1.

Introduction, advantages and design goals for wireless LAN,

2. Infrastructure, ad-hoc networks,
3. IEEE 802.11: system and protocol architecture, physical layer,
4. HIPERLAN protocol architecture and physical layer and MAC,
5. Bluetooth physical and MAC layer,
6. Introduction of Wireless ad-hoc networks.

1. Introduction, advantages and design goals for wireless LAN,

Some advantages of WLANs are:

● Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further restriction. Radio
waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g.,
within devices, in walls etc.).Penetration of a firewall is only permitted at certain points to
prevent fire from spreading too fast.
● Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous
planning, any wired network needs wiring plans. As long as devices follow the same standard,
they can communicate. For wired networks, additional cabling with the right plugs and probably
interworking units (such as switches) have to be provided.
● Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of small, independent devices which can for
example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also designers of small PDAs,
notepads etc.
● Robustness: Wireless networks can survive disasters, e.g., earthquakes or users pulling a plug.
If the wireless devices survive, people can still communicate. Networks requiring a wired
infrastructure will usually break down completely.
● Cost: After providing wireless access to the infrastructure via an access point for the first
user, adding additional users to a wireless network will not increase the cost. This is, important
for e.g., lecture halls, hotel lobbies or gate areas in airports where the numbers using the network
may vary significantly. Using a fixed network, each seat in a lecture hall should have a plug for
the network although many of them might not be used permanently.

Design goals for wireless LAN:

●Global operation: WLAN products should sell in all countries so, national and international
frequency regulations have to be considered. In contrast to the infrastructure of wireless WANs,
LAN equipment may be carried from one country into another – the operation should still be
legal in this case.

●Low power: Devices communicating via a WLAN are typically also wireless devices running
on battery power. The LAN design should take this into account and implement special power-
saving modes and power management functions.
●License-free operation: LAN operators do not want to apply for a special license to be able to
use the product. The equipment must operate in a license-free band, such as the 2.4 GHz ISM
band.

● Robust transmission technology: Compared to their wired counterparts, WLANs operate

under difficult conditions. If they use radio transmission, many other electrical devices can
interfere with them (vacuum cleaners, hairdryers, train engines etc.).

● Simplified spontaneous cooperation: To be useful in practice, WLANsshould not require

complicated setup routines but should operate spontaneously after power-up. These LANs would
not be useful for supporting,e.g., ad-hoc meetings.

● Easy to use: In contrast to huge and complex wireless WANs, wireless L ANs made for
simple use. They should not require complex management, but rather work on a plug-and-play
basis.

● Protection of investment: A lot of money has already been invested into wired LANs. The
new WLANs should protect this investment by being interoperable with the existing networks.

●Safety and security: Wireless LANs should be safe to operate, especially regarding low
radiation if used, e.g., in hospitals. Users cannot keep safety distances to antennas.

Infrastructure v/s ad-hoc networks

WLANs can be broadly classified into two types, infrastructure networks and adhoc LANs,
based on the underlying architecture.

1. Infrastructure networks contain special nodes called access points (APs), which are
connected via existing networks.
2. APs are special in the sense that they can interact with wireless nodes as well as with the
existing wired network.
3. The other wireless nodes, also known as mobile stations, communicate via APs. The APs
also act
as bridges with other networks.
 a. Ad hoc LANs do not need any fixed infrastructure.
b. These networks can be setup on the fly at any place.
c. Nodes communicate directly with each other or forward messages through other
nodes
that are directly accessible.

3.IEEE 802.11: system and protocol architecture, physical layer.

A. IEEE 802.11: System

Wireless networks can exhibit two different basic system architectures as shown in section
7.2: infrastructure-based or ad-hoc. Figure 7.3 shows the components of an infrastructure
and a wireless part as specified for IEEE 802.11.

