other ship routeing systems have now been established in
most of the major congested, shipping areas of the world, and the number of collisions
and groundings has often been dramatically reduced.

IMO's responsibility for ships' routeing is enshrined in SOLAS Chapter V, which
recognizes the Organization as the only international body for establishing such systems.

Regulation SOLAS V/10 Ships' routeing states:
1. Ships' routeing systems contribute to safety of life at sea, safety and efficiency of
navigation and/or protection of the marine environment. Ships' routeing systems are
recommended for use by, and may be made mandatory for, all ships, certain categories of
ships or ships carrying certain cargoes, when adopted and implemented in accordance
with the guidelines and criteria developed by the Organization.*
2. The Organization is recognized as the only international body for developing
guidelines, criteria and regulations on an international level for ships' routeing systems.
Contracting Governments shall refer proposals for the adoption of ships' routeing systems
to the Organization. The Organization will collate and disseminate to Contracting
Governments all relevant information with regard to any adopted ships' routeing systems.
3. The initiation of action for establishing a ships' routeing system is the responsibility of
the Government or Governments concerned. In developing such systems for adoption by
the Organization, the guidelines and criteria developed by the Organization shall be taken
into account.
4. Ships' routeing systems should be submitted to the Organization for adoption.
However, a Government or Governments implementing ships' routeing systems not
intended to be submitted to the Organization for adoption or which have not been adopted
by the Organization are encouraged to take into account, wherever possible, the
guidelines and criteria developed by the Organization.*
5. Where two or more Governments have a common interest in a particular area, they
should formulate joint proposals for the delineation and use of a routeing system therein
on the basis of an agreement between them. Upon receipt of such proposal and before
proceeding with consideration of it for adoption, the Organization shall ensure details of
the proposal are disseminated to the Governments which have a common interest in the
area, including countries in the vicinity of the proposed ships' routeing system.
6. Contracting Governments shall adhere to the measures adopted by the Organization
concerning ships' routeing. They shall promulgate all information necessary for the safe
and effective use of adopted ships' routeing systems. A Government or Governments
concerned may monitor traffic in those systems. Contracting Governments shall do
everything in their power to secure the appropriate use of ships' routeing systems adopted
by the Organization.
7. A ship shall use a mandatory ships' routeing system adopted by the Organization as
required for its category or cargo carried and in accordance with the relevant provisions
in force unless there are compelling reasons not to use a particular ships' routeing system.
Any such reason shall be recorded in the ships' log.
8. Mandatory ships' routeing systems shall be reviewed by the Contracting Government
or Governments concerned in accordance with the guidelines and criteria developed by
the Organization.
9. All adopted ships' routeing systems and actions taken to enforce compliance with those
systems shall be consistent with international law, including the relevant provisions of the
1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
10. Nothing in this regulation nor its associated guidelines and criteria shall prejudice the
rights and duties of Governments under international law or the legal regimes of straits
used for international navigation and archipelagic sea lanes.
Rule 10 of the COLREGs prescribes the conduct of vessels when navigating through
traffic separation schemes adopted by IMO. IMO's responsibilities are also determined

under the United Nations Convention on Law of The Sea (UNCLOS), which designates
IMO as "the competent international organization" in matters of navigational safety,
safety of shipping traffic and marine environmental protection.
Governments intending to establish a new routeing system, or amend an existing one,
must submit proposed routeing measures to IMO's Sub-Committee on Safety of
Navigation (NAV), which will then evaluate the proposal and make a recommendation
regarding its adoption. The recommendation is then passed to the MSC for adoption.
As well as traffic separation schemes, other routeing measures adopted by IMO to
improve safety at sea include two-way routes, recommended tracks, deep water routes
(for the benefit primarily of ships whose ability to manoeuvre is constrained by their
draught), precautionary areas (where ships must navigate with particular caution), and
areas to be avoided (for reasons of exceptional danger or especially sensitive ecological
and environmental factors).
Ships' routeing systems and traffic separation schemes that have been approved by IMO,
are contained in the IMO Publication, Ships Routeing - 7th Edition, 1999 plus 2002
amendments or on CD, which is updated when schemes are amended or new ones added.
The publication includes General provisions on ships' routeing, first adopted by IMO in
1973, and subsequently amended over the years, which are aimed at standardizing the
design, development, charted presentation and use of routeing measures adopted by IMO.
The provisions state that the objective of ships' routeing is to "improve the safety of
navigation in converging areas and in areas where the density of traffic is great or where
freedom of movement of shipping is inhibited by restricted sea room, the existence of
obstructions to navigation, limited depths or unfavourable meteorological conditions".
Elements used in traffic routeing systems include:

• Traffic Separation Scheme: a routeing measure aimed at the separation of
opposing streams of traffic by appropriate means and by the establishment of traffic lanes
• Traffic Lane: an area within defined limits in which one-way traffic is
established. Natural obstacles, including those forming separation zones, may constitute a
boundary
• Separation Zone Or Line: a zone or line separating traffic lanes in which ships
are proceeding in opposite or nearly opposite directions; or separating a traffic lane from
the adjacent sea area; or separating traffic lanes designated for particular classes of ship
proceeding in the same direction
• Roundabout: a separation point or circular separation zone and a circular traffic
lane within defined limits
• Inshore Traffic Zone: a designated area between the landward boundary of a
traffic separation scheme and the adjacent coast
• Recommended Route: a route of undefined width, for the convenience of ships
in transit, which is often marked by centre line buoys
• Deep-Water Route: a route within defined limits which has been accurately
surveyed for clearance of sea bottom and submerged articles
• Precautionary Area: an area within defined limits where ships must navigate
with particular caution and within which the direction of flow of traffic may be
recommended
• Area To Be Avoided: an area within defined limits in which either navigation is
particularly hazardous or it is exceptionally important to avoid casualties and which
should be avoided by all ships, or by certain classes of ships

Weather routeing
Weather conditions can also affect a ship's navigation, and in 1983 IMO adopted
resolution A.528(13), Recommendation on Weather Routeing, which recognizes that
weather routeing - by which ships are provided with "optimum routes" to avoid bad
weather - can aid safety. It recommends Governments to advise ships flying their flags of
the availability of weather routeing information, particularly that provided by services
listed by the World Meteorological Organization.

EMERGENCIES

CONTENTS of the IAMSAR Manual
Abbreviations and Acronyms

Glossary
Section 1: Overview
Section 2: Rendering Assistance
Section 3: On-Scene Co-ordination
Section 4: On-Board Emergencies
Appendices
Appendix A: Regulation V/33 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life
at Sea, 1974, as amended A-1
Appendix B: Search Action Message B-1
Appendix C: Factors Affecting Observer Effectiveness C-1
Appendix D: Standard Format for Search and Rescue Situation Report
(SITREP) D-1
Appendix E: SAR Briefing and Debriefing Form E-1
PURPOSE
The purpose of the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Manual
for Mobile Facilities is to provide guidance to those who:
 operate aircraft, vessels or other craft, and who may be called upon to use the
facility to support SAR operations
 may need to perform on-scene co-ordinator functions for multiple facilities in the
vicinity of a distress situation
 experience actual or potential emergencies, and may require search and rescue
(SAR) assistance.

IAMSAR MANUALS
IAMSAR, jointly published by IMO & ICAO, comes in three (3) volumes each written
with specific SAR duties in mind.
Vol 1 – Organisation and Management Volume - discusses the global SAR system
concept, establishment of national and regional SAR systems and co-operation with
neighbouring states to provide effective and economical SAR services.
VOL II – Mission Co-ordination Volume - assists personnel who plan and co-ordinate
SAR operations
VOL III – Mobile Facilities - is intended to be carried aboard rescue units, aircraft, and
vessels to help in performance of search, rescue or on-scene co-ordinator functions.
RESPONSIBILITIES AND OBLIGATIONS TO ASSIST
The responsibilities to render assistance to a distressed vessel or aircraft are based on

humanitarian considerations and established international practice.
Ship masters are obligated to assist others in distress at sea whenever they can safely do
so.
NATIONAL AND REGIONAL SAR SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
To carry out these responsibilities, States have established national SAR organizations, or
joined one or more other States to form a regional SAR organization associated with an
ocean area or continent.
A search and rescue region (SRR) is an area of defined dimensions associated with a
rescue co-ordination centre (RCC) within which SAR services are provided.
• SRRs help to define who has primary responsibility for co-ordinating responses to
distress situations in every area of the world, but they are not intended to restrict anyone
from assisting persons in distress
• the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) regional air navigation

plans (RANPs) depict aeronautical SRRs
• the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Global SAR Plan depicts maritime
SRRs

The SAR system has three levels of co-ordination:
1 - SAR Co-ordinators (SCs)
SCs are the top level SAR managers; each State normally will have one or more persons
or agencies for which this designation may be appropriate.
SCs have the overall responsibility for:
• establishing, staffing, equipping and managing the SAR system

• establishing RCCs and rescue sub-centres (RSCs)
• providing or arranging for SAR facilities
• co-ordinating SAR training
• developing SAR policies
2 – SAR Mission Co-ordinators (SMCs)
• Each SAR operation is carried out under the guidance of an SMC. This function
exists only for the duration of a specific SAR incident and is normally performed by the
RCC chief or a designee. The SMC may have assisting staff.
• The SMC guides a SAR operation until a rescue has been effected or it becomes
apparent that further efforts would be of no avail.
• The SMC should be well trained in all SAR processes, be thoroughly familiar
with the applicable SAR plans, and:
- gather information about distress situations
- develop accurate and workable SAR action plans
- dispatch and co-ordinate the resources to carry out SAR missions.
3 – On Scene Co-ordinators (OSCs)
When two or more SAR facilities are working together on the same mission, one person
on-scene may be needed to co-ordinate the activities of all participating facilities.
The SMC designates an OSC, who may be the person in charge of a:

- search and rescue unit (SRU), ship, or aircraft participating in a search, or
- nearby facility in a position to handle OSC duties
- The person in charge of the first facility to arrive at the scene will normally assume the
OSC function until the SMC arranges for that person to be relieved.

Duties of SMC
• obtain and evaluate all data on the emergency
• ascertain the type of emergency equipment carried by the missing or distressed
craft
• remain informed of prevailing environmental conditions
• if necessary, ascertain movements and locations of vessels and alert shipping in
likely search areas for rescue, lookout and/or radio watch
• plot the areas to search and decide on methods and facilities to be used
• develop the search action plan and rescue action plan as appropriate
• co-ordinate the operation with adjacent RCCs when appropriate
• arrange briefing and debriefing of SAR personnel
• evaluate all reports and modify search action plan as necessary
• arrange for refuelling of aircraft and, for prolonged search, make arrangements for
the accommodation of SAR personnel
• arrange for delivery of supplies to sustain survivors
• maintain in chronological order an accurate and up-to-date record
• issue progress reports
• recommend to the RCC chief the abandoning or suspending of the search
• release SAR facilities when assistance is no longer required
• notify accident investigation authorities
• if applicable, notify the State of registry of the aircraft
• prepare a final report.
Duties of OSC
 Co-ordinate operations of all SAR facilities on-scene.
 Receive the search action plan or rescue plan from the SMC or plan the search or
rescue operation, if no plan is otherwise available. (See Planning and Conducting the
Search in this section.)
 Modify the search action or rescue action plan as the situation on scene dictates,
keeping the SMC advised (do in consultation with the SMC when practicable).
 Co-ordinate on-scene communications.
 Monitor the performance of other participating facilities.
 Ensure operations are conducted safely, paying particular attention to maintaining
safe separations among all facilities, both surface and air.
 Make periodic situation reports (SITREPs) to the SMC. The standard SITREP
format may be found in appendix D. SITREPs should include but not be limited to:
• weather and sea conditions
• the results of search to date
• any actions taken
• any future plans or recommendations.
• maintain a detailed record of the operation:
• on-scene arrival and departure times of SAR facilities, other vessels
and aircraft engaged in the operation areas searched
• track spacing used
• sightings and leads reported
• actions taken
• results obtained

 Advise the SMC to release facilities no longer required.
 Report the number and names of survivors to the SMC.
 Provide the SMC with the names and designations of facilities with survivors
aboard.
 Report which survivors are in each facility.
 Request additional SMC assistance when necessary (for example, medical
evacuation of seriously injured survivors).
A rescue coordination centre (RCC) is a primary search and rescue facility in a country
that is staffed by supervisory personnel and equipped for coordinating and controlling
search and rescue operations.
RCC's are responsible for a geographic area, known as a "search and rescue region of
responsibility" (SRR). SRR's are designated by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). RCC's are operated
unilaterally by personnel of a single military service (e.g. an Air Force, or a Navy) or a
single civilian service (e.g. a national Police force, or a Coast Guard).
A Maritime Rescue Sub-Centre or MRSC is a special type of RCC dedicated
exclusively to organizing search and rescue in a maritime environment. A MRSC usually
is subservient to a RCC and is used to take the workload for a particular geographic area
within the SRR.
A Joint Rescue Coordination Centre or JRCC is a special type of RCC that is operated
by personnel from multiple military services, civilian services, or a combination of
military and/or civilian services.

Rendering Assistance
Initial Action by Assisting Craft
Vessels Assisting
• Methods of Distress Notification

• An alarm signal or a distress call from another vessel at sea, either directly or by
relay.
• A distress call or message from aircraft. This usually occurs by relay from a CRS.
• Alert sent from a vessel's alerting equipment and then relayed shore to -
ship.
• Visual signals or sound signals from a nearby distressed craft
Immediate Action
The following immediate action should be taken by any ship receiving a distress
message:
• acknowledge receipt of message.
• gather the following information from the craft in distress if possible:
• - position of distressed craft
• - distressed craft's identity, call sign, and name
• - number of POBs
• - nature of the distress or casualty
• - type of assistance required
• - number of victims, if any
• - distressed craft's course and speed
• - type of craft, and cargo carried
• - any other pertinent information that might facilitate the rescue
• - maintain a continuous watch on the following international frequencies, if
equipped to do so:
- 500 kHz (radiotelegraphy)
- 2182 kHz (radiotelephony)
- 156.8 MHz FM (Channel 16, radiotelephony) for vessel distress
- 121.5 MHz AM (radiotelephony) for aircraft distress
The following information should be communicated to the distressed craft:
• own vessel's identity, call sign, and name

• own vessel's position
• own vessel's speed and estimated time of arrival (ETA) to distressed craft site
• distressed craft's true bearing and distance from ship.
• Use all available means to remain aware of the location of distressed craft (such
as radar plotting, chart plots, Global Positioning System).
• When in close proximity, post extra look-outs to keep distressed craft in sight.

• The ship or CRS co-ordinating distress traffic should establish contact with the
SMC and pass on all available information, updating as necessary.
Proceeding to the Area of Distress

• Establish a traffic co-ordinating system among vessels proceeding to the same
area of distress.
• Maintain active radar plots on vessels in the general vicinity.
• Estimate the ETAs to the distress site of other assisting vessels.
• Assess-the distress situation to prepare for operations on-scene.
On-Board Preparation
• A vessel en route to assist a distressed craft should have the following equipment
ready for possible use:
Life-saving and rescue equipment:

• lifeboat
• inflatable life raft
• lifejackets
• survival suits for the crew
• lifebuoys
• breeches buoys
• portable VHF radios for communication with the ship and boats deployed
• line-throwing apparatus
• buoyant lifelines
• hauling lines
• non-sparking boat hooks or grappling hooks
• hatchets
• rescue baskets
• litters
• pilot ladders
• scrambling nets
• copies of the International Code of Signals
• radio equipment operating on MF/HF and/or VHF/UHF and capable of
communicating with the SMC and rescue facilities, and with a facility for direction
finding (DF)
• supplies and survival equipment, as required
• fire-fighting equipment
• portable ejector pumps
• binoculars
• cameras
• bailers and oars.
Signalling equipment:
• signalling lamps
• searchlights

• torches
• flare pistol with colour-coded signal flares
• buoyant VHF/UHF marker beacons
• floating lights
• smoke generators
• flame and smoke floats
• dye markers
• loud hailers
Preparations for medical assistance, including:

• stretchers
• blankets
• medical supplies and medicines
• clothing
• food
• shelter
Miscellaneous equipment:
• If fitted, a gantry crane for hoisting on each side of ship with a cargo net for
recovery of survivors.
• Line running from bow to stern at the water's edge on both sides for boats and
craft to secure alongside.
• On the lowest weather deck, pilot ladders and manropes to assist survivors
boarding the vessel.
• Vessel's lifeboats ready for use as a boarding station.
• Line-throwing apparatus ready for making connection with either ship in distress
or survival craft.
• Floodlights set in appropriate locations, if recovery at night.
- Life-saving and rescue equipment
- Signalling equipment
- Preparations for medical assistance
Vessels Not Assisting

The master deciding not to proceed to the scene of a distress due to sailing time involved
and in the knowledge that a rescue operation is under way should:
• Make an appropriate entry in the ships’ log-book.
• If the master had previously acknowledged and responded to the alert, report the
decision not to proceed to the SAR service concerned.
• Consider reports unnecessary if no contact has been made with the SAR service.
• Reconsider the decision not to proceed nor report to the SAR service when vessel in
distress is far from land or in an area where density of shipping is low.

Search Patterns
Each search pattern has a specific use. Some are better suited for small, confined areas,
while others are better suited to larger areas.
Regardless of the type of search pattern selected, as a coxswain, you are expected to
understand the SMC’s SAP and be able to complete the assigned search. Once the SMC
determines the search area, a systematic search for the object must be planned.
The SMC will consider weather, search area size, search object size, numbers of SRU’s
available, search area location, and time limitations in deciding which pattern to use.
Search patterns are designated by letters. The first letter indicates the general pattern
group:
T = Trackline P = Parallel C = Creeping Line V = Sector S = Square
The second letter indicates the number of SRU’s assigned to that pattern:
S = Single Unit M = Multi-unit
The third letter indicates specialized patterns or instructions; the three most commonly
used are:
R = Return N = Non-return C = Co-ordinated
Track Spacing (S)
The distance between adjacent tracks in a search pattern of a rescuing ship is called track
spacing. The distance ‘S’ between tracks is found out from the table given in IAMSAR
based on object of search and the visibility. An appropriate weather correction factor is
applied depending on prevailing wind force.
Radius is normally taken as 10 NM if search is to be commenced immediately otherwise

it is calculated.

IAMSAR SEARCH PATTERNS
Expanding Square Search (SS)
Used when
• The search area is small
• The location of the search object is known within relatively close limits, but some doubt
exists about the distress position, and
• A concentrated search is desired
• Not too many vessels/crafts can take part due to small area involved
Description:
The SRU goes to the best known location of the search object. This becomes the centre
(datum) of the search area. Datum should be marked with a buoy, life ring, strobe light,
etc. The first leg will begin from datum in the direction of drift for one track space (S). If
there is no drift, the first leg will be true north.
Search leg length is increased by one track space on every other leg.
A second search is performed by rotating the search pattern 45° to the right.

Parallel Sweep Search (PS)
Used when
• The search area is large, location uncertain
• Area to be subdivided for assignment to other SRUs
• Multiple vessels can be used
• Search commences from one end of the sub-area and search legs are parallel
Description:
The SRU searches parallel to the long side (major axis) of the search area, moving over
one track on the return. This process continues until the entire search area has been
searched or the search object is located. The Commence Search Point (CSP) is located ½
track space (S) inside the search area in the specified corner.

Sector Search (VS)
Used when
• The search area is small and location is known
• Must not be used by multiple aircraft/vessels
• An aircraft and a vessel may be used together to perform independent sector searches of
the same area.
Description:
The SRU goes to the best known location of the search object. This becomes the centre
(datum) of the search area. Datum should be marked with a buoy, life ring, strobe light,
etc.
The first leg will begin from datum in the direction of drift for one track space (S). If
there is
no drift, the first leg will be true north, 000°T, the second leg is 120°T, the next is 240°T
and so on.
All course changes are 120° to the right and the length of all legs are equal to one track
space (S).
A second search (with the same SRU – VS) is performed by rotating the search pattern
30° to the right beginning at datum. A second search (with a second SRU – VM) is
performed by rotating the search pattern 90° to the left beginning at datum.

Trackline Search, Return (TSR/TSN)
Used when
• An aircraft or vessel has disappeared without a trace along a known route
• Often aircrafts used as initial search effort due to ease of planning and
implementation.
• A rapid and reasonably thorough coverage of the missing air craft’s/vessel’s

intended track
Description:
Usually the first search effort in an overdue case since it’s assumed that the search object
is near track and either it will be easily seen or the survivors will signal. The SRU
searches out ½ track space (S) in the direction of the intended track from the origin to the
destination and ends ½ S on the other side of the origin.

Creeping Line Search (CS)
Used when
• The search area is large
• Creeping line search, co-ordinated is often used.
• The aircraft does most of the searching, while the ship steams along a course at a
speed as directed by the OSC so that the aircraft can use it as a navigational checkpoint.
Description:
The SRU searches parallel to the short side (minor axis) of the search area, moving over
one track on the return. This process continues until the entire search area has been
searched or the search object is located. The Commence Search Point (CSP) is located ½
track space (S) inside the search area in the specified corner.

Sightings and Identification
While searching, you may encounter objects that need to be investigated.
If you need to divert and leave the search pattern, do so only after recording or marking
the position and progress in the search pattern to which you are assigned.
Once sighting identification is complete, and the results are negative, return to the
position recorded and continue the search.
Notify SMC how much time is spent evaluating sightings
Completing the Mission
The SAR System is deactivated or shut down under one of the following situations:
• Case Closed – The distressed person or craft is located and necessary assistance is
rendered
• False Alarm – The person or craft reported to be in distress has been determined not to
be in distress and does not need further assistance; and
• Active Search Suspended (ACTSUS) – Suspending the search after exhausting all
possible hope for locating survivors with the information known
Assistance to Ditching Aircraft

Aircraft usually sink quickly, within minutes. Vessels will often be the rescue facility.
When an aircraft decides to ditch in the vicinity of a ship, the ship should:
 transmit homing bearings to the aircraft
 transmit signals enabling the aircraft to take its own bearings
 by day, make black smoke
 by night, direct a searchlight vertically and turn on all deck lights
(care must be taken NOT to direct a searchlight towards the aircraft which may adversely
affect the pilot's vision).
A ship which knows that an aircraft intends to ditch should prepare to give the pilot the
following information:
 wind direction and force,
 direction, height, and length of primary and secondary swell systems,
 current state of the sea,
 current state of the weather.
The pilot of an aircraft will choose his own ditching heading. If this is known by the ship,
it should set course parallel to the ditching heading.


Safety Preparations
A briefing to discuss the safety aspects and operational details of helicopter ship
operations should be held for all involved personnel prior to the operation's
commencement.
Wherever available, the following fire-fighting equipment or its equivalent should be
ready during helicopter operations:
 at least two dry powder extinguishers with an aggregate capacity of not less than
45 kg
 a suitable foam application system (fixed or portable), capable of delivering a
foam solution at a rate of not less than 6 litres per minute for each square metre of clear
zone and sufficient foam compound to enable the rate to be maintained for at least five
minutes
 carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers with an aggregate capacity of not less than 18
kg
 a deck water system capable of delivering at least two jets of water to any part of
the helicopter operating area
 at least two fire hose nozzles which should be of the dual-purpose type
 fire-resistant blankets and gloves
 sufficient fire proximity suits
 portable fire-fighting equipment for oil fires should be stationed near the
disembarkation space if possible, the fire-fighting pump should be started and hoses
should be connected and kept in readiness.
For better identification from the air, and also for showing the direction of the wind to the
helicopter pilot, flags and pennants should be flown.
All crew members concerned, as well as the persons to be evacuated, should wear
lifejackets & this precaution may be amended when it would cause unjustifiable
deterioration of the condition of the patient to be transferred.
Care should be taken that the patient does not wear loose clothing or headgear.
On no account should the lifting device on the end of the winch cable be secured to any
part of the ship or become entangled in the rigging of fixtures.
Ship's personnel should not attempt to grasp the lifting device unless requested to do so
by the helicopter crew.
 Even in this case, a metal part of the lifting device should first be allowed to touch
the deck in order to avoid possible shock due to static electricity.
When helicopter winching is to be done from carriers of flammable or explosive cargo, in
the vicinity of a flammable mixture spillage, the winching must be grounded clear of
spillage or the carrier's tank venting area in order to preclude a possible fire or explosion
from an electrostatic discharge.
The helicopter pilot will want to approach the ship in such a way that the helicopter will
hover into the relative wind and with the pilot's side (starboard) closest to the ship during
the approach.
If the helicopter is to approach in the usual manner, from the stern, the ship should
maintain a constant speed through the water and keep the wind 30 degrees on the port
bow or on either beam if the area is amidships, or 30 degrees on the starboard quarter if
the area is forward.

A flow of air, as free of turbulence as possible, clear of smoke and other visibility
restrictions, over the pick-up area is very important. These procedures may be modified
on instructions from the pilot if communications exist.
Personal belongings should not be taken along.
 Loose gear can become entangled in the winch cable or pulled up into the
helicopter rotors.
Care of Survivors
 After a rescue, survivors may require hospital treatment.

 They must be delivered to a place of safety as quickly as possible.
 The SMC should be advised if ambulances are needed.
 SAR personnel should be alert and ensure that after rescue, survivors are not to be
left alone, particularly if injured or showing signs of physical or mental exhaustion.
 When survivors are delivered to a hospital, the person in charge of the delivering
facility should provide information on all initial medical treatment given to the survivors.
 Survivor information should include:
• type of injury suffered by the patient
o describe serious injury
o describe secondary injuries
 how the injury occurred
o the history of the most serious injury may give valuable insight into the nature and
extent of injuries which may not be noticed otherwise
 past medical history
o includes previous surgery
o congenital defects
o illnesses, allergies
o medication taken
 results of a full secondary assessment, including
o vital signs
o other signs
o symptoms
 treatment given
o particularly morphine and similar narcotic drugs
o amounts and times administered
 times when tourniquets, splints, or compress bandages were applied
 for stretcher cases, this information should be noted and placed in a waterproof
pouch, and securely attached to the survivor
 medical records pertaining to the survivor should be delivered to the hospital as
soon as possible.

Person Overboard
Three Situations
• Immediate action
The person overboard is noticed from the bridge and action is taken immediately.
• Delayed action
The person is reported to the bridge by an eyewitness and action is initiated with some
delay.
• Person-missing action
The person is reported to the bridge as missing.
Ship Manoeuvres
• When the possibility exists that a person has fallen overboard, the crew must attempt to
recover the individual as soon as possible.
• Some factors that will affect the speed of recovery include:
- ship's manoeuvring characteristics
- wind direction and sea state
- crew's experience and level of training
- capability of the engine plant
- location of the incident
- visibility level
- recovery technique
- possibility of having other vessels assist.
• Initial Action
• Throw a life-ring over the side as close to the person as possible.
• Sound three prolonged blast of ship's whistle, hail "Person Overboard".
• Commence recovery manoeuvre as indicated below.
• Note position, wind speed & direction, time.
• Inform master of vessel and engine-room.
• Post look-outs to keep the person in sight.
• Set off dye marker or smoke flare.
• Inform radio operator, keep updated on position.
• Stand by the engines.
• Prepare lifeboat for possible launching.
• Distribute portable VHP radios for communication between bridge, deck, and lifeboat.
• Rig pilot ladder to assist in recovery.

Standard Methods of Recovery
Williamson turn
 makes good original track line

 good in reduced visibility
 simple
 takes the ship farther away from the scene of the incident
 slow procedure
Williamson turn
 Rudder hard over (in an "immediate action" situation,

only to the side of the casualty).
 After deviation from the original course by 60°, rudder hard over to the opposite
side.
 When heading 20° short of opposite course, rudder to amidships position and ship
to be turned to opposite course.

One turn ("Single turn, Anderson turn")
 fastest recovery method

 good for ships with tight turning characteristics
 used most by ships with considerable power
 very difficult for a single-screw vessel
 difficult because approach to person is not straight
250°
Anderson (Single) turn (270° manoeuvre)
 Rudder hard over (in an "immediate action" situation, only to the side of the
casualty).
 After deviation from the original course by 250°, rudder to amidships position
and stopping manoeuvre to be initiated.

Scharnov turn
 will take vessel back into her wake

 less distance is covered, saving time
 cannot be carried out effectively unless the time elapsed between occurrence of
the incident and the commencement of the manoeuvre is known
Scharnov turn
(Not to be used in an "immediate action" situation.)
 Rudder hard over.

 After deviation from the original course by 240°, rudder hard over to the
opposite side.
 When heading 20° short of opposite course, rudder to amidships position so that
ship will turn to opposite course.
(Note: The underlined part indicates the disadvantages of the turn)

Appendix A - Regulation V/33 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life
at Sea, 1974, as amended Distress messages: obligations and procedures
1. The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance, on

receiving a signal from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to proceed
with all speed to their assistance, if possible informing them or the search and rescue
service that the ship is doing so. If the ship receiving the distress alert is unable or, in the
special circumstances of the case, considers it unreasonable or unnecessary to proceed to
their assistance, the master must enter in the log-book the reason for failing to proceed to
the assistance of the persons in distress, taking into account the recommendation of the
Organization to inform the appropriate search and rescue service accordingly.
2. The master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue service concerned, after
consultation, so far as may be possible, with the masters of ships which answer the
distress alert, has the right to requisition one or more of those ships as the master of the
ship in distress or the search and rescue service considers best able to render assistance,
and it shall be the duty of the master or masters of the ship or ships requisitioned to
comply with the requisition by continuing to proceed with all speed to the assistance of
persons in distress.
3. Masters of ships shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph 1 on

learning that their ships have not been requisitioned and that one or more other ships have
been requisitioned and are complying with the requisition. This decision shall, if possible,
be communicated to the other requisitioned ships and to the search and rescue service.
4. The master of a ship shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph 1 and,
if his ship has been requisitioned, from the obligation imposed by paragraph
on being informed by the persons in distress or by the search and rescue service or by the
master of another ship which has reached such persons that assistance is no longer
necessary.
5. The provisions of this regulation do not prejudice the Convention for the Unification of
Certain Rules of Law Relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea, signed at Brussels on 23
September 1910, particularly the obligation to render assistance imposed by article 11 of
that Convention.

FUNCTION 2

CARGO WORK

CHAPTER 1
HOLD INSPECTION & PREPARATION REQUIREMENTS

Reasons for a general inspection of holds are as follows:-
The hold of a dry bulk ship must be prepared suitably to receive the intended cargo , so as
to fulfil the need to carry and ultimately discharge without any damage or deterioration of
the cargo . To achieve this the hold must be inspected entirely covering all parts from top
to bottom including the bilges.
items to be inspected
1) Hatch covers / coamings/ drain channels.
2) Tank top / Watertight manholes covers .
3) Hoppers , top and bottom
4) Sounding pipes/ temperature pipes ( if fitted).
5) Ventilators
6) Ladders
7) Shipside frames including brackets .
8) Any other ship specific .
It is important to clean all holds before loading

If holds are not cleaned thoroughly, the previous cargo will get mixed up with the new
cargo, hence contaminating it .
General method of cleaning holds after discharge of a general cargo is as under:-
Thoroughly sweep , remove the dry cargo, and then hose it down with seawater , finally
rinsing with Fresh water if required , and drying manually or with ventilation.

CHAPTER 2
DUNNAGE
Dunnage is used for general / break-bulk cargo , so as to spread the weight uniformly , for
enabling lashing to be taken , and preventing any damage to cargo due ship sweat or
unintentional water logging.
types and sizes of material used for dunnage .
Dunnage is the name used for all materials which are not firmly attached to the cargo
transport unit, the cargo or its packaging, and are used to protect the goods and their
packaging from moisture, contamination and mechanical damage. It includes - wooden
dunnage, beams, planks, boards, wedges, plywood and hardboards, walking boards,
mats, paper, sailcloth, canvas and tarpaulins; plastic and metal sheets, spray covers;
cardboard and paperboard, packing paper, oiled paper and fabric paper, talcum
powder etc.
The main functions of dunnage are:
• Protection against sweat and condensation water

• Protection against moisture and liquids
• Protection against soiling and contamination
• Protection against mechanical damage
The nature of the materials used must ensure that the packages or the cargo transport
unit are adequately protected. The materials themselves must not be wet, moist, odour-
tainted or contaminated. The quality of the material must determine for each individual
case by assessing the value and susceptibility to damage of the load, the means of
transport, the intended protection and other similar factors. The special properties of the
particular type of dunnage used must be taken into account.
Wooden dunnage made of squared lumber, planks, boards, roof bows, slats and battens,
are very suitable for distributing pressure, bridging or lining cavities and gaps, creating
air channels and enhancing friction. Since wood can be infested by pests, only wood
which has been impregnated against insects or fumigated may be used on certain trade
routes.
Wooden boards, wooden panels, walking boards, chipboard and hardboards are very
suitable for distributing pressure and have a high loading capacity provided they are
sufficiently thick. Since water-repellent, pest-proof or fire-retarding wood is odour-
tainted as a result of such treatment or could have other harmful effects, it must virtually
never be used with foodstuffs or similar items.
Mats made of bamboo, reed, etc. only protect against surface dirt, not against dust. They
absorb moisture and under certain circumstances release it back into the atmosphere. This
can protect adjacent loads. Mats are easy to put in place and roll back up again, and do
not cause any significant loss of stowage space.
Canvas has a water-repellent impregnation and therefore not suitable for odour-sensitive
goods. They are dust-tight. They impede air circulation.

Tarpaulins are watertight, dust-tight and airtight and very expensive. They must be
handled with care if a long life is to be expected. It is very rare that tarpaulins will not be
needed as a cover to protect against moisture and similar influences.
Jute coverings, also known as "wrappers", protect against surface dirt but not dust. They
are breathable and allow a minimal amount of ventilation. They pass on absorbed
moisture to the wrapped or surrounding cargo items.
Sailcloth has similar properties to canvas.
Plastic sheeting is available in a number of different thicknesses. It is neutral in odour,

inexpensive and generally acid-proof and alkali-proof. It is watertight, dust-tight and
airtight but only impervious to water vapour to a limited degree. It has a low loading
capacity if it is not sufficiently thick. Composite sheeting is often very heavy-duty but
comparatively expensive.
Paper, e.g. normal kraft paper, is inexpensive and dust-tight, but very sensitive to
moisture. Fabric paper has a higher strength. Oiled paper is watertight. Tissue paper is
acid-free.
Dispersible material such as talcum powder and similar materials can be used to prevent
cargoes from "caking" together.
Depending on their use and application, a distinction is made between:
• Floor dunnage
• Interlayer dunnage
• Top dunnage
• Side (lateral) dunnage
Floor dunnage is used for the following tasks:
• Dissipating and localizing sweat and moisture

• Protecting the load from moisture and dampness on moist or wet stowage surfaces
or stowage spaces
• Dissipating or restraining moisture leaking out of the load, to protect other
packages or the cargo transport unit
• Protecting the load from soiling, contamination or mechanical damage from the
stowage surface or stowage spaces
• Protecting the cargo transport unit against negative influences from the goods
Floor dunnage protects moisture-sensitive cargoes, such as bagged cargo (e.g. coffee,
cocoa) or bales (e.g. tobacco, tea) from sweat, which forms on a ship's sides and runs off
over the decks. The floor dunnage "lifts" the cargo off the deck, so that water is able to
flow off without coming into contact with the cargo. In the case of very sensitive cargoes,
the space between cargo and deck has to be enlarged or at least great care must be taken
to ensure that the cargo does not under any circumstances come into contact with the

deck over which sweat may flow. This is achieved by a double layer of dunnage or criss-
cross dunnage.
Interlayer dunnage Simple floor dunnage made of wooden dunnage

boards
Side dunnage (such as spar ceiling) has similar functions to floor dunnage:
• Protection against damp or moisture penetrating from the side as a result of
sweat or leakage from other cargo, but also protection of other cargo or of the means of
transport against liquids escaping from the side of a load.
• Protection against soiling and contamination on the sides, both of a single load
against other loads or from parts of the means of transport, or protecting the latter against
a specific load.
• Protection against mechanical damage or other damage, such as chafing, tearing,

chemical reactions etc. both with regard to a specific cargo and to other cargoes or parts
of the means of transport.
Most general cargo ships have spar ceilings. These are wooden laths connected securely
to the ship, which prevent direct contact between the cargo and the ship's side and allow
the sweat to flow downwards over the steel ship's side. Sweat may form in particularly
large amounts in holds under the water line during voyages from hot to cold climates.
To protect against damp or moisture or harmful dust penetrating from the sides,
watertight and dust-tight materials such as plastic sheeting, oiled paper and tarpaulins are
to be used. Under certain conditions, canvas and mats should also be used, but never
wrappers or paper.
Sweat formation always occurs when temperature differences are too high, either with a
positive temperature difference on the load or a negative temperature difference on
components of the means of transport.

Practical experience shows that wooden dunnage boards, wooden boards, mats etc.
provide good protection against mechanical damage. Whether or not it is necessary to use
additional materials depends on the particular circumstances.
Top dunnage is laid to prevent the consequences of leakage, sweat formation, bad
weather, vertical shipping loads etc., which could damage a particular cargo or the cargo
transport unit and its components.
The main functions of top dunnage are:
• Protection against damp or moisture (sweat dripping from the deck, in particular
the weather deck)
• Protection against dust or substances which threaten contamination or chemical
reactions, (dust, cargo residues, hydraulic oil etc.)
• Protection against mechanical damage anticipated to arise from above or acting in
an upward direction
All previously described materials can be used as top dunnage materials.
To protect against damp or moisture penetrating from the top, or to prevent moisture from
being allowed to permeate upward, plastic sheeting, oiled paper, tarpaulins and other
watertight materials have proved themselves in practice.
Special absorbent, nonwoven

fabric cover as top dunnage
This type of nonwoven fabric can absorb relatively large quantities of dripping water.
Since the weight increases when these properties are used, it must be attached carefully.
The hygroscopicity of the generally sensitive goods means that top dunnage must allow a
minimum of air circulation and evaporation. For this reason, air-permeable materials are
used, such as paper, rice or bamboo matting and jute coverings.
Interlayer dunnage variously has the functions of floor dunnage, side dunnage or top
dunnage, depending on how it is arranged. It is laid between two different batches or
individual goods in a batch or load type.

Interlayer
dunnage on a load of pails
Interlayer dunnage may fulfil two functions:

protection of an underlying cargo from contamination by a top cargo
segregation of individual batches of cargo.
In some cases, it simultaneously helps secure the load by increasing friction, improving
the distribution of load forces or improving the stability of the load.
All materials which have been described can be used. In addition, powdery substances
such as talcum powder are introduced in the form of an intermediate layer or are
sprinkled between layers, to prevent loads from sticking together, e.g. with bales of raw
rubber.
Interlayer dunnage comprised of mats provides adequate firmness and protects against
mechanical damage.
Container dunnage:
Standard containers are constructed so as to be spray-tight. For this reason, they do not
have water drainage holes, since they would impair tightness. As the sweat has no way of
draining way, as it does in a general cargo ship via wells and bilges, wooden dunnage is
not very appropriate for use in standard containers. Floor and side dunnage is used to
protect the cargo from contamination. Top dunnage has become increasingly significant
in containers. Since a standard container cannot be ventilated, humidity levels become
very high inside a container. Hot air rises upwards and moisture contained in the air
condenses on the underside of the container ceiling during the night (cooling of the
external air) or in transit from hot to cold climes.
Old dunnage may be disposed of along with the bottom cargo discharge in understanding
with the stevedores or as per MARPOL.
dirty dunnage may taint or contaminate the next cargo

The dunnage materials must be clean and not dirty or greasy , else it may taint the
cargo or spoil it.
SPAR ceilings are wooden boards fitted on ship side frames to prevent break-bulk
cargo coming in direct contact with shipside , and preventing any damage due to ship
sweat.
The bilges must be clean/ dry and not foul smelling which may contaminate the cargo.

The one way bilge suction valve must be tested prior each loading and same logged .
The bilge covers must be covered by jute( burlap) cloth , so the cargo may not fall in
bilges , thus blocking it , at the same time allowing any water content to seep through
which may be pumped out.
Any ballast lines or tanks must be leak free else may become source of waterlogging in
dry cargo holds.
If any foul or strong smell from the holds or bilges , branded deodorants may be used.
CHAPTER 3
Segregation and separation of cargoes
Different types of cargoes must be segregated, namely

- dangerous goods
- dry cargo
- wet cargo
- clean cargo
- dirty cargo
- delicate cargo
- valuable cargo, e.g. bank notes, personal effects
Various methods could involve stowing the cargoes in such a way so as they do not
chemically react adversely with incompatible cargoes .
Some edible foodstuff / bulk cargo does not get tainted with foul smell, some other
dirty bulk cargoes may spoil other clean cargoes such as machinery etc. .
While carrying general cargo , port of discharge must be borne in mind , keeping
cargo on upper decks / tween decks or upper layers for the first port of discharge
and the cargo in bottom holds for later ports of discharge .
Adjacent parcels of cargo may be separated by either by separation cloth or
tarpaulins , or even marking packages in different colour codes .

CHAPTER 4
Securing cargoes
Lashing Code(CSS: CODE OF SAFE PRACTICE FOR CARGO STOWAGE AND

SECURING) Applies to all ships carrying cargo , other than wet cargoes , bulk
cargoes or timber deck cargoes. Which specifies the standards and methods of lashing?
all cargoes which are in particular liable to shift and result in damage .
Cargo Securing Manual ( CSM)
all ships to have on board a “ Cargo Securing Manual” , which should be ship specific
and approved by administration or by class on behalf of administration.
CSM will have the inventory of all lashing equipment on board, its location, the
person responsible for maintenance of same.
It would also illustrate methods of lashing various cargoes which may be carried on
board .
All cargoes must be properly and solidly stowed and lashed , if not then during
voyage it may shift resulting in damage . There should not be any play in the lashing
and the tightening of wires must be monitored all the voyage.
Some cargoes like steel rails should be stowed fore and aft in order to prevent
shipside damage during rolling .
Various methods of blocking, lashing, shoring and tomming cargo are illustrated below


Methods of securing heavy loads

• Attachment of Lashings to Heavy Cargo Items
 If lashings are to be attached to securing points on the item, these securing points
should be of adequate strength and clearly marked. It should be borne in mind that
securing points designed for road or rail transport may not be suitable for securing the
items on board ship.
 Lashings attached to items without securing points should pass around the item, or
a rigid part thereof, and both ends of the lashing should be secured to the same side of the
unit (figure 2).
Securing devices should be assembled so that each component is of equal strength.
Particular attention should be paid to the correct use of wire, grips and clips. The
saddle portion of the clip should be applied to the live load segment and the U-bolt to
the dead or shortened end segment.
Mixed securing arrangements of devices with different strength and elongation

characteristics should be avoided

Various methods of stowing and securing vehicles and trailers
The manufacturer's loading instructions must be complied with.
Cargo securing is basically dependent upon the available securing means, the weight and
type of vehicle and where it is stowed.
The means of transport must be equipped for lashing vehicles correctly (lashings, lashing
points, such as lashing rings and lashing pots and the like). When lashing belts are used,
care must be taken to ensure that the same numbers of lashing belts are used at both front
and rear. If no specific loading instructions are available, such lashings are attached to
special lashing rings (see fig 1) or to the vehicle's towing gear. If no or insufficient
lashing rings are available, the lashings may be attached to the springs, axles and, under
certain circumstances, to the chassis or vehicle frame. Lashings must not, however, be
fixed to wheels, rims or bumpers.
Cargo securing examples:
Ro-Ro ship, special Ro-Ro ship (car carrier):
Use lashing belts (e.g. special automobile lashing belts with lever ratchet tensioners) to
absorb horizontal forces in order to avoid slippage and tipping. In maritime transport,
lashing belts should be tight, but not highly pre-stressed. The vehicles are generally
secured with 2 lashing belts to the front and 2 to the rear.
On inclined surfaces (ramps) and in the case of stowage athwart ships, wheel chocks are
additionally used and the number of front and rear lashing belts on the must should be
increased appropriately.
Conventional ship or container:
Use lashing belts together with wheel chocks; in the case of stowage athwart ships and on
inclined surfaces, the number of front and rear lashing belts on the vehicle must be

increased appropriately. In maritime transport, lashing belts should be tight, but not
highly pre stressed.
A webbing tape is fixed to the vehicle towing eye so that there are no problems in
attaching two automobile lashing belts.
Automobiles secured on board a RO-RO ship.
Automobiles secured on board a RO-RO ship.

Load securing with wheel chocks and three-point lashing belt on a double-decker vehicle.
Load securing with wheel chocks and three-point lashing belt on a double-decker vehicle.

Securing Gear
A basic securing lashing may comprise the pieces listed below and its strength is that of
the weakest link.
1. Wire of suitable strength. (MSL). Wire measured in diameter, parts, and strands.
2. Wire /bulldog clips to tie the wire. (Must be fitted correctly).
3. Turnbuckles/ bottle-screws to tension the lashing
4. Shackles to fasten the ends.
A securing lashing will always break at the weakest point or at the part with the lowest
breaking strength so make sure you know the breaking strength of all lashing materials
used. Protect the lashing material from additional weakening factors such as sharp edges,
bending of bottle screws and shackles.
Where bottle-screws or turnbuckles are introduced the rating of this equipment must be
equal to the maximum weight each lashing is expected to bear.
"Maximum securing load" (MSL) is a term used to define the load capacity for a device
used to secure cargo to a ship. Maximum securing load is to securing devices as safe
working load is to lifting tackle.
Containers, trailers, portable tanks and other cargo units should be secured in accordance
with the ship’s securing arrangements manual
Cargo securing manual

• Ships carrying cargo units and other entities, vehicles in ships, road vehicles on
Ro-Ro ships and/or cargo in freight containers or vehicles, should carry a Cargo Securing
Manual.
• The Cargo securing arrangements detailed in the ship's Cargo Securing Manual, if
provided, should be based on the forces expected to affect the cargo carried by the ship,
calculated in accordance with the method described in Annex 13 of the CSS Code or with
a method accepted by the Administration.
• The information contained in the Cargo Securing Manual should include the
following items as appropriate:
 Details of fixed securing arrangements and their locations (pad eye,

eyebolts, elephant-feet, etc.);
 locations and stowage of portable securing gear;
 details of portable securing gear including an inventory of items provided
and their strengths;
 examples of correct application of portable securing gear on various cargo
units, vehicles and other entities carried on the ship;
 Indication of the variation of transverse, longitudinal and vertical
accelerations to be expected in various positions on board the ship.

CHAPTER 5
Ventilation and control of sweat

Cargo Ventilation
Speaking generally, bulk cargoes are ventilated to prevent the formation of cargo sweat
or ship’s sweat which could damage the cargo, to reduce the harmful heating of a cargo,
and/or to remove hazardous gases from the cargo spaces. Ventilation in the wrong
circumstances can do considerable harm and before a decision is made to ventilate a
space it is necessary to consider the requirements of the cargo, the temperature and
humidity within the holds and outside and the presence or absence of sea spray. The types
and positions of ventilators with which the ship is provided must also be taken into
account.
Hold ventilators: Most bulk carriers built since 2000 are provided with two hold
ventilators set into the forward end of the hatch covers and a similar pair of ventilators set
into the after end of the hatch covers.(Figs. 15.1) These are easy to open or close, easy to
clean, cheap to fit and maintain but are more exposed to sea water and spray on deck than
are mushroom ventilators, and therefore require more attention. Ventilators of this type
do not contain fans. The arrangements within the hatch cover depend upon whether the
hatch panels are single (Fig. 15.2) or double (Fig. 15.3) skinned.
Older bulk carrier and any bulk carriers fitted with mechanical ventilation are more likely
to be provided with two or four ventilation trunks per hold, with one or two situated at the
fore end of the hold, and one or two at the after end.

To avoid passing through the topside tanks these ventilator trunks are situated close to the
ship’s centreline. Within the hold each such trunk often terminates in a simple square,
round or rectangular opening in the deck head (Fig. 15.4). Alternatively trunking may
continue down the bulkhead, with slots at intervals to admit air to the hold at various
levels. Portable plates can be put in place to close the lower slots, when ventilation at
lower levels in the cargo is not wanted.
Above deck the ventilation trunks may stand alone, each fitted with a mushroom cowl
which gives some protection from spray and from the direct force of any wind (Fig. 15.5
and 25.6), or they may be built into the structures of the mast houses with openings
situated in the mast house sides, the mast house top (Fig. 6.1), or at the masthead (Fig.
6.3).
Every ventilator must be provided with a means of closing so that all ventilation can be
stopped in the event of fire. The means of closing may be in the form of a ventilator flap
(or ‘damper’) set within the vent trunk (Fig. 6.3) and operated by an external lever, or a
watertight door (Fig. 6.1), or may consist of a cowl which can be screwed down into a
closed position by the operation of a valve wheel (Fig. 6.2 and 15.5).
Some bulk carriers are provided with ventilator fans set in the trunks of ventilators. When
fans are provided they are normally fitted in the ventilator or ventilators at one end of the
hold. Ventilator fans can usually be run in both directions so that they can be used either
to deliver air to the hold or to draw air from the hold.

It may be possible to vary the speed of the fans, selecting full speed or half speed or a
larger range of options. Ventilation assisted by fans is known as mechanical or forced
draught ventilation, whilst ventilation which occurs as a result of natural movement of air
is called natural ventilation. Natural ventilation can occur as a result of a wind blowing,
the ship’s motion, or the circulation of air resulting from temperature differences.
The Regina Oldendorff is provided with one ventilator at each end of each hold.
These ventilators pass vertically through the mast houses with the forward ventilator in
each hold being on the starboard side and the after ventilator on the port side. The
ventilators terminate on top of the mast houses with grilles which face aft and are
provided with watertight doors (Fig. 6.1). No fans are provided, so any ventilation is
natural.
Some older vessels are provided with ventilators of the hinged-door type set into the
hatch covers, or with portable ventilator cowls, in addition to the mushroom or cowl
ventilators at the extremities of the hold. Such additional ventilators are required to
provide surface ventilation within the hatch square when a ship is carrying a cargo which
fills the hold to coaming level, thereby sealing off the hatch square from the rest of the

compartment (Fig. 15.6). The portable ventilator cowls have to be bolted in position on
the hatch covers when blank plates have been removed.
Reasons for ventilating bulk cargoes: A number of difficult cargoes have special
ventilation requirements to prevent overheating or to remove dangerous gases.
In such cases Masters and officers should be guided by any instructions provided by
owners, charterers, shippers and/or the IMSBC Code.
In Chapter 19 the carriage of several typical cargoes is described and these provide a
good illustration of the varied reasons for ventilating. Coal is ventilated to remove
hazardous gases. With steel a major object is to avoid the formation of sweat, which
would damage the cargo. Iron ore has no particular need for ventilation although it is
desirable to maintain a dry and healthy atmosphere in the holds for access and to reduce
corrosion.
When there is no special need to remove gases, the reason for ventilating is to remove
moist air and replace it with drier air to discourage the formation of sweat.
Sweat: Sweat is the name given by seamen to condensation which occurs in a ship’s
cargo spaces. There are two types of sweat, ship’s sweat and cargo sweat. For sweat to
occur there must be moisture in the hold atmosphere and a difference of temperature
between the in the hold and the cargo or the ship’s steelwork.
The temperature difference usually occurs as the ship moves from one climatic region to
another or from a cold to a warm current or vice versa, and the larger the change in
temperature the more likely is the formation of sweat.
Sources of moisture in cargo spaces: The most important source of moisture in a hold is
the cargo. Most commodities, particularly materials of vegetable origin, possess some
natural moisture and create an atmosphere, known as the storage atmosphere, in any
compartment in which they are stored23. Moisture in a hold can also be the result of

rainfall during loading and the air in a hold will be moist if conditions were moist when
the hold was closed on completion of loading.
The amount of moisture in the air is measured by its dew point, which is the lowest
temperature to which a mass of air can be reduced without condensation occurring. As
condensation is a ‘bad thing’ it is helpful to remember that air with a high dew point is a
‘bad thing’. Dew point is obtained from a table, entered with readings taken from the wet
and dry bulb hygrometer.
Cargo sweat: Cargo sweat consists of condensation which forms on the surface of cold
cargo when warm moist air comes in contact with it (Fig. 15.7). Cargo sweat will form
when the dew point of the air in the hold is higher than the temperature of the cargo. This
is most likely to occur when the ship has loaded a cargo in a cold region and air is
admitted to the hold as the ship is travelling towards a warmer region.
To prevent cargo sweat when passing from a cold region to a warm region all ventilation
should be stopped and the hold should be kept closed, with the air unchanged, as far as
possible. The temperature of the cargo will only rise very slowly to equal the external
atmosphere, and so long as the hold remains closed the air within it will gradually
become warmer and able to hold more moisture.
With an inert cargo the dew point of the air in the non-ventilated hold remains constant as
it warms up. If the cargo contains moisture it will give off moisture as it warms up.
However, as the heat will flow from the shell of the ship into the hold atmosphere and
from the hold atmosphere to the cargo, the temperature of the hold air stays a step ahead
of the cargo temperature. Any moisture given off by the cargo can be held in the air.
It will be safe and desirable to ventilate only after the surface temperature of the cargo
has risen to equal that of the air outside the hold or when the external air is exceptionally
dry, so that its dew point is lower than the temperature of the cargo.
Ship’s sweat: Ship’s sweat is the condensation which occurs when warm moist air in the
hold comes into contact with the cold steelwork which forms the deck and shell plating of
the ship (Fig. 15.8). Ship’s sweat will form when the dew point of the air in the hold is
higher than the temperature of the ship’s steelwork, conditions most likely to be met
when the ship has loaded in a warm region and is steaming towards colder climates.

Ship’s sweat caused by a low external air temperature is most likely to be deposited first
in the vicinity of the hatch coaming and the fore and after ends of the hold amidships, as
the topside tanks or double hull, even when empty, provide an insulating layer which
delays the penetration of cold from the external air to the plating forming the tank/hold
separation.
When a cold current is met, causing a low sea temperature, the side shell plating between
the topside and lower hopper tanks will be cooled, providing conditions favourable for
the formation of ship’s sweat in those areas.
When passing from a warm region to a cold region full ventilation should be continued
whenever possible in order to withdraw moist air from the hold and replace it by drier
external air. If the cargo contains moisture, the air in the hold will continue to be moist
and will condense upon the ship’s cold steelwork unless it is continually extracted, and
replaced by drier air.
General guidelines for ventilation: Ventilation should be stopped, by stopping fans

when in use and closing the ventilators, when the vessel is shipping spray in the vicinity
of ventilator intakes. Times of interruption of ventilation should be logged.
On short voyages in small ships such as mini-bulkers employed in the European middle
trades it is normal to carry out no ventilation and to keep ventilators tightly sealed. With a
low freeboard and regular rough weather the danger of shipping spray into open
ventilators is usually found to be far greater than the potential benefits from ventilation.
On longer voyages if the cargo requires ventilation cargo holds should be ventilated when
the dew point of the external air is lower than the dew point of the air in the hold. This
will put drier air into the hold, forcing out wetter air and reducing the possibility of sweat
forming. Dew point readings should be logged. However, dew point in the hold may be
difficult to measure172. The hold may be full or unsafe to enter and when it is safe to enter
any airflow will be the result of ventilation, meaning that the true temperature within the
hold is not being measured. Another way of deciding when ventilation is needed for
hygroscopic cargoes (agricultural cargoes such as grain, timber, animal feedstuffs and
wood pulp that have a moisture content that can interact with air) is to use the three-
degree rule.
The three-degree rule: says that a hygroscopic cargo should be ventilated when the
temperature of the outside air is at least 3°C below that of the cargo temperature taken at
loading. This rule avoids the need to take readings in the holds after the voyage has
commenced and relies on the fact that the temperature of hygroscopic cargoes, except at
their boundaries, changes very slowly during a voyage. However it should be noted that
one authority (see Appendix 19.2) advises that the ventilation of grain cargoes is likely to
do more harm than good.
Ventilation practice: When natural ventilation is being used with open ventilators at
both forward and after ends, the air in the hold tends to travel from aft to forward. When
forced ventilation is used it is normal to take advantage of this tendency and to drive the
air from aft to forward.

Air forced into a hold by a fan will seek the shortest and easiest route through the hold. If
the only route by which the air can leave the hold is through a ventilator at the far end of
the hold, the air will tend to flow directly to that ventilator across the surface of the cargo.
If an access hatch or other opening close to the inlet vent is left open, the air will leave
the hold by the access hatch without travelling the length of the hold. This is known as
‘short cycling’ and is an inefficient form of ventilation. Short cycling should be prevented
by ensuring that only ventilators are left open when the hold is closed.
When a hold is loaded with a bulk cargo the ventilation provided is usually surface
ventilation, with air flowing over the surface of the cargo from ventilators at the after end
of the hold to ventilators at the fore end of the hold or, in newer ships, from ventilators in
the after end of the hatch covers to similar ventilators in the fore end of the hatch covers.
Ventilators situated at the hold ends can provide surface ventilation only for the nearby
hold ends when the cargo is a low-density one topped up in the hatch square and
preventing a flow of air from one end of the hold to the other. When the hold is filled the
hatch square requires separate ventilation. (Fig. 15.6)
Through ventilation of a bulk cargo, when air is forced into the body of the cargo, is not
normally required and is difficult to achieve. Some through ventilation can be provided
aboard ships in which ventilator trunks extend to the bottom of the hold bulkheads.
Through ventilation of coal is likely to cause heating and must be avoided.
The capacity of a ship’s hold ventilation fans is normally expressed in the number of air
changes that can be achieved in an empty hold per hour. When a cargo is carried the
number of air changes per hour will be increased, because the quantity of air which the
hold contains is reduced.