1. Several nodes, called stations (STAi), are connected to access points (AP).
2. stations (STAi) Stations are terminals with access mechanisms to the wireless medium and
radio
contact to the AP.
3. The stations and the AP which are within the same radio coverage form a basic service set
(BSSi). The example shows two BSSs – BSS1 and BSS2 – which are connected via a
distribution system.
4. A distribution system connects several BSSs via the AP to form a single network and thereby
extends the wireless coverage area. This network is now called an extended service set (ESS)
and has its own identifier, the ESSID.
Note: Without knowing the ESSID (and assuming nohacking) it should not be possible to
participate in the WLAN.
5. The distribution system connects the wireless networks via the APs with a portal, which
forms the interworking unit to other LANs
6. The APs support roaming( i.e., changing access points), the distribution system handles data
transfer between the different . APs provide synchronization within a BSS, support power
management, and can control medium access to support time-bounded service.
7. In this case, an IBSS comprises a group of stations using the same radio frequency. Stations
STA1, STA2, and STA3 are in IBSS1, STA4 and STA5 in IBSS2. This means for example that
STA3 can communicate directly with STA2 but not with STA5. Several IBSSs can either be
formed via the distance between the IBSSs (see Figure 7.4) or by using different carrier
frequencies.

B. IEEE 802.11 Protocol Architecture

 The IEEE 802.11 standard only covers the physical layer PHY and medium access layer
MAC like the other 802.x LANs do.
 The physical layer is subdivided into the physical layer convergence protocol (PLCP)
and the physical medium dependent sublayer PMD (see Figure 7.6).
  The basic tasks of the MAC layer comprise medium access, fragmentation of user data,
and encryption.
 The PLCP sublayer provides a carrier sense signal, called clear channel assessment
(CCA), and provides a common PHY service access point (SAP) independent of the
transmission technology.
 Finally, the PMD sublayer handles modulation and encoding/decoding of signals.
 The MAC management supports the associationand re-association of a station to an
access point and roaming between different access points. It also controls authentication
mechanisms, encryption,synchronization of a station with regard to an access point, and
power managementto save battery power. MAC management also maintains the
MACmanagement information base (MIB).
 The PHY management include channel tuning and PHY MIB maintenance.
 Finally, Station Management interacts with both management layers and is responsible
for additional higher layer functions (e.g., control of bridging and interaction with the
distribution system in the case of an access point).

C. IEEE 802.11 physical layer

Physical layer : The Physical layer consists of two sub-parts namely

PLCP (Physical Layer Convergence Procedure)
• Performs Carrier Sense during CSMA
• Prepares MAC Protocol data Unit(MPDU) for transmission
• Delivers incoming frames from wireless medium to the MAC layer
• Provides asynchronous transfer of MPDU between the stations
• Provides synchronization of receiving stations Physical layer with incoming packets .

PMD (Physical medium dependent)

• Provides actual transmission and reception of physical layers entities between stations
• Provides modulation and demodulation of the transmission

The three choices for the physical layer in the original 802.11 standard are as
follows:

(i) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) operating in the license-free 2.4 GHz
industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band, at data rates of 1 Mbps [using 2-level Gaussian
frequency shift keying (GFSK) modulation scheme] and 2 Mbps(using 4-level GFSK);
(ii) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, at data
rates of 1 Mbps [using Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK) modulation scheme]
and 2 Mbps [using Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK)];
(iii) Infrared operating at wavelengths in 850-950 nm range, at data rates of 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps
using Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) scheme.
(i)Frequency hopping spread spectrum

 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a spread spectrum techniquewhich allows

for the coexistence of multiple networks in the same area by separating different
networks using different hopping sequences.
 Operating in the license-free 2.4 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band, at
data rates of 1 Mbps [using 2-level Gaussian frequency shift keying (GFSK) modulation
scheme] and 2 Mbps(using 4-level GFSK).

Synchronization: The PLCP preamble starts with 80 bit synchronization, which is a 010101...
bit pattern. This pattern is used for synchronization of potential receivers and signal detection by
the CCA.
● Start frame delimiter (SFD): The following 16 bits indicate the start of the frame and provide
frame synchronization. The SFD pattern is 0000110010111101.
● PLCP_PDU length word (PLW): This first field of the PLCP header indicates the length of
the payload in bytes including the 32 bit CRC at the end of the payload. PLW can range between
0 and 4,095.
● PLCP signalling field (PSF): This 4 bit field indicates the data rate of the payload following.