CHAPTER 6
Deck cargo
Definitions
“Cargo Securing Devices” is all fixed and portable devices used to secure and
support cargo units.
“Maximum Securing Load” (MSL) is a term used to define the allowable load
capacity for a device used to secure cargo to a ship. “Safe Working Load” (SWL)
may be substituted for MSL for securing purposes, provided this is equal to or
exceeds the strength defined by MSL.
“Standardized Cargo” means cargo for which the ship is provided with an approved
securing system based upon cargo units of specific types.
“Semi-standardized Cargo” means cargo for which the ship is provided with a
securing system capable of accommodating a limited variety of cargo units, such as
vehicles, trailers, etc.
“Non-standardized Cargo” means cargo which requires individual stowage and
securing arrangements.
“Cargo transport unit” means a road freight vehicle, a railway freight wagon, a
freight container, a road tank vehicle, a railway tank wagon or a portable tank.
It is imperative to the safety of the ship and the protection of the cargo and
personnel that the securing of the cargo is carried out properly and that only
appropriate securing points or fittings should be used for cargo securing.
Some important sources of danger which can affect the safety of roll on/roll off ships and
of persons on them include:
1. Cargo badly stowed or inadequately secured inside or on cargo units.

2. Free surface effects in tank vehicles, tank containers or other bulk units which are
slack.
3. Poorly maintained ramps, lifts and stern doors.
4. Poorly maintained or inadequately illuminated decks.
5. Wet decks.
6. Failure to apply brakes correctly.
7. Insufficient or incorrectly applied lashings or the use of lashing equipment of the
wrong type or of inadequate strength with respect to mass and centre of gravity of the
cargo unit and the weather conditions likely to be encountered during the voyage.
8. Free play in the suspension of vehicles.
9. Failure to comply with the stowage, segregation and marking requirements for vehicles
carrying dangerous goods.
General principles of cargo securing
1. Cargo shall be secured according to recognised principles, taking into account the
dynamic

forces that may occur during sea transport and the most severe weather condition
expected. Ship handling decisions should take into account the type of cargo and stowage
position of the cargo and the securing arrangements.
- Care should be taken to distribute the forces as evenly as possible.

- If in doubt the lashing arrangement should be verified using an acceptable calculation
method.
- The securing gear should be adapted to the cargo to be carried.
- Lashings are to be kept as short as possible.
2. Prior to loading cargo, the following should be checked:

- Relevant deck areas are, as far as practicable, to be clean, dry and free from oil and
grease.
- Cargo, cargo transport unit or vehicle to be suitable for transport.
- Necessary securing equipment is to be found on board.
3. The securing equipment should be:

- available in sufficient quantity including reserves
- suitable for the purpose
- of adequate strength
- practical and maintained
The required strength, which depends on the lashing forces, can be calculated based on
methods for evaluating forces as outlined in this manual.
4. Securing operations shall be completed before the ship leaves the berth and the
securing should be based on proper planning, execution and supervision. Relevant
personnel should be properly qualified and experienced and should have a sound practical
knowledge of the application and content of this Cargo Securing Manual.
- The master shall take care in planning and supervising the stowage and securing of
cargoes based on information about the cargo.
- The cargo is to be distributed with attention to the ship stability so that the hazards of
excessive accelerations are reduced as far as practicable.
- Due attention to the ship’s structural strength should be taken. Excessive accelerations
are expected to occur in the far forward and aft part of the ship, but can also occur in
general as a result of a high GM value.
Safe means of access to securing arrangements, safety equipment, and operational

controls shall be provided and properly maintained. Stairways and escape routes from
spaces below the vehicle deck shall be kept clear. The cargo spaces should be, as far as
practicable, regularly inspected during voyage.
10. Lashings shall not be released for unloading before the ship is secured at the berth,
without the Masters express permission.
11. Cargo shall not obstruct the operating controls of stern doors, entrances to
accommodation and/or fire fighting equipment .

Lashing forces are derived from accelerations of the cargo due to ship motions. The
largest accelerations, and therefore the most severe forces, can be expected in the furthest
forward, the furthest aft and the highest stowage positions on each side of the ship.
Special consideration should be given to the securing of vehicles stowed in these
positions. Generally the forces which have to be taken by the securing devices are
composed of components acting relative to the axes of the ship, i.e. longitudinal,
transverse and vertical direction. The two first are the most important to consider with
respect to lashing since the main function of lashings are to prevent cargo units from
tipping and/or sliding, in the transverse or longitudinal direction. The transverse
accelerations increase directly with the GM value, and care should be taken when
stowing and distributing cargo to avoid excessive accelerations,
“General principles of cargo securing”.
If cargo is stowed in positions where loads from wind pressure and/or sea sloshing may
be expected, this shall be taken into consideration when securing the cargo. Due to
uncertainties as to the actual weights and locations of the centre of gravity of cargo units,
the lashing forces may vary considerably. It is not possible to specify exactly the
maximum forces which may be exerted in the most severe conditions. A general rule is
that an adequate number of lashings of sufficient strength to meet the worst weather that
could be encountered during the voyage should always be fitted. If very heavy weather is
expected, appropriate operational measures, such as delaying sailing or altering course or
speed, should be taken to minimize the forces. Due to the difficulty in predicting dynamic
accelerations and the complexity of dynamic calculations, the lashing forces apply to
rigid and unsprung cargo. Additional lashings will be required to resist dynamic forces
due to sprung or non-rigid cargoes.
The lashings are in general most effective on a cargo unit when they make an angle with
the deck of between 30° and 60°. When these optimum angles cannot be achieved,
additional lashings may be required. The forces can be estimated based on the calculation
methods outlined in this Cargo Securing Manual. The effect of anti-roll devices should
not be taken into account when planning the stowage and securing of cargoes.
All hatches should be securely closed & battened down before loading cargo over them.
Cargo units/cargo transport units on a ship will in principles be subjected to the forces
given on the drawing below

Code of Safe Practice for Ships carrying Timber Deck Cargoes 1991
Advice on stowage practices
1 GENERAL

1.1 The stowage practices described in this appendix have been found to achieve
satisfactory
results, provided that account is taken of the recommendations of chapters 1-6. Although
specific conditions may dictate a departure from these guidelines, the basic principles as
detailed in 1.2 should nevertheless be adhered to.
1.2 The basic principle for the safe carriage of timber deck cargo is, as indicated earlier,
to make the stow as solid and compact as practicable. The purpose of this is to:
.1 prevent slack in the stow which could cause the lashings to slacken;
.2 produce a binding effect within the stow; and
.3 reduce to a minimum the permeability of the stow.
1.3 Lashings prevent deck cargo from shifting by increasing the friction due to pre-stress
forces and counteracting forces on the stow in the direction of possible shifting.
The lashings should meet the following criteria:
.1 the strength of all lashing elements should be at least equal to that recommended in the
Code; and
.2 the necessary tension should be maintained during the whole voyage.
1.4 The shifting of timber deck cargo is due mainly to the following causes which may
occur singly or together:
.1 lashings becoming slack due to compaction of the cargo during the voyage, unsuitable
devices for tightening the lashing systems and/or inadequate strength of the lashings;
.2 movement of the cargo across the hatch covers due to insufficient friction, particularly
in ice and snow;
.3 inadequate strength of the uprights due to poor material properties and/or excessive
forces;
.4 heavy rolling or pitching of the ship;
.5 impact from heavy seas.
1.5 Great care should be taken to keep the ship in an upright condition during loading as
even a slight list will impose a considerable load on the retaining uprights. The necessity
for prudent ship handling during the voyage cannot be overstressed; imprudent ship
handling can nullify even the best of stowages.
1.6 The lashings should be in accordance with chapter 4 of the Code and may comprise
the following types:
.1 Hog lashings are normally used over the second and third tiers and may be set "hand
tight" between stanchions. The weight of the upper tiers when loaded on top of these
wires will further tighten them (see figure 1).
.2 Wire rope lashings which are used in addition to chain lashings. Each of these may
pass over the stow from side to side and loop completely around the uppermost tier.
Turnbuckles are fitted in each lashing to provide means for tightening the lashing at sea
(see figure 2).
.3 Wiggle wires which are fitted in the manner of a shoelace to tighten the stow. These
wires are passed over the stow and continuously through a series of snatch blocks, held in

place by foot wires. Turnbuckles are fitted from the top of the foot wire into the wiggle
wire in order to keep the lashings tight at sea (see figures 3 and 4).
.4 Chain lashings which are passed over the top of the stow and secured to substantial pad
eyes or other securing points at the outboard extremities of the cargo. Turnbuckles are
fitted in each lashing to provide means for tightening the lashing at sea (see figure 5)
1.7 Systems for securing timber deck cargoes are shown in figures 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7



Always remember that deck cargo should not obstruct the view from the navigating
bridge PLD : Permissible load density of main deck must never be exceeded. PLD of
main deck , hatch covers etc. can be found out from ships capacity plan.
Any concentrated load can be spread over a wider area by the use of dunnage and
deck shoring .
The effect of timber deck cargo on stability must be checked Because
- the absorption of water or accretion of ice will increase the weight and reduce the
GM .
- the clearing of water from the deck in heavy weather must be ensured .
On the other hand timber deck cargo provides increased reserved buoyancy to the
ship.
Safe stowage and securing of containers on deck of ships which are not specially
designed and fitted for the purpose of carrying containers.
Stowage
1.1 Containers carried on deck or on hatches of such ships should preferably be stowed in
the foreand- aft direction.
1.2 Containers should not extend over the ship's sides. Adequate supports should be
provided when containers overhang hatches or deck structures.
1.3 Containers should be stowed and secured so as to permit safe access for personnel in
the necessary operation of the ship.
1.4 Containers should at no time overstress the deck or hatches on which they are stowed.

1.5 Bottom-tier containers, when not resting on stacking devices, should be stowed on
timber of sufficient thickness, arranged in such a way as to transfer the stack load evenly
on to the structure of the stowage area.
1.6 When stacking containers, use should be made of locking devices, cones, or similar
stacking aids, as appropriate, between them
1.7 When stowing containers on deck or hatches, the position and strength of the securing
points should be taken into consideration.
If the individual gross weights of the containers are not known all 20ft units and all 40ft
units should be assumed to have a gross weight of 20 and 26 tonnes respectively with the
centre of gravity at the geometrical centre.
Care should be taken to ensure that the safe weight load of each individual container is
not exceeded and that the gross and tare weights are accurately recorded and declared.
Stowing containers in cargo holds requires securing in solid blocks. The containers
should be keyed to the tank top and adequate inter-locking of units should be provided.
The resulting block must be secured to the ship structure using common sense.
Securing
2.1 All containers should be effectively secured in such a way as to protect them from
sliding and tipping. Hatch covers carrying containers should be adequately secured to the
ship.
2.2 Containers should be secured using one of the three methods recommended in figure
1 or methods equivalent thereto.
2.3 Lashings should preferably consist of wire ropes or chains or material with equivalent
strength and elongation characteristics.
2.4 Timber shoring should not exceed 2 m in length.
2.5 Wire clips should be adequately greased and tightened so that the dead end of the
wire is visibly compressed (figure 2).
2.6 Lashings should be kept, when possible, under equal tension.
Care should be taken when:
- It is required to mix general break-bulk cargo with containers.
- Loading general cargo on top of containers.




CHAPTER 7
Carriage instructions for refrigerated cargoes
Introduction
Refrigerated cargoes are invariably perishable to a greater or lesser degree, & their safe
carriage depends on maintaining suitable storage conditions during transportation.
Refrigerated cargoes include both Frozen & Chilled goods, the latter including fresh
fruits & vegetables.
Generally, Frozen goods (meat, butter, poultry & fish) do not suffer if over-cooled.
Carried in hard frozen state with temperatures never exceeding –12° Celsius. As a
general rule, frozen commodities should be transported and stored at 0°F (-17.8°C).
For most products, this temperature provides protection against spoilage and the
growth of disease-forming organisms.
Some frozen cargoes need to be carried at temperatures lower than 0°F (-17.8°C) to
maintain quality, texture and flavour. Commodities with a high fat content, such as ice
cream, should be carried at -15°F (-26.1°C) or lower.
Food should be solidly or almost solidly frozen to maintain quality in frozen storage. An
unfrozen core, or a partially frozen zone, will lead to deterioration in texture, colour,
flavour and other properties. Fast freezing leads to superior product quality. Slow
freezing results in the formation of large ice crystals that rupture cell walls and
result in soft, mushy products.
Nothing is more detrimental to frozen foods than repeated freezing and Thawing.
Appropriate packaging can protect most foods from freezer burn (surface drying,
discoloration). Packaging material should not only be impermeable to water vapour and
oxygen, but also to volatile flavour substances.
Frozen products should be loaded rapidly, especially in warm weather when ambient
temperature may be high. As part of its quality-control procedures, APL requires that the
temperature of frozen commodities be 15‰F (-9.4‰C) or less at the time of loading.
Stowing: Frozen cargo should always be stacked as a solid block, leaving no space
between packages and sidewalls of the containers.
Ventilation: Fresh air vent must always be CLOSED tight for all frozen cargo shipment.
Chilled goods (meat, cheese, eggs, fresh fruits & vegetables) can be damaged by low
temperatures, either by freezing or by chilling injury to fresh produce. Much tropical &
sub-tropical produce is liable to chilling injury if subjected to temperatures below those
usually experienced in the growing area.

Symptoms of chilling injury include internal discoloration, surface lesions, failure to
ripen properly and increased susceptibility to micro-organisms.
Freezing injury results when commodities are held below freezing temperatures.
Typically freezing injury makes the product unfit for consumption. Most tropical and
subtropical products are damaged by chilling injury before they freeze.
Exposure to higher temperatures (than required carriage temp) is worse, as it leads to

very rapid deterioration due to enhanced Respiration, Ethylene production and Water
Loss.
Temperature range for Chilled cargoes: -2°C up to 12°C depending on type of

cargo. Maintaining right temperatures is more critical with chilled cargoes than with
frozen cargoes.
Chilled cargo should be block stowed or stacked as a solid block, without leaving any
space between the cargo and the walls of the container.
Fruits and vegetables and other horticultural products begin to age and deteriorate
from the time of harvest due to Respiration, Ethylene production and Water Loss.
Respiration
Fruits and vegetables continue to live and breathe after harvest – consuming oxygen,
generating heat and giving off gases such as carbon dioxide and moisture. This
process, known as respiration, uses up a plant’s resources and causes changes that
influence food value, flavour, quality, colour, texture and water content. Respiration
rate is governed by temperature (directly proportional to temperature). Respiration
rate also increases due to cuts & bruises. The transit life of a commodity is inversely
proportional to its rate of respiration – the higher the rate, the shorter its transit or market
life. Proper temperature management will retard the respiration process and remove heat
from the load.
Ethylene production
After harvest, most fruits and vegetables produce ethylene gas as a natural by-product. If
properly managed, ethylene can be used to control the ripening of produce. However,
unmanaged exposure to ethylene may harm commodities and cause unwanted ripening,
and other physiological damage.
Products have varying ethylene production rates. They also vary in their sensitivity to
ethylene.
Ethylene production is directly related to temperature. Typically, the higher the

temperature, the greater the rate of ethylene production and the higher the respiration rate.
Fresh-air exchange can limit the build-up of ethylene in a load. Modified Atmosphere
(MA) and Controlled Atmosphere (CA) conditions can also help reduce ethylene
production and activity.

Ethylene production rates also increase with greater maturity, physical injury, disease,
etc.
Evaporation and water loss
Loss of water from horticultural crops after harvest is an important factor in a product life
cycle and a major cause of deterioration. Perishables that have lost water become
dehydrated, weigh less and are of poorer quality in the marketplace.
Plants that have been bruised or cut will lose water faster than those that are undamaged.
As such, maintaining high humidity 85%-95% and low temperature – the lowest safe
temperature for the particular product – for most fruits and vegetables, helps keep water
loss to a minimum.
Successful transportation of all reefer cargoes is dependent on the carriage instructions,

which define the conditions in which the goods are to be carried. If these instructions are
incomplete, inadequate, contradictory, or wrong, then problems can be expected. For the
shipper, there is the risk of loss of cargo. For the carrier, there is the risk of a claim even
if the goods are undamaged.

TABLE Examples of perishable cargoes
Ambient or air-
Controlled
Frozen Chilled Dried conditioned
atmosphere
storage
Fish and fish products:
IQF shrimps and Fruit:
Fish (on melting
prawns, surimi, farmed bananas, Herbs Chocolate
ice)
salmon, whole and avocados
fillets
Processed
products in cans:
Meat Meat Some meats Mushrooms
fish, meat,
vegetables, fruit
Fruit: grapes,
Vegetables: IQF
apples, pears, Beans Wine
asparagus, mushrooms
nectarines, plums
Fruit: IQF raspberries,
Fruit juices Grains Fish meal
blackberries
Vegetables:
Block frozen asparagus, Milk Fermented fish
raspberries onions, garlic, powders and vegetables
salad crops, peas
Flowers
IQF = individually quick-frozen.
The responsibility for specifying carriage instructions is that of the shipper, the
owner of the goods. Only the shipper knows the full nature of the goods & their
requirements.
Pre-loading sanitation / Hold Preparation
The proper cleanliness & lack of odour in compartments to be used for refrigerated
goods should be a matter of normal good practice.
1. Any special or particular needs should be identified. For instance, after sweeping
holds, it is recommended to wipe them down with clothes wrung out in cleansing fluid-
this prevents the formation of mould on woodwork. Any fat or grease spots on the deck
should be scraped up.
2. If necessary, the compartments must be deodorized using patent deodorizers.
This will be specially necessary if a fruit cargo or other strong smelling cargo has been
carried in the compartment previously.
3. Gratings should be laid & scrubbed clean if stained. Dunnage should be free
from infestation & neatly stacked on bearers in the centre of the compartment.

4. Permanent dunnage & insulation (cork, fiberglass wool or polyurethane rigid
foam) must be inspected & repairs effected where necessary.
5. Bilges / scuppers should be clean & odour free & their suctions tested.
6. Brine traps should be checked & refilled as they prevent warm air from entering
& cold air from escaping, at the same time allowing drainage of water, as brine does not
freeze readily (R.D. 1.047, F.P. –20 C or lesser depending on concentration)
7. Ventilators to be plugged if applicable.
8. Thermometers - locations / functioning to be inspected & any shortcomings
noted made good. Calibration to be carried out for remote thermometers.
9. Air delivery ducts / brine pipes to be checked for leaks or blockage & correct
valve positions.
10. Air ducts should be cleaned if a dusty cargo has been carried previously.
11. All closing devices (hatches, doors) are in efficient working order. Doors should
close air tight. Check packing where provided.
12. Ozonisation carried out.
Pre-cooling of cargo space (a part of hold preparation)
The pre-cooling of cargo spaces removes heat from steelwork / dunnage & provides
a check on the operation of the refrigeration system.
It is also necessary to precool such other materials, which may be required for stowage
of certain cargoes. For instance, when carrying chilled meat, the requisite number of
meat bars, hooks & chains will need to be precooled. They should be sterilized as well.
This is usually done ashore.
The required pre-cooling temperature may be a few degrees lower than the required
transport temperature to allow for fluctuations during loading.
Pre loading survey must be conducted in the best interest of all concerned particularly the
carrier to avoid future claims. The surveyor to inspect the hold for cleanliness, fitness
(per cargo) & for satisfactory working of refrigeration plant. A certificate is issued
accordingly certifying the spaces fit to receive the intended cargo, prior to
commencement of loading.

Transfer & stowage
Stages in a complex journey:
Pre-shipment inspection - The need for inspection
Carriage of reefer cargo by sea is just one stage in a long sequence of processing, h &
ling, distribution & storage operations - products can be damaged or decline in quality at
any stage.
Pre-shipment inspection is therefore essential, to determine as far as possible the

condition & quality of the product at the time of loading.

Pre-shipment inspection by the ship's officers is generally confined to visual inspection
of the cargo & to measurement of physical properties such as temperature.
Nature of the consignment
The deck crew should check that the material to be loaded is consistent with the bill of
lading. However, information provided on a bill of lading is usually very brief - a cargo
may be described as 'fishery products', which encompasses many different product types.
Wherever possible, deck officers should record on mate’s receipt, any additional
information, for example, in the case of individually frozen fish, the species or variety,
& the presentation (whole or dressed).
It is also important to record details of any labelling on the mate’s receipt.
Temperature of the consignment
It is essential to measure the temperature of frozen stuff presented for loading. Material
that is above the operating temperature of the hold will take a long time to cool down &
will lose quality as a result.
The Master may reject a product if he considers the temperature too high & the
product at risk of damage during stowage & carriage.
The deck officer should ensure that sufficient measurements are taken to provide an
adequate summary of the temperature of the cargo, & that the measurements are
accurately recorded.
During loading, supervising officers should note any softening of the flesh (meat) by
pressing the surface of the fish with a thumb nail or the point of a temperature probe. Soft
meat can get damaged by the pressure of a stack within a hold.
Nature & integrity of packaging & wrapping
Packaging is intended to protect the product from physical damage. The inspecting
officer should record any damage to outer wrappings, particularly if the damage has
caused exposure of the contents.

Wrapping, which may or may not be supplemented by further packaging in a carton, is
intended to prevent contamination & dehydration. Wrapping is only effective in
protecting against dehydration if it is sealed or is closely applied to the product.
The officer should note any staining of cartons & outer wrappings.
Blemishes, stains & contamination of the product
When the surface of the product is visible, it should be inspected for blemishes &
contamination.
Blemishes include surface damage to the product like abrasions & tears to the skin or
splits in the flesh
It is important to record any unusual discolouration or staining. The product should

also be examined for contamination by dust, organic matter such as fish offal or
vegetable debris, & any other foreign matter.
In all cases of blemishes or contamination, the inspecting officer should note the
extent of the damage & estimate the proportion of the consignment affected.
Signs of thawing or partial thawing
It is important to check that a frozen cargo does not show signs that it had thawed &
refrozen before it had been presented for shipment. Such thawing or near thawing is often
indicated by distortion of product shape & release of liquids from the product.
Nothing is more detrimental to frozen foods than repeated freezing and thawing.
Prohibition of loading cargo at mixed temperatures
Properly pre-cooled cargo & substantially warmer cargo should not be mixed at loading.

Temperature control during loading
It is very important for maintaining quality that frozen products be held at low
temperatures at all times. Although it is inevitable that the product's temperature will
rise during loading into the hold, the loading operations must be conducted so as to
keep this rise to a minimum. The product's quality suffers not only due to the
immediate rise in temperature as material is stowed in the hold, but also because of the
time taken to bring the product back down to the required temperature after
stowage.
Although the ship's crew may have little control over loading operations, the Master
should cooperate with the ship's agents, & particularly with the stevedoring company,
to ensure that good practices are adopted during loading & stowing.
Good practices during loading
1. Reefer cargo should be loaded on board only under supervision of a recognized

surveyor.
2. Ensure that delivery to the ship's side is matched to loading onto the vessel to
reduce the time that products are waiting on the quay.
3. Ensure that the hold is precooled to below the carriage temperature before
loading begins.
4. Transfer cargo as rapidly as possible from the quay or discharging vessel to the
hold.
5. Products should be delivered in insulated containers or lorries, or at least in
covered vehicles.
6. Damp, wet or stained and torn cartons should be inspected to ascertain
whether the cargo inside has already deteriorated. If contents are in sound condition, then
the contents may be repacked in new cartons & accepted for loading.
7. Contents of at least 5-10% cartons from each lot should be examined on a
random basis. In case of frozen cargoes, their core temperature should be obtained by
using dial thermometers. The probe should remain in the carton for at least three
minutes in order to obtain correct temperature. If contents have deteriorated, the cargo
should be rejected. If part cargo from this lot is accepted, contents of each carton in the
lot should be examined.
8. Cartons with soft or dripping contents should be rejected.
9. Refrigeration to the holds should be turned on during long breaks.
10. Temperature should be maintained during stoppages for meals. Once loaded,
the cargo should be covered with tarpaulins.
11. When loading a lower hold thru a reefer tween deck, canvas or tarpaulins must be
hung around the hatch square (opening) to restrict the escape of cold air.
12. If the material must be unloaded onto the quay or held on the deck of the reefer,
it should be placed on pallets or on an insulating base, packed as tightly as possible &
covered with a tarpaulin or similar protection against sun & wind.
13. During loading / discharging frost may form on brine pipes. This should be
brushed off carefully taking care it does not fall on cargo. Brushing off is essential as
otherwise the frost so formed will act as insulation & adversely affect cooling.

14. The cargo should be protected from exposure to wind, rain & sun until it is about
to be transferred to the vessel.
15. In tropical climates, avoid loading for two or three hours either side of noon &
consider loading the vessel at night (between 6 PM to 6 AM).
16. Upon completion of loading reefer chambers should be closed air tight & cooling
resumed immediately.
Good practices during stowage
1. Masters should be careful in advising the “Reefer space available” in a

compartment. Realistic value should be advised & not the cubic space as given in the
records (bale capacity of reefer chambers generally given in records). It must be noted
that dunnaging & air channels take substantial space.
2. Cargo spaces in reefers are usually cooled by recirculating air systems, which are
only effective if the air can circulate freely through & around the stow. This is to be
kept in mind & cargo stowed accordingly. It is important to ensure that there is free
circulation between the cargo & the structures of the hold.
3. Laying of dunnage should be such that it does not obstruct designed air flow
pattern in the compartment.
4. Sides & bulkheads should be fitted with vertical dunnage (without horizontal
battens which could obstruct air flow) to keep the cargo away from the structures.
5. Reefer chamber should be divided with air channels for each block not exceeding
3 meters. Channels must be at least 10 cms wide and aligned to face the cool air outlets.
There should be an even gap of at least 30 cm between the top of the stowed cargo & the
lowest part of the deck head.
6. Where consistent with efficient loading, use only one hatch at a time to avoid
through currents of air in the hold.
7. Dunnaging should be carefully carried out so as to prevent ‘Stow’ collapsing
into ‘Air Channels’.
8. Each lot of cargo to be loaded according to B/Ls and separated by using colour
tapes or nets.
9. Avoid loading cargo for more than one port in same chamber. Cargo once loaded
should not be shifted. These measures will help minimize undesirable temperature
fluctuations.
10. If mixed loads of differing commodities are to be carried in a single cargo space,
it is necessary to consider compatibility of temperature, atmosphere (especially
ethylene levels) & liability to taint.
Transit (Requirements detailed in carriage instructions)
Carriage temperature
A single specified 'carriage temperature' is a meaningless specification that should

never be accepted.
Carriage temperature for chilled goods must be specified as the air delivery temperature.
Dual-temperature regimes, in which the delivery air temperature is changed after a

specified period of days, may also be specified.

For frozen cargo, it is usually sufficient to specify a maximum temperature that should
not be exceeded. This may be subject to qualification for short periods.
For example:
Cargo temperature shall not exceed -18°C, except for short periods during power
disconnection or defrosting, when temperature shall not exceed -15°C.
Maintaining low temperatures during carriage
The ship's refrigeration system must be capable of delivering air to the holds at a
temperature a few degrees below the target temperature to allow for heat leaks through
the ship's structures.
The ship's engineer should ensure that refrigeration equipment is well maintained & can
achieve the design temperatures. Evaporator coils must be defrosted as required.
In addition, the engine room log should record temperatures at critical & meaningful
positions in the refrigeration system - for example, the outlet & return air streams in air
cooling systems, & the outlet & return fluid temperatures in pipe cooled systems.
Protecting the cargo from contamination

Every effort must be made to protect the cargo from contamination. Good shipboard
practices will prevent direct contamination by seawater, bilge water, fuel oil & the
like, but it is important to be aware that many reefer products are rapidly tainted by
odours picked up from the ambient air. This is a vital consideration when using air-
cooled refrigeration systems.
Ventilation (or lack of) during cooling
For most refrigerated cargoes, the cargo should be loaded at carriage temperature. For
some cargoes, notably bananas & the less sensitive citrus varieties, cooling in transit
is normal. In these cases a period of 48 hours should be specified, during which
fresh air ventilation is stopped to allow maximum refrigeration.
Ventilation thereafter
After cooling, or throughout in the absence of cooling, the rate of fresh air ventilation for
fresh produce should be specified. This may be as an absolute figure in cubic metres per
hour, or as a rate in air changes per hour of the empty volume of the cargo space.
Air circulation rate
The rate of circulation of air around & through the cargo controls the range of
temperature within the cargo, & also the rate of cargo cooling. Minimum rates may be
specified, usually as multiples of the empty volume of the hold per hour.
Relative humidity limits or target

Relative humidity is not specifically controllable in most shipments; if there are critical
requirements, either special equipment or special packaging or both may be required.
It is difficult to measure humidity regularly to better than the nearest 2 to 3%, so an

acceptable range of at least plus or minus 5% should be specified
Carbon dioxide limits or target
For many fruits, a maximum level of CO2 may be specified, this to be the overriding
parameter for ventilation rate control. In case of fruits, their ripening cause evolution of
carbon dioxide which if present in concentrations of above 5% can spoil the entire
consignment. Hence it is essential to keep a record & control of carbon dioxide
concentration. An instrument called Thermoscope is utilized for the purpose. Excessive
carbon dioxide can be dissipated by allowing fresh precooled air occasionally into the
hold, taking care not to cause large variations in temperature.
Additional requirements for controlled atmosphere shipments
Controlled atmosphere (CA) systems are designed to maintain an atmosphere different

from normal, usually with low oxygen & increased carbon dioxide. They enhance the
storage life of some produce when used in conjunction with refrigeration. But in case of
chilled meat excessive carbon dioxide can discolour the consignment. Hence CA
requirements should be strictly adhered to.
Safety requirements
CA produces an atmosphere which is deadly to humans - breathing an oxygen-depleted

atmosphere produces immediate unconsciousness & fairly rapid death. Adequate safety
systems must be in place, & these should allow for the possibility of stowaways in the
cargo.
Unloading
Atmosphere should be checked prior man entry & ventilation carried out if necessary
(Definitely in case of CA in holds).
At discharge port a cargo surveyor is generally called to check the Transit temperature
& carbon dioxide records.
Reefer cargo should be discharged only under supervision of a recognized surveyor

(usually on consignees’ behalf).
When a cargo is unloaded from the ship, similar precautions should be taken to
those recommended during loading.
Unloading should be completed as quickly & rapidly as possible & the cargo should be
protected from wind, rain & high temperatures.

If any cargo damage is noticed, full details of the damage should be noted (Marks and
numbers, nature & extent of damage). Probable cause of damage should be established &
reasons for same noted.
Cargoes may get damaged due to exposure after landing on jetty. Although this does not
put any liability on carrier, one must be still watchful & promptly record in maximum
possible details, any such incident.
Cooling of reefer chambers should be stopped only just prior to opening them for
discharge.
Cargo should be discharged lot wise. Having loaded lot wise & stowed separately, this
should not be a problem.
Ship’s staff should continuously monitor discharge operation along the surveyor in
order to ensure that the ship’s interests are not jeopardised.

CHAPTER 8
Container cargo
The bay-row-tier system follows a system of numerical coordinates relating to length,

width and height. The stowage space of the container on board the ship is unambiguously
stated in numbers and is (almost always) recorded in the shipping documents. It is then
also possible to establish at a later date where the container was carried during maritime
transport.
Principle of bay-row-tier coordinates
According to this principle, bays are the container blocks in the transverse direction, rows
are the lengthwise rows and tiers are the vertical layers.
38 20' container bays on a ship
Theoretically, the 38 bays could be numbered continuously from 1 to 38. However, that
would only be sensible if only 20' containers could actually be loaded.
19 40' container bays on a ship
If the ship could only transport 40' containers, the 19 bays could be numbered
continuously from 1 to 19.

Bay numbering system
Since, however, the ship can transport both 20' and 40' containers, the bay spaces for 20'
containers are numbered throughout fore to aft with odd numbers, i.e. in this case 01, 03,
05 and so on up to 75. The bay spaces for 40' containers are numbered throughout with
even numbers: 02, 04, and 06 and so on up to 74.
The purple 20' container in the first bay has the bay number 01. The light-brown 20'
container in the 2nd bay has the bay number 03 and the light-blue 40' container, which
occupies a space in the first and second bays, has the bay number 02. The magenta-
collared container has the bay number 25, the dark-green number 27 and the light-green
number 26.
To illustrate a cross-section through a bay, one needs to imagine that one is standing in
front of or behind the ship:
In the case of bay plans, the respective bay is always viewed from behind.
The rows of containers on a ship are numbered with even numbers from the centre
leftwards and odd numbers from the centre rightwards.

Row numbering where there is an even number of rows
Where there is an odd number of rows, the middle row is numbered 00.
Row numbering where there is an odd number of rows
Row numbers of the aft bay of a ship
The container tiers are numbered with even numbers, starting from the bottom. The
conventional way is start with 02 in the hold and then count up with 04, 06 etc. In the
case of deck cargoes, it is conventional to start numbering with 80 or 82. There are
sometimes slight differences between ships.

Numbering of horizontal container layers, or tiers
On this ship, the containers standing directly on the main deck are numbered 80 and those
standing on the hatches are number 82. The number is incremented by two for each
higher layer.
These bay, row and tier numbers are noted in the bay plans:
Bay plan
The stuffed containers, with their alpha prefix, their container numbers, the port of
destination or discharge and other important details are noted in the bay plans

Colour-labelled containers in a bay plan
According to the bay-row-tier system, the collared containers were given the following
stowage space numbers:
• a 20' container in the red-collared slot: 531212
• a 40' container in blue-collared slot: 540788
• a 20' container in green-collared slot: 551184
The system illustrated is the most widely used. However, other numbering systems do
exist, in which the coordinates are stated in a different order, for example row-bay-tier
systems and similar combinations.
Identification system

Marking on the door of a container
A distinction is drawn between compulsory and optional marking. Compulsory ISO

marking must be used on all containers, while optional marking does not have to be: they
are included in the standard to improve understanding and to promote uniform
application of marking.
The following is a basic version of horizontal container marking:
Container identification marking
This Figure shows a version of vertical container marking:
Marking on the front end of a container
The container identification system consists solely of the elements shown, which can
only be used together:
• owner code, consisting of three capital letters

• product group code, consisting of one of capital letters U, J or Z
• six-digit registration number
• check digit

The owner code must be unique and registered with the International Container
Bureau, either directly or through a national registration organization. In the Figures
shown, the owner code consists respectively of the letter combinations SUD and TEX.
The product group code consists of one of the following three capital letters:
U - for all freight containers

J - for detachable freight container-related equipment
Z - for trailers and chassis
The term owner code may also apply to the combination of owner code and product
group code, which is also known as an alpha prefix. If the owner code is absent, the
container cannot be identified. The registration or serial number consists of six
digits. In the examples shown, these numbers are 307007 and 452149. If the container
number consists of fewer than six digits, it is preceded by enough zeros to make a six-
digit number sequence. The check digit, 9 and 6 respectively in the two examples shown,
is always a single-digit number. It is usually in a box, to make it stand out from the
registration number. The check digit can be used to validate whether the owner code,
product group code and registration number have been accurately transmitted. No freight
information system (FIS), transport information system (TIS) or similar data processing
system will accept a container number, if the result of the automatic checking procedure
does not show agreement with the check digit. The procedure is deliberately designed to
ensure that a number of transmission errors cannot cancel one another out, resulting in the
acceptance of incorrect data.
Size and type codes
The following photo shows a variant of horizontal marking which additionally includes
country, size and type codes:

Container identification including country, size and type codes
Appropriate abbreviations are used for the various countries, here US for United States of
America, GB for Great Britain etc. The first digit of the size code indicates the length of
the container, with the number 4 standing for a 40' container. The second digit indicates
height and whether or not a gooseneck tunnel is present. In our example, the number 3
stands for a height of 8'6" with gooseneck tunnel. The first digit of the type code indicates
container type. Here, 1 means that the container is a closed container with ventilation
openings. The second digit of the type code relates to special features. The 0 used here
means opening at the end. n the associated standard, columns are set out vertically:
The corresponding data are laid out underneath. The abbreviation g.n.t. stands for
gooseneck tunnel. A differently laid out size code summary is shown below:
In the type code, the first digit (i.e. the 3rd digit overall) indicates the container type and
the second (i.e. the 4th digit overall) indicates special features. However, there is a
connection between the respective digits, which the following representation is intended
to explain:


Container design and types
Over 50 per cent of the containers available internationally belong to shipping companies.
Alongside these are a large number of leasing companies, which lease their containers
both to ship-owners and to direct customers. All container types consist of a steel
framework which takes the weight of any containers loaded above. The container may be
fully enclosed by steel or glass fibre panels but these are not load bearing.
The 20 feet container generally has a ‘tare weight’ (empty container) of around 2 tons &
a max gross weight of between 23 and 30 tons. All 40 feet containers have a max gross
wt. of 30 tons.
Following are the most common types in use:
• General purpose containers

• Open Sided containers
• Ventilated Containers
• Dry bulk containers/bulk containers
• Thermal containers
• Open-top containers
• Half-Height
• Platform containers
• Flat racks
• Coil Containers
• Tank containers
The term Standard Container was used for the first containers in their basic form. As
these were closed and were primarily suitable for the loading of general cargo, they
were/are also known as General Purpose Containers, Dry Cargo Containers or Box
Containers. Most box containers have an external height of 8'6". They are fully enclosed
and typically made from steel. The floor is covered with timber planking or plywood
sheathing, and cargo securing / lashing points are located at floor level at the base of the
side panelling. Access for ‘stuffing’ and ‘DE stuffing’ is thru full height rear doors.
Unventilated general purpose containers have openings on either one or both end(s).
This image cannot currently be displayed.

Unventilated general purpose containers of sheet steel
Vents in a container
Containers equipped with such vents also count as unventilated general purpose
containers, although they have small vents in the upper part of the cargo space.
Containers with end doors and side doors occupying the entire length
Container with end wall doors and partial openings at the side
The expression High-Cube Container originally covered all containers higher than 8'6".
The expression is now used in practice almost only ever for containers which have an
external height of 9'6".

Comparison of a high-cube container (9'6") with an 8'6" container
The yellow and black marking on the top edges of the high-cube container serves as a
warning about its height.
40' containers: left 8'6" high, right 9'6" high (high-cube)
Forty foot containers have a larger volume-to-payload ratio than 20' containers, i.e. they
are suitable for goods with a higher cargo stowage factor. Open-sided containers (OS)
have solid end walls and a solid roof panel. The sides may be closed at the bottom by
folding down wooden, aluminium profile or steel sheet side walls, which may be divided
into sections. The container is packed from the side and allows unrestricted loading /
discharging.. Open-sided containers also exist which are open only on one side. If bars
are positioned over one open side, the containers can be used for transporting livestock.
Another variant is the "folding side wall" container, a type of inland container.

Open-sided container, with end wall door
Open-top open-sided containers (OTOS) combine the features of open-sided and open-
top containers, i.e. the roofs and sides are open and need to be covered with tarpaulins.
20' x 8'6" container with side doors - General purpose container - special design
with side doors
General purpose containers with special features are intended to make it possible to
transport particular cargoes which could not otherwise be safely transported without
damage. Containers for hanging garments belong to this group: they are equipped with
clothes rails which are attached to special supporting bars. Textiles, hanging on coat-
hangers, can be carried in these containers.
Ventilated Containers, hardly differ from standard containers in external appearance.

They are used for the most part to transport organic cargoes with high moisture contents,
such as coffee and cocoa beans. Special equipment is intended to ensure that, as far as
possible, sweat is prevented from forming. In general parlance, the containers are also
named after the type of cargo carried in them, hence the widespread use of the expression
coffee container. There are two basic variants:
• Containers with natural ventilation use pressure differences between the internal
and external air for air exchange purposes. Warm air rises in the container and exits at the
top through the roof ventilation strips. Cooler external air then enters through the floor
ventilation strips.
• Forced ventilation containers use fans and air ducts and/or ventilation flaps to
achieve the necessary air exchange.
Container vent slots or air openings are often constructed as a labyrinth to prevent the
penetration of spray or precipitation. Often, there are openings in the bottom and top side

rails, which form regular air ducts. Sometimes, only relatively small, perforated areas are
provided at regular intervals in the outer skin.
General purpose containers with non-mechanical ventilation

General purpose containers with mechanical ventilation installed in the container
Dry Bulk Containers or Bulk Containers may be used to transport loose, free-flowing
goods.

Loading hatches and discharge outlets in different bulk containers
Externally, normal bulk containers are of identical construction to standard containers

except for the loading hatches and discharge outlets. The loading hatches or domes are
arranged in the roof. To prevent contact between the cargo and the container walls,
"inlets" or liner bags may be introduced into the containers and fixed in place. The
unloading hatches are normally at one of the ends, generally incorporated into the doors.
Sometimes, short hoses are also incorporated, so as to be able to direct the cargo as it is
unloaded. Less frequently, the discharge outlets are arranged at the side. In all the above
cases, unpacking is achieved by the force of gravity, generally assisted by tipping the
containers.
Bulk container with compressed air-assisted emptying
Some special dry bulk containers resemble tank containers. In addition to emptying by
gravity, some containers are available which may be emptied by means of compressed
air.

Thermal container with integral unit – rear
Thermal container - side and end with integral unit
Depending on container quality, the entire outer skin may be appropriately insulated,
thereby reducing the internal dimensions of the container. The floor is strong enough to
allow access by forklift trucks. The temperature of insulated containers may be controlled
by external refrigeration units.
Mobile refrigeration unit, in this case in stationary use
20' x 8'6" thermal container, mechanically refrigerated/heated
These containers also resemble standard containers externally, but inside they have a
heat-insulating lining, generally of polyurethane foam-based insulating material. Their

wall thickness of 50 - 100 mm reduces stowage space a little compared to normal
containers. The insulation is intended to protect the cargo from over-rapid temperature
variations. If lower temperatures or refrigeration are required, refrigerants may be added.
Ice is seldom used nowadays, since it requires special ice boxes; instead, dry ice is often
used. Another method is to vaporize liquefied gases. Such containers are used for the
most part to carry heat-sensitive cargoes.
Insulated Containers and Refrigerated Containers may also be used without

refrigeration or heating. Since temperature variations in the container are delayed relative
to the external temperature, using such containers can be entirely appropriate for certain
goods.
Refrigeration and/or heating may be achieved by:
• compressors directly driven by electrical motors

• compressors directly driven by internal combustion engine
• externally generated cooling or heating air
The electrical power required for driving refrigerating/heating machines is supplied by

on-shore or on-board power supply systems or by a separate generator driven by an
internal combustion engine, diesel engines mostly being used for this purpose. A
distinction is drawn between fixed generators and so-called clip-on generators, which are
only fitted on a temporary basis.
Integral refrigerating/heating machine for connection to on-shore or on-board

power supply system
Openings for supply and return air in an external unit

Such containers are also known as "Porthole Containers", the name arising from the
similarity between these openings and the round ships' windows known as portholes.
Thermal container/insulated container with externally fitted supply device
Externally generated cooling or heating air may be supplied via on-shore or on-board
central refrigeration systems. Containers supplied by this system also have two openings
in the end wall for the supply and removal of cargo space air subject to artificial
temperature control.
Open-Top Containers are suitable in general for all types of general cargo but especially
for heavy, over height cargo. Since their roofs are openable, they may also be packed
from above. Timber and scrap metal are sometimes shipped this way. They have doors at
least at the rear and their roofs are operable or removable. The roof covering consists
either of a tarpaulin or a solid, fully removable hard-top. Containers with the latter type of
roof covering are known as
Hard-Top Open-Top Containers.

Open-top container with tarpaulin and roof bows - Open-top container with top
member removed
The lashing equipment with which some open-top containers are provided have higher
load-carrying capacities than those of general purpose containers.
Half-Height Open-Top Containers are open at the top, as their name suggests. There
are two types in existence: either completely open or with a tarpaulin and roof bows. The
rear door may often be folded down and used as a ramp.
Half-Height Containers are lower than standard containers. The size codes distinguish
between those 1295 mm (4'3") high and those of a height less than or equal to 1219 mm
(4'). The containers are specially designed for goods with low stowage factors and for
high-density cargoes, such as heavy barrels, metal sheet etc.
20' and 40' half-height open-top containers, with and without cover
Platforms and Flat racks are also known in common parlance as open containers.
Although such containers may have special equipment, such stanchions, fold-down end
walls, lashing equipment etc., they are often described in specialist literature as
containers without additional equipment.

Platform: 20' long, 8' wide and 1'1¼" high
Platforms consist of reinforced container floors with sheet steel or planking. A large
number of lashing points are provided for cargo securing; these may be welded-on or
recessed lashing lugs or rings, or lashing bars attached to the outsides of the side rails.
Two 20' platforms 1'1¼" high
If agreed with the shipping companies, several platforms may be combined to form larger
loading areas for carrying oversize goods. Acceptance and delivery then require special
attention and coordination of operations between the ship's command, shipping
companies and terminal operator is recommended. When empty, platforms can be stacked
into piles to save space during transport. Since loaded platforms are not stackable, they
are loaded on board ship as the top layer of a hold or deck stack.
20' flat rack with fixed end walls
Flat racks, also known as Flats, consist of container floor and end walls. Flat racks with
folding or collapsible end walls or end frames are commonly known as Collapsible Flats
or Collapsible Flat racks.

20' collapsible flat racks, erected and collapsed
The advantage of collapsible flat racks is that several unloaded flats can be stacked on top
of one another to save space during transport. For cargo securing purposes, the flats are
equipped with lashing bars, lugs or hooks of appropriate strength. Stanchion pockets and
insertable stanchions are often provided. If agreed with the carriers, a number of flat
racks may be combined together so as to be able to transport particularly large items of
cargo.
40' platform: 8' wide and 2' high with gooseneck tunnel at both ends
Coil container with folding end walls
Coil Containers are built like Flats or Flat racks, i.e. they consist of a container floor and
flat or frame-like end walls. The container floor has cargo troughs for accommodating
coils/rolls of steel sheet. Cargo securing costs are lower, since less complex lashing and
blocking is required than on/in normal containers. However, when overall transport costs,
including the return transport of empty containers, are taken into account, normal carriage
may be more economical. Coil containers could be included amongst named cargo
containers, but they are not covered by the standard.
Tank Containers are provided for carrying liquids and gases. The characteristics of the
substances to be carried determine the material of which the tank is made, while the
pressure under which the cargo has to be transported influences its construction. Tank

containers almost always have as their basis a steel frame, into which tanks of various
shapes may be inserted. Various fittings and accessories are incorporated, depending on
type and method of filling and emptying. Temperature-controlled tank containers require
special heating or cooling devices. They may be filled via domes or tubes and emptied
downwards via floor drains or upwards via riser pipes and pressure generators. The
products to be carried may be any types of liquid, liquefied or gaseous substance, ranging
from harmless to very dangerous.
Tank container for non-dangerous liquids
Half-Height Tank Containers or Half-Height Liquid Containers serve to carry high-

density liquids which cannot be carried in normal tank containers because they cannot be
filled to a high enough level and are therefore subject to surging.
Half-height liquid container
Frequently used terms and comments
Closed Containers include all non-ventilatable general purpose, dry bulk and tank
containers. These containers allow no or only very slight air exchange. They are not
suited to transporting goods which require an exchange of gases.
The following needs to be said with regard to Special Containers: from a technical point
of view, these meet the needs of many forwarders and are desirable with regard to cargo
securing. Their special fittings simplify packing and cargo securing, reducing securing
costs and shipping risks. However, since they are adapted to one product or group of
products to be transported, it is more difficult to use them on all routes, resulting in
higher freight rates than for standard containers due to more frequent carriage of empty
containers. From the point of view of cargo safety, however, special containers developed
for a particular product are preferable to conventional containers.

Positioning and securing of containers on board
General on-board stowage
On most ships which are specially designed for container traffic, the containers are
carried lengthwise:
Containers stowed lengthwise fore and aft stowage on board a ship
This stowage method is sensible with regard to the interplay of stresses in rough seas and
the loading capacity of containers. Stresses in rough seas are greater athwart ships than
fore and aft and the loading capacity of container side walls is designed to be higher than
that of the end walls.
General securing information
Except in the case of individually carried containers, securing is effected by stacking the
containers in vertical guide rails OR by stowing them in stacks or blocks, the containers
being connected together and fixed to parts of the vessel.
Securing in vessel holds by cell guides alone
Cell guides in an all-container ship

Virtually all all-container ships are provided with cell guides with vertical guide rails as
securing means for hold cargoes. The greatest stress the containers are exposed to stems
from stack pressure. Since the containers are not connected together vertically, lateral
stress is transmitted by each individual container to the cell guides. When positioned in
such cell guides, individual containers are not usually able to shift. If the corner posts of
one of the containers at the bottom of a stack collapse under excessive pressure,
containers stowed above it generally suffer only slight damage. The risk of damage to
containers in adjacent stacks is kept within tight limits.
Guide rails of two adjacent slots
The containers are guided by these rails of the cell guides during loading and unloading.
The photo shows clearly that the upper ends of the guide rails each take the form of
insertion guides.
Securing in vessel holds by cell guides and pins
Feeder ships, multipurpose freighters and container ships in certain regions have to be
particularly flexibly equipped, in order to be able to carry containers of different
dimensions. To this end, convertible stowage frames have been developed, in which 20',
24½', 30', 40', 45', 48' and 49' containers may be stowed securely without appreciable
delay.
Removable container guides have also been developed and constructed for multipurpose
freighters, reefer vessels and the like. Such guides allow containers to be carried in
regular or insulated holds without any risk of damage to the holds themselves. If other
cargoes are carried, the stowage guides may be removed using ships or shore-based
loading or lifting gear and deposited in special holders on deck.
Securing in vessel holds by conventional securing and stacked stowage

On older, conventional general cargo vessels and multipurpose freighters, stacked
stowage methods are used in the hold, combined with various securing methods:
Example of stacked stowage with conventional securing
The lower containers stand on foundations capable of withstanding the stack pressures
which arise. Dovetail foundations, into which sliding cones fit, are provided to prevent
slippage. The containers are connected together by single or double stacking cones or
twist locks. The entire stack or container block is lashed using lashing wires or rods and
turnbuckles. The top tiers are connected by means of bridge fittings. This system entails a
lot of lashing work and material and, moreover, is less secure than securing in cell guides.
Securing in vessel holds by block stowage and stabilization
This securing method is found less and less frequently, but it is still found on some
multipurpose freighters. Containers are interconnected horizontally and vertically using
single, double and possibly quadruple stacking cones. The top tiers are connected by
means of bridge fittings:
Fastening containers together

To the sides, the containers are supported at their corner castings with "pressure/tension
elements".
Examples of block stowage method with stabilization
The term "pressure/tension elements" should not be understood to mean that these
elements exert pressure or tension, but rather that they are capable of absorbing
compressive or tensile forces. With more up-to-date variants, the lateral supporting
structures are moved hydraulically towards the container corner castings. This type of
container securing has two marked disadvantages:
• If an individual container breaks, it is not just one container stack which is

affected, but the whole container block.
• Due to dimensional tolerances and wear and tear to the stacking cones, the entire
block can move constantly in rough seas. This causes the intermediate stacking cones to
break and an entire block may collapse.

Securing on deck using container guides
On some ships, containers are also secured on deck in cell guides or lashing frames. In
other ships, cell guides can be pushed hydraulically over the hatch cover as soon as
loading below deck is completed and the hatches have been covered up.
Securing on deck using block stowage securing

This method was used a lot in the early days of container ships, but has been used less
and less in recent years for economic reasons.
Example of block stowage securing on deck
The containers in the bottom layer are positioned in socket elements or on fixed cones.
Double stacking cones are used between the layers and the corner castings of adjoining
containers are connected at the top by bridge fittings. The containers are held together
over the entire width of the ship or hatch cover by cross lashings. A distinct disadvantage
of this method is reduced flexibility when loading and unloading, since adjoining
containers have always to be moved as well if access to a particular container is required.
Numerous variants, not listed any greater detail here, are available for attaching the
lashings. Sometimes the lashings from different stacks cross one another.
Securing on deck using stacked stowage securing
This securing method is the one used most frequently. Cargo handling flexibility is its
key advantage. The containers are stacked one on top of the other, connected with twist
locks and lashed vertically. No stack is connected with any other stack. The system thus
allows loading or unloading of an individual stack. The container lashings do not cross
over the lashings from other stacks, except for the "wind lashings" on the outer sides of
the ship.

Principle of stacked stowage securing
CSC & structural and testing regulations
The technical requirements placed on containers are enshrined in the "International

Convention for Safe Containers" or CSC. Prepared under the auspices of IMO, CSC
makes it obligatory for the owners of containers to follow ISO standards which govern
safety – specifications & testing.
The aim of the Convention is to achieve the highest possible level of safety of human life
in the handling, stacking and transporting of containers. The Convention applies to all
containers used for international transport, except containers developed especially for air
travel.
Annex II of the CSC gives examples of structural safety requirements and tests.
Every contracting state must ensure that effective procedures are put in place to enforce
the regulations in Annex I of the Convention. This Annex sets out regulations for the
testing, inspection, approval and maintenance of containers. However, the text of the
Convention does allow duly authorized organizations to be entrusted with all these tasks,
other than maintenance. In many countries, the national classification societies are
entrusted with these tasks, e.g. Germanischer Lloyd in Germany.
A Safety Approval Plate must be permanently affixed to every container at a readily

visible place, where it cannot be easily damaged.
Annex I to the International Convention for Safe Containers" (CSC) sets out regulations
for the testing, inspection, approval and maintenance of containers. Regulation 1 deals
with the Safety Approval Plate. Point 1 makes the following statements:

CSC plate
The Plate shall contain the following information in at least the English or French
language:
• "CSC SAFETY APPROVAL"

• Country of approval and approval reference
• Date (month and year) of manufacture
• Manufacturer's identification number of the container
• Maximum operating gross weight (kilograms and lbs.)
• Allowable stacking weight for 1.8 g (kilograms and lbs.)
• Transverse racking test load value
The Safety Approval Plate ... shall take the form of a permanent, non-corrosive, fire-
proof rectangular plate measuring not less than 200 mm by 100 mm. The words "CSC
Safety Approval" of a minimum letter height of 8 mm and all other words and numbers
of a minimum height of 5 mm shall be stamped into, embossed on or indicated on its
surface in any other permanent and legible way.
• Country of Approval and Approval Reference is in this case the USA, the certifier
is AB, and standing for the American Bureau of Shipping, the reference is 745.
• Date (month and year) of manufacture is year: 1998 and month: September (stated
according to ISO standard as 98-9)
• Manufacturer's identification number of the container is JDK ...and so on.
• Maximum operating gross weight (kilograms and lbs.) is stated
as 24,000 KGS and 52,910 LBS (i.e. pounds). According to the original DIN/ISO
standards, the maximum total mass for a 20' container is 20,320 kg. In the example it is
therefore higher, which is not uncommon these days. Containers with a markedly higher
total weight are available.
• Allowable stacking weight for 1.8 g (kilograms and lbs.) According to ISO
standards, fully loaded containers must be stackable 6 high. The container given by way
of example may be stacked 8 high (192,000 kg ÷ 24,000 kg = 8).
• Transverse racking test load value. In this instance, this value is 15,240 KGS or
33,600 LBS.

A blank space should be reserved on the Plate for insertion of end and/or side-wall
strength values (factors). A blank space should also be reserved on the Plate for first
and subsequent maintenance examination dates (month and year) when used.
The CSC Safety Approval Plates illustrated above do not carry these details. With good
reason, since the regulations subsequently state:
End Wall Strength to be indicated on plate only if end walls are designed to withstand a
load of less or greater than 0.4 times the maximum permissible payload, i.e. 0.4 P.
Side Wall Strength to be indicated on plate only if the side walls are designed to
withstand a load of less or greater than 0.6 times the maximum permissible payload, i.e.
0.6 P.

Positioning of data on the Safety Approval Plate
"A blank space should also be reserved on the CSC Plate for first and subsequent
maintenance examination dates (month and year) when used."
In the example illustrated, this blank space has been left not at the bottom but on the right
of the other required data (see arrow). This is common practice.
In the "International Convention for Safe Containers", Regulation 2 of Annex I deals

with maintenance, and reads as follows:
The owner of the container shall be responsible for maintaining it in safe condition.
The owner of an approved container shall examine the container or have it examined in
accordance with the procedure either prescribed or approved by the Contracting Party
concerned, at intervals appropriate to operation conditions. The date (month and year)
before which a new container shall undergo its first examination shall be marked on the
Safety Approval Plate.
The date (month and year) before which the container shall be re-examined shall be
clearly marked on the container on or as close as practicable to the Safety Approval
Plate and in a manner acceptable to that Contracting Party which prescribed or
approved the particular maintenance procedure involved.
The interval from the date of manufacture to the date of the first examination shall not
exceed five years. Subsequent examination of new containers and re-examination of
existing containers shall be at intervals of not more than 24 months. All examinations
shall determine whether the container has any defects which could place any person in
danger.
For some years now, owners have in most cases been responsible for examining their
own containers. Regulators have provided for this by establishing an "Approved
Continuous Examination Program", in which owners participate. The ACEP is a
recognized repair and maintenance system providing for regular examinations and
servicing. To participate actively in this program, it is necessary to register with the
competent authorities. Registration is indicated on the container. The owner has then to
take responsibility for the necessary inspections and the date for re-examination need no
longer be indicated on the CSC plate.
A valid ACEP renders it unnecessary to indicate a next examination date

CHAPTER 9
CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
A steel wire rope is composed of three parts – wires, strands and the heart. The heart is
made of natural fibre, though recently synthetic fibre has been used when resistance to
crushing is required. With the many changes in the marine industry the needs in wire rope
have altered considerably from the early production days. Modern ropes are designed
with specific tasks in mind (Table 4.1), and their construction varies accordingly.
However, all wire ropes are affected by wear and bending, especially so when the ropes
are operated around drum ends or sheaves. When selecting a wire rope, choose a wire
which will provide reasonable resistance to both bending fatigue and abrasion. The wire
should also be protected as well as possible against corrosive action, especially in a salt
laden atmosphere. Where corrosive conditions exist, the use of a galvanized wire is
recommended.
All wires should be governed by a planned maintenance system to ensure that they are
coated with lubricant at suitable intervals throughout their working life. Internal
lubrication will occur if the wire has a natural fibre heart, for when the wire comes under
tension, the heart will expel its lubricant into the wires, so causing the desired internal
lubrication. If synthetic material is used for the heart of a wire, this also acts to reduce
corrosion. Being synthetic, the heart is impervious to moisture; consequently, should the
rope become wet, any moisture would be expelled from the interior of the wire as weight
and pressure are taken up.
STEEL WIRE ROPE RIGGING
Standing Rigging
This will be of 6 X 7 (6 strands, 7 wires) construction, or, with a steel core, 7 X 7

construction. For larger sizes 6 X 19 or 7 X 19 may be encountered. Examples in use
would be the shrouds to port and starboard of the mast, forestay, backstay, triatic or what
used to be called jumper stay, ships’ wire guard rails etc. (see Figure 4.4). In standing
rigging the wire is non-flexible, and under normal circumstances it is a permanent fixture
of the vessel in that it does not or will not be moving at any time. There are exceptions to
this, e.g. preventer backstays to a mast when operating a heavy lift derrick, ships guard
rails being removed to allow access.
Running Rigging
These are flexible ropes of 6 X 12, 6X 18, 6X 19, 6 X 24, 6 X 36 or 6 X 37 construction.

The number of wires per strand (wps) may be as many as 91, but these ropes are
generally confined to heavy industry, such as launching slipways, towage and salvage
operations.
This is by far the most popular rig using two derricks (see Plate 20). It is a fast efficient
method of loading or discharging cargo. The derrick may be used in a single swinging
mode when not employed in a union purchase rig, so providing versatile cargo handling

over a considerable range of cargo weights. The rigging of the union purchase rig (Figure
5.4) is arranged by plumbing the inshore derrick over the quayside, while the second
derrick is plumbed over the hatch area containing the cargo. The two cargo runners are
joined together at a triple swivel hook, known as a union hook, or often referred to as a
Seattle hook (Figure 5.5).The two derricks are held in position by slewing guys, which,
once the derricks are plumbed correctly, are secured, so that the derricks will not be
allowed to move. The operation is carried out by the weight of the load being taken by
one derrick and transferred via the cargo runners to the second derrick (Figure 5.5). It
should be noted that the derricks do not move throughout the whole operation. The only
moving parts are the two cargo runners led to winches.
The stresses that come into play when working this rig are considerable because of the
angles made with the cargo runners, and as a rough guide one-third of the safe working
load of the derricks may be taken as a working weight, e.g. 5 tonnes SWL of derricks,
then 1.6 tonnes may be considered the SWL of the union purchase rig.
When rigging derricks for union purchase rig, each derrick should be topped in the
normal manner (see p. 108).The exception to this is when the schooner guy is fitted: then
both derricks should be topped together, with the tension being kept on the schooner guy
to prevent them splaying apart as they rise. For the operation of topping derricks with the
schooner guy, more manpower is obviously required to top both derricks at once.
Preventer guys, not to be confused with slewing guys, should be passed over the derrick
heads once the derricks have been floated from their crutches.
Preventer Guys
Preventer guys are to be fitted in addition to slewing guys, and their safe working load
should not be less than that indicated in Table 5.1 or as found by parallelogram of forces

of the rig, whichever is the greater. Preventers should be made of wire rope, or wire and
chain construction, and attached to the derrick separately from the slewing guys. Deck
eye plates should be so positioned so as to prevent excessive guy tension building up,
while keeping the working area clear for the passage of cargo slings. Preventers should be
secured by use of shackles through the chain link to the eye plate on the deck, or if all
wire preventers are being used, then securing is often obtained by ‘ferrules’ fused on to
the wire at regular intervals and held by a pear link arrangement.
Single Swinging Derrick
The function of the derrick is to raise, transfer and lower weights. In the shipping industry
this effectively means moving goods from the quay to the vessel or vice-versa. The
derrick boom is supported at the heel in a pivot arrangement known as the gooseneck,
which allows elevation by means of a topping lift span. The topping lift may be of the
nature of a single span or a purchase; either way the downhaul is led from the spider band
of the derrick via the masthead span block (high upper support) to a convenient winch.
Figure 5.2 shows a single span secured to a union plate, which also accommodates a
chain preventer and a bull-rope. The bull-rope is a continuation of the downhaul for the
purpose of topping or lowering the derrick. The derrick is positioned to plumb the load by
slewing the boom from port to starboard by means of a slewing guy secured on either
side of the spider band. Slewing guys come in two parts, namely a cordage tackle (wire in
the case of heavy lift derricks) secured to a wire guy pendant which is shackled at the
derrick head.
The derrick may be equipped with a lifting purchase or a whip (single) cargo runner. In
either case, once the derrick has been plumbed at the correct height for the load, the
topping lift is secured, and the downhaul of the lifting purchase is led to the winch via the
derrick heel block. Many vessels are provided with dolly winches for the sole purpose of
topping and lowering derricks. Dolly winches are usually fitted with a safety bar device
and leave the main cargo winch to handle the lifting purchase or runner. Other types of
dolly winch are operated from the main winch, in which case combined use of topping
lift and lifting purchase is not possible, the dolly winch having to be disengaged to allow
separate operations to be carried out. When the derrick is rigged in the single swinging
mode, the topping lift is secured and the actual height of the derrick does not change.
However, the bull-rope may be replaced by a luff tackle, with the consequence that the
topping lift effectively becomes the downhaul of the luff tackle. If this is led to the winch
direct, then the derrick is turned into a luffing derrick. With this method of rigging a
second winch will be required to operate the cargo runner.
Lifting gear should be set up in accordance with the ship’s rigging plan

Topping a Derrick – Topping Lift Span Tackle
1. Assume the derrick (Figure 5.3) to be in the lowered position, secured in the crutch.
Obtain lead block, chain stopper, marline spike, rope yarns and wire preventer guy if the
derrick is to be used in union purchase rig.
2. Obtain power on deck and remove the cargo runner from the barrel of winch.
3. Secure slewing guys to the spider band and stretch them to port and starboard.
4. Shackle the cargo working end of the runner to the deck, so as not to end up with the
eye of the runner at the derrick head when topped.
5. Take the weight of the topping lift downhaul by passing a chain stopper round it. Lead
the downhaul of the topping lift via a lead block on to the main barrel of the winch. Take
the weight of the wire on the winch and remove the chain stopper.
6. Remove the derrick head lashing or crutch clamp, and man the guys.
7. Lift the derrick clear of the crutch and pass the wire preventer over the derrick head for
use with union purchase.
8. Top the derrick up to the desired working height, by heaving on the topping lift
downhaul.
9. Pass the chain stopper on the topping lift downhaul once the derrick is at the required
working height and the winch is stopped.
10. Ease back on the winch until the weight comes on to the chain stopper.
11. Remove the topping lift downhaul from the winch and secure it hand tight about the
mast cleats. This operation should be carried out while the weight is on the chain stopper.
Once completed, the stopper can be removed. When turning the wire up on to the mast
cleats, make three complete turns before adding the four cross turns, the whole being
secured with a light rope yarn lashing.
12. Provided a lead block is used for the downhaul of the topping lift, and not a snatch
block, there is not the need to remove the block from the way of the wire.

13. Secure slewing guys once the derrick is plumbed correctly, and also the cargo runner
to main barrel of winch.
Derricks must be secured properly for sea, by resting them on crutches and tightening the
runner wires. Various slings, snotters canvas slings, trays, pallets, nets, chain slings, cant
hooks, bale hooks and vehicle slings may be used to load unitized break-bulk cargo.
Precautions when lifting bales with hooks are to see the cargo bales do not get
damaged.
CRANES AND DERRICKS – ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Cranes - Advantages in use are:
1. Ability to plumb over the lifting point.

2. Single-man operation, controlling luffing, slewing and hoisting.
3. Straight lift means that SWL is usually adequate.
Disadvantages in use are:
1. Complexity of operation requires lengthy maintenance.

2. SWL decreases with jib radius, because the span becomes less effective as it
approaches the horizontal.
3. Large amount of deck space required for installation.
Derricks. Advantages in use are:
1. Simplicity of component parts.

2. Ability to change rig to suit loading/discharging requirements.
3. Maintenance is minimal, provided that winches are good.
Disadvantages in use are:
1. Deck is cluttered with guy ropes and preventers.

2. Operation usually requires two winch drivers and a hatch man.
3. Time delays in changing derrick rig for different cargoes.
Precautions to be taken when fork-lift trucks or similar devices are used in the ‘twin-
decks or holds are as follows:-
1. Only authorized persons to drive the fork lift or other devices.

2. The weight of fork lift within permissible limits ( PLD : Permissible load
density of the tween deck or lower hold tank top.)
3. The ships structure like hopper, ladders, sounding pipes should not be damaged
by mishandling of fork lifts.
4. Means of communications to be established through stevedore foreman.

CHAPTER 10
Cargo Handling - Safety
1. All cargo gear should be visually inspected before the start of cargo operations each
day .
2. Load on cargo gear should never exceed its safe working load .
3.ropes wires blocks and loose gear should be subject to frequent inspections while in use
for cargo operations As per ISM.
4. Mechanically or hydraulically operated hatches should be opened or closed by the
ship’s crew under the supervision of a responsible person only.
5. Hatch covers should be secured by locking devices to prevent them moving
accidentally.
6. Covers of partially opened hatches should be secured to prevent their accidental
displacement
7. All hatch openings should be securely fenced to a minimum height of 1 m
8. It is the ships responsibility to cover or fence hatches when notice of completion of
work for the day is given by the stevedore in charge
9. No person should use a ladder in the square of a hatch while cargo is being hoisted or
lowered in that square
10. No person should stand or pass under a suspended load
11. Portable lights should be removed from cargo as soon as they are no longer required
as they are fire hazard.
12.A responsible person to establishes and maintain effective communication during
loading and discharging of cargo with ship and shore staff
13. It is duty of responsible person to look for damages and defects most commonly
encountered due to:
- loading and discharging operations
- corrosion
- severe weather conditions
14. All parts of the ships hold shall be inspected at what time in order to cover all parts
within a given period of time as per company safety policy and PMS (planned
maintenance system)
20. Some elements of the ship structure which are critical to the safety of the ship are as
follows :-
Shipside frames with their brackets.
Watertight bulkheads
Forepeak tank
21. There are five main methods for controlling the tendency of metals to corrode in sea
water:
1. By isolation of the corroding metal from the sea water by painting, or other
coating
2. Changing the potential of the metal to a point where corrosion ceases - by
impressed voltage or coupling to a sacrificial anode.
3. By making the metal passive, using corrosion inhibitors.
4. Changing the pH of the local environment by chemical dosing.
5. And finally by making a change to a more corrosion resistant material.

Protection by painting
• Painting the ship isolates the steel from the corrosive media. The paint must also
be resistant to the marine environment and the application strictly controlled to ensure
full and effective coverage of the steel. Regular inspection and repair of the coating may
be necessary to achieve reliable and lasting protection.
Cathodic protection
• Sacrificial anodes enable the potential of the system to be changed and will
provide temporary protection to steel exposed by wear or damage of the protective
coating. Systematic location of the anodes is critical to their overall effectiveness. They
must likewise be regularly serviced and replaced when spent.
Inhibition
• Inside the ship inhibitors which modify the corrosion process may effectively
prevent attack in bilges and other areas where sea water will collect and
stagnate. Reliable systems to monitor and maintain the correct concentration of the
inhibitor are an essential aspect of this prevention strategy.
Galvanic corrosion
• In practice ships are rarely made just from a single metal or alloy. Modern
engineering systems use a wide range composites and of metals and alloys, some more,
some less resistant to marine corrosion than steel. The more resistant alloys may
aggravate the attack on adjacent unprotected less resistant alloys. This galvanic effect is
not always confined to separate metals, some alloys improperly processed in manufacture
or fabrication carry the seeds of their own destruction in their microstructures which
contain phases so widely separated in corrosion potential that without further overall
protection by coating, anodes or inhibitors, selective attack of the less resistant phase is
inevitable.
Using corrosion resistant alloys
• Could ships and other marine structures be made from more corrosion resistant
materials? Depending on design factors including the severity of the application and the
levels of strength, damage tolerance, reliability, safety and life required, components and
systems can be manufactured from composites, or from stainless steels of increasing
resistance, or from copper based alloys such as cupro-nickel or nickel aluminium bronze,
nickel alloys or titanium, using these materials exclusively or in conjunction with each
other or less resistant alloys. Protection for the least resistant alloys by anodes, or
impressed potential, requires careful control of the system potential to avoid the
possibility of hydrogen uptake by the more highly corrosion resistant alloys such as super
duplex steel and titanium.
22. procedures on how these inspections shall be carried out

A close up inspection , preferably at arm’s length of all the hold structures must be
carried out to detect any damage/ cracks or excessive corrosion. It may be supplemented
by hammer test or ultrasonic gauging , where the remaining thickness of the ships
structure is compared to its original thickness as per shell expansion plan. Equipment like
scaffolding / cherry pickers or ladders may be used . Lifelines/ safety harness should be
used for personal safety . ISM forms may be used as an exhaustive checklist or recording
thickness measurements. Reliable detection of defects and damages can be achieved by
an experienced and responsible officer or organization in charge. Purpose of the
“Enhanced Survey Program me” is to detect and effect required repairs in time frame. As
the name suggests enhanced survey covers extensive and thorough inspection of the
entire ships structures like bottom, ship sides, cargo tanks/ holds, ballast tanks , pipelines
etc. which over period of time may get corroded or thinned down to large extent , and
then renewing those parts becomes important to prevent total failure of the structure.
Enhanced survey programme involves thickness measurement reports , the report on
successive repair list .
The effect of heavy lift as sea-worthiness and stability of the ship is as follows:-
The moment heavy lift is lifted by ships gear , the centre of gravity shifts to the head of
the gear which may affect the ships stability , hence proper GM calculations must be
done. Heavy lift cargo must be properly lashed to achieve solidity of the stow , and on
proper dunnage t spread the weight. Proper tool box meeting / risk assessment must be
performed. Good communication is the key to safe operations.
DOCK LABOUR REGULATIONS ( DLR)
Definitions
 "authorised person" means a person authorised by the employer, the master of

the ship or a responsible person to undertake a specific task or tasks and possessing
necessary technical knowledge and experience for undertaking the task or tasks;
 "competent person" means a person belonging to a testing establishment in
India who is approved by the Chief Inspector for the purpose of testing, examination or
annealing and certification of lifting appliances, loose gears or wire ropes; any other
person who is recognised under the relevant regulations in force in other countries as
competent for issuing certificates
 "Inspector" means a person appointed by the Central Government under Sec. 3
of the Act and includes the Chief Inspector;
 "lifting appliance" means all stationary or mobile cargo handling appliances
including their permanent attachments, such as cranes, derricks shore based power
operated ramps used on shore or on board ship for suspending, raising or lowering, cargo
or moving them from one position to another while suspended or supported, in
connection with the dock work and includes lifting machinery;
 "loose gear" means hook, shackle, swivel, chain, sling, lifting beam, container
spreader, tray and any other such gear, by means of which the load can be attached to a
lifting appliance and includes lifting device;
 "port authority" means the person having the general management and control
of dock:

 "responsible person" means a person appointed by the employer, the master of
the ship, the owner of the gear or port authorities, as the case may be, to be responsible
for the performance of a specific duty or duties and who has sufficient knowledge and
experience and the requisite authority for the proper performance of the duty or duties;
 "safe working load" in relation to an article of loose gear or lifting appliance
means the load which is the maximum load that may be imposed with safety in the
normal working conditions and as assessed and certified by the competent person;
 "testing establishment" means an establishment with testing and examination
facilities, as approved by the Chief Inspector for carrying out testing, examination,
annealing or certification, etc. of lifting appliance or loose gear or wire rope as required
under the regulations;
 “thorough examination” means a visual examination, supplemented if necessary
by other means such as hammer test, carried out as carefully as the conditions permit, in
order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as to the safety of the parts examined; and if
necessary for this purpose, parts of the lifting appliance and gear, shall be dismantled.
Describe the powers of Dock Safety Inspector?
Powers of Inspectors:
1. An Inspector may at any port for which he is appointed:
a. enter, with such assistance, (if any), as he thinks fit, any ship, dock,
warehouse or other premises, where any dock work, is being carried on, or where he has
reason to believe that any dock work is being carried on;
b. make examination of the ship, dock, lifting appliance, loose gear, lifting
device, staging, transport equipment, warehouse or other premises, used or to be used, for
any dock work;
c. require the production of any testing muster roll or other document
relating to the employment of dock workers and examine such document;
d. take on the spot or otherwise such evidence of any person which he may
deem necessary, provided that no person shall be compelled to answer any question or,
give any evidence tending to incriminate himself;
e. take copies of registers, records or other documents or portions thereof as
he may consider relevant in respect of any offence which he has reason to believe has
been committed or for the purpose of any inquiry;
f. take photograph, sketch, sample, weight measure or record as he may
consider necessary for the purpose of any examination or inquiry;
g. hold an inquiry into the cause of any accident or dangerous occurrence
which he has reason to believe was the result of the collapse or failure of any lifting
appliance loose gear, transport equipment, staging non-compliance with any of the
provisions of the Act or the regulations;
h. issue show-cause notice relating to the safety, health and welfare
provisions arising under the Act or the regulations;
i. prosecute, conduct or defend before any court any complaint or other
proceedings, arising under the Act or the regulations;
j. direct the port authority, dock labour board and other employers of dock
workers for getting the dock workers medically examined if considered necessary.

2. A person having general management and control of the premises or the owner,
master, officer-in-charge or agents of the ship, as the case may be, shall provide such
means as may be required by the Inspector for entry, inspection, examination, inquiry,
otherwise for the exercise of his powers under Act and the regulations in relation to that
ship or premises which shall also include the provision of launch or other means of
transport.
Q. Describe D.L.R. pertaining to staging, access, ladders & machinery?
Staging
1. Construction and Maintenance

a. All staging shall be:
i. securely constructed of sound and substantial material and shall be
maintained in such condition so as to ensure the safety of all dock workers; and
ii. inspected at regular and frequent intervals by a responsible person.
b. All planks and ropes intended to be used for a staging shall be:
i. carefully examined before being taken into use; and
ii. re-examined by a responsible person before they are used again
after the stages have been dismantled.
c. All planks forming stages shall be securely fastened to prevent slipping.
d. All stages shall be of sufficient width to secure the safety of the dock
workers.
e. Stage suspended by ropes or chains shall be secured as far as possible so
as to prevent their swinging; and
f. No rope or chain shall be used in suspending stages unless it is of suitable
quality, adequate strength and free from patent defects.
g. Fibre rope shall not pass over sharp edges.
h. Safe means of access shall be provided for the use of dock workers to and
from stages and ropes used for suspending stages shall not be used as means of access.
2. Work on staging
a. More than two men shall not be allowed to work at any one time on a
staging plank.
b. When dockworkers are employed on staging more than 2.5 meters high,
they shall be protected by safety belts equipped with lifelines which shall be secured to a
fixed structure.
c. Prior to each use, belts and lifelines shall be inspected for dry rot,
chemical damage or other defects, which may affect their strength. Defective belts shall
not be used.
d. Work on a staging shall not be carried on when loaded slings have to pass
over the staging and there is danger from falling objects.

Means of Access
1. Access between shore and ship

a. When a ship is lying at a wharf or quay for the purpose of dock work,
adequate and safe means of access to the ship, properly installed and secured, shall be
provided.
b. Safe means, shall be as follows: Where practicable, the ship
accommodation ladder or a gangway, shall be
i. not less than 55 cms, wide at the steps and of adequate depth with
steps having permanent non-skid surface;
ii. properly secured and securely fenced throughout its length on each
side except that in the case of ship's accommodation ladder such fencing shall be
necessary one side only provided that the other side is properly protected by the ship's
side;
iii. constructed of suitable material and maintained in good condition
and suitable for the purpose;
iv. fitted with a platform at either end of the ladder and the lower
platform or the treads resting on the dock;
v. an angle maintained not exceeding 40 degrees to the horizontal
irrespective of resting on the dock.
c. Whenever there is danger of dock workers falling between the ship and the
shore, a safety net or other suitable protection shall be rigged below the accommodation
ladder.
d. If it is not possible to rest the accommodation ladder or gangway and the
foot of the same is more than 30 cms away from the edge of the wharf or quay, the space
between them shall be bridged by a firm walkway equipped with railing on both the sides
with a minimum height of one meter with the mid-rails.
e. When the upper end of the means of access rests on or is in flush with the
top of the bulwark substantial steps properly secured and equipped with at least one
substantial handrail one meter in height shall be provided between the top of the bulwark
and the deck and the steps provided shall be, as far as practicable, in line with the
gangway.
2. Access between ship and another vessel.
a. When a ship is alongside another ship, and dock workers have to pass
from one to the other, adequate and safe means of access shall be provided for their use,
unless the conditions are such that it is possible to pass from one to the other without
undue risk and without the aid of any special appliance.
b. If the other ship is sailing barge, flat, keel, lighter or other similar vessel of
relatively low free board, the means of access shall be provided by the ship which has the
higher free board.
c. Rope ladders used as a means of access between ship and another vessel
shall,
i. be of good construction, made up of suitable and sound material
with adequate strength and properly maintained for the purpose for which it is used;
ii. be adequately secured at its upper end

iii. have suitable provisions as far as practicable, for preventing the
ladder from twisting; and
iv. have bottom tread within the safe distance of the lower landing
place.
3. Access between deck and hold

a. If the depth from the level of the deck to the bottom of the hold exceed 1.5
meters there shall be maintained safe means of access from the deck to the hold in which
work is being carried on.
b. Where practicable, access to the hold shall be by separate man-hatches 60
centimetre by 60 centimetre clear in size, with a sloping ladder and hand rail through
each deck to the lower hold and hinged cover for a man-hatch shall, while in the open
position, be effectively secured.
c. When the length of the hatchway exceeds 7 meters, a fixed hold ladder
shall be fitted both on or near the fore and aft side of the hatchway.
d. Fixed hold ladders shall be maintained in good condition.
e. Fixed hold ladders connecting decks shall lie in the same straight line,
unless measures are taken at each tween deck for safe ascent and descent from the
ladders.
f. Cargo shall be stacked sufficiently far from the ladder.
4. Fencing of and means of access to lifting appliances
a. Safe means of access to every part of a lifting appliance shall be provided.

b. The operator's platform on every crane or tip driven by mechanical power
shall be securely fenced and shall be provided with safe means of access. In particular,
where access is by a ladder,
i. the sides of the ladder shall extend to a reasonable distance beyond
the platform or some other suitable handhold shall be provided;
ii. the landing place on the platform shall be maintained free from
obstruction and slipping; and
iii. In case where the ladder is vertical and exceeds six meters in
height, a resting place shall be provided, after every six meters and part thereof.
Ladders
1. All metal, wooden, rope or other ladders that are used by dock workers shall be of
sound material, good construction and adequate strength for the purpose for which they
are intended and shall be properly maintained and kept free from oil or other slippery
material.
2. Wooden ladders, shall not be painted, but covered with clear varnish or other
transparent preservative.
3. No ladder shall be used which has-
a. a missing or defective rung; or
b. any rung which depends for its support on nails, spikes or other similar
fixings.
4. Every ladder shall be inspected at suitable intervals by a responsible person, and if
any defects are found in any ladder, the ladder shall be immediately taken out of service.

(Machinery) Fencing of motors, etc.
1. All machinery (whether or not driven by mechanical power), their moving parts
and steam pipes shall be securely fenced or lagged.
2. The fencing of dangerous parts of machinery shall not be removed while the
machinery is in motion or in use, but if removed, shall be replaced before the machinery
is taken into normal use again.
3. No part of any machinery which is in motion and which is not securely fenced
shall be examined, lubricated, adjusted or repaired except by persons duly authorised.
4. Machine parts shall only be cleaned when the machine is stopped.
5. When machinery is stopped for servicing or repairs, adequate means shall be
taken to ensure that it cannot inadvertently be restarted.
6. Only duly authorised person shall be permitted to install, adjust, examine, repair,
displace or remove electrical equipment or circuits.
7. All portable electrical equipment shall be maintained in good working order and
inspected by a responsible person at least once in every day before it is taken into use.
Q Describe how the care & maintenance of the derrick & it’s moving parts is
carried out on board ship?
Construction and maintenance of lifting appliances
1. General:
All lifting appliance, including all parts and working gear thereof, whether fixed or
moveable, and any plant or gear used in anchoring of fixing such appliance, shall be:
a. of good construction, sound material, adequate strength for the purpose for
which it is used and free from patent defect; and
b. Maintained in good repair and working order.
2. Drums:
a. Every drum or pulley round which the rope of any lifting appliances is
carried, shall be of adequate diameter and construction in relation to the rope used.
b. Any rope which terminates at the winding drum of a lifting appliance shall
be securely attached to the drum and at least three dead turns of the rope shall remain on
the drum in every operating position of the lifting appliance.
c. The flange of the drum should project twice the rope diameter beyond the
last layer.
3. Brakes: Every lifting appliances shall be provided with an efficient brake or

brakes which shall:
a. be capable of preventing fall of a suspended lead (Including any test load

applied in accordance with these regulations) and of effectively controlling a load while it
is being lowered;
b. act without shock;

c. have shoes that can be easily removed for relining; and
d. Be provided with simple and easily accessible means of adjustment.
Controls : Controls of lifting appliance shall:
e. be so situated that the driver at his stand or seat has ample room for
operating and has an unrestricted view of dock work, as far as practicable, and remains
clear of the load and ropes, and that no load passes over him;
f. be positioned with due regard to ergonometric considerations for easy
operation;
g. be so located that the driver does not have to remain in the bight of the
heel block;
h. have upon them or adjacent to them clear markings to indicate their
purpose and mode of operation;
i. be provided, where necessary, with a suitable locking device to prevent
accidental movement or displacement;
j. as far as practicable, move in the direction of the resultant load movement;
and
k. automatically come to a neutral position in case of power failure.
Q What tests are carried out on lifting appliances and at what frequency?
Test and periodical examination of lifting appliances
1. Before being taken into use for the first time or after It has undergone any
alternations or repairs liable to affect its strength or stability and also once at least in
every five years, all lifting appliances including all parts and gears thereof, whether fixed
or moveable, shall be tested and examined by a competent person in the manner set out In
Schedule I.
2. All lifting appliances shall be thoroughly examined by a competent person once at
least in every 12 months. Where the competent person making this examination forms the
opinion that the lifting appliance cannot continue to function safely, he shall forthwith
give notice in writing of his opinion to the owner of the lifting appliance or in case of
lifting appliance carried on board a ship not registered in India, to the Master or officer-
in-charge of the ship.
3. Thorough examination for the purpose of this regulation shall mean a visual
examination, supplemented if necessary by other means such as hammer test, carried out
as carefully as the conditions permit, in order to arrive at a reliable conclusion as to the
safety of the parts examined; and if necessary for this purpose, parts of the lifting
appliance and gear, shall be dismantled.
Q What are the factors to be considered before condemning a wire rope?

Q A wire of 20mm Diameter & 6 x 24 construction is having 15 broken visible
wires in 162mm Length. Will you condemn the wire? If not why and how often will you
inspect the wire?
Q Describe the circumstances under which you would condemn a wire rope,
which is part of the cargo tackle?
Q When would you condemn a runner wire of a crane?
Q What do you understand by care & maintenance of a wire rope?

Ropes
1. No rope shall be used for dock work unless:
a. It is of suitable quality and free from patent defect, and

b. In the case of wire rope, it has been tested and examined by a competent
person in the manner set out in Schedule I (Tested to destruction & SWL obtained by
dividing with factor of safety).
2. Every wire rope of lifting appliance or loose gear used in dock work shall be
inspected by a responsible person once at least in every three months, provided that after
any wire has broken in such rope, it shall be inspected once at least in every month.
3. No wire rope shall be used in dock work if in any length of eight diameters the
total number of visible broken wires exceed 10 per cent of the total number of wires or
the rope shows sign of excessive wear, corrosion or other defects which in the opinion of
the person who inspects it or Inspector, renders it as unfit for use.
4. Eye splices and loops for the attachment of hooks, rings and other such parts to
wire ropes shall be made with suitable thimble.
5. A thimble or loop splice made in any wire rope shall conform to the following
standard:
a. Wire rope or rope sling shall have at least three tucks with full strand of
rope and two tucks with one-half of the wires cut out of each strand and strands in all
cases shall be tucked against the lay of the rope;
b. Protruding ends of strands in any splice on wire rope and rope slings shall
be covered or treated so as to leave no sharp points;
c. Fibre rope or rope sling shall have at least four tucks tail of such tuck
being whipped in a suitable manner; and
d. Synthetic fibre rope or rope sling shall have at least four tucks with full
strand followed by further tuck with one-half filaments cut-out of each strand and final
tuck with one-half of the remaining filaments, cut-out from trends. The portion of the
splices containing the tucks with the reduced number of filaments shall be securely
covered with suitable tape or other materials: Provided that this sub-regulation shall not
operate to prevent the use of another form of splice which can be shown to be as efficient
as that laid down in this regulation.
Q What is a cargo gear register?

Q What are the contents of a chain register?
Register of periodical test and examination and certificates thereof
1. A register in Form II shall be maintained and particulars of test and examination

of lifting appliances and loose gears and heat treatment, shall be entered in it:
 Register of Machinery, Chains, etc. and Wire Ropes (Form II)
o Part I Lifting Appliance (Initial & Periodical load testing and
Annual Thorough Examinations)
o Part II Loose Gears (Initial & Periodical load testing and Annual
Thorough Examinations)
o Part III Annealing of chains, rings, hooks, shackles & swivels (Other than
those exempted)

2. Certificates shall be obtained from competent person and attached to the register
in Form II, in respect of the following, in the forms shown against each:
a. Initial and periodical test and examination for-
i. winches, derricks and their accessory gear in Form III
ii. cranes or hoists and their accessory gear in Form IV;
b. Test, examination and re-examination of loose gears under regulation 47
in Form V;
c. Test and examination of wire ropes under regulation 48 in Form VI;
d. Heat treatment and examination of loose gears under sub-regulation (1) of
regulation 49, in Form VII;
e. Annual thorough examination of the loose gears under sub-regulation (2)
of regulation 47 in Form VIII, unless required particulars have been entered in the
register in Form II.
The register and the certificates attached to the register shall be:
3.
a. kept on board the ship in case of ship's lifting appliances, loose gears and
wire ropes;
b. kept at premises of the owner in respect of other lifting appliances, loose
gear and wire ropes;
c. produced on demand before an Inspector; and
d. retained for at least five years after the date of the last entry.
4. No lifting appliance and loose gear in respect of which an entry is required to be

made and certificates of test and examination are required to be attached in the register in
Form II, shall be used for dock work unless and until the required entry has been made in
the register and the required certificates have been so attached.
Q When & to whom an accident to a shore labour should be reported?
Reporting of accidents
1. Notice of any accident in a dock which either:

(a) causes loss of life; or
(b) disables a person from work on which he was employed for the rest of the
day or shift in which the accident occurred; shall forthwith be sent by telegram, telephone
or special messenger within four hours of the occurrence to,-
i. the Inspector:
ii. the relatives of the workers when the accident causes loss of life to
the dock worker or is likely to disable the dock worker from work for more than ten days;
and
iii. in the case of fatal accidents also to:
1. the officer-in-charge of the nearest Police Station, and,
2. the District Magistrate or if the District Magistrate by order
so directs, the Sub-Divisional Magistrate.

2. In the case of accidents falling under Cl. (b) of sub- regulation (1) the injured
person shall be given first-aid and thereafter immediately transferred to a hospital or other
place of treatment.
3. Where any accident causing disablement subsequently results in the death of
dockworker, notice in writing of the death shall be submitted to the authorities mentioned
in sub-regulation (1) within 72 hours after the death occurs.
4. The following classes of dangerous occurrences shall be reported to the Inspector,

whether death or disablement is caused or not, in the manner prescribed in sub-regulation
(1):
(a) collapse or failure of lifting appliances or conveyors or breakage or failure

of rope, chains or other loose gears and lifting devices or overturning of cranes, used in
dock work, falling of hatch boards or cargo from sling, displacement of hatch beams or
coverings;
(b) collapse or subsidence of any wall, floor, gallery, roof, platform, staging
or means of access;
(c) explosion of a receiver or vessel used for the storage, at a pressure greater
than atmosphere pressure of any gas or gases (Including air) or any liquid or solid
resulting from the compression of gas;
(d) explosion or fire causing damage to any place in the dock in which dock
workers are employed;
(e) collapse, capsizing, toppling or collision of the transport equipment,
(f) spillage or leakage of dangerous goods and damage to their containers;
and
(g) breakage, buckling or damage of freight containers.
5. If a failure of lifting appliance, loose gear and transport equipment has occurred,
the concerned appliance, gear or equipment and the site shall, as far as practicable, be
kept undisturbed until inspected by the Inspector.
6. Every notice given under sub-regulation (1) and sub-regulation (4), shall be
confirmed within seventy-two hours of the occurrence by submitting a written report to
the inspector in Form XII and a proper acknowledgment obtained provided that in case of
an accident under Cl. (b) of sub-regulation (1), such written report need be submitted
only when the dock worker is disabled from work on which he was employed for more
than forty-eight hours from the time of accident.
Q. Explain the D.L.R. that are to be complied with while a vessel is working cargo.
List out the various markings & safety devices on a crane that you would ensure are in
good order before commencing cargo operations?
D.L.R. pertaining to following items are to be complied with while a vessel is working
cargo:
 Safety (Working Places)
o Railings and fencings

o Staging construction and maintenance.
o Means of Access
o Access between shore and ship
o Access between ship and another vessel.
o Access between deck and hold.
o Fencing of and means of access to lifting appliances
o Ladders
 Safety (Lifting Appliances and Gear)

o Construction and maintenance of lifting appliances
o Test and periodical examination of lifting appliances.
o Rigging of ship's derricks
o Construction and maintenance of loose gears.
o Test and periodical examination of loose gears.
o Ropes
o Heat treatment of loose gears.
o Certificate to be issued after actual testing, examination, etc.
o Register of periodical test and examination and certificates thereof.
o Marking of safe working load.
o Loading of lifting appliances and loose gears.
o Pulley blocks.
o Knotting of chains and wire ropes
 Safety (Miscellaneous)
o (Machinery) Fencing of motors, etc.

o Electrical equipment.
o Reporting of accidents.
Markings & safety devices on a crane that need to be checked before commencing
cargo operations are:
Markings: Relevant SWL markings for all possible methods of rig (e.g. a crane
having variable operational radii may have a smaller SWL when rigged to maximum
radius) & corresponding minimum permissible angle from horizontal (e.g. a crane may
have a SWL of 25 T at ≥15º from horizontal)
SWL markings on individual components of a crane such as blocks, hooks, shackles, etc.
Safety Devices: Safety cut-outs (limit switches) for following operations:
o Runner hoisting – upper limit

o Runner lowering – lower limit
o Jib (Boom) vertical motion – upper limit
o Jib (Boom) vertical motion – lower limit
o Jib (Boom) slewing – port limit
o Jib (Boom) slewing – starboard limit

Last two limit switches (Jib - slewing) are provided only for those cranes where
proximity hazard with a ship structure (such as a bulk head) exists:
 Jib Angle Indicators

 Safety latch on a crane hook
 Stoppers / safety lugs which prevent wire from slipping off a sheave
 Steadying line if applicable
 Access guard rails
Q DLA 1934 was brought into effect to ensure safety during cargo
operations. Explain. State the guidelines under which you may condemn blocks as
unfit for use?
DL Act 1934 was introduced to give effect to the Convention concerning the protection
against accidents of workers employed in loading and unloading ships. Safety
enhancement during cargo operations was sought by:
1. providing for the safety of working places on shore and of any regular
approaches over a dock, wharf, quay or similar premises which workers have to use
for going to or from a working place at which the processes are carried on, and for
the lighting and fencing of such places and approaches
2. prescribing the nature of the means of access which shall be provided for the
use of workers proceeding to or from a ship which is lying alongside a quay hulk or
other vessel
3. prescribing the measures to be taken to ensure the safe transport of workers
proceeding to or from a ship by water and [lie conditions to be complied with by the
vessels used for the purpose
4. prescribing the nature of the means of access to be provided for the use of the
workers from the deck of a ship to a hold in which the processes arc carried on
5. prescribing the measures to be taken to protect hatchways accessible to the
workers and other openings in a deck which might be dangerous to them
6. providing for the efficient lighting of the means of access to ships on which
the processes are carried on and of all places on board at which the workers are
employed or to which they may be required to proceed
7. Providing for the safely of the workers engaged in removing or replacing
hatch coverings and beams used for hatch coverings
8. prescribing the measures to be taken to ensure that no hoisting machine, or
gear, whether fixed or loose, used in connection therewith, is employed in the
processes on shore or "on board ship unless it is in a sale working condition
9. providing for the fencing of machinery, live electric conductors and steam
pipes
10. regulating the provisions of safety appliances on derricks, cranes and winches
11. prescribing the precautions to be observed in regard to exhaust and live steam
12. requiring the employment of competent and reliable persons to operate lifting
or transporting machinery used in the processes, or to give signals to a driver of such
machinery, or to attend to cargo falls on winch ends or winch drums, and providing
for the employment of a singular where this is necessary for the safety of the workers

13. prescribing the measures to be taken in order to prevent dangerous methods
of working in the stacking, unstacking , stowing and unstowing of cargo, or handling
in connection therewith
14. prescribing the precautions to be taken to facilitate the escape of the workers
when employed in a hold or between decks in dealing with coal or other bulk cargo
15. prescribing the precautions to be observed in the use of stages and trucks
16. prescribing the precautions to be observed when the workers have to work
where dangerous or noxious goods arc, or have been, slowed or have to deal with or
work in proximity to such goods
17. providing for the rendering of first-aid to injured workers and removal to the
nearest place of treatment
18. prescribing the provision to be made for the rescue of immersed workers
from drowning
19. prescribing the abstracts of this Act and of the regulations required by section
8
20. providing for the submission of notices of accidents and dangerous
occurrences and prescribing the forms of such notices, the persons and authorities to
whom they are to be furnished, the particulars to be contained in them and the time
within which they are to be submitted
21. specifying the persons and authorities who shall be responsible for
compliance with regulations made under this Act
22. defining the circumstances in which and condition subject to which
exemptions from any of (lie regulations made under this Section may be given,
specifying the authorities who may grant such exemptions and regulating their
procedure
23. defining the additional powers which Inspectors may exercise under clause
(c) of section 4 ; and
24. providing generally for the safety of workers.
As per DLR, no pulley blocks shall be used in dock work unless the safe working load
and its identification marks are clearly stamped upon it. Further, blocks may be rendered
unfit for use under following circumstances:
 When clearance between centre pin or similar fitting and its mating hole
increases up to 10% of the original diameter of the pin.
 When serious deformation has occurred
 When a crack has occurred
 When abrasion or corrosion reaches 10% or more of the original dimensions
 Blocks whose sheaves do not rotate smoothly

Miscellaneous Notes
Rigging of ship's derricks
1. Every ship shall carry the current and relevant rigging plans and any other
relevant information necessary for the safe rigging of its derricks and necessary gear.
2. All such rigging plans shall be certified by a competent person.
Construction and maintenance of loose gears
1. Every loose gear shall be:
a. of good design and construction, sound material and adequate strength for
the purpose for which it is used and free from patent defects and,
b. Properly maintained in good repair and working order.
2. Components of the loose gear shall be renewed if one of the dimensions at any
point has decreased by 10 per cent. or more by user.
3. Chains shall be withdrawn from use when stretched and increased in length
exceeds five per cent, or when a link of the chain deformed or otherwise damaged or
raised scarfs of defective welds appeared.
4. Rings hooks, swivels and end links attached to chains shall be of the same
material as that of the chains.
5. The voltage of electric supply to any magnetic lifting device shall not fluctuate by
more than + 10 per cent.
Test and periodical examination of loose gears.-
1. All loose gears shall be initially tested for the manufacturer by a competent
person, in a manner set-out in Schedule-I before taking into use or after undergoing any
substantial alternations or renders to any part liable to affect its safety and shall
subsequently be retested for the owner of the gear, at least in every five years.
2. All loose gears shall be thoroughly examined once at least in every twelve months
by a competent person. In addition chains shall be thoroughly examined once at least
every month by a responsible person.
Heat treatment of loose gears
1. All chains other than bridle chains attached to derricks on mass and all rings,
hooks, shackles and swivels used in hoisting or lowering shall, unless they have been
subjected to such treatment as an Inspector may, subject to confirmation by the Chief
Inspector approve, be effectively annealed under supervision of a competent person and
at the following intervals:
a. 12.5 millimetre and smaller chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels in
general use, once at least in every six months; and
b. all other chains, rings, hooks, shackles and swivels in general use, once at
least in every twelve months. Provided that in the case of such gear used solely on cranes
and other hoisting appliances worked by hand twelve months shall be submitted for six

months in sub-clause (a) and two years for twelve months in sub-clause (b): Provided
further that where an Inspector is of the opinion that owing, to the size, design material or
frequency of use of any such gear or class of such gear, the requirements of this
regulation as to annealing is not necessary for the protection of dock workers, he may by
certificate in writing (which he may at his discretion revoke) and subject to confirmation
by the Chief Inspector exempt such gear or class of gear from such requirement subject to
such conditions as may be specified in such certificate.
2. Sub-regulation (1) shall not apply to:
a. pitched chains, working on sprocket of sprocketed wheels;

b. rings, hooks and swivels permanently attached to perched chain, pulley
blocks or weighing machines; and
c. hooks and swivels having ball bearings or other case hardened parts.
3. All chains and loose gears made from high tensile steel or alloy steel be plainly
marked with an approved mark indicating that they are so made. No chain or loose gear
made from high tensile steel or alloy steel shall be subject to any form of heat treatment
except where necessary for the purpose of repair and under the direction of a competent
person.
4. If the past history of wrought iron gear is not known or if it is suspected that the
gear has been heat treated at incorrect temperature, it shall be normalised before using the
same for dock work.
Note: Heat Treatment is the process of heating & subsequent cooling of the material to
achieve the desired properties of hardness, ductility & malleability, etc.
The processing essentially consists of:
 Heating
 Holding for heat saturation & completion of structural changes
 Cooling at the desired rate
Annealing imparts softness, elasticity, ductility & relieves any internal stresses. The
metal is heated to about 20°-30°C above the critical point. After being held for a while at
this temperature (for the transformation to be complete), it is cooled slowly at a rate of
about 50°C per hour. The cooling may be done in the furnace or in some medium e.g. a
sand bath, which reduces the rate of cooling.
Normalizing is carried out to restore the original properties to a metal & correct the
structure of overheated steel. It relieves the stresses & improves the machinability of
carbon & low alloy steels by making them less hard.
Certificate to be issued after actual testing, examination, etc.
A competent person shall issue a certificate only after actual testing or, as the case may
be, examination of the apparatus specified in the said regulation.

Marking of safe working load
1. Every lifting appliance and every item of loose gear shall be clearly marked with its
safe working load and identification mark by stamping or where this is impracticable, by
other suitable means.
2.
2.1. Every ship's derrick (other than derrick crane) shall be clearly marked with its
safe working load when the derrick is used,
2.1.1. in single purchase,
2.1.2. with a lower cargo block, and
2.1.3. in union purchases in all possible block positions;
2.2. The lowest angle to the horizontal, that the derrick may be used, shall also be
legibly marked.
3. Every lifting appliance (other than ship's derricks) having more than one safe working
load shall be fitted with effective means enabling the operator to determine the safe
working load under each condition of use.
4. Means shall be provided to enable any dock worker using loose gears to ascertain the
safe working load for such loose gears under such conditions as it may be used and such
means shall consists,
4.1. as regards chain slings, of marking the safe working load in plain figures or
letter: upon the sling or upon a tablet or ring of durable material attached securely thereto;
and
4.2. as regards wire rope slings, either the means specified in CL (a) above or a
notice or notices so exhibited as can be easily read by any concerned, dock worker stating
the safe working load for the various sizes of the wire rope slings used.
5. No lifting appliance or loose gear shall be used unless marked in accordance with the
provisions of this regulation.
Loading of lifting appliances and loose gears
1. No lifting appliance, loose gear and wire rope shall be used in an unsafe way and
in such a manner as to involve risk to life of dock workers, and, in particular, shall be
loaded beyond its safe working load or loads, except for testing purposes as given in
Schedule I and under the direction of a competent person.
2. No lifting appliance and loose gears or any other cargo handling appliances shall
be used, if-
(a) the Inspector is not satisfied by reference to a certificate of test or
examination or to an authenticated record maintained as provided under the regulations;
and
(b) in the view of the Inspector, the lifting appliance, loose gear or any other
cargo handling appliance is not safe for use in dock work.

Pulley blocks
No pulley blocks shall be used in dock work unless the safe working load and its
identification marks are clearly stamped upon it.
Knotting of chains and wire ropes
No chain or wire rope shall be used in dock work with a knot in it.

CHAPTER 11
Dangerous, Hazardous & Harmful (Marine Pollutants) Cargoes
Dangerous Goods – IMDG
NEW IMDG CODE EDITION ISSUED DEC 2012 . ( GREEN YEAR ) MANDATORY
FROM 2014, OPTIONAL IN 2013 ( YELLOW YEAR ) WHEN PREVIOUS/
EXISTING CODE MAY BE USED. AMMEMDMENTS TO IMDG ISSUED EVERY
GREEN YEAR/ 2 YEARS ( EVEN YEAR )
IMDG APPLICABLE AS PER SOLAS vii, 500 GT ships and above; applicable to
multimodal transport, sea, air, road; applicable for dangerous goods carried in
packaged form , and MHB( Material hazardous in bulk, like coal) , and BLC( Bilk
liquid chemicals) , and BLG( Bulk liquid gasses. IMDG code not applicable to ships
stores and spares like pyrotechniques.
Classes, divisions, packing groups
Definitions
Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the provisions of
this Code are assigned to one of the classes 1 -9 according to the hazard or the most
predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these classes are subdivided into
divisions. These classes or divisions are as listed below:
Class 1: Explosives
Class 2: Gases
Class 2.1: flammable gases
Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3: toxic gases
Class 3: Flammable liquids
Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances
which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives
Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Class 4.3: substances, which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1: oxidizing substances
Class 5.2: organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1: toxic substances -
Class 6.2: infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive material
Class 8: Corrosive substances
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles
The numerical order of the classes and divisions is not that of the degree of danger.
Marking, labelling and placarding

Packages containing dangerous goods shall be durably marked with the correct technical
name; trade names alone shall not be used.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be provided with distinctive labels or stencils
of the labels, or placards, as appropriate, so as to make clear the dangerous properties of
the goods contained therein.
The method of marking the correct technical name and of affixing labels or applying
stencils of labels, or of affixing placards on packages containing dangerous goods, shall
be such that this information will still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three
months’ immersion in the sea. In considering suitable marking, labelling and placarding
methods, account shall be taken of the durability of the materials used and of the surface
of the package.
General information prior loading/ discharging
The duty officer entrusted with the loading of the dangerous goods should have all the
relevant data regarding the dangerous goods that would be loaded, these would include:
 Copy of the document from the shipper regarding the cargo

 Classification of the DG
 Quantity to be loaded
 Proposed stowage
 Type of packages
 Shipping name – that is the correct technical name
 Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other DG
 MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the cargo
 Any fire hazard as per IMDG
 Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the cargo
UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names according to
their hazard classification and their composition.
Dangerous goods commonly transported are listed in the Dangerous Goods List. Where
an article or substance is specifically listed by name, it should be identified in transport
by the Proper Shipping Name in the Dangerous Goods List. For dangerous goods not
specifically listed by name, “generic” or “not otherwise specified” entries are provided to
identify the article or substance in transport.
Each entry in the Dangerous Goods List is assigned a UN Number. This list also contains
relevant information for each entry, such as hazard class, subsidiary risk(s) (if any),
packing group (where assigned), packing and tank transport provisions, EmS, segregation
and stowage, properties and observations, etc.
Information on the special measures to be taken when a certain dangerous cargo is
handled

Additionally the chief officer should have attached relevant extracts from the IMDG code
in particular all the emergencies that could arise with the handling of the cargo. Also the
emergency clean-up measures as well as the first aid requirement as per the EmS
(Emergency Schedule of the IMDG) and MFAG.
Any special precautions mention as per the Dangerous List should be extracted.
Compatibility risks should be ascertained.
Structure of the Dangerous Goods List
The Dangerous Goods List is divided into 18 columns. Among them the packing
requirements are specified in column 8 and in column 9.
Column 8 Packing Instructions: This column contains alpha – numeric codes, which refer
to the relevant packing instructions. The packing instructions indicate the packaging
(including large packaging) which may be used for the transport of substances and
articles.
A code including the letter ‘P’ refers to packing instructions for the use of packaging
described in IMDG Chapters – 6.1, 6.2 or 6.3
A code including the letter ‘LP’ refers to packing instructions for the use of large
packaging described in IMDG Chapters – 6.6
A code including the letter ‘BP’ refers to the bulk packaging described in IMDG
Chapters – 4.3
When a code including the letters ‘P’, ‘LP’ or ‘BP’ is not provided, it means that the
substance is not allowed in that type of packaging.
When ‘N/R’ is included in this column, it means that the substance or article need not be
packaged.
Column 9 Special packing provisions: This column contains alphanumeric codes, which
refer to the relevant special packing provisions specified in 4.1.4. The special packing
provisions indicate the packaging (including large packaging).
A special packing provisions including the letters ‘PP’ refers to a special packing
provision applicable to the use of a packing instruction bearing the code ‘P’ in 4.1.4.1
A special packing provision including the letter ‘L’ refers to a special packing provision
applicable to a packing instruction bearing the code ‘LP’ in 4.1.4.3
SHIPPERS RESPONSIBILITY
The shipping documents prepared by the shipper shall include, or be accompanied by, a
signed certificate or declaration that the shipment offered for carriage is properly

packaged and marked, labelled or placard, as appropriate, and in proper condition for
carriage.
The persons responsible for the packing of dangerous goods in a freight container or road
vehicle shall provide a signed container packing certificate or vehicle packing declaration
stating that the cargo in the unit has been properly packed and secured and that all
applicable transport requirements have been met. Such a certificate or declaration may be
combined with the document above.
Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall have a special list or manifest setting forth, in
accordance with the classification, the dangerous goods on board and the location thereof.
A detailed stowage plan, which identifies by class and sets out the location of all
dangerous goods on board, may be used in place of such a special list or manifest. A copy
of one of these documents shall be made available before departure to the person or
organization designated by the port State authority.
Cargo transport units, including freight containers, shall be loaded, stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by the
Administration. The Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up to a standard at least
equivalent to the guidelines developed by the IMO.

Segregating of dangerous goods

Segregation
The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo spaces on deck or under deck of
all types of ships and to cargo transport units.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended,
requires in regulation 6.1 of part A of chapter VII that incompatible goods should be
segregated from one another.
For the implementation of this requirement, two substances or articles are considered
mutually incompatible when their stowage together may result in undue hazards in case
of leakage or spillage, or any other accident.
The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions between incompatible dangerous
goods may vary and so the segregation arrangements required should also vary as
appropriate. Such segregation is obtained by maintaining certain distances between
incompatible dangerous goods or by requiring the presence of one or more steel
bulkheads or decks between them, or a combination thereof. Intervening spaces between
such dangerous goods may be filled with other cargo compatible with the dangerous
substances in question.
The following segregation terms are used throughout this Code:
 “Away from”;
 “Separated from”;
 “Separated by a complete compartment or hold from”;
 “Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from”.
 The general provisions for segregation between the various classes of dangerous
goods are shown in the
 segregation table”.
In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to segregate a particular

substance, material or article from other goods, which could contribute to its hazard.
Particular provisions for segregation are indicated in the Dangerous Goods List and, in
the case of conflicting provisions, always take precedence over the general provisions.
For example:
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE, DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN 1001,
the following particular segregation requirement is specified:
 “separated from” chlorine

 In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE, class 6.1, UN 1565,
the following particular
 segregation is specified:
 “separated from” acids

Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one subsidiary risk label), the
segregation provisions applicable to that hazard should take precedence where they are
more stringent than those of the primary hazard.
Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for substances, materials or articles having
more than two hazards (2 or more subsidiary risk labels) are given in the Dangerous
Goods List.
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN 2901,
subsidiary risks 5.1 and 8, the following particular segregation is specified:
“segregation” as for class 5.1 but “separated from” class 7”.
Segregation of packages
Applicability
The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation of:
 packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way;

 dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and
 dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from those packed in such cargo
transport units.
 Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the
conventional way
 Definitions of the segregation terms Legend
 Reference package - BLUE
 Package containing incompatible goods - RED
 Deck resistant to fire and liquid – BOLD LINE
 NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads between cargo spaces
(compartments or holds) resistant to fire and liquid.


Away from:
Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods cannot interact dangerously in the
event of an accident but may be transported in the same compartment or hold or on deck,
provided a minimum horizontal separation of 3 metres, projected vertically, is obtained.
Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under deck. Provided the intervening
deck is resistant to fire and liquid, a vertical separation i.e. in different compartments,
may be accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For on deck stowage, this segregation
means a separation by a distance of sit least 6 metres horizontally.

Separated by a complete compartment or hold from:
Either a vertical or a horizontal separation. If the intervening decks are not resistant to
fire and liquid, then only a longitudinal separation, i.e. by an intervening complete
compartment or hold, is acceptable. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 12 metres horizontally. The same distance has to be
applied if one package is stowed on deck and the other one in an upper compartment.
Note: One of the two decks must be resistant to fire and to liquid.

Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from:
 Vertical separation alone does not meet this requirement. Between a package
under deck and one on deck, a minimum distance of 24 metres, including a complete
compartment, must be maintained longitudinally. For on deck stowage, this segregation
means a separation by a distance of at least 24 metres longitudinally.
 duty officer should have information on the quantities, type of package, proper
shipping names (correct technical names,) classification stowage and segregation of
 the dangerous goods to be handled
 duty officer should have information on the special measures and precautions to
be taken when with IMDG cargoes
 measures to be taken in the event of an incident or accident should be made

known and that any necessary equipment and sufficient crew to operate it should be
available
 actions to be taken are laid down in the IMO Emergency procedures for Carrying
Dangerous Goods (Ems), the IMO Medical First Aid Guide for use in accidents involving
dangerous Goods (MFAG) and the International Medical Guide for Ships (IMGS) which
are part of the supplement.
 any incident or accident during the handling of dangerous goods should be

reported immediately to the person in charge of the operation
 IMDG code lays down the packing requirements , that is packing group 1, group
2, group 3 , for most stringent to lesser stringent packing standards.
 any doubts the suitability and integrity of packages should reported to the master
or chief mate
 fire precautions which should be taken when carrying dangerous goods as per
EMS schedule , there are 10 fire schedules , from F-A to F-J , which will be declared by
the shipper .
 Special precautions which should be taken while loading or discharging

explosives are as follows :-
a) Explosives should be kept away from fire / heat or electrical sources .

b) Should be stowed away from passengers / accommodation blocks.
c) Should be properly segregated from incompatible dangerous goods.

CHAPTER 12
Bulk cargoes (other than Grain)
IMSBC ( International maritime solid bulk code) the IMO Code of Safe Practice for Solid
Bulk Cargoes , ( other than grain ) identifies the hazards and precautions of carriage of
dry bulk cargoes at sea , including documents , schedule of cargoes etc.
Follow are the hazards:
1 Structural damage due to improper distribution of the cargo

2 Loss or reduction of stability during a voyage
• A shift of cargo , inadequately trimmed or improperly distributed
• Cargoes liquefying due motion of a ship and then flowing to one side of the cargo
hold due some moisture (usually water);
3 Chemical reactions (e.g. emission of toxic or explosive gases, spontaneous
combustion or severe corrosive effects).
Angle of repose is the maximum slope angle free-flowing granular material. It is the
angle between a horizontal plane and the cone slope of such material.
 Cargoes which may liquefy are materials which may liquefy if shipped with a
moisture content in excess of the transportable moisture limit.
 Concentrates are materials obtained from a natural ore by a process of
purification by physical or chemical separation .
 Flow moisture point (FMP) is the percentage moisture content (wet mass basis)
at which a flow state develops under the prescribed method of test in a representative
sample of the material (see appendix 2)
 High density solid bulk cargoes means a solid bulk cargo with a S.F of 0.56 m³/t
ot less
 Stowage factor is the figure which expresses the number of cubic metres which
one tonne of material will occupy.
 Transportable moisture limit of a cargo which may liquefy, represents the
maximum moisture content of the material which is considered safe for carriage in ships
(other than specially constructed / specially fitted ships). It is derived from the flow
moisture point
 Trimming means any levelling of the material within a cargo space, either partial
or total.
Prior any cargo load/ discharge follow must be filled up as per BLU code ( Bulk loading
– unloading)
BLU CODE - SHIP / SHORE SAFETY CHECKLIST

CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE SAFE LOADING OR UNLOADING
OF DRY BULK CARGO CARRIERS
 Date
 Port ................................. Terminal/Quay

 Available depth of water in berth .. Minimum air draught*…
 Ship's name
 Arrival draught (read/calculated) …. Air draught …..
 Calculated departure draught …. Air draught …..
 The master and terminal manager, or their representatives, should complete the
 check list jointly. The safety of operations requires that all questions should be
answered
 affirmatively and the boxes ticked. If this is not possible, the reason should be
given
 and agreement reached upon precautions to be taken between ship and terminal. If
a
 question is considered to be not applicable write "N/A", explaining why if
appropriate.
SHIP TERMINAL
1. Is the depth of water at the berth, and the air draught, adequate for
the cargo operations to be completed?
2. Are mooring arrangements adequate for all local effects of tide,

current, weather, traffic and craft alongside?
3. In emergency, is the ship able to leave the berth at any time?
4. Is their safe access between the ship and the wharf?

Tended by ship/terminal (cross out as appropriate) …………..
*The term air draught should be construed carefully: if the ship is in a river or an estuary,
it
usually refers to maximum mast height for passing under bridges, while on the berth it
usually
refers to the height available or required under the loader or unloader.
5. Is the agreed ship terminal communications system operative?

Communication method ….
Language ……………..
Radio channels phone numbers …………..
6. Are the liaison contact persons during operations positively identified?

Ship contact persons ………..
Shore contact person(s) ………..
Location ……………
7. Are adequate crew on board, and adequate staff in the terminal, for emergency?
8. Have any bunkering operations been advised and agreed?
9. Have any intended repairs to wharf or ship whilst alongside been advised and
agreed?

10. Has a procedure for reporting and recording damage from cargo operations been
agreed?
11. Has the ship been provided with copies of port and terminal regulations, including
safety and pollution requirements and demands of emergency services?
12. Has the shipper provided the master with the properties of the cargo in
accordance with the requirements of chapter VI of SOLAS?
13. Is the atmosphere safe in holds and enclosed spaces to which access may be required,
have fumigated cargoes been identified, and has the need for monitoring of atmosphere
been agreed by ship and terminal?
14. Have the cargo handling capacity and any limits of travel for each loader/
unloader been passed to the ship/ terminal?
Loader ………..
Loader ………..
Loader ………….
15. Has a cargo loading or unloading plan been calculated for all stages of loading/ DE
ballasting or unloading/ballasting?
Copy lodged with ………………….
16. Have the holds to be worked been clearly identified in the loading or unloading plan,
showing the sequence of work, and the grade and tonnage of cargo to be transferred each
time the hold is worked?
17. Has the need for trimming of cargo in the holds been discussed, and have the
method and extent been agreed ?
I 8 . Do both ship and terminal understand and accept that if the ballast programme
becomes out of step with the cargo operation, it will be necessary to suspend cargo
operation until the ballast operation has caught up?
19. Have the intended procedures for removing cargo residues lodged in the holds while
unloading been explained to the ship and accepted?
20. Have the procedures to adjust the final trim of the loading ship been decided
and agreed ?
Tonnage held by the terminal Conveyor system …………….
21. Has the terminal been advised of the time required for the ship to prepare for sea on
completion of cargo work?
SHIP TERMINAL
THE ABOVE HAS BEEN AGREED:
Time ……… Date ……………
For ship ……. for terminal ……….

Rank ……… Position/Title ……….
It is very important to prepare cargo holds prior to loading bulk cargoes , so that they are
suitable in all respects. Follow are points to note:
a) No traces of previous cargo , for that sweep, remove any residues from bilges ,
and if needed to hose down the entire hold .
b) Water freeing of tank tops , bilges by mopping etc.
c) Ensure no water leaks from tank top, manholes , hoppers or sounding pipes etc.
d) Remove all loose scale .
e) Try out bilge suctions , log down, including non-return valve functioning .
f) Cover the bilge covers by burlap ( jute) , to prevent cargo entering bilges.
g) Check fixed FFA , like CO2 lines by blowing through compressed air.
h) Check water tightness of hatch covers and booby hatches.
i) Inspect for any damage to holds fittings/ structures.
j) Ensure no foul smell emanating from bilges / holds , or deodorise.
k) Ensure holds free from any infestation ( in case of food grain) .
l) Responsible officer( chief officer) to inspect before final survey.
precautions to take prior to, during and after loading bulk cargoes
a) Shippers declarations must be taken, noted for any dangers/ hazards involved with
shipped cargoes, including MSDS sheets.
b) Loading must be planned as per loading/ DE ballasting sequence, keeping in mind
trim, list , stresses etc.
c) Loading must be in compliance to cargo loading manual , for loading limits in
each hold.
d) Hold ventilation must be done/ restricted as required.
e) Smoke detection system( if fitted) , with bridge monitor must be working.
f) The water tightness of hatches must be maintained / monitored .
g) Daily readings of hold temperatures/ gas readings , bilge soundings must be
logged.
Separation between certain bulk cargoes and other bulk cargoes or packaged dangerous
goods, is required , so that different cargoes do not mix , and may contaminate each other
, or react dangerously .
It is important to note that some bulk cargoes may deplete the oxygen content of holds or
produce toxic gases , like coal in bulk, hence any hold entrance must be as per safety
procedures of enclosed space entry permits.
HAZARDS OF COAL CARGOES
 Coals may emit methane, highly flammable gas.

 Methane is lighter than air
 No naked lights, sparks.
 Freshly mined coals may be subject to oxidation, leading to depletion of oxygen
and an increase in carbon dioxide in the cargo space.

 Some coals may be liable to self-heating that could lead to spontaneous
combustion in the cargo space.
 Flammable and toxic gases, including carbon monoxide, may be produced.
 Carbon monoxide is an odourless gas Flammable , slightly lighter than air.
 It is toxic by inhalation,
 Some coals may be liable to react with water and produce acids ( H2SO4) which
may cause corrosion.
 Flammable and toxic gases, including hydrogen, may be produced.
Before and during loading, and while the material remains on board, the master
should observe the following:
1. All cargo spaces and bilge wells should be clean and dry.
2. All electrical cables and components located in cargo spaces and adjacent spaces
should be free from defects. Such cables and electrical components should be safe for use
in an explosive atmosphere or positively isolated.
3. The ship should be suitably fitted and carry on board appropriate instruments for
measuring the following without requiring entry in the cargo space:
a. Concentration of methane in the atmosphere.
b. Concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere.
c. Concentration of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere.
d. The pH value of cargo hold bilge samples.
4. measuring the temperature of the cargo in the range 0°C to 100°C.
5. The ship should carry on board the SCBA.
6. Smoking and the use of naked flames should not be permitted in the cargo areas
or adjacent spaces
7. coal cargo is not stowed adjacent to hot areas.
8. surface of the material has been trimmed , to avoid the formation of gas pockets
and to prevent air from permeating the body of the coal.
9. The atmosphere in the space above the cargo in each cargo hold should be
regularly monitored for the presence of methane, oxygen and carbon monoxide.
10. all holds should be surface ventilated for the first 24 hours after departure from
the loading port.
11. The hatches should be closed immediately after completion of loading into each
cargo hold.
12. Regular hold bilge testing should be systematically carried out. If the pH
monitoring indicates that a corrosion risk exists, ensure that all bilges are kept dry during
the voyage in order to avoid possible accumulation of acids on tank tops and in the bilge
system.


CHAPTER 13
STOWAGE CALCULATIONS
(Cargo Calculations and Cargo plans)
Difference between bale capacity and grain capacity. The cubic capacities of cargo holds
can be found in ships general arrangement plan ( GA Plan), loading manual etc.
Grain capacity is that space inside hold which would be occupied by any bulk cargo , not
leaving any void spaces if proper trimming is done, whereas Bale capacity is that space of
the hold which would be occupied by any break bulk cargo , like cotton bales, boxes,
machinery parts etc., after loading of which some void space would remain because cargo
shape , and certain spaces like between shipside frames may be left empty. Hence we see
that grain capacity will always be more than bale capacity.
DEFINITIONS
‘stowage factor’ ( S.F) is the cubic capacity occupied by 1Tonne of cargo , e.g. S.F of
bulk wheat may be 1.2means 1 tonne of wheat will occupy 1.2 cubic meters.
‘broken stowage’ means any space which would be left empty in cargo hold due to the
odd shape of cargo , like a machinery part. Broken stowage is expressed in %age , e.g. if
broken stowage of cotton bales is 10% , which has a SF of 1.2 then finally 1 tonne of
same will occupy 1.2 + 10% of 1.2 cubic meters , that is 1.32 cubic meters .
Hence for same cotton bales in a cargo hold with bale capacity of 3000 M3
The quantity that can be loaded is 3000/ 1.32 tonnes = 2500 T
Similarly for bulk cargo , like grain , whose SF is 1.4 , and the hold GRAIN capacity is
3000 M3 , we can load 2143 MT
Let’s do a numerical on this,
Q) A cargo hold 22m x 15m x 12m of bale capacity 3900 M3 , and load density of 5T/M2
is to be filled so as to maximize freight . The cargo available is :
Steel billets : SF 0.7 M3/T , Freight $30/T

Cotton bales:SF2.8 M3 /T, Freight $ 50/T
How much of each cargo you will load , and what is the freight earned?
Ans.) Let steel billets be X tones

And cotton bales be Y tones ,
Max can load as per P.L.D is 22 x 15 x 5 = 1650 Tonnes
So x + y = 1650
And 0.7 x + 2.8 Y = 3900
We get X ( Steel billets) = 342.8 T
And Y ( cotton bales ) = 1307.2 T
Multiplying with freight , ship can earn $ 75641
Load Density of Deck , ( PLD) or permissible load density means the maximum load
that can be put on the deck of the hold or main deck , as the strength of the deck is limited

and must never exceed , or else the deck may collapse or break if loads of more than
PLD are loaded . PLD can be found in ships “ capacity plan” .
E.g. PLD of tank top of cargo hold may be 5T/M2 .
And its dimensions are 22m x 15 m , and grain capacity of 3000 M3,
We have grain of S.F 1.4 M3/T , can accommodate 3000/1.4 = 2143T ,
But as per PLD we can only load 22 x 15 x 5 = 1650 T
Hence even though the space is there in the hold , we will load only 1650 T because of
limits of PLD , otherwise the tank top may break .
Similarly on tween deck of general cargo ship , the PLD should never be exceeded and
also the volumetric space including height is to be considered.
A ship’s cargo plan shows the distribution as well as the disposition of all parcels of
cargo aboard the vessel. A fair copy being produced before departure from the final port
of loading.
The cargo plan should include relevant details of cargoes, i.e. total quantity, description
of package, bales, pallets etc., tonnage, port of discharge, identification marks and special
features if and when separated. The port of discharge is normally ‘highlighted’ in one
specific colour, reducing the likelihood of a parcel of cargo being over carried to the next
port. Cargoes which may have an optional port of discharge are often double-coloured to
the requirements of both ports.
Additional information, such as the following, generally appears on most plans:
i)Vessels Name.
ii) Name of the Master.
iii) List of loading ports.
iv) List of discharging ports, in order of call.
v) Sailing draughts.
vi) Tonnage load breakdown.
vii) Hatch tonnage breakdown.
viii) Voyage number.
ix) Total volume of empty space remaining.
x) List of dangerous cargo, if any.
xi) List of special cargo, if any.
xii) Statement of deadweight, fuel, stores, water etc.
xiii) Details of cargo separations.
xiv) Recommended temperatures for the carriage of various goods.
xv) Chief officer’s signature.
Hence a cargo plan must be made showing various cargoes in various holds after proper
planning for load densities and space occupied/ available is utilized including the port
rotation , if any, so keeping cargo for first discharge port on top ( or tween deck) , and
cargoes for later ports in lower holds .

CHAPTER 14
Purchases & Tackles
A purchase is a block with sheaves , and when combined with roved in wires or ropes is
called Tackle. First let’s see the breaking stresses ( BS) of follow :-
Wire , 6x12 = 15 D2 / 500

6X24 = 20D2 / 500
6X37 =21D2/500
Ropes, manila : 2D2/300

Polypropylene : 3D2/300
Terilyene : 4D2/300
Nylon : 5D2/300
Factor of safety is usually 6 .
Single block will have one block with single sheave, where n is number of sheaves , so n
for single block is 1
Gun tackle , n = 1+1( 2 blocks of one sheave each), figure B above
Luff/ watch tackle , n = 2+1

Double luff tackle or 2 fold purchase, n = 2+2
Gyn tackle , n = 3+2
Three fold purchase , n= 3+3
Formula for Stress on hauling part ,

Stress ( Effort) = W+n (W)(Friction)
V.R
Where friction is in %age ( e.g. 10%)
V.R is velocity ratio ,

V.R = n , if purchase is used to disadvantage ( that is direction of pull and w, load
movement is opposite )
V.R = n+1 , if purchase is used to advantage ( that is direction of pull and w, load
movement is same )
Now to calculate the Efficiency of the system , E= M.A x 100%

V.R
Where M.A is mechanical advantage = Load / effort
Q) A double purchase rigged to disadvantage is combined with a luff tackle such that the
hauling part of the double purchase is connected to the twin sheave block of luff tackle.
What is the maximum load that can be lifted by the double purchase by pulling on the luff
tackle , if the wire used in luff tackle is of Dia 20 mm ( const 6x24). What should be the
size of the wire ( const 6x24) to be used in the double purchase to lift the load? ( safety
factor 5, friction 10% per sheave )
Ans.) For Luff tackle , n= 2+1 = 3 , V.R ( Disadv.) = 3

Wire rope given is 20 mm , B.S = 20 D2/ 500
=> 20x 202 /500 = 16 T , Safety factor 5 ( given)
Hence SWL = 16/5 = 3.2 T
Also Effort 2 , E 2 = 3.2 T
For Effort 1 , E1 = W + n.W ( Friction)

V.R
E1 = W+ 4.W(0.1) = 0.35 W
4
Now E1 becomes load for Luff tackle ,
So E2 = 0.35W + 3(0.35W)(0.1) = 3.2
3
W ( Load) = 21.1 T ……. answer
Now to calculate size of wire for Double purchase :-

Breaking stress for 6x24 wire = 20D2 /500 = E1 x 5 ( factor of safety given)
E1=0.35W
B.S = 7.385x 5 = 36.925 T
So Breaking stress = 20 D2/500=36.925
D= 30.4 mm
diameter = 32 mm , Answer
CHAPTER 15
GRAIN CODE
Bulk Grain Cargoes

 The term grain covers wheat, maize (corn), oats, rye, barley, rice, pulses, seeds
and processed forms thereof, whose behaviour is similar to that of grain in its natural
state.
 The term filled compartment, trimmed, refers to any cargo space in which, after
loading and trimming, the bulk grain is at its highest possible level.
 The term filled compartment, untrimmed, refers to a cargo space which is filled to
the maximum extent possible in way of the hatch opening but which has not been
trimmed outside the periphery of the hatch opening.
 The term partly filled compartment refers to any cargo space which is neither
filled compartment, trimmed nor filled compartment, untrimmed.
 The term angle of flooding (Өf) means the angle of heel at which openings in the
hull, superstructures or deckhouses, which cannot be closed weather tight, immerse. In
applying this definition, small openings through which progressive flooding cannot take
place need not be considered as open.
 A document of authorization shall be issued for every ship loaded in accordance
with the regulations of this Code by the Administration. It shall be accepted as evidence
that the ship is capable of complying with the requirements of these regulations.
 A ship without such a document of authorization shall not load grain until the
master demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Administration, that, in its loaded condition
for the intended voyage, the ship complies with the requirements of this Code.
Optional stability requirements for ships without DOA
 the total weight of the bulk grain shall not exceed one third of the deadweight of
the ship;
 all filled compartments, trimmed, shall be fitted with centreline divisions
extending, for the full length of such compartments, downwards from the underside of the
deck or hatch covers to a distance below the deck line of at least one eighth of the
maximum breadth of the compartment (B/8) or 2.4 m, whichever is the greater, except
that saucers may be accepted in lieu of a centreline division ;
 All hatches to filled compartments, trimmed, shall be closed and covers secured in
place;
 all free grain surfaces in partly filled cargo space shall be trimmed level and
secured ;
 throughout the voyage the GM fluid shall be 0.3 m or that given by the following
formula, whichever is the greater:
GM=LB x Vd (0.25B-0.645 VdB)

SF x D x 0.0875
LB : Total combined length of all filled holds.

Vd : Void depth
B : Moulded breadth of vessel
SF : Stowage factor
D : Displacement of vessel
Hold preparation for grain loading

 the cleaning and preparation of holds and decks for the carriage of grain must be
similar to hold cleaning for bulk cargoes with much more stringent cleanliness standards
because food grains are supposed to be consumed by humans .
 No foul smell must remain in the holds and the bilges must be very dry .
 Hold ventilation must be functional and hatch cover water tightness must be good.
 Also a thorough check for insect or rodent infestation should be made .
 Trimming of cargo after loading must be done by nay mechanical means , either
manually by shovels, or by the loader itself, the stevedores will do the trimming and they
must be informed about this, and monitored .
 If any partly trimmed compartments remain , then possibility of grain shift can
result in listing of the vessel.
 Use of and fitting of shifting boards , in fore and aft direction can prevent grain
shift.
Above is diagram of saucers or bundles of bulk grain are arranged in the square of a hatch
to reduce heeling moments resulting from a shift of grain in fully filled hold.
Saucers
1. For the purpose of reducing the heeling moment a saucer may be used in place of
a longitudinal division in way of a hatch opening only in a filled, trimmed, compartment,
except in the case of linseed and other seeds having similar properties.
2. The depth of the saucer (d), measured from the bottom of the saucer to the deck
line, shall be as follows:
a. For ships with a moulded breadth of up to 9.1 m, not less than 1.2 m.
b. For ships with a moulded breadth of 18.3 m or more, not less than 1.8 m.
c. For ships with a moulded breadth between 9.1 m and 18.3 m, the
minimum depth of the saucer shall be calculated by interpolation.

3. The top (mouth) of the saucer shall be formed by the under deck structure in way
of the hatchway, i.e. hatch side girders or coamings and hatch end beams. The saucer and
hatchway above shall be completely filled with bagged grain or other suitable cargo laid
down on a separation cloth or its equivalent and stowed tightly against adjacent structure
so as to have a bearing contact with such structure to a depth equal to or greater than
(d/2). If hull structure to provide such bearing surface is not available, the saucer shall be
fixed in position by steel wire rope, chain, or double steel strapping and spaced not more
than 2.4 m apart.
Bundling of bulk grain (A 15)
1. As an alternative to filling the saucer in a filled, trimmed, compartment with

bagged grain or other suitable cargo a bundle of bulk grain may be used provided that:
a. The dimensions and means for securing the bundle in place are the same
as specified for a ‘Saucer’.
b. The saucer is lined with a material acceptable to the Administration having

a tensile strength of not less than 2,687 N per 5 cm strip and which is provided with
suitable means for securing at the top.
c. As an alternative to A 15.2, a material acceptable to the Administration

having a tensile strength of not less than 1,344 N per 5 cm strip may be used if the saucer
is constructed as follows:
i. Athwart ship lashings shall be placed inside the saucer formed in
the bulk grain at intervals of not more than 2.4 m. These lashings shall be of sufficient
length to permit being drawn up tight and secured at the top of the saucer.
ii. Dunnage not less than 25 mm in thickness or other suitable
material of equal strength and between 150 mm and 300 mm in width shall be placed fore
and aft over these lashings to prevent the cutting or chafing of the material which shall be
placed thereon to line the saucer.
d. The saucer shall be filled with bulk grain and secured at the top except that
when using material approved under 1 (c) above further dunnage shall be laid on top
after lapping the material before the saucer is secured by setting up the lashings.
e. If more than one sheet of material is used to line the saucer they shall be
joined at the bottom either by sewing or by a double lap.
f. The top of the saucer shall be coincidental with the bottom of the beams
when these are in place and suitable general cargo or bulk grain may be placed between
the beams on top of the saucer.

Strapping or lashing (A 17)
1. When, in order to eliminate heeling moments in partly filled compartments,

strapping or lashing is utilized, the securing shall be accomplished as follows:
a. The grain shall be trimmed and levelled to the extent that it is very
slightly crowned and covered with burlap separation cloths, tarpaulins or the
equivalent.
b. The separation cloths and/or tarpaulins shall overlap by at least 1.8 m.
c. Two solid floors of rough 25 mm x 150 mm to 300 mm lumber shall be

laid with the top floor running longitudinally and nailed to an athwart ships bottom floor.
Alternatively, one solid floor of 50 mm lumber, running longitudinally and nailed over
the top of a 50 mm bottom bearer not less than 150 mm wide, may be used. The bottom
bearers shall extend the full breadth of the compartment and shall be spaced not more
than 2.4 m apart.
d. Steel wire rope (19 mm diameter), double steel strapping (50 mm x 1.3
mm and having a breaking load of at least 49 kN), or chain of equivalent strength, each of
which shall be set tightly by means of a 32 mm turnbuckle, may be used for lashings. A
winch tightener, used in conjunction with a locking arm, may be substituted for the 32
mm turnbuckle when steel strapping is used, provided suitable wrenches are available for
setting up as necessary. When steel strapping is used, not less than three crimp seals shall
be used for securing the ends. When wire is used, not less than four clips shall be used for
forming eyes in the lashings.
e. Prior to the completion of loading the lashing shall be positively attached

to the framing at a point approximately 450 mm below the anticipated final grain surface
by means of either a 25 mm shackle or beam clamp of equivalent strength.

f. The lashings shall be spaced not more than 2.4 m apart and each shall be
supported by a bearer nailed over the top of the fore and aft floor. This bearer shall
consist of lumber of not less than 25 mm x 150 mm or its equivalent and shall extend the
full breadth of the compartment.
g. During the voyage the strapping shall be regularly inspected and set up
where necessary.


CHAPTER 16
Gas Tanker
Gasses must be carried in liquid state so as to accommodate more cargo on ships and
enable earn more freight. There are two methods to liquefy the gasses:
1. By pressure
2. By temperature decrease, or by a combination of two
On the basis of which there are broadly four different types of gas ships:
Types of gas tankers:
1. Fully pressurized gas tanker

2. Fully refrigerated gas tanker
3. Semi refrigerated gas tanker
4. LNG ships ( Liquefied natural gas)
Independent Tanks : As the name implies are independent of ship’s hull , so that the
dangerous cargo in them is not spilled even if the ships collides or runs aground . The
stresses experienced by ship’s hull are not transmitted to these tanks.
There are three types of independent tanks ,
1. Independent type A:
 where the gas is carried in extreme low temperature that is at their critical
temperatures at atmospheric pressures .
 Insulation prevents heat ingress and secondary barrier is provided to contain any
leaked liquid in case the primary barrier leaks .
 Centre line bulkhead reduces free surface .

2. Independent type B tank ( also called Moss type)

This type is for conventional LNG ships, can withstand pressures up to 2.0 Bars , and
temperature of carriage of LNG is -163 degrees. Drip pan acts like a partial secondary
barrier .
3. Independent type C tanks
 Are pressure vessels with up to 18 bars , at ambient temperature .

 No secondary barrier required .Hold space is ambient atmosphere.
I.G.C (Gas Code) is IMO publication for construction and equipment of liquefied gas
tankers and lays down the standards of construction of containment systems, pipelines,
safeties etc., and lists the gasses which may be carried at sea in chapter 19 .
Loading/discharging procedure
Is in accordance to cargo loading manual , individual deep well pumps serve all tanks
which also have vapour lines connected to re liquefaction plants , to reliquify the boil off
and hence the pressure inside is controlled within limits.
Following are the hazards associated with gasses :-
Health hazards
 Asphixiant : That is lack of oxygen ,

 Anesthisiant : Some gasses act on nervous system and can cause unconsciousness,
e.g. ethylene oxide.
 Cold burns : Chilled gasses like Propane at – 43 degrees , if in contact with human
skin can cause cold burn injuries.
 Chemical burns: Chemical gasses like ammonia are corrosive , and can injure
human tissue or if eye contact .

 Toxic : Some chemical gasses like Butadiene are extremely poisonous and must
never be inhaled .
 Carcinogen : Some chemical gasses like V.C.M may cause cancer after prolonged
exposure.
Cold temperature hazards:
Brittle fracture can result if chilled gas spills on deck .
(B L E V E): Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion. Is catastrophic rupture under

fire conditions and a leak of a pressure vessel containing
liquefied gas.
Flammability : All gasses are highly inflammable , except Chlorine gas and care must be
taken so as flammable atmospheres are not encountered.

CHAPTER 17
DAMAGE REPORT
A damage report is made in case of any damage to cargo hold by the stevedore , so that a
they may be made to repair same prior departure from port , or a claim may be raised .
After the hold is discharged completely , the cargo officer should inspect the hold
properly , if no damage found , record same in logbook. On the other hand if any damage
is found which may have been caused by stevedore’s carelessness , e.g. mishandling fork
lift truck or a grab damage by crane. In such a situation the master must be informed
immediately , and a damage report made in the company’s form.
The details must be filled as follows:-
 The date , time, port etc. with ships name.

 A brief description how the damage occurred and in which hold or hatch cover
etc.
 The complete details of damage will contain exact location, frame number,
length, breath, depth of dent or length of the crack etc.
 A neat labelled sketch and photographs should be attached.
 The stevedore or his agent must sign along with chief officer’s / master’s
signatures .
 Relevant parties would be informed by the master.
ENHANCED SURVEY
 Objective is to detect any wastage, excessive corrosion, deformation or

detachment of any ships structures on Bulk carriers and tankers , over a period of time
may suffer from these , and thereafter make an enhanced survey report on the basis of
which relevant repairs and renewals of ships structures.
 Applies to all self-propelled bulk carriers and tankers of 500 gross tonnage and
above
 The Code should apply to surveys of hull structure and piping systems in way of
 cargo holds, cofferdams, pipe tunnels, void spaces, fuel oil tanks, within the cargo
length area and all ballast tanks.
 The Code contains the minimum extent of examination, thickness measurements
 and tank testing. The survey should be extended when substantial corrosion
and/or
 structural defects are found and include additional close-up survey when
necessary.
Repairs
Any damage in association with wastage over the allowable limits (including buckling,
grooving, detachment or fracture), or extensive areas of wastage over the allowable
limits, which affects or, in the opinion of the Administration, will affect the ship's
structural, watertight or weather tight integrity, should be promptly and thoroughly (see
1.2.15) repaired.

Areas to be considered include:
 side structure and side plating;

 deck structure and deck plating;
 bottom structure and bottom plating;
 inner bottom structure and inner bottom plating;
 inner side structure and inner side plating;
 watertight or oil tight bulkheads;
 hatch covers or hatch coamings;
Annual survey
The annual survey should consist of an examination for the purpose of ensuring, as far as
practicable, that the hull, weather decks, hatch covers, coamings and piping are
maintained in a satisfactory condition and should take into account the service history,
condition and extent of the corrosion prevention system of ballast tanks and areas
identified in the survey report file.
Intermediate survey
Items that are additional to the requirements of the annual survey may be surveyed either
at the second or third annual survey or between these surveys.
Preparations for survey
Survey programme
The owner in cooperation with the Administration should work out a specific survey
programme prior to the commencement of any part of:
 the renewal survey; and

 the intermediate survey for bulk carriers over 10 years of age.
 The survey should not commence until the survey programme has been agreed.
Reporting and evaluation of survey
Evaluation of survey report
 The data and information on the structural condition of the ship collected during
the survey should be evaluated for acceptability and continued structural integrity of the
ship.
 The analysis of data should be carried out and endorsed by the Administration or
recognized organization authorized by the Administration and the conclusions of the
analysis should form a part of the condition evaluation report.
Reporting and evaluation of survey

Evaluation of survey report
 The data and information on the structural condition of the ship collected during
the survey should be evaluated for acceptability and continued structural integrity of the
ship.
 The analysis of data should be carried out and endorsed by the Administration or
recognized organization authorized by the Administration and the conclusions of the
analysis should form a part of the condition evaluation report.
HOLD INSPECTION
Areas of cargo hold to inspect to detect any damage :-
 Tank top/ manhole covers of DB tanks.

 Lower hoppers
 Shipside and shipside frames with brackets
 Bilges with covers
 Sounding pipes/ air pipes /CO2 pipes ( if fitted)
 Ladders
 Visual inspection of hatch coamings / upper hoppers/ under deck longitudinal.
 Transverse watertight bulkheads .
 Hatch covers/ booby hatches.

RO – RO SHIPS
Door and Ramp Systems
General description
Drawings of the door systems' arrangement form the basis of the technical
documentation. Details are to be described, in order to arrange for the crew a clear
understanding of the functionality. Safety features are to be particularly emphasized.
Where the shell doors or the inner doors next to the bow doors also serve as ramps for
loading and unloading, the content of the OMM needs to be extended accordingly.
Design criteria and operating conditions of the shell doors and especially of the ramps are
to be commented on, such as:
 quay support of ramps:

 Generally it must be pointed out that the ramps are to be laid down on the pier
before starting the loading/unloading procedure. The load limit when using purpose
designed preventers or standers must be expressed.
 permissible loads
ship/shore interaction:
 quay limit level relative to ship's draught or permissible range of inclination of the
vamp
 limiting trim and heeling angles during cargo handling and door operations
 limiting range of ambient temperatures
Structural design of ramps /doors
 Key plans on the steel structure are to be inserted.

 Detailed drawings on the steel structure surrounding the mechanical elements and
the bearings need to be provided, both of the door and of the hull structure.
Sealing arrangement
The arrangement of the sealing dedicated to maintain the weather- or water tightness of
the outer and inner doors needs to be described. In addition to the drawings on the typical
profile sections detail drawings need to be attached on formed components, packing
retaining channels, drainages etc. The rubber material is also to specify.
Mechanical equipment
 Depending on the complexity of the design an appropriate combination of

drawings and text information shall be provided. Safety aspects and the importance of
individual elements in that respect shall be stressed.
 The scope of the information level shall be adequate to enable the staff a quick
understanding of the operational procedures as well as of the functionality of all

 the individual systems. Production drawings are usually not suitable for the
OMM. Typically they contain too many detailed information. Nevertheless, sufficient
 information on wear parts should be provided for inspections and surveys in order
to assess the present wear with respect to the as-built condition and to enable
reproduction.
The nomenclature as subsequently defined must be kept:
 Supporting device is a device used to transmit external or internal loads from the
door to a hinge, stopper or other fixed device into the ship's structure. Especially in case
of internal load transmission a securing device might also be an active link that transmits
loads from the door to the ship's structure.
 Securing device is a device such as a cleat, pin locker, pivoted hook, knee-lever
interlock etc. used to keep the door closed by preventing it from rotating about its hinges.
 Locking device is a device that locks a securing device in the closed position by
means of a pin locker, self-locking cylinder etc.
Key plans are to be included into the OMM containing at least information on:
 arrangement of the shell doors and ramps on board, including operating console,
hydraulic unit, switchboards etc.
 arrangement of supporting, securing and locking devices
 arrangement of the systems for opening and Closing
Hydraulic and electrical system
Documents to be prepared:
 description of hydraulic power supply unit

 hydraulic diagram and wiring diagram
 labelling of electrical components in conjunction with the labels mounted on
board
 electrical power supply including independent power supply of the indicator
systems
 parts list
 specification of recommended hydraulic fluid
 function description including information on the emergency operation.
Water leakage detection system
The following descriptions are to be laid down:
 system and components

 location on board
 monitors (on the navigation bridge and in the engine control room)
 functionality
 test procedures

Drainage system for the space between bow door and inner door or the ramp

 functionality
 test procedure
Drainage system for the space between bow door and inner door or the ramp

 functionality
 test procedure
Indicator system on the navigating bridge for the correct closing state of the shell
doors
Note
Lamp signals are to be provided at the operating panel and on the navigation bridge to
show that the shell doors and the inner door behind the bow door are closed and that
their securing and locking devices are properly positioned. Deviations from the correct
closing state are to be indicated by visual alarms. Amode-selection switch "Harbour/ Sea
Voyage" for an additional audible alarm on the navigation bridge during the "Sea
Voyage" mode is mandatory and needs also to be documented in the OMM.
Television surveillance system
A description of the systems and their arrangement on board with the monitors on the
navigation bridge and in the engine control room is to be included, see also
C. Documented Operating Procedures for Opening/Closing and Securing of the

Doors and Ramps
The documentation must enable the user to operate the shell doors, inner doors and
ramps, if applicable, in a safe manner. The closing and securing functions need to be
described particularly clear. Besides safety precautions also the manoeuvres running
automatically must be explained in detail in order to provide a full understanding of the
functions. References shall be given for troubleshooting of faults and failures and
measures to be taken consequently. Emergency stops and emergency operation e.g. in
case of energy supply loss shall be described. The documentation on the operating
procedures is to be posted on board at appropriate places from the deck or machinery
crew way of shell doors

BOW DOORS AND STERN DOORS

LASHING OF CARS

FUNCTION 3

POLLUTION
PREVENTION

2nd Mate Function Oil Tanker Notes by ARI
HAZARDS OF PETROLEUM
FLAMMABILITY
• When petroleum is ignited, it is the Gas that burns as a visible flame.
• The quantity of Gas given off by petroleum liquid depends on its volatility.
• Petroleum gases will burn only when mixed with air in certain proportions. If
there is too little or too much petroleum gas, the mixture cannot burn.
• The limiting proportions are known as the Lower Flammable Limit and Upper
Flammable Limit respectively. These limits vary according to the different components
of petroleum gases.
• For gas mixtures from petroleum liquids that are likely to be encountered in
normal tanker trades, the overall flammable range is from a minimum Lower Flammable
Limit of about 1% gas by volume in air to a maximum Upper Flammable Limit of
about 10% gas by volume in air.
• As petroleum liquid is heated, the concentration of gas in air above it increases.
The temperature of the liquid at which this concentration reaches the Lower
Flammable Limit is known as the Flashpoint.
GAS DENSITY
• The gases from most petroleum liquids are heavier than Air and Inert Gas.
• These density differences diminish as the gases are diluted with air. Flammable
mixtures usually contain at least 90% by volume of air and consequently have densities
almost indistinguishable from that of air.
TOXICITY
• Toxicity is the degree to which a substance or mixture of substances can harm
humans.
• Toxic substances can harm humans in three main ways:
- by being swallowed (ingestion);
- through skin contact; and
- through the lungs (inhalation).
• Toxic substances can have local effects such as skin or eye irritation, but can also
affect more distant parts of the body.
WAXY CONTENT OF FEW GRADES
• Continued uncertainties in the availability of existing crude supplies have placed
additional significance on the production and transportation of the difficult-to-handle
waxy, high pour point crudes.
• The low sulphur content of many waxy types of crude makes them even more
desirable from an environmental standpoint.
• However, numerous flow problems are related to the normal handling of waxy
crudes:
(1) Temperature must be maintained substantially above the pour point to permit crude
handling,

(2) Transportation costs tend to be much higher because of special pumping and heating
requirements, and
(3) Waxy components are deposited in pipelines and storage tanks, which then must be
pigged or scraped.
STATIC ACCUMULATION
Static accumulator oil
• An oil with an electrical conductivity of less than 50 picoSiemens/metre (pS/m),
so that it is capable of retaining a significant electrostatic charge.
Static electricity
• The electricity produced by movement between dissimilar materials through
physical contact and separation.
• Static electricity presents fire and explosion hazards during the handling of
petroleum and during other tanker operations such as tank cleaning, dipping, ullaging and
sampling.
• Precautions as per ISGOTT must be taken.
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS (MSDS)

• IMO Resolution MSC.150 (77) adopted in June 2003 urges governments to
ensure the supply and carriage of Material Safety Data Sheets for the cargoes.
• This MSDS should be based on the format as suggested by the Resolution.
• It is the responsibility of the Supplier to provide a Tanker that is to load a cargo or
bunker fuel with a Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS) before loading commences.
• The MSDS should indicate the type and probable concentrations of hazardous or
toxic components particularly H2S and Benzene.
• Provision of an MSDS does not guarantee that all of the hazardous or toxic
components of the particular cargo or bunkers being loaded have been identified or
documented.
• Absence of an MSDS should not be taken to indicate the absence of hazardous or
toxic components.
• Operators should have procedures in place to determine if any toxic components
are present in cargoes that they anticipate may contain them.
• It is the ship’s responsibility to provide the receiver with an MSDS for the cargo
to be discharged.
• The ship must also advise the terminal and any tank inspectors or surveyors if the
previous cargo contained any toxic substances.

FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM
ADB - Hydrocarbon gas/air mixture (No Inert Gas Content)
CDE – Flammable Envelope
C – Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) (1% by volume)
D – Upper Flammable Limit (UFL) (10% by volume)
E – Minimum O2 required for combustion (~11% by volume)
Note

EXPLANATION OF FLAMMABILE RANGE DIAGRAM / FLAMMABILITY
DIAGRAM
LINE AB
• The line AB represents the condition when no inert gas is present in the mixture
and there are purely air and hydrocarbon gas vapours (arising out of the oil stored in the
tank).
• Line AB and the flammable range in this condition is the straight line between C
and D on the line A and B. Anything above D and below C is safe.
• The region towards the left hand side of the line AB represents inert gas addition.
• Tilt of line towards left is because of relative decrease in Oxygen content when
Hydrocarbon content is increased.
FLAMMABLE ENVELOPE
• A hydrocarbon gas/air mixture would only be flammable when the respective
percentages of hydrocarbon gas and oxygen lie within the FLAMMABLE ENVELOPE.
• On left side of line AB, as the inert gas content increases, the oxygen &
hydrocarbon content reduces. Accordingly, the flammable range decreases in proportion
with it. The lower flammable range progresses along the line CE while the upper
flammable limit decreases rapidly along the line DE. Finally both these lines merge at
point E.
• Thus, when there is about 11.5% oxygen by volume, the flammable range ceases
to exist due to insufficient O2 to support combustion.
THE LOWER AND UPPER FLAMMABLE LIMITS
• LFL & UFL of oil cargoes carried in tankers can, for general purposes, be taken
as 1% and 10% by volume respectively
NON-FLAMMABLE AREA
• The areas outside “flammable envelope” are safe with respect to flammability.
They are marked as “inert”, “too lean” or “too rich”
INERTING
DEFINITION OF INERTING
OR
(REASON FOR INERTING)
• It is the process of introduction of Inert gas into a tank with purpose of reducing
its Oxygen content well below 8%
• Inerting will keep vapour/air mixture outside the flammable range.
INERTING OF LOADED TANKS W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM

• It is evident from Flammability diagram that as inert gas is added to hydrocarbon
gas/air mixtures, the flammable range progressively decreases until the oxygen content
reaches a level of about 11% by volume, when no mixture can burn.
• The figure of 8% by volume of oxygen allows a safety margin as specified in

ISGOTT.

• As the inert gas content increases, the flammable limit mixture changes as
indicated by the lines CE and DE which finally converge at point E.
• In already Inerted tank, gas/air mixture will follow typical path of “F” to “H”
while remaining out of explosive envelope.
REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR INERTING

INERTING OF EMPTY TANKS W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM :
1. When inerting empty tanks that are gas free, inert gas is introduced through the
distribution system while venting the air inside the tank to the atmosphere.
2. This operation is continued until the oxygen content throughout the tank is not
more than 8% by volume.
3. Air/IG mixture will follow x-axis(Oxygen Axis) from 21% value to another value
under 8%.
TOPPING UP
DEFINITION OF TOPPING UP
OR
REASON FOR TOPPING UP :
The introduction of inert gas into a tank that is already in the inert condition with the
object of raising the tank pressure to prevent any ingress of air is called Topping up.
TOPPING UP OF LOADED TANKS W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM

Thus location of gas/air mixture does not change on the flammability diagram during
Topping up.
GAS FREEING
DEFINITION OF GAS FREEING :

• It is the process of introduction of fresh air into the tank in order to bring up
Oxygen level to 21% and at the same time reducing content of other toxic gases to
acceptable minimum level.
• Thus, Gas freeing is the process of creating normal atmospheric conditions inside
the tank wherein oxygen level is 21%.
• Purging is done prior gas freeing to keep out of Flammable Envelope.
GAS FREEING W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM :

• When an inert mixture, such as that represented by point F, is diluted by air, its
composition moves along line FA and enters the shaded area of flammable mixtures; this

means that all inert mixtures in the region above line GA (critical dilution line) pass
through a flammable condition.
• However, since purging is done prior gas freeing, the mixture composition moves
from “F” to “H” first. Thereafter, when fresh air is introduced, dilution line will remain
below critical dilution line GA and will not enter Flammable Envelope.
REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR GAS FREEING
PURGING
DEFINITION OF PURGING
• Purging is introduction of inert gas into a tank already in the inert condition.
• The object is to further reduce content of oxygen and/or hydrocarbon volume.
• As per ISGOTT, tank is said to be purged when the HC content falls to 2% HC or

less.
• The Purging can also be called as dilution with additional inert gas.
PURGING W.R.T. FLAMMABILITY DIAGRAM / REASON FOR PURGING :
• Purging enables to move a mixture, such as that represented by “F” to another

safe state like “H” which will remain well clear of the “Flammable Envelope” even if
fresh air is subsequently introduced inside the tank for gas freeing.
• Purging is also carried out after discharge operation to avoid vapour

contamination with next grade of cargo to be loaded.
REFER SEPARATE NOTES FOR PROCEDURES FOR PURGING
VARIOUS PIPELINE SYSTEM ON BOARD TANKERS
1. RING MAIN SYSTEM ( as done in class)
DETAILS :
1. It is generally of a square or circular layout.
2. It is used mostly on product tankers, as segregation of cargo is required.
3. The system is expensive because more piping and extra number of valves are
used.
4. However if the vessel is carrying many grades of cargo, the advantages
compensate for the extra cost of the original outlay.
2. DIRECT LINE SYSTEM: (as done in class)
DETAILS :
1. This is the simplest type of pipeline system which uses fewer valves than the
others.

2. Direct line system. Used mainly on crude and black oil tankers where separation
of oil grades is not so important.
3. It takes oil directly from the tank to the pump and so reduces friction. This has an
effect of increasing the rate of discharge, at the same time improving the tank suction.
4. It is cheaper to install and maintain than the ring main system because there is less
pipeline length and with fewer valves less likelihood of malfunction.

The disadvantages over the ring main system :
1. Line washing is more difficult. Since there is no circular system and the washings
must be flushed into the tanks
2. The system has fewer valves which make pipeline leaks difficult to control
3. As the system lacks versatility, there is problem with line and valve segregation
4. This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as there are tanks. The
disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of pumps on board.
FREE FLOW SYSTEM : (as done in class)

1. This system is usually found on large crude carriers, where the cargo piping is not
used for the discharge of cargo.
2. Instead, gate valves are provided on the bulkheads of the tanks which when
opened; allow the oil to flow freely in the aft most tank and into the COP.
3. The advantages of this system are primarily the cost factor, it allows for fast
drainage and efficient means of pumping the cargo tanks. Disadvantages are of single
crude being shipped.
4. INDEPENDENT SYSTEM: ( as done in class)

1. This layout is not very common in the tanker trade but is quite normal on
chemical ships.
2. There are some Product Tankers that have been fitted with this system especially
those fitted with submersible pumps inside each cargo tank.
3. This is a single line servicing an individual tank through an independent pump
that could be either a submersible pump or a deep well pump.

INERT GAS SYSTEM

DEFINITION OF INERT GAS
• It is a gas which contains insufficient Oxygen to support combustion.
FUNCTIONS OF INERT GAS

• Properly functioning Inert Gas system is required to maintain cargo tanks in a
non-flammable condition.
• Inert Gas System must deliver Inert Gas with Oxygen content below 5% by
volume.
• Oxygen content of the tanks must not exceed 8% by volume.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF IG SYSTEM

• Flue gas source (Boiler or IGG)
• Scrubber
• IG Blowers
• IG Pressure regulating valves
• Deck Seal
• IG Non-return valve
• Deck Isolation valve
• PV Breaker
• Mast riser (optional)
• Branch lines leading to individual tank
• PV Valve(s) inside each cargo tank.
PASSAGE OF IG FROM SOURCE TO CARGO TANK

• Flue gas isolating valves are located at the boiler/IGG uptake points, through
which pass hot, dirty gases to the scrubber and demister.
• Inside scrubber & Demister, the gas is cooled and cleaned before being piped to
blowers.
• Blowers deliver the gas through the deck water seal, the non-return valve and the
deck isolating valve to the cargo tanks.
• A gas pressure regulating valve is fitted downstream of the blowers to regulate the
flow of gases to the cargo tank.
• Liquid-filled pressure vacuum breaker is fitted to prevent excessive pressure or
vacuum from causing structural damage to cargo tanks.
• Inert gas deck main runs forward from the deck isolating valve for the length of
the cargo deck. From this inert gas, main, inert gas branch lines lead to the top of each
cargo tank.
FUNCTION OF INERT GAS SCRUBBER

• The scrubber cools the flue gas and removes most of the sulphur dioxide and
particulate soot by ensuring direct contact between the flue gas and the large quantities of
sea water.

• In the scrubbing tower the gas moves upwards through downward flowing water
for maximum contact between gas and water.
• At the top of the scrubbing tower, water droplets are removed by one or more
demisters.
FUNCTION OF INERT GAS BLOWERS

• Blowers deliver the scrubbed flue gas to the cargo tanks
• At least two blowers are required.
• Combined capacity of Blowers is at least 125 per cent of the maximum discharge
capacity of the ship.
FUNCTION OF NON-RETURN DEVICES

• The deck water seal and mechanical non-return valve together provide the means
of automatically preventing the backflow of cargo gases from the cargo tanks to the
machinery spaces.
PV BREAKER
• PV Breaker requires little maintenance.
• Will operate at the required pressure only if they are filled to the correct level with
liquid of the correct density
• Normally, suitable freshwater/glycol mixture should be used to prevent freezing
in cold weather.

HIGH VELOCITY PRESSURE VACUUM VALVES

Designed efflux velocity of at least 30 m/sec
PV Valves are at least 2 mtr high and located at least 10 mtrs from any
accommodation air intake.
Note : Flame speed varies from 7.5 m/sec in air to 20m/sec in pipes.



DECK WATER SEAL UNITS
• A proper functioning deck water seal is the automatic device which permits inert
gas to be delivered to the deck main but prevents any backflow of cargo gas, even when
the inert gas plant is shut down.
• Backflow of gas could result in Hydrocarbon gases from the cargo tanks reaching
the boiler, leading to an explosion.
• It is vital that a supply of water is maintained to the seal at all times, particularly
when the inert gas plant is shut down.
• In addition, drains should lead directly overboard and not pass through the
machinery spaces.
• Heating coils system is required to prevent water from freezing when ship
operates in sub-freezing conditions.
TYPES OF DECK WATER SEALS

Deck water seals are of following three types :
1. Wet type seal,
2. Semi-wet type seal, and
3. Dry type seal
WET TYPE DECK WATER SEAL
CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a chamber semi-filled with water
2. Two pipes for inlet and outlet of flue gases
3. Two small pipes denote inlet and outlet for sealing water.
4. There is a demister pad to remove water droplets from gas.
WORKING
1. This is the simplest type of water seal

2. When the inert gas plant is operating & inert gas is being delivered to cargo tanks,
the gas bubbles through the water from the submerged inert gas inlet pipe
3. But if the tank line water is pressed up into this inlet pipe, It will prevent backflow
DRAWBACK
1. Water droplets may be carried over with the inert gas which could increase
corrosion. A demister should, therefore, be fitted in the gas outlet from the water seal to
reduce any carry-over.
SEMI DRY TYPE DECK WATER SEAL
CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a separate holding chamber.
3. Two small pipes denote inlet and outlet for sealing water.
WORKING
1. When the inert gas plant is operating & inert gas is being delivered to cargo tanks,
Inert gas flow draws the sealing water into a separate holding chamber by venturi action,
thus avoiding or at least reducing the amount of water being carried over.
2. But if the tank line water is pressed up into this inlet pipe, It will prevent backflow
DRAWBACK
1. Water droplets may be carried over with the inert gas which could increase
corrosion.

DRY TYPE DECK WATER SEAL
CONSTRUCTION
1. It consists of a chamber and a DROP TANK.
3. Automatic valve control system
Note: This seal totally eliminates any water carry over and uses automated valve control
to deliver water to the seal in case there is any back flow.
WORKING
1. The water is drained from the chamber when the Inert gas plant is operating &
inert gas is being delivered to cargo tanks.
2. The Chamber is filled with water when the inert gas plant is shut down.
3. Filling and drainage are performed by automatically operated valves which are
controlled by the levels of the water seal and drop tank and by the operation of the
blowers.
DRAWBACK :
1. The risk of failure of the automatically controlled valves that may render the
water seal ineffective.
METHODS OF GAS REPLACEMENT
Following three operations involve replacement of existing gas inside cargo tanks:
(a) Inerting
(b) Purging
(c) Gas-freeing
In each of these replacement operations, one of two processes can predominate:

(a) Dilution, which is a mixing process
(b) Displacement, which is a layering process

DILUTION
• The dilution theory assumes that the incoming gas mixes with the original gases
to form a homogeneous mixture throughout the tank.
• As a result, the concentration of the original gas decreases progressively.
• The conditions required for such a process to happen ideally are high incoming
velocity of the gas so that the jet could reach the bottom most portions of the tank.
• Thus minimum numbers of tanks are used simultaneously while using
dilution.
• Thus for dilution method, the points for entry and exit of the gas are both
located towards the top of the tank.
Figure 2 Figure 3
Note :
• Figure 2 shows an inlet and outlet configuration of the dilution process and
illustrates the turbulent nature of the gas flow within the tank.
• Figure 3 shows typical curves of gas concentration against time for three different
sampling positions.
DISPLACEMENT
• Displacement method requires the presence of a stable horizontal interface

between the top of the tank so that the light gas entering from the top can push the
heavier gas out from bottom of the tank.
• Hence, this method requires a low velocity of gas entry.
• This method also requires that outlet pipe suction must be located somewhere
towards the bottom of the tank.
• Thus several numbers of tanks can be used simultaneously while using
Displacement method.

Figure 4 Figure 5
Note :
• Figure 4 shows an inlet and outlet configuration for the displacement process, and
indicates the interface between the incoming and outgoing gases.
• Figure 5 shows typical curves of gas concentration against time for three different
sampling levels.
PRINCIPAL ARRANGEMENTS ON BOARD TANKERS:
• One feature that should be common to all is the location of the inlet and outlet
points such that efficient gas replacement can take place throughout the tank.
• Several arrangements are possible. A particular ship design may incorporate more
than one arrangement also.
• However, there are following three principal arrangements :
LOADING OPERATION ON TANKERS
GENERAL CHECKLIST
• Loading plan will be prepared by Chief Officer and discussed with all concerned
including Duty Officer during pre-arrival meeting.
• Duty Officer will ensure he understands the plan thoroughly.
• Duty Officer will confirm with Chief Officer that pre-arrival checks as per
company procedures have been carried out satisfactorily.
PRIOR COMMENCEMENT OF LOADING CHECKLIST

• Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific “pre-cargo
operations checklist” have been complied with.
• Duty Officer will confirm all designated duty hands are at their stations.
• Duty Officer will double check that valves have been lined as per cargo plan.
• Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and measures are in place.
• Duty Officer will attend hose connection operation.
• Duty Officer will double check that access means for shore personnel is in
compliance with rules/regulations.
COMMENCEMENT OF LOADING
• Duty Officer will ensure initial flow to be minimum and preferable by gravity.

• All pipelines must be checked to confirm no leakages.
• Duty Officer will ensure cargo is received in nominated tanks.
DURING LOADING OPERATION CHECKLIST

• Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific “during cargo
• Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and measures remain in
place.
• Duty Officer will take regular rounds.
• Duty Officer will attend to topping off and ballast/de-ballast operations under
instructions of Chief Officer.
• Duty Officer will regularly check ullages/quantities of tanks
• Duty Officer will inform Chief Officer whenever he reaches a critical stage.
• Duty Officer will monitor drafts as per instructions from Chief Officer.
COMPLETION OF LOADING
• Duty Officer will reduce rates well in time.
• Duty Officer will keep watch on topped off tanks.
• Duty Officer will attend hose disconnection operation.
• Duty Officer will ensure that all valves have been shut on completion of loading
operations.
DISCHARGING OPERATION ON TANKERS

GENERAL CHECKLIST
• Discharging plan will be prepared by Chief Officer and discussed with all
concerned including Duty Officer during pre-arrival meeting.
• Duty Officer will ensure he understands the plan thoroughly.
• Duty Officer will confirm with Chief Officer that pre-arrival checks as per
company procedures have been carried out satisfactorily.
PRIOR COMMENCEMENT OF DISCHARGING CHECKLIST
• Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific “pre-cargo
• Duty Officer will confirm all designated duty hands are at their stations.
• Duty Officer will double check that pumps and valves have been lined as per
cargo plan.
• Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and measures are in place.
• Duty Officer will attend hose connection operation.
• Duty Officer will double check that access means for shore personnel is in
compliance with rules/regulations.
COMMENCEMENT OF DISCHARGING
• Duty Officer will attend manifold during commencement of discharge.
• Initial discharge rate to be slow.
• All pumps/pipelines must be checked to confirm no leakages.
• Ensure cargo is leaving from correct tank.
DURING DISCHARGING OPERATION CHECKLIST

• Duty Officer will ensure that checks as per company specific “during cargo
• Duty Officer will ensure that all “Anti-Pollution” gears and measures remain in
place.
• Duty Officer will take regular rounds.
• Duty Officer will attend to discharge/stripping and ballast/de-ballast operations
under instructions of Chief Officer.
• Duty Officer will regularly check ullages/quantities of tanks
• Duty Officer will inform Chief Officer whenever levels in cargo tanks reach a
critical stage.
• Duty Officer will monitor drafts as per instructions from Chief Officer.
COMPLETION OF DISCHARGING
• Duty Officer will reduce rates well in time.
• Duty Officer will keep watch on emptied tanks.
• Duty Officer will attend hose disconnection operation.
• Duty Officer will ensure that all valves have been shut on completion of loading
operations.
GAS METERS USED ON BOARD OIL TANKERS
CATALYTIC FILAMENT COMBUSTIBLE GAS (CFCG) INDICATOR,

FLAMMABLE GAS MONITOR or EXPLOSIMETER
This equipment is used for measuring hydrocarbon gases up to 100% LEL.
Operating Principle
1. The sensing element of a CFCG Indicator is a catalytic metal filament heated by
an electric current. The CFCG scale is graduated in % LFL.
2. This meter relies on the presence of oxygen (minimum 11% by volume) to
operate efficiently and for this reason flammable gas monitors should not be used for
measuring hydrocarbon gas in inert atmospheres.
3. When a mixture of hydrocarbon gas with air is drawn over the filament, the gas
oxidizes on the hot filament and makes it hotter. This increases the resistance and the
change of resistance provides a measure of the concentration of hydrocarbon gas in the
mixture.
4. The difference in temperature compared to the compensator element is shown as
% LFL.

Measurement Procedure
1. The detailed instructions from the
manufacturer should be followed while taking a
measurement.
2. Instrument is initially set at zero with
fresh air.
3. A sample is drawn into the meter by
means of a rubber aspirator bulb or a pump. The
reading is taken when the pointer has ceased to
rise on the scale.
4. During operation, it is important to check
instrument and sample lines for leakage, since
the ingress of air would dilute the sample giving
false readings.
Note :
The response of the instrument to concentration higher than 100% LEL is that the needle
initially deflects to the maximum on the scale and then falls back to a reading near zero.
Continuous observation of the needle is necessary to avoid overlooking this kind of
response.
Instrument Checks/maintenance Procedures:

1. This meter requires the following checks before use:
a. Zero check
b. Span check
c. Battery check
2. Calibration kit is available on board. It includes a mixture of hydrocarbon gas in

air (such as 50% LEL butane in air).
3. Filters must be cleaned regularly.
4. At intervals set by manufacturer, the instrument should be sent ashore for shore
calibration. Typically, shore calibration is done annually.
NON-CATALYTIC HEATED FILAMENT GAS INDICATOR (TANK SCOPES)

1. A Tank scope is a device used for measurement of hydrocarbon gas content in a
sample of given atmosphere.
2. This instrument is meant for measuring the hydrocarbon vapour in inerted
atmospheres.
3. The reading is only in percentage of the volume of the hydrocarbon vapour
4. This instrument is not as sensitive as the explosimeter.

Operating Principle
1. The sensing element of this instrument is a non-catalytic hot filament.
2. It works on the same principle as that of an explosimeter except that the gas does
not oxidize inside the sample chamber.
3. There is an alteration in the temperature of the heated filament due to composition
of surrounding gases which determines the rate of loss of heat from the filament, and
hence its temperature and resistance.
4. The change in the resistance of the sensor filament is shown by a deflection on the
meter.
5. The meter gives a direct reading of % volume hydrocarbons.
Caution :
1. The non-catalytic filament is not affected by gas concentrations in excess of its
working scale. The instrument reading goes off the scale and remains in this position as
long as the filament is exposed to the rich gas mixture.
Measurement Procedure
1. The following checks are done to ensure the proper working of the instrument:
a. Zero check
b. Span check
c. Voltages check (battery check)
2. Thereafter, a sample is drawn into the meter and reading is taken only when the
meter pointer comes to rest on the scale.
COMBINATION HC DETECTOR METERS

1. Some Models like NP237 & GX 8000 from R.K Instruments, actually combines
two detection methods in a single device.

2. They have a portable hydrocarbon gas indicator which uses the catalytic detection
principle to respond to flammable gases up to the lower explosive limit (0-10% LEL / 0-
100% LEL),
3. They also have a thermal conductivity indicator which uses the cooling effect of
hydrocarbon gas to produce reading up to 100% vol (0-20% vol / 0-100% vol).
4. Both detection methods employ the Wheatstone bridge measurement principle
and use the same batteries, meters and sampling system.
Measurement Procedure :
1. Measuring VOL% (Red Scale): Turn the switch to <<100 VOL%>>. Start
measuring until the needle indicates less than 20% VOL. Then, turn the switch to <<20
VOL%>> and continue measuring. When the measurement is below 1% VOL, change to
the LEL scale.
2. Measuring %LEL (Black Scale): turn the switch to <<100% LEL>>. Start
measuring until the needle indicates less than 10% LEL. Then, turn the switch to <<10%
LEL>> for measuring below 10% LEL.

OXYGEN ANALYSERS
Oxygen analysers are normally used to determine whether an atmosphere is Inerted

(Oxygen less than 8%) or safe for entry(Oxygen content 21%).
The three most common types of Oxygen analysers use following sensors:
• Paramagnetic sensors,
• The electrolytic sensors and
• Selective chemical absorption liquids.
Principle of Oxygen analysers with Paramagnetic Sensors
• These meters work on the principle that oxygen is strongly paramagnetic whereas
most other common gases are not.
• In this way, the presence of oxygen can be determined in a wide variety of gas
mixtures.
• Paramagnetic type of oxygen analyser has a sample cell. In this device, a
lightweight body is suspended in a magnetic field. When a sample gas is drawn through
the cell, the suspended body experiences a torque proportional to the magnetic
susceptibility of the gas. An equal and opposing torque is produced by an electric current
passing through a coil wound around the suspended body. The equalizing current is a
measure of the magnetic susceptibility of the sample, i.e. related to its oxygen content.
Procedure for usage:

• Before use, the analyser should be calibrated using Nitrogen for a zero check.
• Thereafter use fresh air at 21% oxygen for span check.
• Put the sampling hose into the test area and watch the meter. Take a reading after
a few minutes.
• When testing is over, remove the sampling hose from the test area and allow the
instrument to draw in fresh air for at 1 minute or until the reading is steady on 21%.
Maintenance:
• The filter should be cleared or replaced when an increase in sample pressure is
required to maintain a reasonable gas flow through the analyser.
• The same effect is produced if the filter becomes wet due to insufficient gas
drying.

Note (For reference Only):

Principle of Oxygen analysers with Electrolytic Sensors :
• Electrolytic Sensors determine the oxygen content of a gas mixture by measuring
the output of an electrolytic cell.
• In this device, oxygen diffuses through a membrane into the cell causing current
to flow between two special electrodes separated by a liquid or gel electrolyte.
• The current flow is related to the oxygen concentration in the sample, and the
scale is arranged to give a direct indication of oxygen content.
Principle of Oxygen analysers with Selective Chemical Absorption Liquids :

• Selective Chemical Absorption Liquids are used in this type of analyser.
• A known volume of sample gas is brought into contact with a liquid that absorbs
oxygen causing a volume change in the liquid.
• The relationship of this volume change to the original volume is a measure of the
oxygen content of the sample.
• The use of this type of analyser for checking the condition of the ullage space in a
loaded compartment is not recommended because of the effect of high concentrations of
hydrocarbon gases on the reagents.
Para magnetism:
• Para magnetism is a form of magnetism whereby the paramagnetic material is
only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field.
• These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed.
• Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and
from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
Personal Oxygen Monitors

• Personal Oxygen Monitors employ an electrolytic sensor.
• They automatically provide an audible and visual alarm when the atmosphere
becomes deficient in oxygen so as to give the wearer adequate warning of unsafe
conditions.
• The monitors to be tested at regular intervals as per Manufacturer’s instructions.
CHEMICAL INDICATOR TUBES:
• Chemical Indicator Tubes are used to measure very low concentrations of toxic
gases on board tankers.
• The detector tube is like a vial filled with reagent that will react with the specific
chemical / gas to give a visible indication of the concentration of that gas.
• An extension hose is provided to measure the concentration of vapour present at a
different height.
• We have to insert the hose with the pump and the tube is connected to the other
end of the hose.

Use of the Apparatus:
• To use the chemical indicator tube, the seals at each end of the glass tube are
broken.
• The tube is inserted in a bellows-type fixed volume displacement hand pump.
• Check the number of strokes required for making the measurement. (n = x masked
on the tubes) Where x = No. of pump strokes required.
• Hold the pump between the thumb and index finger so that the end-of-stroke
indicator and the stroke counter are facing the user.
• Squeeze the pump till it cannot be squeezed any further and then release it until
the bellows are fully expanded.
• When the end-of-stroke indicator appears, squeeze the pump completely again.
Repeat until the number on the stroke counter corresponds to that given in the
Instructions for Use of tube.
• A colour change occurs along the tube and the length of discoloration, which is a
measure of the gas concentration, is read off a scale integral with the tube.
Note :
• There are different tubes for Inerted and Gas free condition.
• Errors can occur if several gases are present at the same time.
MULTI GAS DETECTORS
• These meters are ideal for any environment requiring multi-gas monitoring.
• Multi Gas Detector simultaneously monitors typically up to four gases:
Must Gases :
o 0 to 100% LEL Hydrocarbons
o Oxygen (Typical range : 0 to 25%)
and normally any one / two of following toxic gases :
o Carbon monoxide (Typical range : 0 to 1000 PPM) (TLV : 25 PPM)
o Hydrogen sulphide (Typical range : 0 to 500 PPM) (TLV : 10 PPM)
o Sulphur dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 150 PPM) (TLV : 0.25 PPM)
o Carbon dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 50,000 PPM) (TLV : 5000 PPM)
o Chlorine (Typical range : 0 to 50 PPM) (TLV : 0.50 PPM)
o Nitrogen dioxide (Typical range : 0 to 100 PPM) (TLV : 3 PPM)

• Multi Gas Detectors automatically recognize all installed sensors and displays
instantaneous readings on the easy-to-read LCD display.
• Display for corresponding gas is not shown if the corresponding sensor is not
working.
Typical features of Multi Gas Detectors :
a) Plug-in sensors,
b) Audible and visual alarms,
c) Easy one-button calibration and
d) High reading memory.
e) Some Multi Gas Detectors do come with a Sampling Pump. This pump
provides the user with the benefit of both personal monitoring
applications and remote sampling necessary in confined spaces.
USE & MAINTENANCE :

Instructions of manufacturer is to be followed for use, Calibration & maintenance.
VARIOUS TYPES OF EXPLOSIMETERS :
There are two types of indicators available for measuring hydrocarbon gas concentrations
under lower flammable limit namely :
• The Catalytic Heated Filament Gas Indicator
• Infra-Red type Gas indicators
What is the difference between Catalytic & Infrared Gas detectors?

Combustible Gas Detection
In detecting combustible gases in oil and gas, petrochemical and other applications,
choosing between the two most common gas sensing technologies used for this purpose
will be critical in ensuring a safe, reliable and cost effective solution. These technologies
are catalytic combustion and infrared. Both have advantages and disadvantages
depending on an application / specific needs.

Of the many hydrocarbons that are found in industry today, most are detectable with a
catalytic combustion sensor and many are detectable with an infrared sensor. It is
important to consider the specific compounds to be monitored as there are some that do
not readily lend themselves to detection with a general purpose infrared (IR) detector,
such as hydrogen, acetylene, and aromatic compounds, like benzene and toluene, for
example.
Catalytic Detectors
Catalytic detectors are based upon the principle that when gas oxidizes it produces heat,
and the sensor converts the temperature change via a standard Wheatstone Bridge-type
circuit to a sensor signal that is proportional to the gas concentration. The sensor
components consist of a pair of heating coils (reference and active). The active element is
embedded in a catalyst. The reaction takes place on the surface of the catalyst, with
combustible gases reacting exothermically with oxygen in the air to raise its temperature.
This results in a change of resistance.
There is also a reference element providing an inert reference signal by remaining non-
responsive to gas, thereby acting as a stable baseline signal to compensate for
environmental changes which would otherwise affect the sensor’s temperature.
Advantages
The major advantages of catalytic detectors:
• Robust.
• Simple to operate.
• Easy to install, calibrate and use.
• Long life with a low replacement cost.
• Proven technology with exceptional reliability and predictability.
• Easily calibrated individually to gases such as hydrogen which cannot be detected
using infrared absorption.
• Can perform more reliably in dusty & dirty atmospheres as they are not as
sensitive as optics to the build-up of industrial contaminants.
• Can perform more reliably in high temperature applications.
• Are less sensitive to humidity and condensation.
• Not as significantly affected by changes in pressure.
• Can detect most combustible hydrocarbons.
Disadvantages
The limiting factors in catalytic detector technology:
• Catalysts can become poisoned or inactive due to contamination (chlorinated &
silicone compounds, prolonged exposure to H2S and other sulphur &/or corrosive
compounds).
• The only means of identifying detector sensitivity loss is by checking with the
appropriate gas on a routine basis and recalibrating as required.
• Requires oxygen for detection.
• Prolonged exposure to high concentrations of combustible gas may degrade
sensor performance.
• If flooded with a very high gas concentration, may show erroneously low or no
response, and sensor may be damaged or rendered inoperable.

Infrared Detectors
The Infrared (IR) detection method is based upon the absorption of infrared radiation at
specific wavelengths as it passes through a volume of gas. Typically two infrared light
sources and an infrared light detector measures the intensity of two different wavelengths,
one at the absorption wavelength and one outside the absorption wavelength. If a gas
intervenes between the source and the detector, the level of radiation falling on the
detector is reduced. Gas concentration is determined by comparing the relative values
between the two wavelengths. This is a dual beam infrared detector.
Infrared gas detection is based upon the ability of some gases to absorb IR radiation.
Many hydrocarbons absorb IR at approximately 3.4 micrometres and in this region H2O
and CO2 are relatively transparent. As mentioned earlier, there are some hydrocarbons
and other flammable gases that have poor or no response on a general purpose IR sensor.
In addition to aromatics and acetylene, hydrogen, ammonia and carbon monoxide also
cannot be detected using IR technology with general purpose sensors of 3.4 micron
specifications.
Advantages
The major advantages of IR gas detectors:
• Immunity to contamination and poisoning.
• Consumables (source and detector) tend to outlast catalytic sensors.
• Can be calibrated less often than a catalytic detector.
• Ability to operate in the absence of oxygen or in enriched oxygen.
• Ability to operate in continuous presence of gas.
• Can perform more reliably in varying flow conditions.
• Even when flooded with gas, will continue to show high reading and sensor will
not be damaged.
• Able to detect at levels above 100 % LEL.
Disadvantages
The limiting factors in IR technology:
• The initial higher cost per point. IR detectors typically are more expensive than
catalytic detectors at initial purchase.
• Higher spare parts cost.
• Gases that do not absorb IR energy (such as hydrogen) are not detectable.
• High humidity, dusty and/or corrosive field environments can increase IR detector
maintenance costs.
• Temperature range for detector use is limited compared to catalytic detectors.

• May not perform well where multiple gases are present.
Conclusion
There is clear need for both IR and catalytic detectors in industry. When making a choice,
be sure to consider the field environment and the variables in detector design. Life-cycle
cost assumptions will not hold true in all environments. The same can be said for detector
mean-time-to-repair or failure. Careful analysis of detectors, suppliers and field
experience will help you to select the best catalytic or IR detectors for your application.
Misc. :
Threshold limit value - Time weighted average (TLV-TWA): average exposure on the
basis of a 8h/day, 40h/week work schedule
Threshold limit value - Short-term exposure limit (TLV-STEL): spot exposure for a
duration of 15 minutes that cannot be repeated more than 4 times per day
Threshold limit value - Ceiling limit (TLV-C): absolute exposure limit that should not be
exceeded at any time
CRUDE OIL WASHING (COW)

DEFINITION
• COW stands for “CRUDE OIL WASHING”.
• During the process of COW, cargo tanks are cleaned by means of high-pressure
crude oil.
• COW reduces the quantity of oil remaining on board after discharge.
ADVANTAGES OF COW
• Reduced sludge accumulation
• Increased cargo out turn
• Reduced manual cleaning
• Reduced gas freeing time
DISADVANTAGES OF COW
• Increased stay in the discharge port
• Specialized man power required
• Increased work load
• Does not eliminate water washing
• Need for additional equipment
• Increases corrosion rate inside the tank
MARPOL REQUIREMENTS REGARDING COW

• Every crude oil tanker above 20,000 DWT shall be fitted with cow system.
• All ships fitted with COW must have on board a “Crude Oil Washing Manual”
approved by the Administration.
• All ships fitted with COW must be provided with I.G system.
• Only those cargo tanks that have undergone COW, can be ballasted.

• Approx. 25 per cent of the cargo tanks need to be crude oil washed every voyage
for sludge control purposes. However, no tank need be crude oil washed for sludge
control purposes more than once in every four months
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF COW

• Characteristics of the crude oil
o Wax content,
o Specific gravity,
• Temperature of oil
• System pressure
• Location & number of washing machines
• Shadow sectors in the tank
• Stripping effectiveness
• Nozzle rotation pitch
PARTS OF A COW SYSTEM

• Fixed washing machines
• Pumps
• Stripping system
• Piping
NUMBER & LOCATION OF WASHING MACHINES IS GOVERNED BY THE
FOLLOWING REGULATIONS OF MARPOL ANNEX 1
• 85% of the VERTICAL surface area inside a tank must be covered by the direct
impingement of the jet
• 90% of the HORIZONTAL surface area inside a tank must be covered by the
direct impingement of the jet
COW CHECKLISTS
PRIOR ARRIVAL AT DISCHARGE PORT
COMMUNICATION
• Notify Terminal about your intension regarding COW.
• Terminal pre-arrival radio check list to comply with.
• Communication system on board must be tried.
EQUIPMENTS CHECK
• Fixed and portable O2 analysing equipment tested & working.
• COW system isolated from the heater.
• Machine drive units checked.
• Valves to fixed machines shut.
• Hydrant valves blanked.
• Pressure gauges checked.
• Lines and pumps pressure tested.
• Stripping system checked

COW PLAN
• COW Plan must be prepared, discussed in pre-arrival meeting and posted in
prominent location(s).
• It must include responsibilities & job description.
WHILE AT DISCHARGE PORT

BEFORE COW
• Pre-arrival checks confirmed to be in order.
• COW plan discussed during cargo meeting between ship & shore staff.
• Communication link within vessel & shore to be established.
• Abort conditions & Procedures to be identified.
• Fixed analyser must be calibrated prior start of Inert Gas.
• IG system & O2 content being delivered to be in good order.
• O2 content of the tanks confirmed to be below 8%.
• Positive pressure to be ensured inside the tanks.
• Responsible person assigned to check leaks.
• Drive units of machines must be readied.
• Double check on valves & lines.
• Ullage floats, if fitted, must be housed.
DURING COW
• Responsible person stationed on deck
• Frequent check on quality of IG & record maintained.
• Prescribed wash pressure maintained.
• Frequent checks for leaks.
• Frequent checks to confirm working of machines.
• Minimum recommended trim.
• Frequent checks & monitoring of other tanks.
• Frequent monitoring of tank draining.
• Continuous monitoring of Slop tank(s).
AFTER COW
• Shut all valves
• Drain COW line
• Drain all pumps, tanks & associated pipelines.
FUNCTION OF INERT GAS DURING COW

• Properly functioning Inert Gas system is required to maintain cargo tanks in a
non-flammable condition.
• Inert Gas System must be working properly during COW and the content of inert
gas being delivered should be below 5% by volume.
• Oxygen content of the tanks to be crude oil washed below 8% by volume has to
be confirmed before washing operations commences.
• All the cleaning tanks must have positive pressure? (preferably more than
200mmAq)

• I.G. system, cargo tanks and openings must be tightly closed for avoiding gas
leakage to the atmosphere
TANK WASHING/CLEANING OPERATION

(Quest Type – Write short note on Tank washing operation on Tankers)
OR
(Quest Type – Write short note on Tank cleaning operation on Tankers)
ANS.
DEFINITION
It is the process by which Tanks are washed by fixed/portable machines using cold/hot
sea water or Fresh water.
REASON FOR TANK CLEANING

Tank cleaning is carried out prior following:
1. Tank Entry
2. Grade Change
3. Dry-Dock
PRECAUTIONS DURING TANK CLEANING OPERATION

Guidelines as per ISGOTT & Company specific checklists must be complied with. The
following precautions are among those taken in account:
i) BEFORE WASHING OPERATION

a) Tank washing plan must be prepared and discussed with all concerned.
b) All Concerned pumps and pipelines must be tested as per company procedures.
c) Ensure, all scuppers are well plugged and anti-pollutions gears in place.
d) The tanks must be well inerted with Oxygen content below 8%. Gas tests must be
made at various levels.
ii) DURING TANK WASHING OPERATION

a) Before actual washing, the tank bottom should be flushed with water and stripped.
The flushing water should be drained to the tank designed or designated to receive slops.
b) If the tank has a venting system that is common to other tanks which are not to be
washed, the tank must be isolated to prevent ingress of gas from other tanks.
c) If portable washing machines are used, all hose connections should be made up
and tested for electrical continuity before the washing machine is introduced into the
tank.
d) Required pressure must be maintained at all times inside the wash line.

e) During tank washing, regular gas tests must be made at various levels.
Consideration should be given to the possible effect of water on the efficiency of the gas
measuring equipment.
f) The tank should be kept drained during washing. Washing should be stopped to
clear any build-up of wash water.
g) Steam should not be injected into the tank.
h) Precautions relating to sounding and the introduction of metallic equipment

should be taken as per ISGOTT.

NOTE :
In case checklists related to Tank cleaning are asked in question, please be guided by
Crude Oil washing Checklists.
PUMPS
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
WHAT IS THE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP?

Ans.
The principle used for centrifugal pump is the centrifugal force in the form of dynamic
pressure which is generated by rotary motion of one or more rotating wheels called the
impellers.
SKETCH LAYOUT OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP INSTALLATION AND LABEL IT.

Ans.
note
STATE THE APPLICATION / FEATURES OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

• On most tankers, the main cargo pumps are centrifugal pumps, located at the
bottom of a pump room at the after end of the cargo tanks.
• These may have rated capacities of 1000m3/hour on medium size tankers.
• These are powered by a drive shaft from a turbine or electric motor located in the
engine room.
• Some smaller tankers and particularly chemical or product carriers are fitted with
deep well centrifugal pumps in some or all cargo tanks.

• While both of these pump types operate on centrifugal force principles, their
operation is quite different
STATE THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHILE USING A

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
• The pumps must be carefully checked before starting to ensure that their
chambers are full of cargo.
• Keep discharge valve fully shut before starting the pump.
• Increase the rpm gradually and open the discharge valve.
• Confirm no unusual rise in the temperature of pump or its casing. Also Confirm
no vibrations.
• As discharge proceeds, it is important to maintain a good trim by the stern so that
the pump inlet remains below the cargo suction inlet.
• Cargo officer must know the height of the ship's bottom framing and slow down
the pump while there is still a meter of cargo above that level.
• The pump speed control and the pump discharge valve can then be manipulated to
maintain pump suction and cargo flow until the tank is nearly empty.
• Main cargo pumps should not be used to drain the tank. The stripping pumps are
provided for that purpose.
• Vapour/air extraction device, if fitted, should be operational when the cargo level
is low and continued till Cargo pump is finally stopped or changed over to next tank.
DEEPWELL PUMPS
• Deep well pumps are centrifugal pumps designed to be mounted in the cargo tank.
• They have a special application in product/chemical carriers, where each tank is
fitted with a dedicated pump. This improves the flexibility of the chemical/product carrier
and minimizes the possibility of contamination.
• Because the number of pumps is larger, the individual pumps themselves are
smaller and individually require less power.
• With a deep well pump installation, the need for a pump room is eliminated, along
with the hazards and complications of that space.
• The more common method of evacuating the deep well is with an air or nitrogen
purge system. The gas is piped through a small-bore line at the base of the pump and
pushes the contents up the main discharge riser.
• When a cargo tank is being stripped (or drained) with a deep well pump, the pump
cycles as its self-priming function is activated, dropping speed and pitch as it fills with
liquid and then increasing in speed and pitch as is loses suction and drops the contents of
its discharge column back into the well to re-prime itself.
• Pump speed should be reduced when stripping (if speed control is available). If
the pump is powered hydraulically, it can be regulated to any speed desired to permit
maximum cargo recovery.


RECIPROCATING PUMP
DEFINITION :
• Reciprocating pumps are those which cause the fluid to move using oscillating
pistons, plungers or diaphragms.
• These pumps are also called positive displacement pumps because they are fitted
with a system of suction and discharge valves to ensure that the fluid is displaced in a
positive direction.
APPLICATIONS :
• These are small capacity (say 100 to 250 m3/hour capacity) pumps which are used
for stripping of lines, pumps and tanks.
• Though rated capacity is less, they can handle very high pressures
WORKING PRINCIPLE :
The working principle can be explained by considering below reciprocating pump
:

• Assume that the intake side of the pump is connected to a supply of liquid.
• When we move the piston to the right, lower pressure is created in the chamber
formed by the piston. Higher pressure on the fluid outside the chamber forces fluid in
through the inlet port and fills the chamber.
• Moving the handle forward in the opposite direction forces the fluid out. A check
valve at the inlet port prevents flow there and, since the fluid must find an outlet
somewhere, it is forced out through the discharge port.
• The check valve at the discharge port prevents the entrance of fluid into the pump
on the subsequent suction stroke.
• The back-and-forth movement of the piston in the pump is referred to as

reciprocating motion and this type of pump is generally known as a reciprocating-type
piston pump
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USING A RECIPROCATING PUMP

• The pump should be started against partially open delivery valve.
• The pump should never be started or operated against closed delivery valve.
• Close monitoring of strokes must be done to prevent damage to the pump.
• Pump must not be operated above its rated discharge pressure

• Pump shafts must be regularly lubricated if auto lubrication system is not
functional.

• OOW must be standby to stop the pump when stripping operation is nearing
completion.
COMPARISION BETWEEN THE CENTRIFUGAL AND RECIPROCATING

PUMP.
Ans.
Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump

1. Flow is smooth 1. Flow is intermittent
2. Compact and 2. Comparatively needs
Need less space more space
3. Initial cost is less 3. Initial cost is 4 to 5
times more.
4. Easy Installation 4. Installation is
Difficult.
5. Low maintenance 5. High Maintenance
6. Requires Priming 6. Does not require
Priming
CARGO EDUCTOR

WORKING PRINCIPLE
• The Eductor works on Bernoulli’s principle.
OPERATION/FEATURE OF EDUCTOR
• Eductor is operated by the drive fluid entering through the pressure nozzle,
producing a high velocity jet. Drive pressure is normally between 8 to 10 kg/cm2.
• This jet action creates a vacuum in the suction line, which causes liquid to flow up
the body of the Eductor where it gets mixed with the drive fluid.
USAGE ON BOARD TANKERS

• Eductor are used to empty tanks, pumps and pipelines.
• Medium size tanker are fitted with educator of rated capacity of 100 to
300m3/hour.
PRECAUTIONS WHILE USAGE
• When shutting down an Eductor, the suction valve should remain open as this
prevents the Eductor creating a vacuum on the suction line.
• If the Eductor drive pressure falls below the designed operating pressure, the
Eductor suction valve should be closed to prevent any backflow of the driving liquid into
the tank.
ADVANTAGES
• Eductors have a low initial cost
• Eductors are self-priming
• Eductors have no moving parts
• Eductors are easy to install
• Eductors require little or no maintenance
SCREW PUMP
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• A screw pump is a positive displacement pump that use one or several screws to
move fluids or solids along the screw(s) axis.
• Screw rotates in a cylindrical cavity, thereby moving the material along the
screw's spindle.
• There may be single, double or triple screw type pumps but each ‘screw pump’
operates on the same basic principal of a screw turning to isolate a volume of fluid and
convey it.
DESIGN
• The individual turns of the screw seal a set volume of fluid by direct contact, with
the stator.
• The stator has a shape that corresponds to the outside surface of the screw.
• The interference fit between the screw or pumping element and the flexible stator
create a unique pump design that can handle a variety of fluid characteristics, including
high levels of solids and variable viscosities.

• However, the interference fit creates a need for lubrication and cooling of the
stator material.
COMPARISION BETWEEN SCREW PUMP & CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

• Compared to centrifugal pumps, positive displacements (PD) pumps have several
advantages.
• The pumped fluid is moving axially without turbulence which eliminates foaming
that would otherwise occur in viscous fluids.
• They are also able to pump fluids of higher viscosity without losing flow rate.
• Also, changes in the pressure difference have little impact on PD pumps
compared to centrifugal pumps.


2nd Mates Chemical Tanker Notes
IBC Code:
(Int. Bulk Chem. code for the Construction & equipment for ships carrying dangerous
chem. in bulk)
-IBC code applies to ships built after 1 July 1986. Older ships are required to comply
with BCH Code.
-The purpose of this Code is to provide an international standard for the safe carriage, in
bulk by sea, of dangerous chemicals and noxious liquid substances. -All NLS in bulk are
listed in Ch 17 & 18. Ch18 lists the Cargoes to which there is NO IBC code requirement.
-Chapter 17 provides the summary of minimum requirements for safe carriage of each
dangerous chemical.
-The Code prescribes the design and construction standards of ships, regardless of
tonnage, involved in such carriage and the equipment to minimize the risk to the ship, its
crew and the environment, having regard to the nature of the products involved.
-The basic philosophy of the Code is to assign, to each chemical tanker, one of the ship
types according to the degree of the hazards of the products carried by such ships.
CHRIS Code:
(Chemical Hazards Response Information System)
Proper name of the publication is Chemical Data Guide for bulk shipment by water. It is
published by USCG.
Contents of Chem Data Guide.

a) Cargo data sheets for each cargo: One page is dedicated for each product
b) Synonym Index: Proper Chemical name can be obtained by checking against a
trading name.
c) Compatibility Chart: Most important feature of the guide. Tells whether the
two different cargoes are compatible(can stow adjacent) or incompatible(can't
stow adjacent).
d) Medical kit information(Antidotes): for highly toxic cyanide like cargoes.
SHIP TYPES
IMO-SHIP TYPE 1
TYPE 1 Ships are designed to transport products which require maximum preventive
measures to preclude the escape of such cargo. The ship should be capable of sustaining
collision or stranding damage anywhere along her length.
Tanks intended for the carriage of cargoes should be located outside the extent of the
damage specified below and should nowhere be closer to the ships shell than 760 mm
> Transverse extent - inboard from the ship side B/5 OR 11.5 metres whichever is
less
> Vertical extent - from the base line B/15 OR 6 metres whichever is less

Maximum allowable quantity of cargo 1250m3 IN ANY ONE TANK.
CARGO TANK LOCATION
B - Midship
IMO - SHIP TYPE - II

Type II ships are designed to transport products which require significant preventive
measures to preclude the escape of such cargo. Ship should be capable of sustaining
collision
or stranding damage anywhere in her length except involving either of the bulkheads
bounding a machinery space located aft, and surviving as specified. Tanks
containing cargoes which are required to be transported in a type II should be located
outside the extent of damage and should nowhere be closer, to the ships shell than 760
mm
Vertical extent: from base line B/15 OR 6 m whichever is less.
Transverse extent: 760 mm

Maximum allowable quantity of cargo 3000m3 IN ANY ONE TANK.
CARGO TANK LOCATION
2 760 mm
IMO CLASSIFICATION - SHIP TYPE III
TYPE III ship is a Chemical Tanker intended to transport products with sufficiently
severe environmental and safety hazards which require a moderate degree of containment
to increase the survival capability in damaged condition.
1. MODERATE floatability and damage stability requirement.
2. No special requirements for cargo tank location.
3. Designed to carry products or sufficient hazard to require a moderate degree of
containment to increase survival capability in a damaged condition.
4. No limit of quantity of cargo per tank.
HAZARDS OF CHEMICAL CARGOES

A number of Chemicals are used throughout the world and these chemicals may be
reactive, Corrosive, Flammable and Explosives. To Handle these Chemicals one should
be aware of the properties and hazards of these chemicals. Information about any
chemical to be carried on board should be comprehensive enough for an accurate
assessment of
1) Reactivity
2) Corrosivity to equipment and tools
3) Fire and Explosion hazards
4) Health(Toxicity, Asphyxia)
5) Environmental
6) Structural
1) REACTIVITY HAZARDS
A reactive material is a substance that can liberate sufficient energy to initiate a
hazardous event. Initiation of a hazardous reaction can be spontaneous or occur as a result
of heat input, mechanical shock, friction or catalytic activity. Substance or cargo may be
> Self-Reactive ^
> React with Air
> React with water or
> React
with other
substance And
Result of
Reaction may be
> Exothermic reaction
> Release of Vapour
> Rise in Temperature in the tank
> Affect the cargo quality >^^^
> Increase the danger of explosion or fire.
SELF REACTIVE CHEMICALS

Vigorous Polymerisation may occur: Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which
small molecules (monomers) join together to form a large molecule (Polymer). The
reaction often produces heat and pressure. Vigorous polymerization is hazardous because
the reaction may get out of control. Once started the reaction is accelerated by the heat
that it produces. The uncontrolled build-up of pressure and heat can cause fire or an
explosion or can rupture a cargo tank. Depending on materials increase in temperature or
sunlight or UV radiation or X-rays or contact with incompatible chemicals can trigger
such reaction. Many pure substances can undergo vigorous polymerization quite easily by
themselves when they are heated slightly or exposed to light. These include: Acrylic acid,
acrylonitrile, Styrene, Vinyl acetate.
Inhibitor is a chemical that is added to a material to slow down or prevent an unwanted
reaction to occur. Inhibitors are added to many materials that can polymerize easily when
they are pure. Inhibitor level may decrease during storage even at recommended
temperatures.

Vigorous Decomposition: It is a chemical change in which a molecule breaks down into
simpler molecules. This reaction is potentially hazardous because large amount of heat
can
be released very quickly. This could result in a fire or explosion or rupture a closed
container causing the release of dangerous decomposition products.
REACTION WITH WATER
Some materials can react vigorously with water to produce gases which are deadly. For
example Sodium or potassium phosphides release phosphine gas when they come in
contact with water. Large amount of corrosive hydrogen gas is released when water
reacts with aluminium chloride. When water contacts thionyl chloride or sulphuric
chloride they decompose to give sulphur dioxide gas and hydrogen chloride gas. Sodium
or potassium cyanide releases hydrogen cyanide when contact water.
REACTION WITH AIR
Air reactive chemicals are those which react violently in contact with air or oxygen.
Sometimes air reactive chemicals are called spontaneously combustible or pyrophoric
materials. Pyrophoric materials burst into flame spontaneously upon contact with air or
oxygen. E.g. alkali metals react with oxygen to form monoxide and peroxide and reaction
proceeds with explosion. Phosphorous catches fire in moist air and produce white fumes.
2) CORROSIVITY HAZARDS
Corrosion involves the destruction, dissolving or softening of any substance by chemical
or electrochemical reaction with its environment. It can be the gradual action of natural
agents such as air or salt water on metals. Presence of Corrosive materials creates two
particular Hazards
> Corrosion of materials of construction
> Contact of person with corrosive materials. E.g. HCl, H2SO4, HNO3.
3) FLAMMABILITY HAZARDS V
Flammable materials include any solid, liquid or gas that will ignite and burn rapidly.
E.g. Benzene, Gasoline, Carbon monoxide, Acetylene
EXPLOSIVE HAZARDS
Explosives are compounds or mixtures that undergo rapid burning with the generation of
large amount of gas and heat and the production of sudden pressure effects e.g. Picric
acid, Nitro compound.
4) HEALTH HAZARDS
TOXICITY HAZARDS
The ability to affect human tissues and toxicity of any cargo depends on its Threshold
limit value.
ASPHYXIA
A person will be asphyxiated if he breathes Oxygen deficient atmosphere arising due to
cargo vapours or nitrogen required for the cargo operations.
CARCINOGEN
Some of the chemicals causes cancer if the exposure is long.

5) ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS
6)
Cat-X,Y,Z are marine pollutant & their discharge to sea is prohibited, unless MARPOL
Ann II discharge criteria is complied with.

6) STRUCTURAL HAZARDS
This is associated with high density cargoes which may damage the ship tanks if
overloaded by weight. Design Specific gravity to be used for max loading weight per
tank. Due to less volume loading there will be sloshing effects in the tank.
MARPOL ANNEX II
Categorization of Noxious Liquid Substances and Other substances:

> Category X: NLS deemed to present a major hazard to either marine
resources or human health and therefore justify the prohibition of discharge
into the marine environment.
e.g. Heptane, Phosphorus, Calcium hypochlorite sol.(>15%)
> Category Y: NLS deemed to present a hazard to either marine resources or human
health and therefore justify a limitation on the quality & quantity of discharge into the
marine environment. e.g. Palm Oil, Sulphuric acid, Phenol
> Category Z: NLS deemed to present a minor hazard to either marine resources or
human health and therefore justify less stringent restrictions on the quality & quantity
of discharge into the marine environment. e.g. Phosphoric acid, Ethanol, Acetone
> Other Substances: Substances indicated as OS in pollution category column of Ch-
18 of IBC code have been found to fall outside Cat - X, Y or Z as defined above and
are considered to present no harm to marine resources or human health. The discharge
of "Other Substances" shall not be subject to any requirements of Annex-II. e.g.
Apple Juice, Molasses, Glucose sol.
Special Areas: Antarctic Area south of 60 degrees south. The discharge of any NLS is
prohibited in the special area.
High Viscosity Substances (H.V.S.): A noxious liquid substance with a viscosity equal
to or greater than 50 mPa.s is a high viscosity substance.
Solidifying Substance means a NLS which in case of Melting Point < 15° C, is at a
temperature of less than 5° C above Melting Point at the time of Unloading or
in case of Melting Point > 15° C, is at a temperature of less than 10° C above
Melting Point at the time of Unloading.
PREWASH PROCEDURES
Prewash is mandatory for all Cat - X substances and High Viscosity or Solidifying
substances of Cat - Y. Prewash serves to reduce the residue quantities in tank to
negligible . In formulating prewash procedure consideration has been given to physical
properties (e.g. Viscous or Solidifying nature) of cargoes. Prewash shall be carried out
before the vessel leaves the port of unloading and residues shall be discharged to a
reception facility. Prewash for Cat-X to be carried out until the concentration of the
substance in the effluent is below 0.1% by weight. Prewash for Cat-Y to be carried out as
per P & A manual. After prewash tank washing can be discharged to the sea en route as
per Reg13.

MARPOL Ann II Reg13: Discharge Criteria for Effluents containing NLS
Cat -X Cat - Y Cat - Z Cat
OS
Substances
High Keel laid Keel laid
Viscosity / Others before after
Solidifying 1/1/07 1/1/07
Conditions
Strip Tank & Piping
in accordance with P YES YES YES YES YES
& A Manual
Mandatory YES YES NO NO NO
Prewash
Subsequent Wash - - - - -
May be
Discharge below W/L YES YES YES YES
Exempted
Distance from Land > YES YES YES YES YES
12 Miles
Ship's Speed > 7 YES YES YES YES YES
Knots
Water Depth > 25 m YES YES YES YES YES o
N
If unloading of Cargo for category X, Y, Z is not carried out in accordance

with
Additional Notes: Procedures & Arrangements Manual, Pre-wash becomes mandatory.
No Restrictions, except Stripping as per P & A Manual, are imposed if Tank
Cleaning is carried out by Ventilation only.
Stripping Requirements of cargo tanks:
New Ships (post 2007) IBC Ships (pre 2007) BCH Ships
Cat - X
75 Litres
150 Litres
350 Litres
Cat - Y
75 Litres 150 Litres 350 Litres
Cat - Z
75 Litres 350 Litres
950 Litres
Precautions to be taken prior loading a noxious liquid substance. :

a) Check the product is listed in the attachment of Certificate of fitness
b) The following book needs to be consulted w.r.t safety aspect ,hazard and handling
procedures for the cargo to be carried

1) IBC Code
2) P & A Manual
3) MSDS Sheet
4) USCG Compatibility Chart
5) Company Cargo Operation Manual
6) Tank Cleaning Guide
7) SMPEP
8) ICS Tanker Safety Guide
c) All effort should be made to know the following information about the product
1) Chemical & Physical Property

2) Compatibility with other parcel
3) Action in case of spill or leak
4) Countermeasures against accidental personal contact
5) Action in case of fire
6) Antidote and Draeger tube for the product is available
7) Fire fighting procedure and extinguishing media
8) Procedure for cargo transfer , tank cleaning and gas freeing
9) Whether the chemical is stabilized or inhibited
10) Tank Venting requirement

11) Any other characteristic of the product like high vapour pressure
12) Flash point of the product and the estimated loading temp
13) Nominated cargo qty and order of loading
14) Whether VEC ( vapour emission control system ) will be required
15) Cargo viscosity and Melting point
16) Cargo heating and cooling instruction
17) Tank coating material compatibility
18) Precaution against static electricity
19) Initial rate
20) Line cleaning procedure after completion of loading/discharging
21) Any special requirement as given in Chapter 17 of IBC code in
section (o)
22) Discharge category of the product should be checked and loading
to be
carried out in appropriate tanks.
Based on the above information the cargo operation should be carefully planned and
documented well in advance of operation . This should include cargo and ballast plan
,stowage plan , Drawing of Piping diagram , Valve arrangement , venting arrangement ,
IG valve arrangement as per the company plan . Piping diagram contains location of u-
pieces , y-pieces and elbow for the operation.
Stability , Stress and trim should be kept in mind for preparing the cargo plan . Load line
zones and season to be consulted.

Topping of UTI and CCR fixed gauging equipment ullages should be recorded for the
loading temp.
The following precaution to be taken to avoid co-mingling of cargo

a) Different set of equipment should be used to avoid commingling
b) The stowage is planned such that to ensure that drip tray segregation should be
maintained at manifold.
c) Splash guard should be provided at manifold
d) The vapour of incompatible cargoes should also be segregated .
When deciding topping off following sequence shall be kept in mind

- No. of tank loaded simultaneously */W^u^
- Available personnel on deck
- Weather condition
- Trim & list
Precaution to be taken during carrying out the operation

a) A meeting to be called for crew and officer and the cargo plan and other
important thing related to the operation should be discussed.
b) High level and overfill alarm to be tested
c) PV valve should be manually operated using hand
d) Ballast sampling to be carried out
e) Scupper to be in place.
f) Fire fighting arrangement are ready
g) Adequate amount of absorbent and spill containment equipment shall be
available at manifold.
h) Emergency showers and eyewash on deck are ready and running.
i) Cargo tank pressure alarms to be tested.
j) Pressure testing of lines /valves should be carried at regular interval k) Person should
have Proper PPE ( Apron, chemical suit , BA set ) etc. ready on deck
l) Antidote of the cargo available & all crew knows its location & use. m) Emergency
stop switch should be checked from all location during discharging operation.
n) Ship shore Safety checklist to be filled prior commencement of operation .On taking
over watch , valve arrangement to be rechecked
o) Cargo loading / unloading rate to be calculated are discussed with shore at regular
interval .
p) Mooring , safety and security watch to be maintained on deck.
q) Regular checking of over side should be done for any pollution
r) Sampling to be carried out prior loading at manifold and after loading .
s) Loading should be started at slow rate . Also at time of topping off , the rates
should be reduced. t) Alertness is required during Line Displacement and pigging
operation u) Over pressurization and under pressurization should be avoided in the tank.
v) In case the cargo present flammability or toxicity hazard or some highly sensitive
cargo , a pressure test of the relevant cargo system should be conducted to the
maximum allowable working pressure. w) Cargo hose , steam hoses should be visually
checked , pressure tested and

conductivity checked. x) Proper
Notices are placed at Manifold.
y) In case of Carcinogenic material , Special Notice should be placed near manifold
to make people aware of the chemical. z) All overboard discharge valves shall
be securely closed and blanked. aa) Cargo tanks - all opening should be
gas tight bb) Reading of gases evolved by cargo should be checked on
deck , in
accommodation , ER and PR at regular interval.
Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP)
A Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP) is a flag or class approved

document carried on board that gives guidance to the Master and crew in the case of a
collision or a fire on a ship. The SMPEP details the emergency plans and the pollution
prevention team together with the relevant contact details. Regulation 17 of Annex II of
MARPOL 73/78 (Prevention of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances) requires every
ship of 150 GRT and above certified to carry noxious liquid substances in bulk to have on
board an approved Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan for Noxious Liquid
Substances. Such a plan is required to be drawn up in accordance with the "Guidelines for
the Development of Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plans for Oil and/or Noxious
Liquid Substances" adopted by Organisation. This requirement came into force on 1
January 2003. The SMPEP should be combined with a Shipboard Oil Pollution
Emergency Plan (SOPEP), since most of their contents are the same and the combined
plan is more practical than two separate ones in case of an emergency. To make it clear
that the plan is a combined one, it should be referred to as a shipboard marine pollution
emergency
plan (SMPEP).
Contents of a SMPEP
- Record of changes
- Ship Particulars
- Reporting Requirements
- Steps To Control Discharge
- National And Local Coordination
- Additional Information
- List Of Coastal State Contacts
- List of Port Contacts
- List Of Ship Interest Contacts
- Pollution prevention teams & duties
- Spill control equipment
- Damage Stability Shore assistance details
- Flow Chart And Checklists
- Plans, drawings & ship specific details
- Record of drills
PROCEDURES & ARRANGEMENTS MANUAL

The P & A manual as required by Reg14 of Ann II Marpol, is a comprehensive ship
specific document that contains to the smallest detail; all the procedures & arrangements
on board chemical tankers which carry substances identified in Chapter 17 of the IBC
Code.
The manual is ship specific & is approved by the administration & is checked during
class surveys. Amendments has to be approved by the administration.
Purpose
-P & A manual is also used as a familiarisation tool for the newly joined crew. -To
minimise the cargo residues on board by following procedures given in the manual.
Contents of P&A manual as per MARPOL Ann II:-

-Main features of MARPOL 73/78, Annex Il
-Description of the ship's equipment
and arrangements -Cargo unloading
procedures and tank stripping
-Procedures relating to the cleaning of cargo tanks, the
discharge of residues, ballasting and DE ballasting
- I n f o r m a t i o n a n d p r o c e d u r e s : Cargo tank information., Flow diagram.,
Prewash procedures., Ventilation procedures. Additional information and operational
instructions when required or accepted by the Administration.

LAW

London Convention; 1972
(Earlier known as “London Dumping Convention”)
Entry into force: 1975
India is NOT a party to the Convention
Background
Dumping at sea of waste generated on land and loaded on board specialized dumping vessels had
been carried out for several years by industrialized countries before international rules to prevent
marine pollution from this practice entered into force.
The London Convention aims to prevent marine pollution but focuses on CONTROLLING the
dumping at sea of wastes generated on land. The Convention includes a list of substances for
which dumping is prohibited (Annex I) and other lists for which dumping may be authorised by
permit. These are Annex II lists, i.e., substances that need a special permit before they can be
dumped at sea and the Annex III list of substances that require a general permit before they can
be dumped at sea.
The 1972 London Convention (Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter, LC, formerly referred to as the London Dumping Convention) entered
into force in 1975. The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention has still not entered into force.
When it does it will replace the 1972 Convention. The IMO provides the secretariat for both
agreements.
The purpose of the 1972 London Convention is to control all sources of marine pollution and
prevent pollution of the sea through regulation of dumping into the sea of waste materials.
The Convention is divided into THREE Annexes as follows:
Annex I – BLACK LIST – This contains list of wastes that are prohibited from dumping at into
the sea (mercury arsenic etc.).
Annex II – GREY LIST – This contains a list of substances that require a SPECIAL PERMIT
from the government for dumping into the sea. This is done after the government body tests the
material in its own government lab to find out if the material will be harmful to the marine
environment or not, if dumped. If the permission is granted, then a Special Permit is given by
giving details of the specific location at sea for dumping and the maximum quantity that can be
dumped.
Annex III – WHITE LIST – This contains a list of substances that are considered harmless to
the marine environment and therefore can be dumped into the sea. A GENERAL PERMIT is
therefore given for this.

The 1996 Protocol to the London Convention
The Protocol focuses on PROHIBITING dumping of all wastes (the original convention focus
was on CONTROLLING) into the marine environment.
This means that MAJORITY of items listed under Annex II have been shifted to Annex 1 thus
making the Protocol STRICTER.
Interpreting the London Convention 1972 and 1996 Protocol
What is the relation between the London Convention and the MARPOL Convention?
There is NO RELATIONSHIP between London Convention and MARPOL because Activities

that would constitute "disposal at sea" are set out in the definition of "dumping" under Article III
of the London Convention 1972 and under Article 1 of the 1996 Protocol. In general, "disposal at
sea" operations comprise activities whereby materials taken on board a vessel are transported to a
disposal location at sea and dumped into the marine environment. Disposal at sea by ship does
not include:
 Discharges of wastes arising during normal operations of vessels (management of these

wastes are governed under the MARPOL 73/78 Convention).
What is the relation between the London Convention and the Law of the Sea Convention?
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) gives a framework for the
determination of rights and obligations of States relating to the oceans. Part XII contains
provisions with regard to protection and preservation of the marine environment.
Implementing the London Convention means also implementation of article 210 of UNCLOS.
Through article 210 States parties to UNCLOS are legally bound to adopt laws and regulations
and take other measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution by dumping, which must be no
less effective than the global rules and standards.

International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil
Pollution Casualties, 1969 (INTERVENTION Convention)
Adoption: 29 November 1969

Entry into force: 6 May 1975
Introduction
The Torrey Canyon disaster of 1967 revealed certain doubts with regard to the powers of States,
under public international law, in respect of incidents on the high seas. In particular, questions
were raised as to the extent to which a coastal State could take measures to protect its territory
from pollution where a casualty threatened that State with oil pollution, especially if the measures
necessary were likely to affect the interests of foreign ship-owners, cargo owners and even flag
States.
The Convention which resulted affirms the right of a coastal State to take such measures on
the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate danger to its coastline or
related interests from pollution by oil or the threat thereof, following upon a maritime casualty.
The coastal State is, however, empowered to take only such action as is necessary, and after due
consultations with appropriate interests including, in particular, the flag State or States of the ship
or ships involved, the owners of the ships or cargoes in question and, where circumstances
permit, independent experts appointed for this purpose.
A coastal State which takes measures beyond those permitted under the Convention is liable to
pay compensation for any damage caused by such measures. Provision is made for the settlement
of disputes arising in connection with the application of the Convention.
The Convention applies to all seagoing vessels except warships or other vessels owned or
operated by a State and used on Government non-commercial service.
The Protocol of 1973
Entry into force: 30 March 1983
The 1969 Intervention Convention applied to casualties involving pollution by oil. In view of the
increasing quantity of other substances, mainly chemical, carried by ships, some of which would,
if released, could cause serious hazard to the marine environment, the 1969 Brussels Conference
recognized the need to extend the Convention to cover substances other than oil.
The Conference adopted the Protocol relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine
Pollution by Substances other than Oil.

CLC & Fund Convention
The Civil Liability Convention (CLC) IS THE first Tier of oil pollution compensation
mechanism. CLC only deals with how much will an oil tanker owner pay, if his tanker is
involved in a pollution incident. An oil pollution incident means when the oil has actually
come out into the marine environment. This means, for example, if in a collision oil has
come out only from one of the tankers, then the oil tanker owner from whose tanker the
oil has come into the marine environment, will have to pay. Also, CLC is a compensation
mechanism only and not a punishment or a fine. This means that after an oil pollution
incident, the oil tanker will only pay if there is a claim. If however, there is no claim, then
the oil tanker owner does not pay. CLC is applicable to persistent oils only [oils, which
have characteristics of persisting (floating) on the surface of water – meaning different
grades of crude oil when carried as cargo, as well as bunker pollution from oil tankers
only).
CLC requires the following:
(i) Strict Liability – this means that when there is a claim, then the tanker owner
has to pay without even waiting to find out who was at fault that resulted in
the pollution incident. The oil tanker owner can later claim from the party at
fault, but he has to pay now to settle the claims. Only in the following three
cases the oil tanker will not have to pay anything:
 Act of God.
 Act of war or sabotage.
 When the relevant Government authorities have not acted responsibly
in maintaining the navigational aids / depths of water within their area
and this leads to a pollution incident.
(ii) Compulsory Insurance Cover – the oil tanker owner is required to maintain a
compulsory insurance cover to cover his part of payment in an oil pollution
incident. He gets this insurance cover from his P & I Club (liability
insurance). After getting the required insurance cover, the oil tanker owner
approaches the Flag State, who issues the oil tanker a CLC Certificate, which
is always kept on board. The meaning of CLC Certificate on board is that the
money is standing by with the P & I Club and will be paid by them to settle all
claims after any oil pollution incident.
The maximum amount to be paid by the oil tanker owner is as follows:
Up to 5000 GT = 4.51 million SDR.

5001 GT – 140,000 = (4.51 million SDR + 631 SDR/GT) SDR.
> 140,000 GT = 89.77 million SDR.

Fund Convention
Two years after CLC, it was realised that there needs to be more money in case the oil
pollution incident is so huge that the total claims amount to be greater than what the oil
tanker owner pays under CLC. Member countries at IMO decided to involve the oil
importers by asking them to make an annual contribution to a FUND so that additional
money is always standing by and to be given to people who make a claim after an oil
pollution incident. Therefore, the Fund Convention was created and this is known as the
SECOND Tier of the oil pollution compensation mechanism. Fund Convention requires
only the oil importers who import 150,000 MT or more of oil per annum to make an
annual contribution to a Fund known as International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund
(IOPC Fund with headquarters in London). Therefore, any person / organisation who
has imported 150,000 MT of oil in the previous year is called a ‘contributor’ and
therefore the ENTIRE amount of oil imported by him is used to calculate his
contribution and this is known as the contributing oil (for example, if a person has
imported 175,000 MT of oil in the previous year then he qualifies as a contributor and
the entire amount of 175,000 MT will be used to calculate his contribution to the IOPC
Fund. His ‘contributing oil’ will be 175,000 MT. Please do not make the mistake by
thinking that only 25000 MT will be used for calculation. 150,000 MT figure is used
only to decide whether a person is a contributor or not). Also, the maximum amount
available for EVERY INCIDENT PER YEAR is 203 million SDR and this includes the
payment by the oil tanker owner under the CLC (CLC + FUND = 203 million SDR).
In 2000, the Fund Convention was amended to include a Supplementary Fund but it was
kept OPTIONAL for countries to follow it and this forms the THIRD Tier of the oil
pollution compensation mechanism [for example, INDIA is party to CLC and Fund
(first and second tier) but NOT a part to the Supplementary Fund (the third tier)].
Therefore, if we include the Supplementary Fund also, the TOTAL amount available for
EVERY INCIDENT PER YEAR IS 750 million SDR [CLC + FUND + Supplementary
Fund = 750 million SDR (one would appreciate that this will ONLY be applicable in the
few countries who are party to the Supplementary Fund also)].

MARPOL 73/78
The MARPOL Convention, adopted on 2 November 1973, is an international convention

for the protection of the marine environment, which is in force world-wide. The Articles
of the Convention contain general provisions such as applicable definitions and scope.
The Convention additionally comprises two Protocols and six Annexes.
Annex I: Prevention of pollution by Oil
Annex I (in force since 2 October 1983) deals with structural requirements and imposes
strict limitations on oil discharges. To ensure compliance with the discharge
requirements, special technical equipment has to be installed on ships. Besides, all
important shipboard operations, especially operations concerning the treatment and
disposal of separator residues and oily bilge water, have to be entered in an Oil Record
Book.
Annex II: Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
Annex II (in force since 6 April 1987) deals with bulk transports of noxious liquid
substances, which include cargo residues of chemical tankers. Under the provisions of
this Annex, discharges of such substances are prohibited in principle. Exemptions are
possible depending on the classification of noxious substances in either category X, Y, or
Z. All operations on board ships that involve noxious substances have to be entered in a
Cargo Record Book.
Annex III: Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances carried by Sea in

Packaged Form
Annex III (in force since 1 July 1992) requires that, in order to prevent pollution of the
marine environment, harmful substances in packaged form have to be transported in
compliance with the provisions of this Annex, which applies, for example, to dangerous
goods transported in containers.
Annex IV: Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ship
Annex IV (in force since 27 September 2003) deals with the prevention or reduction of
marine environmental pollution by ships’ sewage. Under the provisions of this Annex,
discharges of ships' sewage are prohibited. Vessels can be exempted if they are equipped
with a sewage treatment plant or if sewage from a holding tank is discharged at a distance
of more than 12 nautical miles from the nearest land. The second ordinance amending
environmental regulations in shipping dated 9 April 2008 (Federal Law Gazette I, p. 698)
made the discharge regulations in Annex VI to MARPOL 73/78 also mandatory for
German pleasure craft operating in the Baltic Sea area.

Annex V: Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships
Annex V entered into force on 31 December 1988. Different discharge regulations apply
to the different types of ships' garbage. A Garbage Record Book has to be kept in which
the treatment and disposal of garbage generated on board the ship has to be fully
documented.
Annex VI: Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships
Annex VI entered into force on 19 May 2005. It limits, inter alia, nitrous oxides, sulphur
oxides, VOC and PM.
What is SOPEP?
When oil spill occurs at sea, it spreads over the surface of the sea water, leaving a deadly impact
on marine mammals, birds, the shore line and most importantly the ocean and the environment.
The cost to clean up an oil spill depends on the quantity and quality of oil discharged in the sea
and is calculated on the basis of factors such as legal claims, money paid as penalties, loss of oil,
repairs and clean-ups, and the most important – loss of marine life and the effects on human
health which cannot be measured against any amount.
As prevention is better than cure, in order to avoid the above mentioned monitory losses and
primarily to avoid marine pollution and losses of marine species, a prevention plan is carried on
board by almost all cruise and cargo vessel. This plan is known as SOPEP or ship oil pollution
emergency plan.
The Ship Oil Pollution Emergency Plan, or SOPEP, is a prevention plan carried on board of
almost all cruise and cargo vessels. In this plan you get an overview of possible procedures in
case of an oil spill. In the plan is also mentioned who you should contact (list of authorities, oil
clean up teams and port state control) and how to report this event to the nearest coast guard
station.
Understanding SOPEP
As mentioned earlier, SOPEP stands for Ship oil pollution emergency plan and as per the
MARPOL 73/78 requirement under Annex I, all ships with 400 GT and above must carry an oil
prevention plan as per the norms and guidelines laid down by International Maritime
Organization under MEPC (Marine Environmental Protection Committee) Act.
The Gross tonnage requirement for oil tanker, according to SOPEP, reduces to 150 GT as oil
itself is a kind of cargo which doubles the risk of oil pollution.
Master of the ship is the overall in charge of the SOPEP of the ship, along with the chief officer
as subordinate in charge for implementation of SOPEP on board. SOPEP also describes the plan
for the master, officer and the crew of the ship to tackle various oil spill scenario that can occur
on a ship. For oil tankers, action plan widens regarding the cargo handling and cargo tanks
containing huge quantities of oil.

Purpose of the Plan
 The Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan ("SOPEP") is to be seen as

information from the owners to the Master of a particular ship.
 It shall advise the Master how to react in case of an oil spill to prevent or at least
mitigate negative effects on the environment.
 The Plan contains operational aspects for various oil spill scenarios and lists
communication information to be used in case of such incidents.
Legal Background
 It is compulsory for all ships of more than 400 Gross Tons (Oil tankers of more
than 150 GT) to carry a SOPEP on board.
 The required contents are described in MARPOL Convention Annex I Reg. 26.
 "Guidelines for the Development of a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan"

are published by IMO under MEPC. 54 (32) 1992 as amended by MEPC.86 (44)
2000.
 The SOPEP forms an integral part of the IOPP certificate. Its existence is verified
in the Supplement to the IOPP Certificate.
 In any case the SOPEP has to be approved by the flag state administration of the
flag the ship is presently flying or by a classification society on behalf of this flag.
Scope
 The Plan consists generally of 4 Sections with the mandatory contents and its
Appendices with additional information as contact addresses and data plus a set of
certain drawings for easy reference for the Master.
 The provided SOPEP sample plan has been prepared as a general guidance how to
write such a plan in accordance with the new IMO Guidelines as amended in
March 2000. It has to be seen as an example how the contents basically could be
written in order to fulfil the requirements
 All pre-texted steps and preventive measures have to be seen as an example only.
 The individual SOPEP should be prepared in line with the "Table of Content /
Index of Sections" as per sample.
 It has to be tailored carefully to the particular ship and company procedures and
policies. Specific instructions should be incorporated according to ship type,
purpose, and company requirements.

 Especially for tankers actions in regard to the cargo tanks and cargo handling have
to be included in the instructions.
 The contents of the plan have to be fully in line with the instructions given by the
company within the ISM Safety Management Manual.
Contents of SOPEP
SOPEP contains the following things:
 The action plan contains duty of each crew member at the time of spill, including
emergency muster and actions.
 SOPEP contains the general information about the ship and the owner of the ship etc.
 Steps and procedure to contain the discharge of oil into the sea using SOPEP equipment.
 On board Reporting procedure and requirement in case of oil spill is described.
 Authorities to contact and reporting requirements in case of oil spill are listed in SOPEP.
Authorities like port state control, oil clean up team etc. are to be notified.
 SOPEP includes drawing of various fuel lines, along with other oil lines on board vessel
with positioning of vents, save all trays etc.
 General arrangement of ship is also listed in SOPEP, which includes location of all the oil
tanks with capacity, content etc.
 The location of the SOPEP locker and contents of the locker with a list of inventory.
Ship oil pollution plan contains:
 An action plan with instructions for the oil pollution prevention team. This is a list of
duties the crewmembers have to fulfil in case of an oil spill.
 An emergency plan.
 General information about the ship.
 Procedures to discharge the oil into the sea in accordance to MARPOL regulations
 Drawings of fuel/oil lines.
 Location of SOPEP boxes.
The plan should be written in accordance to the International Maritime Organization regulations.
Additional entries
According MARPOL following appendices should be added to the SOPEP:

 Coastal State Contacts (as annually published but quarterly updated in the Internet by
IMO.
 Blank form for listing of Port Contact Addresses to be kept up-to-date by the
Master.
 “Remarks to plan writers” can be found on various pages for guiding users where
the sample text has to be tailored as a minimum.
 Ship Interest Contact List (communication data incl. 24hours contact phone no. to
owners / managers, data abt. charterer, insurance, P&I Club, etc.).
Following drawings should be added to the SOPEP for easy reference for the ship's
command in case of an oil spill:

 General Arrangement Plan
 Tank Plan
 Fuel Oil Piping Diagram
Those drawings form the minimum requirement by MARPOL. Further plans may be
added if found appropriate.
Additional voluntary Entries
Additional Appendices can be entered as found necessary by the owners, i.e.:
 Training and drill procedures.

 Plan review procedures.
 Record keeping procedures.
 Public affairs policy.
All appendices do not belong to the mandatory part of the plan's contents but have to be
kept updated by the owners as found necessary.
Approval responsibilities
 The approval is a flag state obligation as a part of issuing the IOPP Certificate. If
they have authorized the classification societies to issue this certificate, this
authorization generally includes the approval of the SOPEP.
 Certain Flag administrations offer direct approval services too.
 In case of a transfer of class the approval by the previous classification society or

another flag state authority will generally be accepted.
 If a ship changes to a flag, the approval of the SOPEP for this flag has to be made
by the flag state authority directly.
Designated person in charge of carrying out the plan
A person shall be designated in the garbage management plan to be responsible for

implementing the procedures within the plan. This person should be assisted by
departmental staff to ensure that the collection, separation and processing of garbage is
efficient in all areas of the ship.
Procedures for collecting garbage
Identify suitable receptacles for collection and separation:
 Separation of garbage is considered part of the collection process. Separation

may take place at the source or at a separate designated station;
 Identify locations of receptacles, collection, and separation stations;
 Describe the process of how garbage is transported from the source of generation
to the collection and separation stations;

 How garbage will be handled between primary collection and separation?

Procedures for processing garbage
 Identify personnel responsible for the operation of the equipment.

 Identify available processing devices and their capacities.
 Identify location of processing devices and stations.
 Identify the categories of garbage that will be processed by each of the available
processing devices.
 How garbage will be handled between primary processing stations and the
storage or disposal stations?
 Processing procedures used commensurate with the following:
 Needs of reception facilities, taking into account possible local recycling
arrangements,
 Storage, and
 Disposal at sea.
 The training or education programmes to facilitate the processing of garbage.
Identify available operating and maintenance procedures (this may be done by reference
to documents available on board).
Procedures for storing garbage
 Identify the location, the intended use, and the capacity of available storage
stations for each category of garbage.
 how garbage will be handled between storage stations and disposal
commensurate with the following:
• Discharge to reception facilities, taking into account possible local recycling

arrangements, and
• Disposal at sea.
• The training or education programmes to facilitate the storing of garbage
Procedures for disposing of garbage

 The ship’s procedures to ensure compliance with the requirements of Annex V of
MARPOL 73/78 for disposal of garbage.

UNCLOS
Maritime Zones and the Law of the Sea

The rights of coastal States to claim maritime zones derive from international law, the body of
law that regulates the rights and duties of countries recognised by international law. The law of
the sea is governed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which
defines all the maritime zones.
Baseline
All maritime zones of a country are measure from its baseline. Although UNCLOS gives
guidance on how a country should draw its baseline but most of the countries join the points

along their coast corresponding to the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) to draw their base line
and this is also accepted.
Internal Waters
All the part of the country, which is on the LAND side of the base line is called Internal Waters
and includes rivers, estuaries, lakes etc. Within the Internal Waters no one can enter and a ship
DOES NOT has the right to innocent passage.
Territorial Sea (TS)

Territorial Sea extends up to 12 nautical miles from the base line. Within this is zone the country
has TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNITY – this means that this zone is PART of the TERRITORY of the
country and the country is at complete freedom to do what it wants because the law of the
country is applicable within this zone (the law of the Port State). When a country signs for
UNCLOS, the Territorial Sea is automatically attached to it.
Contiguous Zone (CZ)

The Contiguous Zone (CZ) of a country extends up to 24 nautical miles from the base line. Within
this zone (basically 12 – 24 nautical miles because 0 – 12 nautical miles overlaps with the
Territorial Sea, which is the territory of a country) a country can CLAIM SOVEREIGN RIGHTS for
customs, fiscal, immigration and health enforcement purposes – sovereign rights means that it is
NOT part of the territory of a country but the country has claimed specific rights ONLY for the
above mentioned four very specific purposes. The CZ has to be CLAIMED by a country with an
application to Division of Law of the Sea (DOLOS) at the United Nations (UN) headquarters in
New York. There are only 69 countries who have claimed their CZ, including India.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of a country extends up to 200 nautical miles from the base
line. Within this zone (basically 12 – 200 nautical miles because 0 – 12 nautical miles overlaps
with the Territorial Sea, which is the territory of a country) a country can CLAIM SOVEREIGN
RIGHTS for exploration and exploitation of the marine resources for its own commercial
purposes. Exploration and exploitation of marine resources means oil, gas exploration, fishing
etc. - sovereign rights means that it is NOT part of the territory of a country but the country has
claimed specific rights ONLY for the above mentioned very specific purposes. The EEZ has to be
CLAIMED by a country with an application to Division of Law of the Sea (DOLOS) at the United
Nations (UN) headquarters in New York. There are only 119 countries who have claimed their
EEZ, including India. When, however, the EEZ OVERLAPS between two neighbouring countries,
they mutually agree to a limit (which of course will be less than 200 nautical miles for each
country) by way of signing a bi-lateral treaty.
Continental Shelf (CS)

The Continental Shelf (CS) of a country extends up to 350 nautical miles from the base line.
Within this zone (basically 12 – 350 nautical miles because 0 – 12 nautical miles overlaps with
the Territorial Sea, which is the territory of a country) a country can CLAIM SOVEREIGN RIGHTS
for seabed mining and conducting marine scientific research The term "continental shelf" is
generally taken to mean that part of the continental margin between the shoreline and the shelf
break or, where there is no noticeable slope, between the shoreline and the point where the
depth of the super-adjacent depth of water is approximately between 100 and 200 metres.
The CS has to be CLAIMED by a country with an application

LOAD LINE CONVENTION
Load line Survey Requirements
Where a vessel is assigned freeboards by an Authority under Load Line Convention, a

Load Line Certificate is issued on completion of an initial survey. This certificate is
usually valid for five years; however it is subject to an Annual Survey by a surveyor who
endorses the certificate on the successful completion of the survey.
During the Annual Survey the surveyor checks:
 The position of the load line marks;

 If the structural strength has deteriorated;
 The water tight integrity of the hull;
 Whether any alterations have been made to the hull or superstructure;
 The condition of the fittings and appliances for the protection of openings, guard
rails, freeing ports and means of access to crew’s quarters; and
 If the vessel has on board the following:
1. Stability Information Booklet

2. Conditions of Assignment
Preparations for a Load Line Survey
Where applicable:
 Check that all access openings at ends of enclosed structures are in good
condition. All clips, clamps, and hinges should be free and well-greased. All
gaskets and watertight seals should be crack free. Ensure that the doors open from
both sides.
 Check all cargo hatches and access to holds for weather-tightness, especially
securing devices such as cleats and wedges.
 Inspect all machinery space openings on exposed decks.
 Check that any manholes and flush scuttles are capable of being made watertight.
 Check that all ventilator openings are provided with efficient weather-tight
closing appliances and repair any defects.
 All air pipes must be provided with permanently attached satisfactory means for
closing the openings.
 Inspect all cargo access openings below the freeboard deck and ensure that all of
them are watertight.
 Ensure that the non-return valves on overboard discharges are operating in a
satisfactory manner.
 Side scuttles to spaces below the freeboard deck or to spaces within enclosed
superstructure must have efficient internal watertight deadlights. Inspect the
deadlight seals.
 Check that all freeing ports are in a satisfactory condition, e.g. shutters are not
jammed, hinges are free, and that pins are of non-corroding material. Check that
any securing appliances, if fitted, work correctly.

 All guard rails and bulwarks should be in a satisfactory condition, e.g. all
fractured rails should be re-welded
 De-rust and paint the deck line, load line mark, load lines, and the draught marks.
SOLAS 1974
What does it aim to achieve?

The main objective of the SOLAS Convention is to specify minimum safety standards for the
construction, equipment maintenance and operation of ships. The Convention calls on the Flag
States to ensure that the ships under their flag comply with its codes and requirements and
prescribes a number of certificates to prove compliance. Control provisions also allow
Contracting Governments to exercise Port State control by inspecting ships flying the flag of
other Contracting States when there are clear grounds for believing that the ship and its
equipment do not substantially comply with the requirements of the Convention.
The layout of SOLAS

At present, the SOLAS Convention comprises 14 Chapters.
 Chapter I - General Provisions
It includes regulations concerning the survey of the various types of ships and the issuing of
documents signifying that the ship meets the requirements of the Convention. The Chapter also
includes provisions for the control of ships in ports of other Contracting Governments.
 Chapter II-1 - Construction - Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical

installations
The subdivision of passenger ships into watertight compartments must be such that after assumed
damage to the ship's hull the vessel will remain afloat and stable. Requirements for watertight
integrity and bilge pumping arrangements for passenger ships are also laid down as well as
stability requirements for both passenger and cargo ships.
 Chapter II-2 - Fire protection, fire detection and fire extinction

The chapter includes detailed fire safety provisions for all ships and specific measures for
passenger ships, cargo ships and tankers.
They include the following principles: division of the ship into main and vertical zones by
thermal and structural boundaries; separation of accommodation spaces from the remainder of the
ship by thermal and structural boundaries; restricted use of combustible materials; detection of
any fire in the zone of origin; containment and extinction of any fire in the space of origin;
protection of the means of escape or of access for fire-fighting purposes; ready availability of fire-
extinguishing appliances; minimization of the possibility of ignition of flammable cargo vapour.
The International Fire Safety Systems (FSS) Code - The adoption of the FSS Code is a major
change to the original Convention. The purpose of the FSS Code is to provide international
standards for fire safety systems required by revised SOLAS chapter II-2, under which it is made
mandatory.
 Chapter III - Life-saving appliances and arrangements

The Chapter includes requirements for life-saving appliances and arrangements, including
requirements for life boats, rescue boats and life jackets according to type of ship.

The International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code gives specific technical requirements for
LSA and is mandatory under Regulation 34, which states that all life-saving appliances and
arrangements shall comply with the applicable requirements of the LSA Code.

 Chapter IV – Radio communications
The Chapter incorporates the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS). All
passenger ships and all cargo ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards on international voyages
are required to carry equipment designed to improve the chances of rescue following an accident,
including satellite emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRB) and search and rescue
transponders (SART) for the location of the ship or survival craft.
 Chapter V - Safety of navigation

Chapter V identifies certain navigation safety services which should be provided by Contracting
Governments and sets forth provisions of an operational nature applicable in general to all ships
on all voyages. This is in contrast to the Convention as a whole, which only applies to certain
classes of ship engaged on international voyages. The chapter makes mandatory the carriage of
voyage data recorders (VDRs) and automatic ship identification systems (AIS) for certain ships.
Basically, the chapter deals with safety of navigation.
 Chapter VI - Carriage of Cargoes

The Chapter covers all types of cargo (except liquids and gases in bulk) "which, owing to their
particular hazards to ships or persons on board, may require special precautions". The regulations
include requirements for stowage and securing of cargo or cargo units (such as containers). The
Chapter requires cargo ships carrying grain to comply with the IMO International Grain Code.
 Chapter VII - Carriage of dangerous goods

The regulations are contained in three parts:
Part A - Carriage of dangerous goods in packaged form or in solid form or in bulk - includes
provisions for the classification, packing, marking, labelling and using placards, documentation
and stowage of dangerous goods.
Part B covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk
and requires chemical tankers built after 1 July 1986 to comply with the International Bulk
Chemical Code (IBC Code).
Part C covers Construction and equipment of ships carrying liquefied gases in bulk and gas
carriers constructed after 1 July 1986 to comply with the requirements of the International Gas
Carrier Code (IGC Code).
Part D includes special requirements for the carriage of packaged irradiated nuclear fuel,
plutonium and high-level radioactive wastes on board ships and requires ships carrying such
products to comply with the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Packaged Irradiated
Nuclear Fuel, Plutonium and High-Level Radioactive Wastes on Board Ships (INF Code).
 Chapter VIII - Nuclear ships

The chapter gives basic requirements for nuclear-powered ships and is particularly concerned
with radiation hazards. It refers to detailed and comprehensive Code of Safety for Nuclear
Merchant Ships which was adopted by the IMO Assembly in 1981.
 Chapter IX - Management for the Safe Operation of Ships

The Chapter makes mandatory the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, which requires
a safety management system to be established by the ship-owner or any person who has assumed
responsibility for the ship (the "Company").

 Chapter X - Safety measures for high-speed craft
The Chapter makes mandatory the International Code of Safety for High-Speed Craft (HSC
Code).
Chapter XI-1 - Special measures to enhance maritime safety
The Chapter clarifies requirements relating to authorization of recognized organizations

(responsible for carrying out surveys and inspections on Administrations' behalves); enhanced
surveys; ship identification number scheme; and port State control on operational requirements.
Among other things, Chapter XI, "Special Measures to Enhance Safety" makes it possible for port
State Control officers inspecting foreign ships to check operational requirements "when there are
clear grounds for believing that the master or crew are not familiar with essential shipboard
procedures relating to the safety of ships."
 Chapter XI-2 - Special measures to enhance maritime security

The Chapter was adopted in December 2002 and entered into force on 1 July 2004. Regulation
XI-2/3 of the new chapter enshrines the International Ship and Port Facilities Security Code
(ISPS Code).
 Chapter XII - Additional safety measures for bulk carriers

The Chapter includes structural requirements for bulk carriers over 150 metres in length.
Chapter XIII - Verification of compliance
This Chapter makes mandatory from 1 January 2016 the IMO Member State Audit Scheme.
Chapter XIV - Safety measures for ships operating in polar waters

The chapter makes mandatory, from 1 January 2017, the Introduction and part I-A of the
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (the Polar Code).

2014
SOLAS amendments which entered into force on 1 January 2014
1. Mandatory requirement for new passenger ships for either on board stability
computers or shore-based support, for the purpose of providing operational
information to the Master for safe return to port after a flooding casualty;
2. Testing of free-fall lifeboats, to require that the operational testing of free-fall

lifeboat release systems shall be performed either by free-fall launch with only the
operating crew on board or by a simulated launching;
3. Amendment to SOLAS chapter V to add a new regulation V/14 on ships'

manning, to require Administrations, for every ship, to establish appropriate
minimum safe manning levels following a transparent procedure, taking into
account the guidance adopted by IMO (Assembly resolution A.1047(27) on
Principles of minimum safe manning); and issue an appropriate minimum safe
manning document or equivalent as evidence of the minimum safe manning
considered necessary;
4. Prohibition of the blending of bulk liquid cargoes during the sea voyage and to
prohibit production processes on board ships;
5. Documents to cover transport information relating to the carriage of dangerous

goods in packaged form and the container/vehicle packing certificate; and
6. Enhanced surveys to make mandatory the International Code on the Enhanced

Programme of Inspections during Surveys of Bulk Carriers and Oil Tankers, 2011
(2011 ESP Code).
MARPOL amendments which entered into force on 1 January 2014
1. A revised MARPOL Annex III Regulations for the prevention of pollution by

harmful substances carried by sea in packaged form, to include changes to the
Annex to coincide with the next update of the mandatory International Maritime
Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, specifying that goods should be shipped in
accordance with relevant provisions.
2. United States Caribbean Emission Control Area (ECA) now effective - The
United States Caribbean Sea Emission Control Area (SOX, NOX and PM) came
into effect, under MARPOL Annex VI, on 1 January 2014, bringing in stricter
controls on emissions of sulphur oxide (SOX), nitrogen oxide (NOX) and
particulate matter for ships trading in certain waters adjacent to the coasts of
Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands.

2015
1. MARPOL Annex VI: The limit for fuel sulphur oil levels has fallen to 0.10% m/m
(from 1.00%) in Emission Control Areas established to limit SOX and particulate
matter emissions. The emission control areas concerned are: the Baltic Sea area;
the North Sea are; the North American area; and the United States Caribbean Sea
area.
2. The Code for recognised organisations (RO Code) became mandatory under
SOLAS, MARPOL and the Protocol of 1988 relating to the International
Convention on Load Lines, 1966. Flag States may delegate certain responsibilities
for surveying and certification of ships to “recognised organisations” (often
classification societies). The RO Code provides Flag States with standard
mechanisms for the oversight, assessment and authorisation of recognised
organisations and clarifies the responsibilities of such organisations.
3. An amended SOLAS regulation III/19 was adopted in May 2013 in the wake of
the Costa Concordia incident. Certain of the amendments came into force on 1
January 2015:
i.Musters of newly embarked passengers are now required prior to or

immediately upon departure has come into force. Previously, the
requirement was for the muster of passengers to take place within 24 hours
of embarkation.
ii.Enclosed-space entry and rescue drills are now mandated. This will require
crew members with enclosed-space entry or rescue responsibilities to
participate in an enclosed-space entry and rescue drill at least once every
two months.
2016
1 January 2016: Mandatory audit scheme
1. Amendments to number of Conventions to make the use of the IMO Instruments

Implementation Code (III Code) mandatory.
The Conventions amended are:
 SOLAS, 1974, as amended;

 STCW Convention, 1978, as amended and STCW Code;
 MARPOL Annexes I through to VI; MARPOL Annexes I through to VI;
 Protocol of 1988 relating to the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966
(1988 Load Lines Protocol), as amended;
 International Convention on Load Lines, 1966;

 International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969;
 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea,
1972, as amended.
January 2016: SOLAS amendments, steering gear, inert gas
Entry into force of:
1. Steering gear - to update the requirements relating to sea trials.

2. Introduction mandatory requirements for inert gas systems on board new oil and
chemical tankers of 8,000 dwt and above, and for ventilation systems on board
new ships; related amendments to the International Code for Fire Safety Systems
(FSS Code) on inert gas systems.
3. New fire protection requirements for new ships designed to carry containers on or
above the weather deck.
4. Additional means of escape from machinery spaces mandatory.
5. Requirement for vehicle carriers carrying motor vehicles with compressed
hydrogen or natural gas for their own propulsion, which sets additional
requirements for ships with vehicle and RO-RO spaces intended for the carriage
of motor vehicles with compressed hydrogen or compressed natural gas in their
tanks as fuel.
6. Amendment 37-14 to the International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
Code.
7. Amendments to the International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code related to
the testing of lifejackets.
1 January 2016: MARPOL - carriage of stability instruments
1. Amendments to MARPOL Annex I, the Code for the Construction and Equipment
of Ships carrying Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk (BCH Code) and the International
Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk (IBC Code), on mandatory carriage requirements for a stability
instrument for oil tankers and chemical tankers.
1 March 2016: MARPOL - heavy fuel oil as ballast prohibited in Antarctic
Amendments to:
1. MARPOL Annex I special requirements for the use or carriage of oils in the
Antarctic area, to prohibit ships from carrying heavy grade oil on board as
ballast;
2. MARPOL Annex III, concerning the appendix on criteria for the identification of
harmful substances in packaged form; and
3. MARPOL Annex VI, concerning regulation 2 (Definitions), regulation 13
(Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) and the Supplement to the International Air Pollution
Prevention Certificate (IAPP Certificate), in order to include reference to gas as
fuel and to gas-fuelled engines.
1 July 2016 - SOLAS - container weight verification

1. Amendments to SOLAS chapter VI to require mandatory verification of the gross
mass of containers, either by weighing the packed container; or weighing all
packages and cargo items, using a certified method approved by the competent
authority of the State in which packing of the container was completed.
1 July 2016 - SOLAS -atmosphere testing
1. Amendments to add a new SOLAS regulation XI-1/7 on Atmosphere testing

instrument for enclosed spaces, to require ships to carry an appropriate portable
atmosphere testing instrument or instruments, capable of measuring
concentrations of oxygen, flammable gases or vapours, hydrogen sulphide and
carbon monoxide, prior to entry into enclosed spaces. Consequential amendments
to the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore Drilling
Units (1979, 1989 and 2009 MODU Codes) were also adopted.
2017
1 January 2017 – Polar Code
1. The International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (Polar Code) and
related amendments to make it mandatory under both SOLAS and MARPOL
enter into force (The Polar Code will apply to new ships constructed after 1
January 2017. Ships constructed before 1 January 2017 will be required to meet
the relevant requirements of the Polar Code by the first intermediate or renewal
survey, whichever occurs first, after 1 January 2018).
1 January 2017 - MARPOL Annex I - oil residues
1. Amendments to regulation 12 of MARPOL Annex I, concerning tanks for oil

residues (sludge). The amendments update and revise the regulation, expanding
on the requirements for discharge connections and piping to ensure oil residues
are properly disposed of.
1 January 2017 – SOLAS – IGF Code
International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF
Code), along with amendments to make the Code mandatory under SOLAS enter into
force.
The amendments to SOLAS chapter II-1 (Construction – Structure, subdivision and

stability, machinery and electrical installations), include amendments to Part F
Alternative design and arrangements, to provide a methodology for alternative design and
arrangements for machinery, electrical installations and low-flashpoint fuel storage and
distribution systems; and a new Part G Ships using low-flashpoint fuels, to add new
regulations to require ships constructed after the expected date of entry into force of 1

January 2017 to comply with the requirements of the IGF Code, together with related
amendments to chapter II-2 and Appendix (Certificates).
The IGF Code contains mandatory provisions for the arrangement, installation, control
and monitoring of machinery, equipment and systems using low-flashpoint fuels,
focusing initially on LNG.
The Code addresses all areas that need special consideration for the usage of low-
flashpoint fuels, taking a goal-based approach, with goals and functional requirements
specified for each section forming the basis for the design, construction and operation of
ships using this type of fuel.
Amendments to the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and

Watch-keeping for Seafarers (STCW), and STCW Code, to include new mandatory
minimum requirements for the training and qualifications of masters, officers, ratings and
other personnel on ships subject to the IGF Code, also enter into force on 1 January 2017.
1 January 2017 – SOLAS – venting
Amendments to SOLAS deals with the provisions related to the secondary means of
venting cargo tanks in order to ensure adequate safety against over- and under-pressure in
the event of a cargo tank isolation valve being damaged or inadvertently closed, and
SOLAS regulation II-2/20 relating to performance of ventilation systems.
1 January 2017 - STCW Manila amendments transitional provisions end
From 1 January 2017, STCW certificates must be issued, renewed and revalidated in
accordance with the provisions of the 2010 Manila Amendments.

ISM CODE
Towards the end of 1980s IMO got very concerned with the number of maritime
accidents that continued to take place. They thus ordered for a study to be conducted to
find the root cause behind the accidents and the study went on for almost five years. The
study analysed almost all the maritime accidents in the past 50 years and concluded that
approximately 80% of all maritime accidents in the past were caused due to the human
error and suggested that IMO should seriously look into the human element of ship
operations rather than develop another technical Convention like SOLAS, MARPOL
Load Line etc. this gave birth to the ISM Code.
The ISM Code was included in the SOLAS Convention as Chapter IX and came into
force in two phases as follows:
 Phase 1 – 1st July 1998 – for tankers and passenger ships.

 Phase 2 – 1st July 2002 – for all other ships.
Objectives of ISM Code
SHIP SEAFARER SHIP OWNER

SOLAS STCW ISM Code
MARPOL MLC (of ILO)
Load Line
It is very important to understand that the ISM Code has been developed for the ship
owner (as shown in the table above by referring to a few basic Conventions’
applicability) thereby holding him 100% responsible, by law, for safe operation of his
ships and prevention of pollution from his ships on a daily basis by creating a genuine
link between the shore management and each of his ships. Also, the ISM Code is very
clear on the definition of a ship owner – any person / company that is responsible for the
day-to-day management of the ship is the ship owner and thus it includes the ship
management company, bareboat charterer etc.
In a nutshell then, the objectives of ISM Code can be summarised by the ship owner
being responsible for the following:
 To have in place a Safety and Environment Protection Policy for safe operation of
his ships and prevention of pollution from his ships.
 To convert the aforementioned policy into an action plan in the form of a Safety
Management System (SMS) - this will give details of procedures by identifying
all the risks involved.
 To have the SMS reviewed continuously on a regular basis and plug any gaps, if
and when found.
 To ensure training of all people employed by him for the job that each individual
is responsible for.

Elements of ISM Code / Functional Requirements of ISM Code / Practical
Application of ISM Code
(The above title is given in three formats because in the examination it can be asked in
either of them and the answer will be the same as discussed below)
Before proceeding further, we need to understand the basic concept of quality assurance
because the developers of ISM Code used the concept of QUALITY and therefore ISM
Code is a highly documented system.
So, what is quality? Very simply put – you deliver what you promise to deliver. Let’s
look at an example – let’s say I am a white board marker manufacturer and I give a
promise to the clients (the customers) that if you buy this marker it will write perfectly on
a normal white board for a distance of 30 meters. You decide to buy it and test it by
drawing lines on the white board you also decide to measure the lines drawn on the white
board and find that, yes, the marker is continuing to write properly even after it has been
written with for 30 meters. The marker therefore is a quality marker because it has
“DELIVERED” what it had “PROMISED to DELIVER”. This was the case with a
visible product. The same approach of quality is applied in case of providing services. Let
us say a maritime training institute wants to become a QUALITY training provider. It
will have POLICY to become the No. 1 maritime training institute in the country. The
next logical step would be to draw the Action Plan, in the form of procedures contained
in manuals, to convey “The Intent” to deliver “The Promise”. Next, it will have
DOCUMENTED RECORDS as a PROOF of DELIVERY of “The Promise”. And
finally, to upkeep the system so developed and certified a quality organisation, it will
have internal audits and training of its personnel on a regular basis. The certifying
authority will give the institute a Quality Certificate.
Quality assurance system vs. ISM Code - the Important Difference
There is no doubt about it; the developers of the ISM Code were clearly following a
methodology which had been developing for many years in quality management systems.
It has been suggested that a ship owner who fully implements the ISM Code is probably
more than 80 per cent compliant with ISO Quality Assurance System. However, this
DOES NOT means that a ship owner or ship manager who is an already certified ISO
Quality Assurance System will be ISM Code compliant. Whilst the two types of
management systems may be very similar in some ways, and may indeed support each
other, there is a very important difference, which is not always fully appreciated.
QUALITY assurance is a VOLUNTARY PROCESS, which shows that the audited

company or body performs to certain standards, which the body itself sets. If he fails to
implement the Quality System in accordance with his own written procedures then he
may very well find that the consequences will be that the accrediting body will withdraw
the accreditation. There is very unlikely to be a legal or insurance ramification. However,
compliance with the ISM Code is quite different – it is a MANDATORY
REQUIREMENT (as required by the law of SOLAS Convention). If a ship owner fails to
comply there may be serious legal and insurance implications, since the ship owner

would be in breach of the law of his Flag state and international law and may NOT be
able to TRADE his ship at all.
Designated Person Ashore (DPA)
The role and function of the Designated Person is quite new for most companies within
the international shipping industry. The implication and role of the designated person
may, potentially, have a most significant impact and effect upon the legal position of the
ship owner or manager when questions of actual fault are considered.
The clear intention has been to create an identifiable contact point between the senior
levels of the shore management and the ship. However, in the past the marine
superintendent accomplished this role. But, with various changes within the shipping
industry in the past 20 to 30 years, this in some cases had a diminishing role with the
result of creating a void leading to a breakdown of communications indicating the level
of relationship between the shore and the ship. So, what is the role of designated person?
First, it is clearly anticipated that within any company there can be more than one
designated person. The actual role of the designated person seems to be threefold:
1. A conduit between the company ashore and the specific ship on all matters
relevant to the SMS
2. An independent individual with direct access to the highest levels of management
3. An over-seer – verifying and checking that the SMS is functioning adequately
It is not intended that the DP should be directly involved in the implementation of the
SMS – such tasks would rest with those on board the ship in conjunction with the
relevant superintendents or safety manager. It is also significant to note that the DP does
not have to be one of the “highest levels of management”. Indeed there is no specific
requirement for the DP to be a member of the company’s management at all, although it
is suggested that this would usually be the case.
When analysing the role of the DP, it is important to look at the wording in the ISM
Code. The requirement is that the DP must have “direct access” to the highest levels of
management. It does not say that the DP must actually “report” to the highest levels of
management. The idea therefore is to have that direct access to report or to gather support
of the highest levels of management if it is found that certain line managers or
superintendents or masters were failing in their responsibilities and duties to implement
and maintain the SMS. The responsibility and authority of the DP therefore includes:
 Monitoring the safety and pollution prevention aspects of the operation of each
ship
 Ensuring that needed resources and shore-based support are applied as required
Within the context of these two guidelines the DP also has responsibility:
 For organising safety audits

 For monitoring that corrective action has been taken

A common sense understanding therefore delineates that the combined functions of the
DP is the overall management of SMS, including the provision of required resources to
enable the SMS to be managed effectively.
The Master
Apart from the roles and responsibilities of the Master that we all are aware of, the ISM
Code imposes even more duties and responsibilities on the Master:
 Implementing the safety and environment protection policy of the Company

 Motivating the crew in the observation of that policy
 Issuing orders and instructions in a clear and simple manner
 Verifying that specified requirements are observed
 Reviewing the SMS and reporting its deficiencies to the shore based management
One important aspect to understand is that the Master still remains in command and the
requirements of the ISM Code do not override that position. The Master holds one of the
most important roles within the SMS of the ISM Code. Unless the Master can motivate
his officers and crew to actually implement the SMS and allow it to function as it was
intended, then the whole project will be nothing more than a few thousand words on
pieces of paper in procedures manuals – but there will be no SMS.
What a Master is required to do is to have a good contemporaneous documented evidence
of a fully functional SMS that will include details all reports of accidents,
non-conformities and hazardous occurrences, details of safety meetings on board, training
and familiarisation on board and communications with the DPA.

STCW CONVENTION
Enhancement of STCW Objectives
The following items outline the key improvements realized through the new
Amendments:
1. Certificates of Competency & endorsements to be issued only by Administration -
thereby reducing the possibility of fraudulent practices associated with issue of
certificates of competency.
2. Common medical standards for seafarers - seafarers from one country can serve on board
ships of another country without undergoing another medical exam.
3. Revalidation requirements rationalized for the benefit of the seafarer.
4. Introduction of modern training methodology i.e. distance learning and web based
learning.
5. Hours of rest harmonized with the requirements of ILO Maritime Labour Convention
(2006) with a view to reducing fatigue.
6. Requirements introduced to avoid alcohol and substance abuse.
7. New Competencies required to be built and curriculum to be updated in life with modern
developments and real life needs
8. Refresher Training is properly addressed within the convention
A brief outline of key curriculum upgrades is as follows:
Chapter I General provisions

• Regulation I/2 : Only Administrations to issue COC & maintain electronic database for
verification of authenticity
• Regulation I/3 : near coastal voyage requirements made more clear, including principals
governing such voyages and entering "into an undertaking" with the Parties concerned
(flag and coastal states)
• Regulation I/4 : PSC Assessment of seafarer watch keeping & security standards -
"Compromise to security" in the list
• Regulation I/6 : Guidance on e-learning
• Regulation I/9 : Medical standards updated in line with ILO MLC Requirements
• Regulation I/11 : revalidation requirements made more rational and includes revalidation
requirements for tanker endorsements
• Regulation I/14 : companies responsible for refresher training of seafarers on their ships
STCW Chapter II Support Level

Chapter Two is the section on the deck department. The principal change in Chapter II is
the addition of an Able Seafarer - Deck Rating. This is separate from the Rating Forming
Part of a Navigational Watch (RFPNW).
Based on sea time requirements, it will be critical for a mariner to get their RFPNW
qualification as early in their career as possible. Sea time toward an AB qualification will
not start until RFPNW qualifications have been met and any sea time toward subsequent
licenses will require the AB endorsement. This will require training and testing and will
be a new section called A-II/5.
STCW Chapter II Operational and Management Level

Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) will be required training for
all deck officers on all vessels that are equipped with ECDIS. ECDIS will be treated the

same as ARPA or the GMDSS training, where it is an STCW restriction from serving on
equipped vessels if you don't have these training certifications.
By 2012 nearly all vessels more than 200 gross tons will be required under a separate law
to have ECDIS equipment. By default, any deck officer on vessels of more than 200 tons
will need ECDIS training. There will be two levels of ECDIS, operational and
management dealing with the different responsibilities of each.
Bridge Resource Management, Teamwork and Leadership training will be mandatory at
both the operational and management levels.
STCW Chapter III Engineering

The principal change in Chapter III is the addition of an Able Seafarer - Engine Rating.
This is separate from the Rating Forming Part of an Engineering Watch.
Many countries have only had the RFPEW level and this new Able Seafarer Engine
rating will require the RFPEW to be STCW Compliant. This will require training and
testing and will be a new section called A-III/5.
Section A-III/1 will be reformatted and reorganized. You will no longer need to have the
30 months of approved training in the engine room. The wording will now be more
synchronized with the deck department and will read three years of sea service with one
year of combined work shop skills and six months of engine room watch standing.
Competency standards for Electro Technical Officer (ETO) and an Electro Technical
Rating (ETR) have been added.
Engine Room Resource Management, Teamwork and Leadership training will be
mandatory at both the operational and management levels.
STCW Chapter V
Tankers and Tank Ships:
There will now be three categories of Tanker-man on tank ships.
• Oil
• Chemical
• Liquid Gas
In addition, each Tanker-man category will have two levels
• Basic (currently called assistant)
• Advanced (currently called Person in Charge (PIC)
The major change will be the division of the chemical from the oil and each requiring its
own sea service prerequisites on each type of vessel and specific training for each.
Additionally, there will be a specially designated Tanker Fire Fighting Course, although
some parties may allow Basic Fire Fighting courses to cover this requirement.
Passenger Vessels - There will be a consolidation of rules for passenger vessels.
Offshore Supply Vessels (OSV), Dynamic Positioning (DP) Vessels and Operations Ice
Covered Waters:
There will be a new section with guidance on special licensing or training requirements
for OSVs, Dynamic Positioning (DP) Vessels and vessels operating in water that are
covered in Ice.

STCW Chapter VI
Marine Environmental Issues:

The amendments will include the addition of marine environmental awareness issues in
the Personal Safety & Social Responsibilities course conducted as part of Basic Safety
Training as well as an operational level of marine environmental concerns at the STCW
Code A-II/1 and A-III/1 levels of Certification.
Basic Safety Training
The Personal Safety & Social Responsibilities (PSSR) coverage of the following subjects
will be added:
• Communications
• Control of Fatigue
• Teamwork
These additional subjects will make the PSSR module longer in length but it should still
be less than one day in length. However, this will cause an increase in the length of Basic
Safety Training courses from the usual five days to at least 5.5 days.
Refresher Safety Training:

One of the key elements of the STCW 2010 amendments appears to be the removal of
loopholes with respect to refresher training. The STCW Code, which was vague in this
area and many countries, opted to interpret the "within five years" requirement loosely. It
has been decided that certain courses that may affect the safety and survival of the crew
and passengers in an emergency warrant periodic refresher training.
Refresher Training may take the form of e-learning, shipboard drills and training
or shore based training.
The safety courses will require refresher training every five years and the courses may be
abbreviated somewhat from the original course lengths. The training that will need to be
refreshed by an approved method (in class or shipboard - yet to be determined) is:
• Proficiency in Survival Craft and Rescue Boats
• Advanced Fire-fighting
• Basic Safety Training
• Fast Rescue Boat
• Medical Training
Security Training:
The amendments will include three levels of security training
• Level One - Security Awareness (All crew members)
• Level Two - Person with Security Duties
• Level Three - Ship Security Officer - ISPS Code
Anti-Piracy training will be added to each level as well.
STCW Chapter VIII: Watch keeping

This section of the STCW Code will be harmonized with the Maritime Labour
Convention (MLC) Convention. The Maritime Labour Convention was signed in 2006
and was created to create regulations for seafarers right's so that there would be a global
minimum standard for how mariners are treated.

Harmonization with ILO - MLC
Where the IMO (International Maritime Organization) oversees the STCW Certification
Convention, the ILO (International Labour Organization) oversees the MLC Convention.
When the International Labour Organization adopted a "bill of rights" for the world's
maritime workers, all concerned - governments, seafarers and ship-owners - hailed this
new labour standard as a landmark development for the world's most globalized sector.
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) had taken important steps to build
protections in the areas of safety, certification and pollution, but the sector was awash in a
wide range of international labour standards going back over eight decades. The ILO
Maritime Labour Convention 2006 modernizes these standards to:
1. Consolidate and update more than 60 earlier ILO Conventions and Recommendations.
2. Set minimum requirements for seafarers to work on a ship.
3. Address conditions of employment, accommodation, recreational facilities, food and
catering, health protection, medical care, welfare and social security protection.
4. Promote compliance by operators and owners of ships by giving governments’ sufficient
flexibility to implement its requirements in a manner best adapted to their individual laws
and practices.
5. Strengthen enforcement mechanisms at all levels, including provisions for complaint
procedures available to seafarers, the ship-owners and shipmasters' supervision of
conditions on their ships, the flag States' jurisdiction and control over their ships, and port
state inspections of foreign ships.
Under the Manila Amendments to the STCW Convention (STCW 2010), all persons who
are assigned duty as officer in charge of a watch or as a rating forming part of a watch
and those whose duties involve designated safety, prevention of pollution and security
duties shall be provided with a rest period of not less than:
1. A minimum of 10 hours of rest in any 24-hour period; and

2. 77 hours in any 7-day period.
The hours of rest may be divided into no more than two periods, one of which shall be at
least 6 hours in length, and the intervals between consecutive periods of rest shall not
exceed 14 hours.
Exceptions from the required hours of rest are permitted provided that the rest period is
not less than 70 hours in any 7 day period and on certain conditions, namely:
1. Such exceptional arrangements shall not be extended for more than two
consecutive weeks;
2. The intervals between two periods of exceptions shall not be less than twice the
duration of the exception;
3. The hours of rest may be divided into no more than three periods, one of which
shall be at least 6 hours and none of the other two periods shall be less than one
hour in length;
4. The intervals between consecutive periods of rest shall not exceed 14 hours; and
5. Exceptions shall not extend beyond two 24-hour periods in any 7-day period.

The new IMO rest hour requirements will enter into force in January 2012 and seafarers
will need to review and sign a record of their work / rest hours periodically (typically at
least once a month) to ensure they comply with the minimum rest hours stipulated.
Rest hours need not be maintained in the case of an emergency or in other

OVERRIDING OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS.
OVERRIDING OPERATIONAL CONDITIONS should be interpreted as only essential

shipboard work which cannot be delayed for safety or environmental reasons or which
could not reasonably have been anticipated at the commencement of the voyage. It should
be noted that musters, fire-fighting and lifeboat drills, and drills prescribed by national
laws and regulations and by international instruments, shall be conducted in a manner
that minimises the disturbance of rest periods.

Special Trade Passenger (STP) RULES
Adoption: 6 October 1971

Entry into force: 2 January 1974
The carriage of large numbers of un-berthed passengers in special trades such as the
pilgrim trade in a restricted sea area around the Indian Ocean and is of particular interest
to countries in that area. It was regulated by the Shimla Rules of 1931, which became
out-dated following the adoption of the 1948 and 1960 SOLAS Conventions.
As a result, IMO convened an International Conference in 1971 to consider safety

requirements for special trade passenger ships in relation to the 1960 SOLAS
Convention.
Included in an Annex to the Agreement are Special Trade Passenger Ships Rules, 1971,
which provide modifications to the regulations of Chapters II and III of the 1960 SOLAS
Convention.
Protocol on Space Requirements for Special Trade Passenger Ships, 1973

Adoption: 13 July 1973
Entry into force: 2 June 1977
Following the International Conference on Special Trade Passenger Ships, 1971, IMO, in
cooperation with other Organizations, particularly the World Health Organisation
(WHO), developed technical rules covering the safety aspects of carrying passengers on
board such ships.
The Protocol on Space Requirements for Special Trade Passenger Ships was adopted in
1973. Annexed to this Protocol are technical rules covering the safety aspect of the
carriage of passengers in special trade passenger ships.
The space requirements for special trade passenger ships are complementary to the 1971
Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement.

SPECIAL TRADE PASSENGER SHIPS (SPACE REQUIREMENTS) RULES,
1973
PART 1 - GENERAL
Rule 2 DEFINITIONS
(1) Except where expressly provided otherwise, the definitions set out in Rule 2 of the
Special Trade Passenger Ships Rules, 1971, shall apply also with respect to these Rules.
(2) In addition, for the purpose of these Rules:
(a) "1960 Convention" means the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea,
1960.
(b) "1966 Convention" means the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966.
(c) "Duration of voyage" means the interval between the time when the ship leaves the
port at which the voyage commences and the time when she arrives at the port where the
voyage terminates.
(d) "Season of fair weather" means in relation to those parts of the Special Trade Area
within the Tropical Zone, as defined in Regulation 48 of the 1966 Convention, a period
extending for the whole year, and in relation to any part of that Area within a Seasonal
Tropical Area as defined in Regulation 49 of that Convention means the period
prescribed in Regulation 49 as the Tropical Seasonal Period relating to that area.
(e) "Season of foul weather" means in relation to any part of the Special Trade Area
within a Seasonal Tropical Area as defined in the above-mentioned Regulation 49 the
period prescribed therein as the Summer Seasonal Period relating to that area.
(/") “Deepest subdivision load-line" is the waterline which corresponds to the greatest
draught permitted by the subdivision requirements which are applicable under the Special
Trade Passenger Ships Rules, 1971.
(g) "Length of the ship" is the length measured between perpendiculars taken at the
extremities of the deepest subdivision load line.
(h) "Upper between deck" means the deck below the weather deck or, in ships with side
openings, the deck below the upper deck.
(0 "Lower between decks" means the deck below the upper between deck.
(/) "Gross volume of a space" is the volume measured between the decks and between
the face of the frames, sparring or linings at the ship's side.
Rule 3 APPLICATION
These Rules shall apply to new and existing special trade passenger ships except that in
relation to existing ships their application may be relaxed as provided in Part III of these
Rules.
Rule 4 EXEMPTION
In exceptional circumstances, for the purpose of making a single voyage, a ship may be
exempted by the Administration from any of the requirements of these Rules, except Part
IV, provided it complies with such of those requirements as are in the opinion of the
Administration adequate for the voyage to be undertaken.

Rule 5 ISSUE OF CERTIFICATE
(1) A certificate called a Special Trade Passenger Ship Space Certificate shall be issued
after inspection and survey of a special trade passenger ship which complies with the
applicable requirements of these Rules. The Certificate shall be issued for a period of
not more than twelve months. The form of the Certificate shall be that of the model
given in Appendix II to these Rules.
(2) A Special Trade Passenger Ship Space Certificate shall be issued by the
Administration or by any person or organization duly authorized by it. In every case, the
Administration shall assume full responsibility for the Certificate.
(3) A Government party to the present Protocol may, at the request of the Administration
which is a Government party to the present Protocol, cause a ship to be surveyed and, if
satisfied that the requirements of these Rules are complied with, shall issue a certificate to
the ship in accordance with these Rules. Any certificate so issued must contain a
statement to the effect that it has been issued at the request of the Government of the
country in which the ship is or will be registered, and it shall have the same force and
receive the same recognition as a certificate issued under paragraph (2) of this Rule.
Rule 6 POSTING UP OF CERTIFICATE
The Certificate issued under these Rules or a certified copy thereof shall be posted up in a
prominent and accessible place in the ship.
Rule 7 ACCEPTANCE OF CERTIFICATE
A Special Trade Passenger Ship Space Certificate issued under the authority of a
Government party to the present Protocol shall be accepted by other Governments parties
to the present Protocol. They shall be regarded by those Governments as having the same
force as Certificates issued by them.
Rule 8 PRIVILEGES
The privileges of the present Rules may not be claimed in favour of any ship unless it
holds a valid Special Trade Passenger Ship Space Certificate.
PART 2 SPACE REQUIREMENTS
Rule 9 SPACES NOT SUITABLE FOR CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS
(1) No special trade passenger shall be carried:

(a) On any deck lower than the one immediately below the deepest subdivision load line;
(b) At any point in a between deck space where the clear headroom is less than 1.90
metres
(6 feet 3 inches);
(c) Forward of the collision bulkhead or the upward extension thereof, as provided for in
Regulation 9 of Chapter II of the 1960 Convention;
(d) On lower between decks within 10 per cent of the length of the ship from the forward
perpendicular; or

(e) On any weather deck which is not sheathed to the satisfaction of the Administration.
(2) During seasons of foul weather, spaces on the weather deck shall not be measured as
being available for the accommodation of special trade passengers, except that such
spaces may be measured as being available for use as airing space required to be provided
under Rule 11 or Rule 13.
Rule 10 NUMBER OF PASSENGERS PERMITTED
The number of special trade passengers carried on any voyage shall not exceed any of the
following:
(1) For any voyage the number permitted under the Special Trade Passenger Ships
Agreement, 1971;
(2) For any voyage of 72 hours or over, the number of bunks provided in accordance with
Rule 13;
(3) For any voyage of less than 72 hours, the aggregate of:
(a) The number of bunks (if any) fitted in compliance with the requirements of Rule
13(2), and
(b) The number of passengers permitted in areas of accommodation spaces not fitted with
bunks calculated in accordance with Rule 11;
(4) For any voyage of 24 hours or over, the number calculated in accordance with Rule
11(4) or 13(3) as appropriate;
(5) For any voyage the number for which airing space is provided in accordance with
Rule 11 or Rule 13, as appropriate.
Rule 11 SPACES NOT FITTED WITH BUNKS
(1) Subject to the provisions of paragraphs (3) and (4) of this Rule and Rules 9 and 12,
spaces in which bunks are not fitted for special trade passengers shall be measured for the
accommodation of such passengers on the scale laid down in Appendix I to these Rules,
having regard to the location of these spaces, the duration of the voyage and the incidence
of seasons of fair and foul weather.
(2) In addition airing space of not less than 0.37 square metres (4 square feet) for each
passenger on the upper and lower between decks shall be provided on the weather decks.
Such airing spaces shall be marked conspicuously "AIRING SPACE FOR SPECIAL
TRADE PASSENGERS ONLY".
(3) Where the means of egress from a between deck or other enclosed space is through
another passenger space, the former space shall be measured on the scale laid down in
Appendix I to these Rules for lower between deck spaces.
(4) In no case shall the number of special trade passengers permitted to be carried under
this Rule be such that when the duration of voyage is 24 hours or over, the number of
passengers in any space exceeds the gross volume of that space in cubic metres (cubic
feet) divided by 3.06 cubic metres (108 cubic feet).
Rule 12 AREAS TO BE DEDUCTED AND MARKED
(1) In calculating, in accordance with Rule 11, the number of passengers which may be
accommodated in any one space not fitted with bunks, the following deductions shall be
made:

(a) An overall deduction of 5 per cent of the gross area of the space to allow for the
accommodation of accompanied baggage;
(b) an area extending for a distance of 0.75 metres (2 feet 6 inches) from the entrance to
any stairway or ladder-way, wash place, lavatory or battery of latrines or from any water
tap or fire hydrant;
(c) Areas required for working the lifeboats, life rafts and buoyant apparatus. These areas
may, however, be included in the calculation of airing space;
(d) The area of any hatchway; and
(e) Any area which in the opinion of the Administration is unsuitable for the
accommodation of special trade passengers.
(2) The areas described in (b), (c), (d) and (e) of paragraph (1) of this Rule shall be
delineated by a white line 0.08 metres (3 inches) wide.
Rule 13 SPACES FITTED WITH BUNKS
(1) In every ship making a voyage the duration of which, in ordinary circumstances, will
extend for 72 hours or more, a bunk shall be provided for every special trade passenger.
(2) In every ship where bunks are provided for the use of special trade passengers, the
following provisions shall apply:
(a) The size of a bunk shall be not less than 1.90 metres (6 feet 3 inches) long and 0.70
metres (2 feet 3 inches) wide;
(b) Every bunk shall give direct access to a passageway and the passageways shall be so
arranged as to give ready access to an escape route;
(c) The width of such passageways shall be not less than 0.70 metres (2 feet 3 inches);
(d) Bunks may be fitted in single or double tiers provided that, in the latter case, the
following requirements are complied with:
(i) The distance between the deck and the base of the lower bunk shall not be less than
0.45 metres (1 foot 6 inches);
(ii) The distance between the base of the lower bunk and the base of the upper bunk shall
not be less than 0.90 metres (3 feet);
(iii) The distance between the base of the upper bunk and the underside of any overhead
obstruction (e.g. deck beams or girders) shall not be less than 0.90 metres (3 feet); and
(iv) Suitable means shall be provided for access to upper bunks;
(e) Bunks shall be fitted with leeboards or lee-rails and, where bunks are fitted side by
side, with suitable means of separation;
(/) bunks and their fittings shall be constructed of metal and shall be of a type approved
by the Administration;
(g) Except where hatch openings are trunked or otherwise similarly protected to the
satisfaction of the Administration, no bunk shall be fitted within 0.90 metres (3 feet) of
such openings;
(h) No bunk shall be fitted within 0.60 metres (2 feet) of the face of the frames, sparring
or linings at the ship's side;
(0 no bunk shall be fitted within 0.75 metres (2 feet 6 inches) of the entrance to any
stairway or ladder-way, wash place, lavatory or battery of latrines or of any water tap or
fire hydrant; and
(/) no bunk shall be fitted in any space or part thereof which in the opinion of the
Administration is unsuitable for the accommodation of special trade passengers.

(3) In no case shall the number of special trade passengers permitted to be carried under
this Rule be such that the number of passengers in any space exceeds the gross volume of
that space in cubic metres (cubic feet) divided by 3.06 cubic metres (108 cubic feet).
(4) Airing space of not less than 0.37 square metres (4 square feet) for each passenger on
the upper and lower between decks shall be provided on the weather decks. Such airing
spaces shall be marked conspicuously "AIRING SPACE FOR SPECIAL TRADE
PASSENGERS ONLY".
Rule 14 MARKING OF SPACES
Any space intended for the accommodation of special trade passengers shall be
conspicuously marked at or near the entrance to that space with the number of passengers
for which that space is certified.
Rule 15 WIDTH OF STAIRWAYS
(1) Subject to the other provisions of this Rule, stairways and ladder-ways which provide
egress from any space located below the weather deck and intended for the
accommodation or use of special trade passengers, and which form part of a ready means
of escape from that space, as described in Regulation 68 of Chapter II of the 1960
Convention, shall have an aggregate width of not less than 0.05 metres (2 inches) for
every five passengers appropriate to that space.
(2) Where such spaces are located one above the other, the stairways and ladder-ways
leading upwards from the upper space shall have an aggregate width of not less man 0.05
metres (2 inches) for every five passengers included within the total number appropriate
to the two spaces.
(3) Where such spaces are located on the same deck and have access between them, for
the purpose of calculating the minimum aggregate width of stairways leading upwards
from that deck, such spaces on the same deck shall be considered as one space.
(4) In no case shall the width of any stairway or ladder-way referred to in this Rule be
less than 0.75 metres (2 feet 6 inches); where the width is greater than 1.50 metres (5
feet) the stairway or ladder-way shall be fitted with an intermediate rail or rails to the
satisfaction of the Administration.
(5) Ladder-ways and stairways shall be effectively distributed so as to avoid congestion.
(6) For the purpose of this Rule the number of passengers appropriate to an
accommodation space shall be that permitted by Rule 11 or Rule 13, as the case may be,
and the number appropriate to any other space shall be the number for which that space
has capacity.
Rule 16 LIGHTING
All spaces including alleyways, stairways and ladder-ways provided for the
accommodation or use of special trade passengers shall be provided with arrangements
whereby they can be adequately lighted both by day and by night. Where practicable,
arrangements for natural lighting shall be provided.
Rule 17 VENTILATION

(1) Every ship shall be provided with a system of trunked mechanical ventilation
sufficient to distribute fresh air into all parts of the enclosed spaces allocated for the
accommodation or use of special trade passengers and capable of providing at least ten
fresh air changes per hour. Alternatively a trunked air conditioning system may be
provided to the satisfaction of the Administration.
(2) The ventilation or air conditioning system required by paragraph (1) of this Rule shall
be capable of effective separation from any hospital ventilation.
Rule 18 AWNINGS
Every ship shall be provided with approved awnings which will protect from the weather:
(a) those portions of exposed decks which are provided for the use of special trade
passengers; and
(b) where the Administration considers necessary, those portions of exposed decks and
housetops which are situated immediately above spaces provided for the accommodation
or use of special trade passengers.
Rule 19 COOKING OF FOOD
Special trade passengers shall not be permitted to cook food on board.
Rule 20 PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS
Hatchways when open shall be effectively guarded to a height of not less than 0.90
metres (3 feet) but when open for ventilation purposes only they shall also be suitably
protected by netting.
Rule 21 OBSTRUCTION OF PASSENGER SPACES
Spaces including airing spaces allotted for the accommodation or use of special trade
passengers shall be kept free of cargo.
EXISTING SHIPS
Rule 22 RELAXATIONS FROM PART II
In the case of existing ships the Administration may permit any of the following
relaxations from the requirements of Part II of these Rules:
(1) Rules 9(1) (b) and 15 shall apply only as far as is reasonable and practicable in the
opinion of the Administration.
(2) Rule 11 shall apply except that in seasons of fair weather for voyages of 24 hours or
over but not exceeding 48 hours, the per capita area required for the accommodation of
special trade passengers other than on the lower between deck may be reduced to 0.9
square metres (10 square feet) and on the lower between deck may be reduced to 1.12
square metres (12 square feet).
(3) Rule 13 shall apply subject to the following provisions:
(a) In relation to a voyage of a ship, the route of which is declared beforehand to the
Administration, and in the course of which there is considerable embarkation and
disembarkation at intermediate ports, the Administration may relax the requirements of

paragraph (1) thereof to the extent which it considers reasonable, having regard to the
nature of the service.
(b) In the case of a ship already fitted with bunks, if in the opinion of the Administration:
(i) the characteristics of the special trade passengers carried are such that the reduction in
the size of bunks would not lead to discomfort for them; and
(ii) such additional available space resulting from the reduction could be used in
improving safety and amenities of special trade passengers and will not be utilized to
increase the number of passengers which would otherwise be permitted under Rule 13 to
be carried, bunks of a size not less than 1.80 metres (6 feet) long and 0.70 metres (2 feet 3
inches) wide may be fitted.
(c) The distances given in Rule 13(2)(<f)(i), (ii) and (iii) may each be reduced by not
more than 0.15 metres (6 inches) provided the aggregate of these distances is not less
than 1.90 metres (6 feet 3 inches).
(4) Rule 17 need not apply where a natural ventilation system is fitted in the spaces
referred to in that Rule, provided that such system shall be adequate to maintain the air in
a satisfactory condition and to ensure a sufficient degree of air movement under all
conditions of weather and climate to which the ship is likely to be subjected, and shall in
particular at least meet the following requirements:
(a) The aggregate area of the inlet ventilators serving any such space exclusive of side
scuttles, doors, stairways, skylights or any other apertures not provided solely for
ventilation purposes shall be not less than:
(i) for an upper between deck space 0.032 square metres (5 square inches) for every
passenger appropriate to that space;
(ii) for a lower between deck space 0.048 square metres (7.5 square inches) for every
passenger appropriate to that space, and the aggregate area of outlets serving such a space
shall equally be not less than the above scales.
(b) In every between deck space other than open self-airing spaces, fans shall be fitted
having a diameter of not less than 0.60 metres (2 feet) for every 25 passengers
appropriate to that space, provided that fans of lesser diameter may be used and the
number of fans varied where, in the opinion of the Administration, they will together
provide an equivalent degree of air movement.
(c) For the purpose of this paragraph the number of passengers appropriate to an
accommodation space shall be that permitted by Rule 11 or Rule 13 as the case may be
and the number appropriate to any other space shall be the number for which the space
has capacity.
PART 4 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH REGULATIONS
Rule 23 APPLICATION
The ships to which the present Rules apply shall comply with the International Health
Regulations (1969) having regard to the circumstances and the nature of the voyage
within the meaning of the said Health Regulations.

PAL CONVENTION
Introduction
A Conference, convened in Athens in 1974, adopted the Athens Convention relating to the
Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea, 1974. The Convention is designed to
consolidate and harmonize two earlier Brussels conventions dealing with passengers and luggage
and adopted in 1961 and 1967 respectively.
The Convention establishes a regime of liability for damage suffered by passengers carried on a
seagoing vessel. It declares a carrier liable for damage or loss suffered by a passenger if the
incident causing the damage occurred in the course of the carriage and was due to the fault or
neglect of the carrier.
However, unless the carrier acted with intent to cause such damage, or recklessly and with
knowledge that such damage would probably result, he can limit his liability. For the death of, or
personal injury to, a passenger, this limit of liability is set at 46,666 Special Drawing Rights
(SDR) (about US$61,000) per carriage. The 2002 Protocol, when it enters into force, will
substantially raise those limits.
As far as loss of or damage to luggage is concerned, the carrier's limit of liability varies,
depending on whether the loss or damage occurred in respect of cabin luggage, of a vehicle
and/or luggage carried in or on it, or in respect of other luggage.
The 2002 Protocol

Entry into force: 24th April 2014
The Protocol introduces compulsory insurance to cover passengers on ships and raises the limits
of liability. It also introduces other mechanisms to assist passengers in obtaining compensation,
based on well-accepted principles applied in existing liability and compensation regimes dealing
with environmental pollution. These include replacing the fault-based liability system with a strict
liability system for shipping related incidents, backed by the requirement that the carrier take out
compulsory insurance to cover these potential claims.
The limits contained in the Protocol set a maximum limit, empowering - but not obliging -
national courts to compensate for death, injury or damage up to these limits.
The Protocol also includes an "opt-out" clause, enabling State Parties to retain or introduce higher
limits of liability (or unlimited liability) in the case of carriers who are subject to the jurisdiction
of their courts.
Compulsory insurance
A new Article 4b of the Convention requires carriers to maintain insurance or other financial
security, such as the guarantee of a bank or similar financial institution, to cover the limits for
strict liability under the Convention in respect of the death of and personal injury to passengers.
The limit of the compulsory insurance or other financial security shall not be less than 250,000
Special Drawing Rights (SDR) (about US$325,000) per passenger on each distinct occasion.
Ships are to be issued with a certificate attesting that insurance or other financial security is in
force and a model certificate is attached to the Protocol in an Annex.

Limits of liability
The limits of liability have been raised significantly under the Protocol, to reflect present day
conditions and the mechanism for raising limits in the future has been made easier.
The liability of the carrier for the death of or personal injury to a passenger is limited to 250,000
SDR (about US$325,000) per passenger on each distinct occasion.
The carrier is liable, unless the carrier proves that the incident resulted from an act of war,
hostilities, civil war, insurrection or a natural phenomenon of an exceptional, inevitable and
irresistible character; or was wholly caused by an act or omission done with the intent to cause the
incident by a third party.
If the loss exceeds the limit, the carrier is further liable - up to a limit of 400,000 SDR (about
US$524,000) per passenger on each distinct occasion - unless the carrier proves that the incident
which caused the loss occurred without the fault or neglect of the carrier.
Loss of or damage to luggage and vehicles - The liability of the carrier for the loss of or damage
to cabin luggage is limited to 2,250 SDR (about US$2,925) per passenger, per carriage.
- Liability of the carrier for the loss of or damage to vehicles including all luggage carried in or on
the vehicle is limited to12, 700 SDR (about US$16,250) per vehicle, per carriage.
- Liability of the carrier for the loss of or damage to other luggage is limited to 3,375 SDR (about
US$4,390) per passenger, per carriage.
The carrier and the passenger may agree that the liability of the carrier shall be subject to a
deductible not exceeding 330 SDR in the case of damage to a vehicle and not exceeding 149
(about US$220) SDR per passenger in the case of loss of or damage to other luggage, such sum to
be deducted from the loss or damage.

GROSS TONNAGE and NET TONNAGE
Q. What do you understand by Gross Tonnage (GT) and Net Tonnage (NT) and
how are they calculated?
Background
The term derives from the taxation paid on tuns or casks of wine, and was later used in
reference to the weight of a ship's cargo; however, in modern maritime usage, "tonnage"
specifically refers to a calculation of the volume or cargo volume of a ship. Tonnage
should not be confused with Displacement which refers to the loaded or empty weight of
the vessel itself.
The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969 was adopted by

IMO in 1969. It came into force on July 18, 1982 and therefore applies to all ships
constructed after this date. The Convention mandated a transition from the former
measurements of gross register tonnage (GRT) and net register tonnage (NRT) to gross
tonnage (GT) and net tonnage (NT). It was the first successful attempt to introduce a
universal tonnage measurement system 1.
Gross tonnage (often abbreviated as GT, G.T. or gt) is a dimensionless index

related to a ship's overall internal volume. Gross tonnage is different from gross register
tonnage. Neither gross tonnage nor gross register tonnage is a measure of the ship's
displacement (mass) and should not be confused with terms such as deadweight tonnage
or displacement.
Gross tonnage REPLACED gross register tonnage in 1994 under the Tonnage
Measurement convention of 1969, and is no longer used term in the industry.
Calculation of Gross Tonnage
The gross tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 3 of Annex 1 of The International

Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969. It is based on two variables:
 V, the ship's total volume in cubic meters (m3), and

 K, a multiplier based on the ship volume.
The value of the multiplier K varies in accordance with a ship's total volume (in cubic
metres) and is applied as a kind of reduction factor in determining the gross tonnage
value - which does not have a unit such as cubic metres or tons. For smaller ships, K is
1
Ship built before that date was given 12 years to migrate from their existing gross register tonnage (GRT)
to use of GT and NT. The phase-in period was provided to allow ships time to adjust economically, since
tonnage is the basis for satisfying manning regulations and safety rules. Tonnage is also the basis for
calculating registration fees and port dues. One of the Convention's goals was to ensure that the new
calculated tonnages "did not differ too greatly" from the traditional gross and net register tonnages.

smaller, for larger ships, K is larger. K ranges from 0.22 to 0.32 and is calculated with a
formula which uses the common or base -10 logarithm:
Once V and K are known, gross tonnage is calculated using the formula, whereby GT is a
function of V:
Net tonnage (often abbreviated as NT, N.T. or nt) is a dimensionless index

calculated from the total moulded volume of the ship's cargo spaces by using a
mathematical formula. Defined in The International Convention on Tonnage
Measurement of Ships that was adopted by the International Maritime Organization in
1969, the net tonnage replaced the earlier net register tonnage (NRT) which denoted the
volume of the ship's revenue-earning spaces in "register tons", units of volume equal to
100 cubic feet (2.83 m3). Net tonnage is used to calculate the port duties and should not
be taken as less than 30 per cent of the ship's gross tonnage.
Net tonnage REPLACED net registered tonnage in 1994, under the Tonnage
Measurement convention of 1969.
Calculation of Net Tonnage
Choice of draft value
The net tonnage calculation is based on a number of factors, one of which is the moulded
draft d. The choice of the value to use for d can be complicated. For ships subject to the
International Convention on Load Lines, the Summer Load Line draft is used, with the
exception of cases where that is a timber load line. For passenger ships, the draft used is
the deepest subdivision load line assigned in accordance with the International
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. Otherwise, if a ship has been assigned a load
line by its national government, the draft for that summer load line is used.
12 or fewer passengers
The Net tonnage calculation is defined in Regulation 4 of Annex 1 of The International

Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships, 1969. It is based on two main variables:
 Vc, the total volume of the ship's cargo spaces in cubic meters (m³),
 d, the ship's moulded draft amidships in meters, and
 D, the ship's moulded depth amidships in metres.
The first step in calculating NT is to find the value known as K2, a multiplier based on Vc.
It is obtained by using the following formula:

And then these three values are used to calculate NT using this formula:
Where the factor 4d2/3D will not exceed 1, the term Vc × K2 × 4d2/3D will not be less
than 0.25 GT, and the final value of NT shall not be taken as less than 0.30 GT.
13 or more passengers
When calculating NT for ships certified to carry 13 or more passengers, an additional

term is used in the NT formula. It is based on three additional variables:
 GT, the ship's gross tonnage,

 N1, number of passengers in cabins with not more than 8 berths, and
 N2, number of other passengers.
First, a multiplier K3, based on the ship's gross tonnage is found,
Then the net tonnage is calculated:
Where the factor 4d2 will not exceed 1, the term will not be less than
0.25 GT, and the final value of NT shall not be taken as less than 0.30 GT.
The difference between the cases of 12 of fewer passengers and 13 or more passengers is
due to a restriction given in the net tonnage definition that states "...when N1 + N2 is less
than 13, N1 and N2 shall be taken as zero."

ISPS CODE
What is the ISPS Code?
In a very precise explanation, the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code)
is a set of maritime regulations designed to help detect and deter threats to international maritime
security. The Code applies to all SOLAS vessels over 500 GT engaged in international voyages
and all port facilities serving such ships. It came into force on 1st July 2004.
It is however to be noted that the regulatory provisions do NOT extend to the actual
response to security incidents or to any necessary clear-up activities after such an incident.
Ship and port facility security is a risk management activity. As with all risk management
efforts, the most effective course of action is to eliminate the source of the threat - hence the risk
reduction approach to lessen possibilities to the lowest practicable.
The ISPS Code is governed by SOLAS 74 by way of a new Chapter XI-2 (Special measures to
enhance maritime security).
The requirements of the code include:
1. Ship Identification Number to be permanently marked on vessel’s hulls

2. Continuous Synopsis Record (CSR) kept on-board showing vessel history
3. Ship or Port Facility Security Assessment (SSA or PFSA) Ship or Port Facility Security
Plan (SSP or PFSP)
4. Ship or Port Facility Security Certificate (SSC or PFSC)
5. Ship or Port Facility Security Officer (SSO or PFSO)
6. Company Security Officer
7. Continuous ship to port security communication link
8. Training and drills
9. A Ship Security Alert System (SSAS)
What does implementing the ISPS Code involve?
In order to communicate the threat at a port facility or for a ship and to initiate the appropriate
response actions the Contracting Government must set the appropriate security level. The security
level creates a link between the ship and the port facility.
The ISPS Code is based on three security levels. When there is a heightened risk of a security
incident, the security level is raised. Ships and terminals are then required to take extra protective
security measures. There are therefore three designated levels of security under ISPS as follows:
 Security Level 1: The normal situation, with a number of standard protective security
measures.
 Security Level 2: There is a heightened risk of a security incident. Additional protective
security measures are maintained.
 Security Level 3: A security incident is probable. Further specific protective security
measures are maintained. The government sets security levels. In the case of ocean-going
ships, the level is set by the flag state. In the terminals, this is set by the government of the
country in question
Ship Security Plan

The Ship Security Plan is developed to ensure the application of measures on board the ship
designed to protect persons on board, cargo, cargo transport units, ship’s stores or the ship from
the risks of a security incident. The plan must address, at least, the following:
1. Measures designed to prevent unauthorized weapons, dangerous substances and devices
intended for use against persons, ships or ports from being taken on board.
2. Identification of the restricted areas and measures for the prevention of unauthorized
access to them.
3. Procedures for responding to security threats or breaches of security, including provisions
for maintaining critical operations of the ship or ship/port interface, evacuating persons
on board, and reporting on incidents.
4. Duties of shipboard personnel assigned security responsibilities and of other shipboard
personnel on security aspects.
5. Procedures for auditing the security activities, and for ensuring the inspection, testing,
calibration, and maintenance of any security equipment provided on board.
6. Procedures for training, drills and exercises associated with the plan.
7. Procedures for interfacing with port facility security activities.
8. Procedures for the periodic review of the plan and for updating.
9. Procedures, instructions and guidance on the use of the ship security alert system,
including the testing, activation, deactivation and resetting and to limit false alerts.
10. Instructions indicating that the master has overriding authority and responsibility to make
decisions with respect to the safety and security of the ship and to request assistance as
may be necessary.
Records of the following activities addressed in the Ship Security Plan will need to be kept on
board:
1. Training, drills and exercises

2. Security threats and security incidents
3. Breaches of security
4. Changes in security level
5. Communications relating to the direct security of the ship such as specific threats to
the ship or to port facilities
6. Internal audits and reviews of security activities
7. Periodic reviews of the Ship Security Assessment and the Ship Security Plan
8. Implementation of any amendments to the plan
9. Maintenance, calibration and testing of any security equipment provided on board
including testing of the ship security alert system
International Ship Security Certificate
 An International Ship Security Certificate is issued after the initial or renewal

verification. This certificate is valid for a maximum of five years.
Interim International Ship Security Certificate - This certificate will only be valid for a
maximum of six months and cannot be extended.
Responsibilities
1. Role of the Company Security Officer (CSO)
The Company Security Officer is designated by the ship owner, and is responsible for:

 Ensuring that Ship Security Assessments are carried out.
 Ensuring the development, submission for approval, implementation and maintenance of
Ship Security Plans.
 Arranging for internal audits and reviews of security activities, and ship verifications, as
well as ensuring that deficiencies and non-conformities identified are promptly addressed.
 Advising on the level of threats likely to be encountered by the ship, using appropriate
security assessments and other relevant information.
 Ensuring adequate training for personnel responsible for the security of the ship.
 Ensuring effective communication and co-operation between the Ship Security Officer
and the relevant Port Facility Security Officers.
2. Role of the Ship Security Officer (SSO)
The Ship Security Officer is designated by the ship owner as the person on-board each ship
responsible for:
 Undertaking regular security inspections of the ship to ensure that appropriate security
measures are maintained.
 Maintaining and supervising the implementation of the Ship Security Plan, in
coordination with the Company Security Officer and the relevant Port Facility Security
Officer.
 Co-ordinating the security aspects of the handling of cargo and ship’s stores with other
shipboard personnel and with the relevant Port Facility Security Officer(s).
 Reporting to the Company Security Officer any deficiencies and non-conformities
identified during internal audits, periodic reviews, security inspections and verifications
of compliance and implementing any corrective actions.
 Enhancing security awareness and vigilance on board.
 Ensuring that adequate training has been provided to shipboard personnel.

MARITIME LABOUR CONVENTION
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) is the oldest specialised agency of UN. It
was part of an organisation called “League of Nations, which was formed after World
War I in 1919. ILO was formed in 1920. But between 1920 and 1945 ILO had done very
good work regarding developing International Labour Standards (ILS) for various
industries around the world that it was considered to retain ILO and scrap “League of
Nations” (because it failed to prevent World War II). Thus, ILO was made part of UN as
it is. ILO has developed 68 maritime labour conventions applicable to seafarers and
shipping.
Reasons for the development of Maritime Labour Convention (MLC)
There are basically FOUR reasons as follows:
1. Some of the conventions are very old and dating back to 1922, which have NO
applicability to seafarers of 21str century.
2. IMO Conventions (SOLAS, MARPOL, CLC etc.) require a PROOF of

implementation on board. The proof is in the form of the FLAG STATE
conducting surveys on board and issuing the ship with the relevant certificate.
Sadly, none of the 68 ILO conventions of ILO required such a proof of
implementation. With the result, the Flag States left it to the ship owner to
maintain the labour standards AS THEY DESIRED – meaning, there was NO
CONTROL.
3. Since there was no obligation on the ship owner, to the Flag State, for maintaining
labour standards, they did whatever they liked – some ship owners looking after
their seafarers, but majority of them treating the seafarers like “slaves”.
4. We know that the objective of PSC is to ensure that any foreign ship visiting their
ports is in NO WAY A THREAT to their territory. Whether the ship is
maintaining the required labour standards on board or not, is in no way a threat to
the country’s territory. And also, the PSC considered the labour standards issue to
be an internal matter between the ship owner and his seafarers. With the result
checking of labour standards on board never formed part of any PSC inspection.
The combination of all of above led to the member countries to rectify the situation and
this led to the development of MLC. MLC was adopted in February 2006 and came into
force on 20th August 2013. For the first time in history of shipping it is now required that
before a seafarer joins a ship, he should be made aware of his rights. The MLC thus is
also being referred to as “Bill of Rights for a seafarer”. Also, MLC has given a very
broad definition of the term “seafarer” – it basically says that any person who is on a
gainful employment on a ship (gainful employment – you work and in return you are paid
wages) is a seafarer. It therefore applies to everyone from the Master to the hotel staff on
cruise ships. Also, for the purpose of MLC, New Ship means any ship whose keel is laid
after the entry into force of the convention (i. e. after 20th August 2013).

Layout of MLC
The MLC is divided into FOR layers as follows:

1. Articles.
2. Regulations.
3. Code A (Mandatory).
4. Code B (non-mandatory – it acts as a guideline to follow the mandatory Code A).
The Codes are divided into FIVE chapters known as Titles as follows:
TITLE 1 – Minimum Requirements to Work on Ships

This deals with the minimum age requirements, such as – (a) no person (including the
cadets) below the age of 16 years is allowed to work on ships (b) no person below the age
of 18 years is allowed to work at night where the night period is defined as 2100 hrs. to
0500 hrs.
TITLE 2 – Conditions of Employment

This deals with contractual conditions, hours of work and rest, leave, repatriation and a
written undertaking by the owner that he is responsible to medical and compensation in
case of injury and death. Hours of work are – maximum 14 hrs. in 24 hour period and 72
hours in 7 day period; hours of rest – minimum 10 hours in 24 hours period and 77 hours
in 7 day period.
TITLE 3 – Accommodation, Recreation, Food and Catering

Accommodation – On new ships – (a) no more twin-sharing cabins (including for cadets)
(c) advised to provide attached toilets, but if common toilets provided then very strict
specifications to be adhered to (c) minimum height of deck-head in accommodation
increased; for existing ships – acoustic and vibration levels to be monitored regularly.
Recreation – for the first time the owner has a legal responsibility to provide recreation
on board, access to internet and e-mail and organise conveyance in ports from time to
time.
Food and Catering – the cook to be trained and certified by the Flag State.
TITLE 4 – Medical and Social Protection

The existing medical facilities have been enhanced to include dental and eye treatments.
TITLE 5 – Compliance and Enforcement

Compliance is the responsibility of the Flag State. They will conduct labour survey on 14
parameters based on Title 1 to Title 4 and issue to the ship “Declaration of Maritime
Labour Compliance (DMLC)” along with a Maritime Labour Certificate (ML
Certificate), which will be statutory certificate and valid for 5 years with annual,
intermediate and renewal labour surveys. It is important to note that the ML Certificate is
invalid in the absence of DMLC.

Enforcement is the responsibility of PSC. They have volunteered to enforce it for the
benefit of the world seafarers and have thus given the powers to detain a ship if the MLC
requirements are not found to be met.
Also, every seafarer has the right to complain to Flag State or PSC, but first has the
obligation to follow the “Complaints Procedure” of the Company, which will be part of
the Labour Manual on board.
Finally, the MLC is considered a big step in the welfare of the seafarer and is being called
the “fourth pillar of maritime operations” – the other three pillars being SOLAS,
MARPOL and STCW.
Certification required under Maritime Labour Convention (MLC); 2006
The MLC requires that each ship over 500 GT is issued with a Maritime Labour
Certificate. These certificates are in three parts:
 The Maritime Labour Certificate - This is the fundamental certificate and will be
issued by the Flag State after the ship inspection. A Maritime Labour Certificate
shall be issued to a ship after the Flag State has verified, via inspection, that the
ship (including the DMLC Part II) is in compliance with national (DMLC Part I)
and applicable MLC requirements.
 The Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance Part I (DMLC Part I) - This is a
statement of the national requirements and is issued by the Administration. One
is required for each ship and it sets out the Flag State requirements. The DMLC
Part I is to be prepared and issued by the Flag State Administration and contains
the national requirements and applicable exemptions.
 The Declaration of Maritime Labour Compliance Part II (DMLC Part II) - This is
the statement completed by the ship-owner, which sets out in brief terms the ways
in which he is meeting the standards in the DMLC Part I. The DMLC Part II is to
be prepared by the ship-owner and contains the measures to ensure compliance
with DMLC Part I. The surveyor must confirm that it’s genuine when the first
inspection is finished. Ship-owners with ships under a number of flags are advised
to keep DMLC-Part II generic, rather than producing one specifically for each
flag state.
DMLC-Part II
 Outlines what the ship-owner needs to do to meet the national requirements (the
14 items listed in Appendix A5.1 of the MLC, 2006).
 Shows the measures suggested ensuring that improvement continues.
 Must be written in clear terms.
 Is designed to help everyone involved to easily check that the requirements are
being put in place properly.
Procedures for Certification under Maritime Labour Convention (MLC); 2006
The process of certification requires four simple steps:

 The owner obtains a copy, which contains the text of the DMLC Part I, from the
Flag State and examines his current systems and procedures against the
requirements set out there and in the regulations.
 Having analysed the existing systems and procedures against the requirements in
the DMLC Part I the ship-owner takes steps to close any gaps and ensure that the
procedures and systems in place ensure compliance with the DMLC Part I.
 Having closed any gaps the ship-owner completes the DMLC Part II setting out
the procedures and systems that ensure the standards in the DMLC Part I are met.
 When the DMLC part II is complete the ship-owner asks the Flag State
Administration for a final DMLC Part I and applies for certification under the
MLC. The Flag State Administration will ask for copies of the Part I and the
Part II and any supporting documentation, which they will review ashore. When
the review is satisfactorily completed the Flag State Administration will arrange
attendance on board, by their surveyor, to complete the inspection and verify
compliance on board the ship after which the Maritime Labour Certificate is
issued.
India and MLC
India has ratified MLC as of 9th October 2016.
Duties of a Seafarer under MLC
Seafarers should:
1. Actively participate in promoting a safety culture and express their views on safe
and healthy working conditions and risk assessments;
2. Cooperate with the master to implement prescribed Occupational, Safety and
Health (OSH) policies and other measures;
3. Participate in OSH meetings and do everything possible to maintain both their
own safety and health and those of other persons on board;
4. Properly use the preventive principles and utilize available PPE and clothing as
instructed and otherwise when appropriate;
5. Use only machinery that is properly guarded and not render the guards
inoperative;
6. Report immediately to their immediate supervisor any situation which could pose
a hazard and which they cannot properly handle themselves;
7. Have the right to remove themselves from dangerous situations or operations
when they have good reason to believe that there is an imminent and serious
danger and
8. Communicate effectively regarding safety risks, verify that the instructions have
been understood and provide an opportunity for clarification to be sought.
9. Except in an emergency, seafarers, unless duly authorized, should not interfere
with, remove or displace any safety device or other equipment and appliances
furnished for their protection or the protection of others, or interfere with any
method or process adopted to prevent accidents, injuries and diseases.
10. The seafarer is aware of his rights and can show his copy to PSC when asked.
11. The copy of his contract is in his safe custody to be shown to PSC when asked.

12. Ensure the night time age requirements are strictly adhered to.
13. Frequent and regular rounds of accommodation, stores, hygiene, cleanliness and
upkeep.
14. Ensure that Chief Engineer is regularly monitoring the acoustic and vibration
level.
15. Ensure that the recreation equipment is in good condition and usable at all times.
16. Keep a very close contact with the compliment of the ship to ensure that any of
their complaints, if any, is immediately addressed while adhering to the
Company’s complain procedure.
17. Keep the ship always “happy” to ensure no reasons for a complaint to arise.
18. Ensure the ship to be in a state of readiness for a labour survey anytime.

SAFETY

ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES
Enclosed space accidents are very common on board ships. Such accidents occur mainly when the
ship’s crew enters a confined/enclosed space, which is not properly gas-freed and has several
pockets of toxic/flammable gases.
An enclosed space is defined as a space of enclosed nature which has limited openings for entry
and exit, inadequate ventilation and is not designed for continuous worker occupancy. This
includes cargo spaces, double bottoms, fuel tanks, ballast tanks, cargo pump-rooms, cofferdams,
chain lockers, void spaces, duct keels, inter-barrier spaces, boilers, engine crankcases, engine
scavenge air receivers, sewage tanks, and adjacent connected spaces and any other spaces that are
normally kept closed.
Procedure for Entering an Enclosed Space
The following are the points that need to be followed before entering an enclosed space:
1. Risk assessment to be carried out by a competent officer, as enclosed or confined space

entry is deficient in oxygen, making it a potential life hazard.
2. Risk assessment that needs to be carried out must include what work to be done, rescue
operation to be followed etc.
3. Potential hazards are to be identified such as presence of toxic gases.
4. A list of jobs to be done should be made for the ease of assessment for e.g. if welding is
to be carried out or some pipe replacement is to be done. This helps in carrying out the
work quickly and easily.
5. Opening and securing has to be done and precaution should be taken to check if the
opening of enclosed space is pressurized or not.
6. All fire hazard possibilities should be minimized if hot work is to be carried out.
Emptying the fuel tank or chemical tank nearby the hot work place can do this.
7. The confined space has to be well ventilated before entering.
8. The space has to be checked for oxygen content and other gas content with the help of
oxygen analyser and gas detector.
9. The oxygen content should read 20% by volume. Percentage less than that is not
acceptable and more time for ventilation should be given in such circumstances.
10. Enough lighting and illumination should be present in the enclosed space before entering.
As far as practicable lightings should be intrinsically safe.
11. A proper permit to work has to be filled out and checklist to be checked so as to prevent
any accident which can endanger life.
12. Permit to work is to be valid only for a certain time period. If time period expires, a new
permit is to be issued and checklist is to be filled out again.

13. Permit to work has to be checked and permitted by the master of the ship in order to work
in confined space.
14. Duty officer has to be informed before entering the enclosed space.
15. Proper signs and “Men at work” sign boards should be provided at required places so that
person should not start any equipment, machinery or operation in the confined space,
putting life of the people at risk.
16. The checklist has to be signed by the person involved in entry and also by a competent
officer.
17. One person must always be kept standby to communicate with the person inside the
space.
18. The person may also carry a lifeline with him inside the enclosed space.
19. The person should carry oxygen analyser with him inside and it should be on all the time
to monitor the oxygen content.
20. As soon as the level drops, the analyser should sound the alarm and the space should be
evacuated quickly without any delay.
21. No source of ignition has to be taken inside unless the master or competent officer is
satisfied.
22. The number of persons entering should be constrained to the adequate number of persons
who are actually needed inside for work.
23. Rescue equipment is to be present outside the confined space. Rescue equipment includes
breathing air apparatus and spare charge bottles.
24. Means of hoisting an incapacitated person should be available.
25. After finishing the work, when the person is out of the enclosed space, the after work
checklist has to be filled.
26. The permit to work has to be closed after this and responsible officer notified of the
completion of the work.
SAMPLE RISK ASSESSMENT FOR ECLOSED SPACES

Risk estimator
Likelihood of harm Severity of harm

Slight harm Moderate harm Extreme harm
Very unlikely Very low risk Very low risk High risk
Unlikely Very low risk Medium risk Very high risk
Likely Low risk High risk Very high risk
Very likely Low risk Very high risk Very high risk

Determine tolerability of risks:
Category of risk Evaluation of tolerability

Very low Acceptable
Low Tolerable
Medium Risks should be reduced so that they are

tolerable or acceptable
High
Very high Unacceptable
Details:
Very low risk: Considered acceptable. No further action is necessary other than control
Low risk: No additional control measures necessary. Actions to further reduce these risks
considered low priority.
Medium risk: Consideration to be given where risk can be lowered to a tolerable level and
preferably, acceptable level.
High risk: Substantial efforts should be implemented urgently to reduce the risk.
Very high risk: Considered unacceptable. Substantial improvement in risk control measures is
necessary to reduce risk at tolerable or acceptable level.
Risk assessment: Enclosed Space Entry
Sl Description of Likelihood Severity Risk Existing control Further risk

No identified of harm of harm factor measures control
hazards measures
1 Collapsing in Likely Extreme Very 1. All lines 1. Training of
the enclosed High leading to space personnel in
space secured enclosed
Cause: Toxic 2. Space emptied space entry
atmosphere 3. Space remotely 2. Attendance at
cleaned if entrance
possible 3. Regular
4. Space tested for communicati
safe atmosphere on
5. Space tested at 4. Emergency
regular signal
intervals established
6. Continuous 5. Entrant using
ventilation PPE
6. Availability
of rescue
equipment

2 Fire/Explosion Likely High High 1. Monitor 1. Drills and
in the enclosed atmosphere training in
space 2. Use fire fighting.
Cause: Dust intrinsically 2. Sufficient
cloud, safe devices personnel
flammable 3. Follow hot- for fire
atmosphere, work fighting
Hot-work, procedure 3. First aid
Equipment 4. Do not use equipment
failure, defective
equipment
5. Do not
ventilate with
pure oxygen
3 Slipping and Likely Moderate Medium 1. Use of anti- 1. Stretcher
tripping of skid safety and first aid
personnel inside shoes kit available
Cause: Poor 2. Good lighting 2. Drill and
lighting, poor 3. Clean the training in
housekeeping, flooring of first aid
Inadequate PPE, mud oil etc. 3.
Hazardous 4. Relevant PPE
structures, 5. Awareness of
worker fatigue, the space prior
reduced entry
visibility due to 6. Sending fresh
smoke,/dust/mist and alert
worker
7. Regular
hydration of
the worker
8. Good
ventilation
4 Electrocution Unlikely Moderate Medium 1. Isolate electric

hazard equipment as
Cause: Exposed appropriate.
cables, Running 2. Post warning
electrical notices on
equipment, isolators.
3. Use certified
electrical
equipment
5 Injury due to fall Unlikely Slight Low 1. Make sure no 1. Secure all tools
of objects from loose items are appropriately.
aloft: stored overhead.
Cause: Loose 2. No loose
items overhead, deposits
Bad working overhead.
practices 3. Follow safe
working
practice

****************************************
HOT WORK ACCIDENTS
Accidents as a result of hot work can occur because of several reasons. One of the most common
ones are when hot work is being carried out in enclosed space with flammable gases, when the
adjacent tank has flammable material, as a result of flammable gas pockets etc. It is also seen that
seafarers often fail to follow the basic hot work procedures while carrying out such procedures,
leading to unfortunate, fatal accidents.
Following procedure to be followed for carrying out hot work maintenance on ships:
1. Refer and follow "Hot Work Precautions Matrix" before starting the job;
2. A work planning meeting to be held and a formal or informal risk assessment to be
carried out of the work place;
3. A responsible officer, who is not directly involved in the hot work, must be designated to
ensure that the plan is followed;
4. The atmosphere of the hot work area should be tested and found to be less than 1% LEL;
5. Fire fighting equipment must be arranged and kept ready for immediate use;
6. Fire detectors of the work place must be checked for proper working;
7. Measures should be taken to prevent scattering sparks, such as spark shelters;
8. Confirm that no other work such as repairing pipelines, that may cause leak of
combustible gas or oil, is being done in the same compartment;
9. Arrangements for placing required watchmen for monitoring hot work area and adjacent
areas should be made;
10. Provision must be made for sufficient ventilation and lighting;
11. Evacuation routes/passages must be properly designated/secured;
12. The condition of tools and equipment must be checked and found satisfactory;
13. Personnel involved in work must be provided with appropriate personal protective
equipment and danger indications, safety ropes etc. installed at work site as necessary;
14. Areas where fire is directly applied must be clearly marked;
15. All crew engaged in the hot work should be adequately trained and clearly instructed in
precautions to be observed when carrying out hot work;
16. Measures must be taken to prevent fire from coming in contact with gas, residual oil,
sludge and other dangerous and combustible materials;
17. Check there is no dangerous and combustible materials on the other side of the bulkhead,
deck head or division on which hot work is to be carried out;
18. The section to be worked on should be disconnected or disassembled from related
pipelines and valves by cold work and the open ended section must be sealed off;
19. The safety in the pipe must be confirmed where applicable;
20. The safety of enclosed compartments must be confirmed in accordance with procedures
for entry into enclosed spaces where applicable;
21. All crew engaged in work within enclosed space must be provided with portable lighting
apparatus; and Gas detection in spaces where there is danger of combustible gas
emissions (air pipe tops, areas near manholes, other openings and the like) and in vicinity
of the hot work area must be carried out prior work and should continue periodically
during work.

Some most safety precautions to follow while doing gas welding/hot work are:
• Secure Gas Cylinders in Vertical Position: Compressed gas cylinders must be handled
with utmost care and always be secured in vertical position even if they are full or empty.
Full and empty cylinders to be segregated and marked clearly.
• Store in Right Spaces: Never store oxygen and acetylene cylinder together in one space
whenever possible. Keep them separately in well ventilated spaces. Ensure when not in
use, their caps should always be on them.
• Keep Grease and Oil Away: Control valves and fittings should be kept free of oil and
grease. Never operate cylinder valves and parts with oily and greasy hands.
• Ensure Flame Arresters Are Properly Fitted: Ensure non-return valves and flame arresters
are fitted in the acetylene and oxygen cylinder lines. One flame arresters is normally
fitted in the low pressure side of the regulator near cylinder and other near the torch.
• Keep Pressure of Oxygen Higher: When performing gas welding, ensure the pressure of
oxygen is always higher than the acetylene to avoid acetylene going back to the oxygen
line.
• Handle Acetylene With Care: Acetylene should not be used for welding at a pressure
exceeding 1 bar of atmosphere gauge as it is liable to explode, even in the absence of air,
when under excessive pressure.
• Rectify Cause of Backfire: In case of back fire, the first priority should be to close the
oxygen valve and then immediately close the acetylene valve. No operation is to be
performed until the cause of backfire is rectified.
• Handle Flashback Carefully: In case of flashback or explosion of the gas pipes, first
action must be to isolate the cylinder valves for both the cylinders. Further action to be
taken as per ship’s fire drill procedures.
• Ensure Proper Connections: The connections between the hose and blowpipe and
between hoses should be securely fixed with fittings to comply with Regulatory Standard.
• Keep a Steady Watch: A regular watch to be kept on the temperature of acetylene

cylinder. If the temperature is elevating, it is to be considered same as flashback or
explosion situation for taking action.
• Prevent Interchange of Hoses: Manifold hose connections including inlet and outlet
connections should be such that the hose cannot be interchanged between fuel gases and
oxygen manifolds and headers.
• Replace Old and Faulty Hoses: Any hose in which flashback has occurred must be
replaced with new one.
•  Handle Hoses Properly: While performing the job, the hoses should be laid
properly and kept out of any moving machinery, sharp corners, high temperature areas
etc. Ensure they are not dangled, knitted or tipped over.

• Use Only Soap Water for Leakages: Only soap water to be used for detection of leak
from hose or regulator arrangement.
• Never Use Sealing Tape: Never use sealing tape of metal joining material to prevent leak
between metal to metal gas tight joints. With an oxygen cylinder this could result in
initiation of a metal- oxygen fire.
• Never Over Tight Connections: Never try to over tight any nut of regulator connection or
cylinder valve spindle to stop the leak. This can lead to damage.
• Take Proper Steps for Maintenance: Only special tools should be used to clean any
clogging in the blow pipe. Before performing any maintenance, complete system to be
isolated. Never attempt repairs on pressurized oxy-acetylene equipment nor carry out any
unauthorized modification on hot work equipment.
• Use Safe Igniters Only: Blowpipe should only be ignited with friction igniter or other
stable flame generator. Avoid using lighter as sudden flame, else blowpipe can hit the
lighter body and explode.
• Never Use Oxygen: Oxygen should never be used for ventilation, cooling purpose or for
blowing dust off the surface or clothes.
• Discard Hoses That Had Flashback: Any length of hose in which a flashback has
occurred should be discarded immediately. Last but not the least, make sure before
carrying out any kind of hot work, the hot work checklist and risk assessment forms have
been duly filled. Also, do not forget to follow all safety procedures while carrying out
such jobs in enclosed spaces.
*************************************************
MOORING OPERATIONS
Yet another most common reason for serious injuries and deaths on board ships, mooring
operations is considered an extremely dangerous task, which needs proper skills and knowledge.
Several officers and crewmembers lose their lives every year because of accidents related to
mooring operations.
Mentioned below are ten points that must be considered while handing mooring operation on
ships:
1. Don’t Allow Any Extra Crew Member on the Deck: Ensure that no extra personnel are
present at the mooring station except those who are involved in the operation. Anyone
who is not assisting in the mooring operation must be asked to leave the mooring station
for his/her and other’s safety.
2. Consider Weather Condition: Before planning the mooring operation, consider the
weather condition by taking factors such as wind and current. The ship’s master and
responsible officer must have the details of current and future weather data before
commencing the mooring operation.

3. Have knowledge of Snap Back Zone and Rope Bight: All personnel involved with the
mooring operation should be aware of the snap back zones and rope bight.
4. Check All the Mooring Equipment: Check all the equipment (mooring winch, drums,
windlass etc.) involved in the mooring operation for any kind of problem. Proper routine
maintenance is the key to ensure smooth running of mooring equipment and systems.
Don’t forget to check the load sensors of mooring winches.
5. Check the Tail of Mooring Line: If the mooring wire line is provided with tail (short
lengths of synthetic fibre rope which are placed in series with the vessel’s winch-mounted
wires to decrease mooring line stiffness and thus to reduce peak line loads and fatigue
due to vessel motions) ensure same size and material of tails are used for all lines in the
same service (breast, spring and headlines). Different tail size and material would lead to
uneven load in the mooring line.
6. Tend One Line at a Time: Only one line should be tended at a time during mooring
operation. If this is not done, it may increase the load in the other tended lines. If two
lines are tended together it may lead to overloading and breakage. Follow the orders of
the master or responsible ship officer properly to avoid any kind of mishap.
7. Keep a Check on the Mooring Line Load: Ensure that the allowable breaking load in
any of the mooring lines does not increase 55% of its Maximum Breaking Load (MBL).
This is to prevent the line from breaking.
8. Keep a Continuous Check: Load on the mooring lines must be checked continuously
even after the mooring operation is over. If there is any change in the ship’s ballast
condition, the lines must be slacked or tightened accordingly. The condition of the rope
material should also be checked to foresee unfortunate accidents.
9. Avoid Mixed Mooring: Mixed mooring is extremely dangerous. Generally, mooring

lines of the same size and material should be used for all leads, if this is not possible due
to the available equipment, all lines in the same service, i.e. breast lines, spring lines,
headlines and stern lines should be of the same size and material. The use of mixed
moorings comprising full length synthetic ropes used in conjunction with wire should be
avoided. If a synthetic rope and a wire are used in the same service the wire will carry
almost the entire load while the synthetic rope carries practically none.
10. Arrange Mooring Lines Symmetrical: All mooring line must be arranged as
symmetrical as possible with the breast line. The breast line should be perpendicular to
the longitudinal centreline of the ship and the spring line should be parallel to the
longitudinal centre line.
*************************************************
PERMIT-TO-WORK SYSTEM
The permit-to-work system is a method whereby safety procedures are specified in writing on a
form issued to seafarers who are assigned with a task which may involve work of a hazardous
nature. Permits should only be used for the more hazardous tasks and the system should not
become over-complicated.

The form should describe the work to be carried out and the necessary safety precautions. All
probable hazards should be considered, a predetermined safe procedure should be adopted and the
appropriate precautions should be written down in a correct sequence. The permit should contain
a carefully planned checklist to identify, control or eliminate hazards and should state the
emergency procedure in the event of an accident.
A permit should be issued only by an officer with experience in the work operation. The officer
should ensure that the checks have been properly carried out and, together with the person in
charge, sign the permit only when satisfied that it is safe for the work to proceed. The master
should countersign any such permits.
Procedures for locking off at points of isolation and signing for, and the subsequent cancellation
of, permits and "making live" should be covered.
Permit-to-work form – An Example
Note: The responsible officer should indicate the sections applicable by marks in the left-hand
spaces next to the headings, and by deleting any subheading not applicable. The officer should
insert the appropriate details when the sections for other work or additional precautions are
used. The person in charge of the work should mark each applicable right-hand space when
completing each check.
Work to be done
Period of validity of permit
Location
Person in charge of the work
Persons performing the work
Responsible officer
(Signature)
Date and Time
Master's signature
Date and Time
Entry into enclosed or confined spaces
1. Space thoroughly ventilated
2. Atmosphere tested and found safe
3. Rescue and resuscitation equipment available at entrance
4. Responsible person in attendance at entrance
5. Communication arrangements made between person at entrance and those entering
6. Access and illumination adequate
7. All equipment to be used is of an approved type
When breathing apparatus is to be used:

1. Familiarity of user with apparatus is confirmed
2. Apparatus has been tested and found to be satisfactory
Machinery or equipment
Removed from service/isolated from sources of power or heat
All relevant personnel informed

Warning notices displayed
Hot work
1. Area clear of dangerous material and gas-free
2. Ventilation adequate
3. Equipment in good order
4. Fire appliances in good order
5. Other work
6. Additional precautions
7. Certificate of checks
I am satisfied that all precautions have been taken and that safety arrangements will be
maintained for the duration of the work.
(Signature of person in charge)
Certificate of completion
The work has been completed and all persons under my supervision, materials and equipment
have been withdrawn.
(Signature of person in charge)

(Date)____________________ (Time) ___________________________________
*************************************************
WORKING WITH LADDERS / GANGWAY / PILOT ACCESS

Accidents have occurred on many ships when the ship’s MOT Ladder/gangway or pilot ladders
have failed while being used by ship’s crew members, pilots or visitors. MOT Ladder/gangway
failure usually takes place as a result of lack of maintenance and failure of MOT Ladder/gangway
wire rope.
Here are few points to consider while rigging the pilot ladder:

1. The top portion or head of the pilot ladders should be secured at the strongest point of the
vessel.
2. Pilot ladder should be positioned and secured, so that it is clear of any discharges from
the ship, with parallel body length of the ship and as far as practicable within the half way
length (amidships) of the ship.
3. All steps of the pilot ladder should rest firmly against the ship side. In certain ships,
where constructional features such as fenders or rubbing band prevent the implementation
of above safety features, special arrangements are to be made for safe embarkation and
disembarkation.
4. Two man ropes not less than 28 mm and made of manila rope or other material which
gives firm grip for climbing the ladder, should be rigged along the side of pilot ladder if
requested.
5. During night, the whole length of the pilot ladder, point access and egress should be well
illuminated. A life buoy with self-igniting light and a heaving line should be kept ready.
Hand hold stanchions and bulwark ladder are to be used if required.
6. If the point of access from sea level is more than 9 meters, a combination ladder should
be used. A combination ladder is a conjunction of pilot ladder and accommodation ladder
.This is a common arrangement found on vessels with high freeboard. The
accommodation ladder is rigged in such a way that it leads aft of the vessel and has a
slope angle of not more than 55 degrees.
Maintenance of Pilot Ladder:
1. Pilot ladders are to be regularly inspected for wear and tear of side ropes, missing wedges
and damages on the steps. The steps should never be painted and should be kept clean,
free from oil and grease.
2. All the steps should be equally spaced between the side ropes and the distance between
two steps should be uniform.
3. Steps should be always horizontal. Any faulty steps found should be replaced
immediately.
4. The side ropes are made of manila rope. They should be continuous and free from ties
and joints below the first step of pilot ladder. The shackles used to secure the pilot ladder
should have equal strength and durability same as that of side ropes used.
5. Once the pilotage operation is over the pilot ladder should be secured instead of left
hanging on the ship’s side. The pilot ladders should be stowed in dry and well ventilated
space, clear of deck and fitted with cover to prevent the ladder from sunlight, chemical
and paint spills.
6. It is to note that Pilot ladders are solely used for the purpose of embarkation and
disembarkation of the personnel. It should never be used for any other purpose like
draught reading or any other maintenance work. Pilot ladders should be well maintained
and properly stowed which ensures safe, convenient and unobstructed passage while pilot
transfer. More information on pilot ladder construction and specifications can be found in
SOLAS chapter V under regulation safety of navigation.
The following points must be applied whenever the MOT Ladder/gangway is in use:
1. The MOT Ladder/gangway must be properly rigged and deployed.

2. It must be safe to use and adjusted as necessary to maintain safe access to the vessel.
3. MOT Ladder/gangway adequately lit at all times, with a minimum of 20 lux at a height of
1m.
4. A lifebuoy with self-activating light and buoyant line must be posted adjacent to the
MOT Ladder/gangway.

5. The MOT Ladder/gangway MUST NOT be used at an angle greater than 30° above the
horizontal plane unless it is specifically designed for operation at greater angles, normally
up to 50°.
6. Where necessary a bulwark ladder must be provided, safety fenced to a minimum height
of 1m.
7. Guard ropes must be kept taut at all times and stanchions must be rigidly secured.
8. The MOT Ladder/gangway must be kept clear of cargo operations and quayside
obstructions.
9. The MOT Ladder/gangway must be kept clear of any materials, substances or
obstructions likely to cause a person to slip or trip.
10. A safety net should be mounted where a person may fall from the MOT Ladder/gangway,
ship’s deck or quayside.
11. The aim of the safety net is to minimize the risk of injury arising from falling between the
ship and the quay or falling on to the quay or deck and as far as reasonably practicable
the whole length of the MOT Ladder/gangway should be covered.
12. Safety nets should be securely rigged, with use being made of securing points on the
quayside where appropriate.
13. In addition to this it should be noted that users of MOT Ladder/gangways are responsible
for risk assessing conditions prior to use, and where necessary consideration should be
given to turning and facing the MOT Ladder/gangway and bulwark ladder whilst
ascending or descending.
14. A pilot ladder should be capable of covering the whole length from the point of access to
the water level. The height from water level should be informed to the bridge by the port
control or the pilot himself depending on the height of the pilot vessel.
*************************************************
SHIPBOARD SAFETY ORGANIZATION

Every person on board has a responsibility for safety!
 The Company is responsible for ensuring the overall safety of the ship and that safety on
board is properly organised and coordinated.
 The Master has the day-to-day responsibility for the safe operation of the ship and the
safety of those on board.
 Each employer is responsible for the health and safety of their workers.
 Heads of department are responsible for health and safety in their own department.
 Each officer/manager is responsible for health and safety for those they supervise and
others affected.
 Each individual seafarer or worker is responsible for their own health and safety and that
of anyone affected by their acts and omissions.
Managing occupational health and safety, the development of a positive ‘safety culture’ and the
achievement of high standards of safety depend on good organisation and the whole-hearted
support of management and all seafarers. Those with specific safety responsibilities are more
likely to perform well when management is clearly committed to health and safety. It is also
important that procedures are in place so that all seafarers can cooperate and participate in
establishing and maintaining safe working conditions and practices.
Appointment of safety officers

On every seagoing ship on which five or more seafarers are employed, the Company is required
to appoint a safety officer. The Master must record the appointment of a safety officer – this
should be in the official logbook.
The safety officer is the safety adviser aboard the ship and can provide valuable assistance to the
Company and to individual employers in meeting the statutory responsibilities for health and
safety. Some training may be provided on board, but the safety officer should have attended a
suitable safety officer’s training course.
Suitable safety officer training should cover the following topics:
1. The tasks of the safety committee;

2. The rights and roles of members of the safety committee;
3. How to carry out risk assessment and management;
4. How to provide the necessary advice to resolve safety concerns or problems and to
encourage adherence to prevention principles;
5. Supervision of safety tasks assigned to crew and other seafarers on board, and passengers
where applicable;
6. Accident and incident investigation, analysis and making appropriate corrective and
preventative recommendations to prevent their recurrence;
7. How to obtain relevant information on a safe and healthy working environment from the
competent authority and the Company;
8. Effective means of communication with a multinational crew; and
9. The commitment required to promote a safe working environment on board.
In addition, the safety officer should be familiar with the following:
i. The occupational safety and health policy and programmes used on board;
ii. The safety tasks assigned to crew and other personnel on board, and passengers where
applicable; and
iii. The safety officer should be familiar with the principles and practice of risk assessment,
and should be available to advise those preparing and reviewing risk assessments. It is
recognised that, where the safety officer also has other responsibilities (e.g. chief officer)
they may well conduct risk assessments themselves. However, the general principle is
that the safety officer takes an independent view of safety on behalf of the Company.
Election of safety representatives
On every ship on which five or more seafarers are working, the Company must make
arrangements for the election of safety representatives.
The number of safety representatives who should be elected will vary according to the number of
seafarers on board and where appropriate the number of different departments or working groups.
As far as practicable, seafarers at all levels and in all departments should have effective
representation. The Master must record the election or appointment of every safety representative
in writing – this should be either in the official logbook or in the minutes of safety committee
meetings.
Appointment of a safety committee
The Company is required to appoint a safety committee on every ship with five or more seafarers.
The committee must be chaired by the Master, and members will include, as a minimum, the
safety officer and any elected safety representatives. If practical, in addition to the Company’s

competent person, any competent person appointed by other employers should be invited to
attend. The Master must record the appointment of a safety committee in writing – this should
normally be in the official logbook or minutes of the committee’s meetings.
Duties of safety officers
It is very important that the safety officer maintains a good working relationship with safety
representatives by, for example, inviting the relevant safety representatives to join in the regular
inspection of each part of the ship or, while carrying out an investigation, consulting them on
safety matters and arrangements, and in particular on any follow-up action proposed.
The safety officer’s relationship with the safety committee is rather different since the safety
officer is both a member of the committee and also to some extent subject to its direction. A
committee has the right to inspect any of the records that a safety officer is required by law to
keep, and has the power to require the safety officer to carry out any health or safety inspections
considered necessary.
Advice on compliance with safety requirements
The safety officer is required by the regulations to try to ensure compliance with the provisions of
this Code and any health and safety guidance and instructions for the ship. The safety officer’s
role should be a positive one, seeking to initiate or develop safety measures before an incident
occurs rather than afterwards. The safety officer should do the following:
1. Be on the lookout for any potential hazards and the means of preventing incidents.
2. Try to develop and sustain a high level of safety consciousness among seafarers so that
individuals work and react instinctively in a safe manner and have full regard to the
safety not only of themselves but also of others. The objective is to become the ship’s
adviser on safety to whom the Master, officers and all seafarers will naturally turn for
advice or help on safe working procedures.
3. Where unsafe practice is observed, approach the individual or responsible officer
concerned to suggest improvements in the method of working or use the safety committee
to discuss examples of dangerous or unsafe practices in a particular area. If this brings no
improvement, the safety officer should consider approaching the head of department or,
as a last resort, the Master to use their influence.
4. Ensure that each worker joining the ship is instructed in all relevant health and safety
arrangements, and of the importance attached to them before starting work.
5. Where possible, ensure that arrangements are made for each new entrant to work with a
seafarer who is thoroughly safety conscious.
6. Remind experienced seafarers joining the ship for the first time of the importance of a
high level of safety consciousness and of setting a good example to less experienced
seafarers.
The safety officer should also promote safety on board, subject to the agreement of the Master,
by:
i. Arranging the distribution of booklets, leaflets and other advisory material on safety
matters;
ii. Supervising the display of posters and notices, replacing and renewing them regularly;
iii. Arranging for the showing of films on safety publicity and, where appropriate, organising
subsequent discussions on the subjects depicted;
iv. Encouraging seafarers to submit ideas and suggestions for improving safety and enlisting
their support for any proposed safety measures which may affect them (the person

making a suggestion should always be informed of decisions reached and any action
taken); and
v. Effectively communicating new requirements or advice in relevant shipping legislation,
marine notices and Company and ship’s rules and instructions relating to safety at work
about the ship.
Work of safety committees
The safety committee is a forum for consultation between the Master, safety officials and others
of matters relating to health and safety. It may be used by individual employers for consultation
with the Company and seafarers. Its effectiveness will depend on the commitment of its members,
in particular that of the Master. Because of its broad membership, and with the Master as its
chairman, the committee has the means to take effective action in all matters which it discusses
other than those requiring the authorisation of the Company and individual employers. Safety
committee meetings should not be used for the purposes of instruction or training.
The frequency of meetings will be determined by circumstances, but the committee should meet
regularly, taking into account the pattern of operation of the ship and the arrangement for
manning and with sufficient frequency to ensure continuous improvement in safety. In particular,
a meeting should also be held after any serious incident or accident on the ship, if the normal
meeting is not due within a week.
An agenda (together with any associated documents and papers, and the minutes of the previous
meeting) should be circulated to all committee members in sufficient time to enable them to
digest the contents and to prepare for the meeting.
The first item on the agenda should always be the minutes of the previous meeting. This allows
any correction to the minutes to be recorded and gives the opportunity to report any follow-up
action taken.
The last item but one should be ‘any other businesses’. This enables last-minute items to be
introduced, and prevents the written agenda being a stop on discussion. Any other business
should be limited to important issues that have arisen since the agenda was prepared. All other
items should be submitted for inclusion in the agenda of the next meeting.
The last item on the agenda should be the date, time and place of the next meeting.
Minutes of each meeting should record concisely the business discussed and conclusions reached.
A copy should be provided to each committee member. They should be agreed as soon after the
meeting as possible, or amended if necessary, and then agreed under the first agenda item of the
following meeting.
A minutes file or book should be maintained, together with a summary of recommendations

recording the conclusions reached, in order to provide a permanent source of reference and so
ensuring continuity should there be changes in personnel serving on the committee.
All seafarers should be kept informed on matters of interest which have been discussed, e.g. by
posting summaries or extracts from the minutes on the ship’s noticeboards. Suggestions may be
stimulated by similarly posting the agenda in advance of meetings.

Relevant extracts of agreed minutes should be forwarded through the Master to the Company and,
where appropriate, individual employers, even when the matters referred to have already been
taken up with them. A record of response or action taken by the Company should be maintained.
Minutes of the Safety Meeting”
The minutes of the meetings are recorded in a prescribed format and generally would consists of
the following details:
 Ship Name Report Number:
 Date of Meeting
 Meeting Opened: (Time) Meeting Closed:
 Participants of the meeting (Name, Rank)
 Review of the previous meeting minutes.
 Opening comments
 Matters outstanding from previous meeting.
 New matters arising / observed on the ship during the past month.
 Action taken and status on the observed matters.
 Safety Equipment Under Repair or Undergoing Maintenance by Ships Staff
 Safety Equipment Outstanding or Overdue Maintenance (Including Calibration)
 Emergency/pollution drills conducted
 Safety training conducted (other than safety drills)
 Safety training planned (other than safety drills)
 Any other business
 Conclusion
WORKING ALOFT
On board ships, seafarers are often required to work at heights wearing safety harnesses and other
important equipment. However, in spite of taking all the necessary precautions, several crew
members have lost their lives or suffered permanent injuries as a result of falling/slipping from
heights, failure of safety devices, falling inside cargo hold during inspection and also due to sheer
negligence.
Working aloft or over-side is considered to be a critical operation. While working aloft or at a

height, a number of precautionary measures need to be taken and bosun chairs, stage boards or
scaffolding should be prepared.
Summarized below are some basic checks prior to working aloft. These procedures are only
indicative, not exhaustive in nature and one must always be guided by practices of good
seamanship.
1. It must be ascertained that the work to be undertaken complies with the local port regulations;
2. A proper pre-meeting should be held before commencing the work and work permit should
be obtained for the duration of the work; all concerned personnel to be informed.
3. Personnel under training shall not be assigned aloft or over side related jobs;
4. Personnel who are carrying out the work should be physically fit;
5. The personnel should be clearly instructed of work scope, procedure and precautions to be
taken;
6. Personnel should be notified of working in vicinity of radar scanner, aerials and funnel &
whistle;

7. Rolling period and wind speed must be taken into consideration to find out if the work can be
carried out safely or not;
8. The power source to potential hazards such as ships whistle, radar, etc. should be isolated
from their power source and accidental activation prevented by the use of warning signs and /
or removal of fuses;
9. Traffic under the working site must be prohibited as far as possible by cordoning off to
prevent injury to passer-by due to falling debris / accidental dropping of objects;
10. Equipment to be used by the personnel working aloft or over side should be securely housed
in tool belts / bags;
11. Tools / equipment that cannot be carried on a person should be hoisted to the place of work in
secure containers;
12. All anti-falling measures for tools must be taken into consideration;
13. Personnel carrying out the work must wear all appropriate clothing and should be provided
with adequate personal protective equipment;
14. Condition and strength of safety harnesses, lifelines, safety belts should be properly checked;
15. Equipment to be used must be correctly and properly rigged and measures must be taken to
prevent damage by chafing;
16. Bosun chairs, stage boards, scaffoldings & ladders should be checked for good condition;
17. Condition and strength of ropes and lifelines must also be checked;
18. If portable ladders are used, it must be checked if they have been set correctly at suitable
places;
19. Warning notices must be posted at proper places to avoid accident by use of such equipment
during working;
20. Watchman must be posted where working crew is insufficient to take appropriate measures to
prevent accidents;
21. Upon completion of the jobs, all equipment must be removed from the site and warning
notices / isolated systems restored to normal condition; and
22. Concerned personnel must be notified of completion of the job.
PREVENTING SLIPS/TRIPS/FALLS
Fatal accidents do not occur only while working aloft. Several lives have been lost when seafarers
have slipped/tripped and fallen from heights.
The following important measures must be taken to prevent slips/trips/falls:
1. Ensure adequate lightings are fixed at all places on ships where chances of slips and trips
are high;
2. All hazards/obstructions must be identified clearly and marked;
3. Non-slip surfaces should be in place and properly maintained;
4. Personnel must use appropriate footwear;
5. Working areas on board ships must follow good housekeeping by clearing oil, rubbish
and equipment at the end of work;
6. All working areas must be provided with good access controls such as guardrails, wires;
7. Personnel must wear all safety equipment and also use harness/nets etc. while working at
places where chances of falls are high; and
8. Adequate first aid facilities must be kept ready.
Sample Risk Assessment for Working Aloft:

Risk estimator
Likelihood of harm Severity of harm

Slight harm Moderate harm Extreme harm
Very unlikely Very low risk Very low risk High risk
Unlikely Very low risk Medium risk Very high risk
Likely Low risk High risk Very high risk
Very likely Low risk Very high risk Very high risk
Determine tolerability of risks:
Category of risk Evaluation of tolerability
Very low Acceptable
Low Tolerable
Medium Risks should be reduced so that they are

tolerable or acceptable
High
Very high Unacceptable
Details:
Very low risk: Considered acceptable. No further action is necessary other than control
Low risk: No additional control measures necessary. Actions to further reduce these risks
considered low priority.
Medium risk: Consideration to be given where risk can be lowered to a tolerable level and
preferably, acceptable level.
High risk: Substantial efforts should be implemented urgently to reduce the risk.
Very high risk: Considered unacceptable. Substantial improvement in risk control measures is
necessary to reduce risk at tolerable or acceptable level.

Risk assessment: working aloft.
Sl Description Likelihood Severity Risk Existing control Further risk
No of identified of harm of harm factor measures control
hazards measures
1 Falling off the Unlikely Moderate Medium 1. Use safety
ladder while harness.
climbing 2. Use appropriate
PPE.
3. Clean any
slippery
ladders.
2 Falling from Unlikely Moderate Medium 1. Safety harness
heights while secured to a
working strong point.
2. Attended by a
responsible
person.
3 Ship’s whistle Very Slight Low 1. Isolate whistle.
sounded while unlikely 2. Use of warning
working signs on all
whistle controls.
4 Hit by radar Very Slight Low 1. Isolate Radars.

antenna unlikely 2. Use warning
signs on all
radars.
5 Radiation Likely Slight Low 1. Use of warning
hazard by sign on Radar.
radar or radio 2. Switch off
aerial radar.
6 Electrocution Unlikely Moderate Medium 1. Isolate electric
hazard equipment as
appropriate.
2. Post warning
notices on
isolators.
7 Injury due to Likely Moderate High 1. Adequate 1. Secure all tools
fall of objects training of appropriately.
from aloft support staff
below.
2. Supply
appropriate
PPE.
8 Deterioration Unlikely Moderate Medium 1. Arrange in 1. Monitor

of weather and daylight weather.
sea condition condition. 2. Stop work if
2. Arrange in dry weather starts
condition. deteriorating.
3. Arrange in
calm weather.

9 Falling over- Likely Extreme Very 1. Safety harness 1. Over-side jobs

side high secured to a not to be taken
strong point. unless extreme
2. Use of emergency.
lifejacket. 2. To be attended
3. Rescue boats to by a
be ready. responsible
person.
3. Regular
communication
with bridge.
(Details from Code Of safe Working Practice.)
*************************************************

HUMAN RESOURCES
(HR)

2nd Mate Functions Hand-out (HR)
COMMUNICATION
Process of Communication:
Sender-message-medium-receiver-feedback-acknowledgment.
Verbal & Non-Verbal Communication:
Non-Verbal Communication:
Pitch
Speed
Tone
Voice volume
Gestures / postures
Facial expressions
Eye contact
Proximity
7% - Speech (Verbal)
38% - Element of Speech (Non-Verbal)
55% - Body Language (Non-Verbal)
Barriers to Communication:
Preconceived Notions
Words
Poor Listening Skills
Emotions or Feelings
Wrong Medium or Channels
Poor Verbal Skills
Confusing the message
DECISION MAKING:
Definition:
Decision Making is about deciding what action to take, it usually involves choice
between options. A leader who aspires to excellence obviously has a vested interest in
assessing that the best decisions are taken.
The process of responding to a problem by searching for and selecting a solution or
course of action that will be in the interest of all.
Process of Decision Making:
Define the Problem – Evaluate the alternatives – Implementing the chosen alternative.
Identify a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria.

Developing, analysing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem.
Implemented and selected alternatives.
Evaluating the decision’s effectiveness
LEADERSHIP
BEHAVIOR STYLES:
Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and
motivating people.
Passive Behaviour
Assertive Behaviour
Aggressive Behaviour
Passive Behaviour: Passive people do not express their honest feelings, needs, values and
concerns. They allow others to dictate to them, denying their rights and ignoring their needs. The
body language of the passive person is bowed and bent, submissive and non-threatening.
Assertive Behaviour: They need to win arguments. They tend to overpower other people.
The body language of the Aggressive person is threatening, finger pointing, and stand over.
Their speech can be loud abusive, rude and sarcastic.
Aggressive Behaviour: People who typically behave in an assertive manner use methods of
communication which enable them to maintain self-respect and gain satisfaction of needs without
abusing or dominating others. They stand up for their rights and express personal needs, values
and concerns in direct and appropriate ways.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS:
Situational Awareness is the ability to identify, process, and comprehend the critical elements of
information about what is happening to the team with regards to the mission.
In maintaining Situational Awareness Effective Communication is important:

Recognize and make others aware when the team deviates from standard procedures.
Monitor the performance of other team members.
Provide information in advance.
Identify potential or existing problems
Communicate a course of action to follow as needed.
Continually assess and reassess the situation
Clarifying expectations of all team members eliminates doubt.
Barriers:
Perception based on faulty information processing.

Excessive motivation.
Overload.
Fatigue.
Poor communications

TIME MANAGEMENT & PRIORITIZATION:
Emergency
Urgent
Important
Routine
HUMAN ERROR
Error is defined as all those occasions in which a planned sequence of mental or physical
activities fails to achieve its intended outcome or simply a failure on the part of human to carry
out an intended task.
Factors contributing to Human element:
People Factor
Ship Factor
External influences and environment
Working and living conditions
Shore-side management
MOTIVATION
Definition:
Motivation is a process that starts with a physiological or psychological need that activates a
behaviour or a drive that is aimed at a goal.
Motivation is
• Motivation is a continuous process.

• It can be positive or negative.
• It is goal oriented.
Need for Motivation:
Higher efficiency
Good relations
Reduce accidents
Maslow’s Need Theory:
• Physiological needs: If this need is unsatisfied, it becomes as a driving or motivational force. It is

a felt need.
• Safety needs: Employment security.
• Social needs: Belongingness need.
• Self-esteem needs: Desire for self-respect, reputation, prestige, status, fame, glory.

Self-actualization: Self-realization needs, continuous self-development, & the process of
becoming all that a person is capable of becoming
Physiological needs
Physiological needs are the physical requirements for human survival. If these requirements are
not met, the human body cannot function properly and will ultimately fail. Physiological needs
are thought to be the most important; they should be met first.
Safety needs
Safety and Security needs include:
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts
Love and belonging
Deficiencies within this level, can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain
emotionally significant relationships in general, such as:
Friendship
Intimacy
Family
According to Maslow, humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among their
social groups, regardless whether these groups are large or small, Humans need to love and be
loved by others. Many people become susceptible to loneliness in the absence of this love or
belonging element. This need for belonging may overcome the physiological and security needs,
depending on the strength of the peer pressure.
Esteem
All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self -esteem and self-
respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. There
are two versions of esteem needs: a "lower" version and a "higher" version. Deprivation of these
needs may lead to an inferiority complex, weakness, and helplessness.
Self-Actualization
All humans need realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. It is the need for personal growth and discovery that is present throughout a person’s
life. In self-actualization a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to them.
ASSERTIVENESS
Assertiveness is about self-confidence which means having a positive attitude towards yourself &
others.
Being Assertive means:
Focusing on your goal.

Being self-aware.
Being true to yourself.
Building self-esteem.
Obstacles to Assertiveness:
Lack of confidence
Lack of knowledge & experience
Fear of ruining relationships

BRIDGE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
Bridge Resource Management is a process to use all of your available resources during critical
operations.
What is Bridge Resource

Management?
Bridge Resource Management (BRM), is the effective management and utilization of all
resources, human and technical, available to the Bridge Team to ensure the safe
completion of the vessel’s voyage.
BRM focuses on bridge officers’ skills such as teamwork, teambuilding, communication,

leadership, decision-making and resource management and incorporates this into the larger
picture of organizational and regulatory management. This is because Human Error is the most
common cause of ship groundings and collisions, and has variously been estimated the primary
cause in 80% to 85% of such cases. The International Maritime Organization recommends that
shipping companies take the initiative in implementing the Bridge Team Management (BTM)
concept on their vessels.
The Bridge Resource Management Training has been made mandatory according to Table A-II/I
of the STCW 2010 Convention and Code.
• Situational awareness: How to acquire and maintain situational awareness and understand the
factors that can result in its decline and its central role in reducing accidents and increasing safety
margins.
• Communication: How to recognize and apply best practice in communication, and be aware of
barriers to communication and how these may adversely affect situational awareness. Recognition
of interpersonal style and the appropriate development of assertiveness in a bridge environment.
• Culture: How to recognize and respond to cultural issues including cultural awareness and bias
including national, organizational, departmental and personal cultural approaches.
• Leadership and Team Work: How to identify appropriate leadership styles and effective team
working; situational leadership and the understanding of team dynamics.
• Workload: How to understand where your role fits in the shipboard environment and
how to manage the priorities those arise from it. Recognizing stressors, how stress and fatigue
may affect you and your colleagues and identifying coping mechanisms.
These will help officers to consider their role in the working environment and offer a range of
tools and techniques aimed at ensuring effective performance.
QUATILIES OF A GOOD LEADER

• Motivating capacity
• Initiative
• Source of Knowledge
• Responsibility
• Ability to communicate
• Openness to change
• Problem solving capacity

• Motivating capacity
• Initiative
• Source of Knowledge
• Responsibility
• Ability to communicate
• Openness to change
• Problem solving capacity

SHIP CONSTRUCTION

SHELL PLATING
The shell plating is the external skin of a ship. It consists of the bottom shell plating and the side
shell plating.
The shell plating has the following functions:
a) It acts as a watertight skin.
b) It contributes significantly to the longitudinal strength of the ship to resist bending and
shear stresses.
The bottom plating refers to the plating from the keel to the turn of bilge. The bottom plating to
the turn of bilges have the greatest thickness because bending stresses is greatest as the plates are
located furthest from the neutral axis of the ship.
Shell plating consists of strakes of plates arranged longitudinally.
A strake is a wide strip of longitudinal plating parallel to the keel plating (which itself is called
the keel strake) of uniform thickness at the parallel middle body region but tapering towards the
ends of the vessel. The strake may be made up of several plates welded together, the dimensions
(i.e. length and breadth) of the plating dependent on the sizes of plates that can be obtained from
the steel mills. The shell plating is made up of these strakes.
The strake of bottom plate next to the keel strake is known as the garboard strake.
The side shell plating refers to the vertical plating from the upper turn of bilge to the weather
deck. The upper strake of the plating adjacent to the strength deck is known as the sheer strake.
As the sheer strake is located at a great distance from the neutral axis it has a greater thickness
than the other strakes of side shell plating.
The breadth (b) of the sheer strake as per classification society rules is given by:
b = 800 + 5L mm, maximum 1800 mm.
Since the sheer plate deck connection is located at the highly stressed region it is necessary to
avoid welding attachments to the sheer strake or introduce cut-outs, which would introduce stress
raisers.
There are two different ways to connect the sheer strake to the strength deck plating adjacent to it
(the deck plating there is known as the stringer plate).
(a) By fillet weld, with deck plate almost perpendicular or slightly inclined to the sheer strake.
(b) By butt weld, using a rounded sheer strake, with a minimum radius of bending of at least
15 times the sheer plate thickness.
The region where the sheer strake meets the deck plate is known as the gunwale.

The shell plating has to be stiffened by internal members to prevent it from being deformed. The
longitudinal welding joints between strakes are known as seams and the transverse joints within
the strakes are known as butts. The shell plate constitutes about 25% of the total hull weight.
The thickness of bottom shell plating depends mainly on the length, the depth, the draft and the
frame spacing of the ship.
Classification society requires thickness calculation of bottom plates be based on lateral pressure
and longitudinal buckling strength of plate. It is generally-uniform in thickness along 40% of its
length forward and aft of amidships and the thickness tapers towards the forward and aft ends of
the ship except in way of the areas forward subjected to pounding and slamming where it could
be thicker.
Heavy shell plating are fitted in way of attachments to stern frame for heel and boss plates and in
way of spectacle bossing as these areas are subjected to heavy stresses. Heavy insert plates or
doubler plates are fitted in way of the hawse pipes.
For large ships with high longitudinal bending moments it is economical, by minimizing of ship's
hull weight and thereby maximizing the vessel’s cargo deadweight, to use higher tensile strength
steel mainly on the bottoms, the sheer strakes and the strength deck as these are subjected to the
maximum bending stresses.
Also found on the shell plates are many attachments such as the sea-chests, other discharge
openings, bilge keels, skeg, echo sounder and other navigational equipment, etc.
Shell expansion and numbering of plates
A shell expansion drawing is made for every ship so that each individual strake of shell plating
can be identified and its individual size and thickness immediately identified. It is constructed by
girthing the body plan and expand it vertically in the profile view.
Starting from the Keel strake K, the next strake A is the Garboard strake, then B, C, D, etc.
outwards towards the turn of the bilge and upwards to the highest strake on the shipside. The
numbering of each strake starts from aft increasing towards the forward end, e.g. : K-1, K-2, K-3,
etc. from the keel strake.
Since the amidships section is the broadest and the fullest, its girth length is also the longest. The
girth length tapers towards the end of the ship. As the individual strake of plate becomes narrower
and narrower, two strakes may be combined into one to form a stealer plate.
The sheer strake is the first strake from the top of side shell.
An oxter plate is a plate having double curvature, immediately below the transom floor and
running into the fore side of the stern post. This plate may often require shaping after furnace
heating.
A coffin plate is the after plate of the keel which may dished to fit the stern frame section.






---The End of Chapter---
BALANCED RUDDER

RUDDER – UPPER & LOWER BEARING

BILGE KEEL CONSTRUCTION


BULK CARRIER




BULKHEAD



CORRUGATED BULKHEAD

CORRUGATED TRASNSVERSE BULKHEAD

CORRUGATED WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD

DB FRAMING
Longitudinal Framing
Transverse Framing

DB Tank Longitudinal Framing
Transversely Framed DB Tank


DEFINITIONS - DIAGRAMS


DEFINITIONS
The exterior form of the vessel is a curved surface. This surface has to be defined by precise and
unambiguous means. The definitions reproduced below for dimensions of the vessel are those that
describe the principle characteristics and are used from designing and building stage to
operational life of the vessel.
For defining the dimensions the three references have to be selected.
Since the vessels are made symmetrical about the centre plane, the centreline is used as reference
line for all athwart distances
For longitudinal distances either Amidships or aft perpendicular is used
For vertical distances the base line is used
[1. LENGTH OVERALL – is defined as maximum length of the ship taken between extremities.
It is useful for manoeuvring operations like berthing etc.
2. Forward perpendicular – is defined as Perpendicular drawn to the water line at the point where
the fore side of the stem meets the summer load water line.
1. Aft perpendicular -Perpendicular drawn to the water line through the point where aft side
of the rudder post meets the summer load waterline. For the ships without a well-defined
rudder post AP is drawn from the centre line of the rudder stock. In case of naval ships, it
is customary to define the AP at the after end of the vessel on the summer load water line.
Such a location is also selected for merchant vessels with a submerged stern profile
extending well abaft the rudder.
The figure shows the different location of the AP here described.
2. Length Between Perpendiculars:

Length between the forward and aft perpendicular measured along the summer waterline. This
length is used in stability calculations.
5. Amidships: A point midway between after perpendicular and forward perpendicular is called
amidships. On all plans this is denoted by the symbol - )(
Moulded dimensions refer to the moulded surface of the ship i.e. a surface formed by the outer
edges of the frames, or inside of the skin for steel, aluminium or wooden vessels. For glass
reinforced plastic vessels it refers to the outer hull surface.
5. Moulded breadth: is defined as the maximum dimension from side to side measured from
inside of shell plating to the inside of shell plating.
6. Breadth extreme is defined as maximum dimension from side to side measured from outside of
shell plating to the outside of shell plating.
Most of the ships, have maximum breadth at amidships at the parallel middle body.

7. Moulded Depth is defined as maximum depth of the vessel at shipside from upper deck to the
inner side of base line.
8. Depth extreme is defined as maximum depth of the vessel at shipside from upper deck to the
lower most part of the ship (outside of ship's plating)
9. Base line is drawn in sheer and body plans and represents an imaginary horizontal reference. It
represents the bottom of the vessels moulded surface so is coincident with top surface of the flat
keel on most straight keel ships. It is also the datum line, which is used as a reference line for all
vertical measurements.
10. Freeboard is the vertical distance measured at the shipside between the summer load line and
the uppermost continuous deck.
11. Camber is the curvature of the decks in the transverse direction i.e. towards the sides. It
ensures that shipped seas drain off the decks as fast as possible. The camber curve may be an arc
of a circle, a parabola or several straight lines. The standard practice is to have the camber equals
to 2 % of the ships breadth.
12. Sheer is the curvature of uppermost continuous deck in the longitudinal direction towards the
bows and astern. Forward sheer is approximately twice that of aft sheer.
13. Rise of floor -
Rise of bottom shell plating in transverse direction above the base line from the keel towards the
sides. This feature is rather obsolete because of flat bottom construction in the present times.
14. Tumble home is defined as inward curvature of shell plating at the sides. Modern ships tend to
have vertical sides and therefore this feature is also seldom found on ships today.
15. Flare is defined as outward curvature of the ship's bow plating. It
a.) Helps increase buoyancy and prevents the bow from diving into the head seas. Provides
lifting power when pitching heavily.
b.) Increases the breadth of the forecastle and provides space for the mooring gear to be fitted
and for working.
c.) Enables the anchors to fall clear of the shipside when let go.
16. Rake : Departure from vertical of any line in profile is called rake. E.g. rake of stem.
Departure from horizontal in profile is also called rake e.g. rake of keel.
17. Parallel Middle body: The length over which the amidships cross-section area of the
vessel remain constant in magnitude and in shape, is called the parallel middle body.
The fine lined vessels have little or no parallel middle body. The full form vessels have the
amidships area remaining constant over some length and thus have larger parallel middle body.

Run : The submerged body aft of parallel middle body is called run
Entrance : The submerged body forward of parallel middle body is called entrance.
DUCTKEEL CONSTRUCTION

DUCT Keel Construction
DUCT KEEL PHOTO

FITTINGS NOTES
MECHANICAL HATCH COVERS

 The figures shown below illustrate the various parts of a mechanical hatch cover. These
hatch covers may be made up of several individual pontoons (so named because prior to
the ‘MacGregor’ type of rolling hatch covers the pontoons had to be individually lifted
and battened down).
 The pontoons (individual parts of the hatch covers) are connected to one another and can
easily and quickly be rolled into or out of position leaving clear hatchways and decks.
The normal practice for the lengthwise opening of hatches but sideways opening
hatchways are found on large bulk carriers and OBO’s.

MC GREGOR HATCH COVERS


 The smaller versions are mainly operated either manually (using wire
and winch) or electrically. The larger ones are nearly all operated
hydraulically.
 The wheels on the side on which the pontoons rollers are eccentric in
their construction thus when in the battened (lowered) position the
clearance between the wheel and the track way is minimum and the
pontoon sits on the track way, the rubber gaskets being compressed by
the compression bar.
 The cross wedges are used to ensure the pontoon rubber gaskets
compress against the compression bars of the forward pontoons.
 The side cleats ensure that the pontoons stay compressed to the track-
way compression bar and the ship motion is effectively compensated
or removed.

 These hatch cover systems consist of various parts:
 The pontoons, eccentric wheels, track-way wheels, cross wedges, and
the side cleats.
 Battening down a hatch is to be done after reading the operations
manual.
 A hatch cover should not be battened with cargo on top.
 The Channels are to be swept prior battening so that the packing do
not rest on dirt.
 The drain channel on the front of the hatch pontoons are to be cleaned
prior closing the hatch.
 Once the wheels are turned the next item to be engaged are the cross
wedges and the side cleats are to be fitted last.


QUICK ACTING CLEATS
 The drain channel on the front of the hatch pontoons are to be cleaned
prior closing the hatch.
 Once the wheels are turned the next item to be engaged are the cross
wedges and the side cleats are to be fitted last.
 Prior proceeding to sea (long voyage) the hatch cover sealing should
be tested with chalk marks made on all the compression bars – on the
hatch coaming as well as on the pontoons. The hatch is to be battened
and then opened to see if all the rubber gaskets have got chalk mark
on them or not – if not hen rectification to be done.


 Oil tight hatch cover

 These hatch covers are small in size and may have butterfly nut
locking arrangement. The sealing is done by Hi-nitrile rubber which is
not affected by oil.
 Manhole covers do not vary much in design, their shape however are
sometimes different for different places.
 When fitted outside a tank they may be either circular or elliptical. But
when fitted inside they are almost always elliptical to facilitate their
removal.
 Usual size openings vary between 450mm to about 600mm.


PANAMA ,ROLLER LEADS
 A roller is to be found on the forward and after stations area –

generally at the leads to the mooring ropes as well as on top of ‘old
man’ pedestals.
 These facilitate the hauling of ropes since they reduce the friction
when the rope is hauled through a panama fairlead which has no
rollers.



 Panama Lead : The ship is hauled by small locomotives and the
wires are sent out through these leads – they are of adequate strength to
prevent the metal being cut open by the wires.
 A multi angle fairlead again is a fairlead used due necessity when in
the great Lakes. The ship moves through numerous locks as the ship is made
to climb a great height – the Welland Canal system itself uses about 13 lock
gates to cross the Niagara falls. The movement of the ship being fast and the
difference in height being enormous the ship steadies itself with 2 wires
forward and 2 wires aft, when in the locks. These wires are passed through
the multi angle fairleads to reduce the enormous friction generated.


 PANAMA LEAD

MULTI – ANGLE LEADS
 Mooring bitts are prefabricated and then are welded onto the deck.
The size of the bitts are dependent on their use. Thus a small set may
be fitted next to an occasional winch while the larger ones are fitted at
the mooring stations.
 The bitts are hollow and as such require care to ensure that the sides
do not corroded and holed.
SECURING ANCHORS : PREPARATION FOR SEA

VOYAGE
 Once the anchor has been washed the anchor is hove right up into the
hawse pipe, the bow stopper is lowered and the locking pin inserted.
 The winch is reversed a little to make the chain sit properly into the
slot of the bow stopper and then the brake is tightened and the windlass gear
removed.
 The anchor chain at the deck level (hawse pipe) is lashed with extra
lashings as provided by the shipyard, if none are present or if expecting
heavy weather, then extra wire rope lashings are taken, The wire rope to be
used should be tested one, if an old (good condition) life boat falls are
available then this makes a very good extra lashing wire. This wire is
flexible and can be used by hand. A number of turns (figure of eight) are
taken around two sets of bitts. The free ends being fastened by bull dog clips
at least two fixed in opposite directions.
 Generally the shipyard would have provide lashing point as well as
short length of wire attached to a bottle screw. These should be well oiled
and are the most efficient for lashing the anchor. The wire should be tight.
 Once the anchor is lashed the hawse pipe covers are not placed but
stowed under deck or in their stowage positions.
 The spurling pipe area is chipped to remove any residual remains of
earlier cement.
 The clips provided at the edges of the covers should be hooked to the
lips of the spurling pipe.
 A new canvas cover is then placed over the metal covers just fitted
and is tied around the lips of the spurling pipe as well as the chain. No empty
spaces should be found.
 Cement mixture is prepared and the entire cover is covered with this
mixture.
 CABLE STOPPER :
 A chain stopper as shown below may be of various designs, but all
serve the same purpose – to hold the cable.
 The cable is passed through the stopper – with the holding bar lifted
up – by the counterweight on top. There is a pin to hold the bar in this
position.
 Once the decision has been taken to hold the cable, the safety locking
pin is removed and the bar is eased down on top of the cable. Note that the
default position of the holding bar is to arrest the cable, only a effort is
required to keep it up.
 Once the bar is placed over the cable the cable may have to be
adjusted a little to ensure that the flat part of the cable falls in the holding
area and not the vertical section, the safety locking pin is now introduced to
prevent the bar from jumping u[ in case the cable slip from the brake.

 Once the lacking pin is in position the brake can be released and the
stopper would do the work of holding the cable.

BILGE & BALLAST PIPING :
 The following shows a bilge and ballast line diagram of a general

cargo ship.
 The bilges are all fitted with non-return valves so that not water may
be inadvertently be pumped into the holds.
 The bilges are serviced by a bilge pump which incorporates a strainer
and this should be checked before starting the pump.
 The strum box fitted in the holds is to be kept clean and the
perforations are to be checked that they are not closed due to muck
and rust.
 Same with the mud boxes in the ER fitted into the system.

STRUM BOX
 Sounding pipes
 Sounding pipes covers come with varied designs. That shown below is
a sunken cap type generally the cap is made of brass. The justification
being that of the two thread and cap assembly the thread of the brass
is to wear out first and that of the deck pad. The renewal of the brass
cap being inexpensive and convenient rather than the deck pad which
entails hot work.
 The metal cap (not sunken) type of covers have a chain attached to
them to prevent their being washed overboard.


AIRPIPES
 The above figure shows a design of air pipe cover.
 In normal condition – the ball remains at the bottom of the air pipe
head and the tank breathes in and out through the vent.
 However in the event that the air pipe is submerged then the ball floats
up and closes the opening at the top thus preventing any water from
entering the tank.
 Sea spray and rain is prevented from entering the tank by the design of
the head. It is totally enclosed and a rectangular plate, which leaves a

small gap between the mesh and itself, allowing the breathing of the
tank.
FORE-END CONSTRUCTION

FRAMING, BULKHEADS, PILLARS
Framings :
As mentioned above framings are of two types.
 Frames are numbered from aft to fwd.
 They are usually bulb bars or inverted angle sections.
 Either longitudinal or transverse or both i.e., combined system can be used.
 Spacing of transverse framing fwd. of COLLISION BULKHEAD & aft of AFT PEAK
BULKHEAD not to exceed 610mm.
 From COLLISION BULKHEAD & between 0.2L it should not exceed 700mm
 Between 0.2L & AFT PEAK BULKHEAD it should not exceed 1000mm.
 Similarly in case of longitudinal framing system they are to be spaced not more than
3.7m when the length is 185m or less & L/50 in case of greater length.
 Main members used to frame the vessel :
 a) Frame – This is on side plating , running vertically up and down
 b) Beam – This is under deck and running transversely
 c) Transverse – Under deck are known as Deck Transverse.
 - On bottom plating are known as Bottom Transverse.
 This runs transversely but is much heavier in construction than a beam.
 Floor : It runs transversely and is found only in Double Bottom Tanks.
 Stringer : It is a horizontal plating which runs fore and aft and placed on side plating and
longitudinal
 bulkheads.
 Longitudinal : These are members which run fore and aft , are smaller but longer than
girders. These are found in longitudinally framed ships ……. Under decks, on side plating, on
longitudinal bulkheads , on bottom plating and tank tops.
 Girder : A large strengthening member to support horizontal or vertical loads. It is larger

than a longitudinal or stiffner.It is found under decks and on bottom plating. It runs fore and aft
and are deep and

 And heavy in construction.
 Stiffener : A structural member attached to plate to strengthen it.



 LONGITUDINAL FRAMING

FLOORS
are of two types
PLATE FLOOR BRACKET

(Solid Floor) FLOOR(Open Floor)

LONGITUDINALLY FRAMED DB
TRANSVERSELY FRAMED DB TANK

DB TANK 3 D VIEW

DB TANK VIEW
PLACING OF FLOORS :
 Floors are to be fitted at every frames.
 Plate floors also sometimes referred as SOLID FLOOR are to be fitted in the engine room,
under the boiler, under bulkheads, in the way of change of depth in double bottom, for the
forward 0.25L.
 Elsewhere the distance between the two plate floors not to exceed 3.05m.
 In between, bracket floors are to be fitted.
DECK BEAMS :
 Beams are to be fitted at every frame.
 They run in the athwart ship direction.
 Their function is to support the decks carrying cargo or other loads.
 They act as struts holding the sides of the v/l & offer resistance to the inward caving in of the
side shell plating due to water pressure.

BEAM KNEE :
 They are fitted to provide an efficient connection between the frames & the beams.
 These offer resistance to the racking stresses
 Their length, overlap & welding area is governed by the classification society rules.
BRACKETS :
 They connect the lower end of the frames to the tank top.
 Their length, overlap & welding area is also governed by the classification society rules.
SHEEL PLATING :
 It provides the watertight skin to the vessel.
 It contributes to the longitudinal strength of the v/l.
 The plates are arranged in the fore & aft direction & are termed as strakes. The strake just next
to the keel is known as GARBOARD STRAKE & the top most strake is known as SHEER
STRAKE.

 The plates in the strakes are numbered from aft & from the bottom are marked by the alphabets.
 The thickness of the plating depends upon the length of the v/l & frame spacing.
 The thickness is maintained amidships to 0.4L & tapered gradually to 0.1L at the decks.
 Deck plating to be suitably thickened in case v/l to load high-density cargoes.
 Sheer strake to be dressed smooth & kept free from abrupt changes in the plating.
 All openings in the shell plating to have radiused corner.
 Plating in the way of hawse pipes, machinery spaces, propeller fittings, panting & pounding
region etc. to be of increased thickness.
 Width of the strakes is reduced in the bow region & two strakes are merged into one with the
help of STEALER PLATE.
 Stringers are fitted to give strength.

GARBOARD STRAKE AND SHEER STRAKE:
GARBOARD STRAKE AND SHEER STRAKE :

SHEEL EXPANSION PLAN :
BULKHEADS :
 These are the vertical divisions in the ship structure.
 Bulkheads can be either LONGITUDNAL OR TRANSVERSE/watertight or non-watertight. .
 The fwd. most bulkhead is known as COLLISION BULKHEAD.
 The aft most bulkhead is known as AFT PEAK BULKHEAD & encloses stern tube in a
watertight compartment.
 Depending upon the length, type & size of the v/l a fixed no. of other bulkheads are fitted.
 The bulkheads that are fitted to extend from the keel to the bulkhead deck i.e. the uppermost
continuous deck.
 Bulkheads can be either flush or corrugated.

FUNCTIONS OF BULKHEADS :
 Provides longitudinal as well as transverse strength to the v/l.
 Divides the ship into no. of compartments so that cargo can be carried.
 Helps in spreading the stresses experienced by the v/l throughout the length.
 Provides for the fire integrity of the v/l.
 Helps in reducing the free surface effect.
CONSTRUCTION OF BULKHEADS :
 Bulkheads are constructed of various strakes.
 These are welded to shell tank top & deck.
 The scantling of the plating increases from top to bottom.
 In case of collision bulkhead the plating is 12% more thick as compared to the ordinary bulkhead.
 The plating strakes are horizontal & the stiffening is vertical.
 Stiffening is carried by bulb plates.

CORRUGATED BULKHEADS:
 Instead of the stiffeners swedges are made in the plate so as to provide an equally strong structure
& reduction in weight.
 In case of transverse bulkheads corrugations are made vertical while for longitudinal corrugations
are horizontal. This is done so as to add to the transverse as well as longitudinal strength of the
v/l.
 Diaphragm plates are fitted in the troughs so as to prevent the collapse of the corrugations.
 These may be fitted to the shell plating by means of flat plate.
PILLARS:
 They provide the means for transferring loads between the decks & fastening the structures in the
vertical direction.
 They are hollow, fabricated & are made of steel.
 They are under constant compression and are supported by brackets.
 Hold pillars are usually large in section (surface area) & thus less in number. Thus this avoids the
interference in the cargo stowage.

 They also help in reduction of the scantling of hatch girders, beams etc.
 Pillars should be in line i.e. one below the other when they are fitted to transfer loads in between
no. of vertical decks.
 They can be either round, square or octagonal in shape.
 In case of machinery spaces the pillars are more in no., are made of prefabricated sections
& smaller in dimensions compared to hold pillars.
 In case of accommodation solid pillars of about 100mm in dia. are to be fitted at the
points of concentration.

DUCT KEEL:
 A duct keel or pipe tunnel is fitted forward of the engine room.
 It houses the pipelines.
 If it is fitted towards the shipside then these are referred as pipe tunnels.
 The sides of the duct keel/pipe tunnel to be not more than 1.83m apart.
 Inner bottom & the bottom shell plating is to be suitably stiffened throughout the length.
 These are normally found in bulk carriers, OBO etc.
DUCT KEEL
BILGE KEEL:
 These are fitted so as to resist rolling at the turn of the bilges on the outer side.
 It extends over to the mid-ships or at least 1/3L.
 It is made of steel & is either a flat plate or a bulb plate.
 It is fastened to the hull with the help of a flat bar so that in an event of collision or
fouling it will get detached without any damage to the hull.

BILGE KEEL CONSTRUCTION
SHIP STABLIZERS:
 Ship stabilizers are fins mounted beneath the waterline and emerging laterally. In
contemporary vessels, they may be gyroscopically controlled active fins, which have the
capacity to change their angle of attack to counteract roll caused by wind or waves acting
on the ship.
 The bilge keel is an early 20th century predecessor. Although not as effective at reducing
roll, bilge keels are cheaper, easier to install, and do not require dedicated internal space
inside the hull.


GENERAL CARGO MID-SHIP SECTION

GIRDERS
Girder: A large strengthening member to support horizontal or vertical loads.

It is larger than a longitudinal or stiffener.

LNG MID-SHIP SECTION
LNG SHIP MID SHIP

SECTION

Alternative Support arrangement
LONGITUDNAL FRAMING

LOCATION OF COLLISION BULKHEAD

LPG MID-SHIP SECTION
FULLY REFRIGERATED LPG VESSEL

TYPE A



MID-SHIP SECTION CELLULAR CONTAINER VESSEL

MID-SHIP SECTION LNG CARRIER
MEMBRANE TANK LNG CARRIER

VLCC MID-SHIP SECTION

MID-SHIP SECTION NORMAL TANKER

MID-SHIP SECTION RO-RO VESSEL

PANTING BEAMS

PLACING OF TRANSVERSE BULKHEADS

PLAIN BULKHEAD

PROPELLOR
Principle of Propulsion :
• A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using the power
generated and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The transmitted power is converted
from rotational motion to generate a thrust which imparts momentum to the water, resulting in a
force that acts on the ship and pushes it forward. A ship propels on the basis of Bernoulli’s
principle and Newton’s third law. A pressure difference is created on the forward and aft side of
the blade and water is accelerated behind the blades. The thrust from the propeller is transmitted
to move the ship through a transmission system which consists of a rotational motion generated
by the main engine crank shaft, intermediate shaft and its bearings, stern tube shaft and its bearing
and finally by the propeller itself. Some people still occasionally refer to the propeller as the
“airscrew”, a very accurate and descriptive term that reflects the basic design and function of the
propeller. The propeller uses that principle to provide propulsion through the air, much like a
threaded screw advances through a solid medium, with some notable exceptions, primarily related
to the loss of forward movement because the medium is not solid. Nonetheless, the propeller is
similar to a screw in some common features. First, the pitch of a propeller is the theoretical
distance the propeller would move forward in one revolution (similar to a screw) and
conceptually is the same as the pitch of a screw, namely the distance between threads if the
propeller were a continuous helix. The second feature that relates to its screw design is that the
angle of the blade changes along the radius, so that close to the hub, the angle is very steep and at
the tip of the blade it is much more shallow. From a practical standpoint, this means that unless
the pitch for a given propeller is known, it requires a trigonometric calculation to determine the
pitch empirically. Thirdly, just as screws come in left hand and right hand threads, propellers
have the same designation. When facing the water/ air flow if the top of the propeller moves to
the right, it is designated “Right Hand” and if to the left it is “Left Hand”. (As viewed from the
front a right hand propeller turns counter clockwise and a left hand propeller turns
clockwise.) Propellers will frequently be stamped as “RH” or “LH”.
Definitions :
Boss or Hub
Solid cylinder located at the centre of the propeller. Bored to accommodate the engine propeller
shaft. Hub shapes include cylindrical, conical, radius, & barrelled. Propeller blades are attached to
it.
RakeRake is the degree that the blades slant forward or backwards in relation to the hub. Rake
can affect the flow of water through the propeller. Aft Rake helps to trim the bow of the boat
upward, which often results in less wetted surface area and therefore higher top end
speed.Forward, or negative rake, helps hold the bow of the boat down. This is more common in
workboat type applications.
SkewThe transverse sweeping of a blade such that when viewing the blades from fore or aft
shows an asymmetrical shape.Aft Skew: Positive skew. Blade sweep in the direction opposite of
rotation.Forward Skew: Negative skew. Blade sweep in the same direction as rotation.

• Blade Face
Pressure Side, Pitch Side. Aft side of the blade (surface facing the stern).
• Blade Back
Suction side. Forward side of the blade (surface facing the bow).
Blade TipMaximum reach of the blade from the centre of the hub. Separates the leading and
trailing edges
• Radius
The distance from the axis of rotation to the blade tip. The radius multiplied by two is equal to the
diameter.
• Pitch
Pitch is defined as the theoretical forward movement of a propeller during one revolution —
assuming there is no "slippage" between the propeller blade and the water.
Pitch is the second number listed in the propeller description.
• Comparing fixed-pitch with controllable-pitch propellers
• Advantages of a controllable pitch propeller
• Allow greater manoeuvrability
• Allow engines to operate at optimum revs
• Removes need for reversing engines
• Reduced size of Air Start Compressors and receivers
• Improves propulsion efficiency at lower loads
• Disadvantages
• Greater initial cost
• Increased complexity and maintenance requirements
• Increase stern tube loading due to increase weight of assembly, the stern tube bearing diameter is
larger to accept the larger diameter shaft required to allow room for Oil Tube
• Lower propulsive efficiency at maximum continuous rating
• Prop shaft must be removed outboard requiring rudder to be removed for all prop
maintenance.
• Increased risk of pollution due to leak seals

• States how the propeller is attached to the tail shaft
• The after end of the tail end shaft is tapered to receive the propeller boss and a
key is provided to transfer the torque from the shaft to the propeller. A nut fitted with a
locking plate secures the propeller in position and as an additional safeguard it is fitted
with a left hand thread in association with a right handed propeller or vice versa
• To remove the propeller and the tail end shaft the propeller should be slung on
special eyes provide on the shell for this purpose – the rope guards removed – and the
propeller nut slackened.
• The propeller is then started from the shaft by driving steel wedges between the
boss and the propeller post. When it is free the nut is removed.
STERN TUBES :
• Stern tubes are fitted to provide a bearing for the tail end shaft and to enable a
watertight gland to be fitted at an accessible position.
• The tube is usually constructed of cast steel with a flange at its forward end and a
thread at the after end. It is inserted from forward and this end is bolted over packing to
the after peak bulkhead. A large nut is placed over the thread at the after end, tightened
and secured to the propeller post.
• In an oil lubricated stern tube the bearings are made of white metal. A gland is
fitted to each end of the stern tube and since the after end gland will not be accessible
during sea service it is made self-adjusting. The flange shown is attached to the propeller
so that it rotates with the shaft and oil tightness is obtained by a rotating gland.
Shaft Tunnel :
This is a narrow watertight compartment through which the propeller shaft of a ship passes from the after
engine-room bulkhead to the stern tube. This protects the shaft from the cargo and provides a watertight
compartment which will contain any flooding resulting from damage to the watertight gland at the aft peak
bulkhead. The tunnel should be large enough to permit access for inspection and repair of the shafting. A
sliding watertight door which may be opened from either side is provided at the forward end in the
machinery space bulkhead. Two means of escape from the shaft tunnel must be provided and as a rule there
is a ladder in a watertight trunk leading to an escape hatch on deck above the waterline, at the end of the
shaft tunnel.

RACKING STRESSES
RUDDERS:
1. Construction of Rudders :
a) Cast Type : - cast in foundry
 Brought to shipyard & enclosed in skin plating.
b) Prefabricated : made in yard

 Horizontal and vertical webs welded together
 More popular on modern ships.
2. Efficient Rudder provides:
o High manoeuvrability
o Faster turning response
o Saving in fuel
o Reduced stresses in stern area
o Smaller steering gear reqd.
3. Types of Rudders :
a) Unbalanced Rudders : - entire turning area abaft turning axis.
 Relatively inefficient
 Found on small ships, tugs, launches, life boats.
b) Semi-balanced Rudders :
 Small portion of their lateral rear forward of turning axis. ( about less than 20% )
 Found on larger ships – Twin screw vessels
c) Balanced Rudders :
 Turning axes positioned – so that – nearly – equal areas forward and aft.
 Most popular

 About 20-30% of length forward of turning axis.
Balanced Rudder
Upward and downward fittings of Balanced Rudder :

Semi-balanced Rudder :

• The shape of a rudder plays an important part in its efficiency. The area of the rudder is
approximately 2% of the product of the length of the ship and the designed draught.
• Since the vertical dimensions of the rudder are somewhat restricted due to the area
constraint as mentioned above, the fore and aft dimensions are increased.
• Again due to this increased dimensions the torque necessary to turn this rudder is
overcome by fitting balanced or semi balanced rudders. Such a rudder has about 1/3rd of
the rudder area forward of the turning axis.
• An ideal rudder is one where the centre of pressure and the turning axis coincide for all
angles of the helm.
• An unbalanced rudder consists of a number of pintles and gudgeons, the top pintle being
the locking pintle which prevents any vertical movement in the rudder and the pintle And
gudgeon taking the weight of the rudder.

• Propeller, Types of Propellers and Construction of Propellers
• A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using the
power generated and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The transmitted power is
converted from rotational motion to generate a thrust which imparts momentum to the water,
resulting in a force that acts on the ship and pushes it forward.
• A ship propels on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle and Newton’s third law. A pressure
difference is created on the forward and aft side of the blade and water is accelerated behind the
blades.
• The thrust from the propeller is transmitted to move the ship through a transmission
system which consists of a rotational motion generated by the main engine crank shaft,
intermediate shaft and its bearings, stern tube shaft and its bearing and finally by the propeller
itself.
• Material and Construction of Propeller
• Marine propellers are made from corrosion resistant materials as they are made
operational directly in sea water which is a corrosion accelerator. The materials used for making
marine propeller are alloy of aluminium and stainless steel. Other popular materials used are
alloys of nickel, aluminium and bronze which are 10~15 % lighter than other materials and
have higher strength.
• The construction process of the propeller includes attaching a number of blades to the
hub or boss by welding or forging in one piece. Forged blades are highly reliable and have greater
strength but are expensive as compare to welded ones. A marine propeller is constructed by
sections of helicoidal surfaces acting together to rotate through water with a screw effect.
• Types of Propeller
• Propellers are be classified on the basis of several factors. The classification of different
types of propellers is shown below:
• A) Classification by Number of Blades Attached:
• Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propeller to 4 blade propeller and sometimes
even 5 blade propeller. However, the most commonly used are 3 blades and 4 blade propellers.
• 3 blade propeller:
• A 3 blade propeller has following characteristics:
• - The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.
• - Are normally made up of aluminium alloy.
• - Gives a good high speed performance.
• - The acceleration is better than other types.

• - Low speed handling is not much efficient.
• - The manufacturing cost is higher than 3 blade propellers.
• - 4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless steel alloys.
• - Have better strength and durability.
• - Gives a good low speed handling and performance.
• - Has a better holding power in rough seas.
• - 4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.
• - Manufacturing cost is higher of all.
• - Vibration is minimal from all the other types.
• - 5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.
• B) Classification By pitch of the blade:
• Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller makes for every
full revolution of 360 ̊. The classification of the propellers on the basis of pitch is as follows.
• Fixed Pitch Propeller:
• The blades in fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub. The fixed pitch
type propellers are casted and the position of the blades and hence the position of the pitch is
permanently fixed and cannot be changed during the operation.
• Fixed pitch propellers are robust and reliable as the system doesn’t incorporate any
mechanical and hydraulic connection as in Controlled Pitch Propeller (CPP). The manufacturing,
installation and operational costs are lower than controlled pitch propeller (CPP) type. The
manoeuvrability of fixed pitch propeller is also not as good as CPP.
• Controllable Pitch Propeller:
• In Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by rotating the blade
about its vertical axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic arrangement. This helps in driving
the propulsion machinery at constant load with no reversing mechanism required as the pitch can
be altered to match the required operating condition. Thus the manoeuvrability improves and the
engine efficiency also increases.

• This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil in the boss which
is used for controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and expensive system from both
installation and operational point. Moreover, the pitch can get stuck in one position, making it
difficult to manoeuvre the engine.
• Principle of screw propulsion- More Info
• Some people still occasionally refer to the propeller as the “airscrew”, a very accurate and
descriptive term that reflects the basic design and function of the propeller.
• The propeller uses that principle to provide propulsion through the air, much like a threaded
screw advances through a solid medium, with some notable exceptions, primarily related to the
loss of forward movement because the medium is not solid.
• Nonetheless, the propeller is similar to a screw in some common features. First, the pitch of
a propeller is the theoretical distance the propeller would move forward in one revolution (similar
to a screw) and conceptually is the same as the pitch of a screw, namely the distance between
threads if the propeller were a continuous helix.
• The second feature that relates to its screw design is that the angle of the blade changes along
the radius, so that close to the hub, the angle is very steep and at the tip of the blade it is much
more shallow.
• From a practical standpoint, this means that unless the pitch for a given propeller is known, it
requires a trigonometric calculation to determine the pitch empirically.
• Thirdly, just as screws come in left hand and right hand threads, propellers have the same
designation. When facing the water/ air flow if the top of the propeller moves to the right, it is
designated “Right Hand” and if to the left it is “Left Hand”. (As viewed from the front a right
hand propeller turns counter clockwise and a left hand propeller turns clockwise.) Propellers will
frequently be stamped as “RH” or “LH”.
• Propeller and some definitions
• Blade Back
Suction side. Forward side of the blade (surface facing the bow).
• Blade Face
Pressure Side, Pitch Side. Aft side of the blade (surface facing the stern).
• Blade Number
Equal to the number of blades on the propeller.
• Blade Root
Fillet area. The region of transition from the blade surfaces and edges to the hub periphery. The
area where the blade attaches to the hub.

• Blade Tip
Maximum reach of the blade from the centre of the hub. Separates the leading and trailing edges.
• Diameter
Diameter is the distance from the centre of the hub to the tip of the blade x 2. It can also
be looked at as the distance across the circle that the propeller would make when rotating.
It is the first number listed when describing a propeller.
• Boss or Hub
Solid cylinder located at the centre of the propeller. Bored to accommodate the engine
propeller shaft. Hub shapes include cylindrical, conical, radius, & barrelled. Propeller
blades are attached to it.
• Leading Edge

The edge of the propeller blade adjacent to the forward end of the hub. The leading edge
leads into the flow when providing forward thrust.

• Trailing Edge
• The edge of the propeller adjacent to the aft end of the hub. When viewing the propeller
from astern, this edge is closest. The trailing edge retreats from the flow when providing
forward thrust.
• Pitch
Pitch is defined as the theoretical forward movement of a propeller during one revolution
— assuming there is no "slippage" between the propeller blade and the water.
Pitch is the second number listed in the propeller description.
• Radius
The distance from the axis of rotation to the blade tip. The radius multiplied by two is
equal to the diameter.
• Rake
Rake is the degree that the blades slant forward or backwards in relation to the hub. Rake
can affect the flow of water through the propeller.

Aft Rake helps to trim the bow of the boat upward, which often results in less wetted
surface area and therefore higher top end speed.
Forward, or negative rake, helps hold the
bow of the boat down. This is more common in workboat type applications.
• Rotation
When viewed from the stern (facing forward): Right-hand propellers rotate clockwise to
provide forward thrust. Left-hand propellers rotate counter-clockwise to provide forward
thrust.
• Skew
The transverse sweeping of a blade such that when viewing the blades from fore or aft
shows an asymmetrical shape
• Aft Skew: Positive skew. Blade sweep in the direction opposite of rotation
• Forward Skew: Negative skew. Blade sweep in the same direction as rotation.
• Slip

Slip is the difference between actual and theoretical travel of the propeller blades through
water. A properly matched propeller will actually move forward 80 to 90 per cent of the
theoretical pitch.

• Comparing fixed-pitch with controllable-pitch propellers
• Advantages of a controllable pitch propeller
• Allow greater manoeuvrability
• Allow engines to operate at optimum revs
• Removes need for reversing engines
• Reduced size of Air Start Compressors and receivers
• Improves propulsion efficiency at lower loads
• Disadvantages
• Greater initial cost
• Increased complexity and maintenance requirements

• Increase stern tube loading due to increase weight of assembly, the stern tube bearing
diameter is larger to accept the larger diameter shaft required to allow room for Oil Tube
• Lower propulsive efficiency at maximum continuous rating
• Prop shaft must be removed outboard requiring rudder to be removed for all prop
maintenance.
• Increased risk of pollution due to leak seals
• What is Azipod Propulsion System on Ship?
• Azipod system used on ships is combination of both propulsion and steering systems. In
conventional propulsion system, a large two stroke engine is connected to a shaft, which
passes through shaft tunnel and stern tube and connects to the propeller outside the hull in
the aft part of the ship. The steering of such system is done with the help of a rudder
placed in the aft of the propeller.
• However, in azipod arrangement, the propulsion and steering systems are combined and
made into one part. The system consists of a propeller which is driven by an electrical
motor and the propeller is turned by the rudder which is connected to the system.
• The motor is placed inside the sealed pod and is connected to the propeller. It should be
noted that the sealing of the pod should be perfect otherwise it can damage the whole
motor and make the ship handicap from manoeuvring. The motor used for this system is
variable frequency electric motor
• Using variable frequency, the rotational speed of the propeller can be controlled i.e. the
speed can be increased or decreased.
• The azipod system is also known as POD drive system, where POD stands for Propulsion
with Outboard Electric motor. The whole azipod system is situated outside the hull in the
aft of the ship. The azipod can turn in all the directions i.e. 360 degrees with the help of a
rudder, and thus provides a thrust in any direction which is not possible in the
conventional system. The propeller in the pod system is moved by the rudder which is
placed in the steering flat, also the power module for the system.
• Understanding the Azipod System
• The azipod system is a type of electric propulsion system which consists of three main
components:
• 1) Supply Transformer
• The power produced from the generators is as high as 6600 KV, which is stepped down
to the necessary voltage by the supply transformer required and is provided to the motor
placed in the pod.
• 2)

• Propulsion motor
• Propulsion motor is used to drive or to produce thrust. The system needs some method
for rotating the propeller and this is done with the help of electric motor.
• 3) Frequency Controller/converter
• This is used to change the frequency of the supplied power so that the rotating speed of
the motor can be controlled depending on the requirement.
• Advantages of Azipod System
• 1) Greater manoeuvrability as the propeller can be turned in all directions. This enables
better stop distance during crash manoeuvring than that provided by the conventional
system.
• 2) In case of ships having large breadth, two or more azipods which are independent of
each other can be used. This provides subtle manoeuvring.
• 3) It saves a lot of space in the engine room as there is no engine, propeller, shafting and
other arrangements. The saved space can thus be used for storing more cargo.
• 4) The system can be placed below the ship’s height thus providing more efficiency than
the conventional system.

• 5) Use of side thruster is eliminated as the pods can be used for providing the side thrust.
• 6) Low noise and vibrations than the conventional system.
• 7) Low fuel and lube oil consumption.
• 8) Environment friendly as emissions are extremely low.
• Disadvantages
• 1) Azipod system requires massive initial cost.
• 2) A large number of diesel generators are required for producing power.
• 3) There is a limitation to the power produced by the motor. As of now the maximum
power available is 21 MW.
• 4) Cannot be installed in large ships with heavy cargo which need a lot of power and
large motors.
• OIL-COOLED STERN TUBE:
•
• Stern tubes are fitted to provide a bearing for the tail end shaft and to enable a watertight
gland to be fitted at an accessible position.

• The tube is usually constructed of cast steel with a flange at its forward end and a thread
at the after end. It is inserted from forward and this end is bolted over packing to the after
peak bulkhead. A large nut is placed over the thread at the after end, tightened and
secured to the propeller post.
• In an oil lubricated stern tube the bearings are made of white metal. A gland is fitted to
each end of the stern tube and since the after end gland will not be accessible during sea
service it is made self-adjusting. The flange shown is attached to the propeller so that it
rotates with the shaft and oil tightness is obtained by a rotating gland.
• States how the propeller is attached to the tail shaft
• The after end of the tail end shaft is tapered to receive the propeller boss and a key is
provided to transfer the torque from the shaft to the propeller. A nut fitted with a locking
plate secures the propeller in position and as an additional safeguard it is fitted with a left
hand thread in association with a right handed propeller or vice versa
• To remove the propeller and the tail end shaft the propeller should be slung on special
eyes provide on the shell for this purpose – the rope guards removed – and the propeller
nut slackened.
• The propeller is then started from the shaft by driving steel wedges between the boss and
the propeller post. When it is free the nut is removed.

SHAFT TUNNEL:

SHELL EXPANSION PLAN
Shell Expansion Plan : A drawing showing the shell plating of a ship and
giving the size, shape, and weight of the plates and their connections. It illustrate both the
side and bottom plating as a continuous whole and shows the numbering of plates and lettering of
plate strakes for reference purposes. These plans are essential for describing the locations of
damage to the ship's shell and connections to the shell. This plan shows the boundaries of the
shell plates and thickness of each plate in millimetres
The frames, floors, girders, longitudinal, bilge keels and stringers which make contact with shell
plates are also shown. The locations of other features such as sea chests and anchor pods are also
shown. Frame numbering appears at the bottom and top of the plan, counting forward and aft,
from zero at after perpendicular(at the rudder stock) The limits of each cargo hold are also shown
at the top of the plan.

SHELL EXPANSION PLAN – STRAKES DIAGRAM





Shell Expansion Plan
3D
Diagram of Tank

SINGLE HULL BULK CARRIER & DOUBLE HULL BULK CARRIER

SINGLE HULL BULK CARRIER
Double Hull Carrier Midship Section

STERN TUBE

Structures to Compensate Various Stresses :
Panting : > Panting Beams
 Panting Stringers
 Breast hooks
 Deep Floor
Pounding : > Deep Web frames

 Beams
 Thicker plating
 Double bottom
 Floors
Racking > Brackets
 Beam Knees
 Transverse B/hd
 Web Frames
 Floor
 Shell plating
 Pillars
Torsion > Torsion Boxes
Water Pressure > Bulkhead
 Longitudinal Girders
 Frames
 Floors
 Beam
 Deck
 Shell Plating
 Pillars
Dry-docking Stresses > Additional row of blocks
 Floors

TRANSOM STERN

UNBALANCED RUDDER & LOCKING PINTLE

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Copyright ARI. All other copyrights and trademarks acknowledged.

All rights reserved.

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SOLAS CARRIAGE REQUIREMENT

The requirement became effective for all ships by 31 December 2004.

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WHAT DOES AIS CONSIST OF?

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AIS TYPES A/B – DIFFERENCES

The Class B is nearly identical to the Class A, except the Class B:

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Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

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DESCRIPTION & PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

THE AUTOPILOT CONTROL SYSTEM – THE PID CONTROL UNIT

a) When the set course is changed (by the navigator)

This is achieved by electronic circuits with the help of the following:

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In derivative control, the rudder is shifted by an amount proportional to the rate of

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Block diagram of an Autopilot PID system

USER CONTROLS ON THE PANEL

 Course selector knob – course to be steered is selected by this knob.

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AUTO ADAPTIVE STEERING SYSTEM

PRECAUTIONS TO EXERCISE WHEN USING AUTOPILOT

Check the following frequently:

 Master and Gyro compasses are synchronized

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The autopilot should not be used for following:

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It is a satellite-based, real-time reporting mechanism providing almost worldwide

 Identity (Ship’s LRIT Identifier)

THE LRIT SYSTEM CONSISTS OF:

1. The ship borne LRIT information transmitting equipment

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COMMUNICATION SERVICE PROVIDER (CSP): The Communication Service

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Flag State Owns Data Anyone can see data

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It consists of a recording system for a period of at least last 48 hours which is

VDR data can be used for:

HOW DOES A VDR WORK?

The unit should be entirely automatic in normal operation.

The data collected by VDR is digitalized, compressed, and is stored in a protective

MAIN COMPONENTS OF VDR:

1. DATA MANAGEMENT UNIT (OR DATA COLLECTION UNIT)

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b) Float-free recording medium;

C) Long-term recording medium.

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WHAT DATA IS RECORDED BY VDR?

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DATA RECORDED BY S-VDR: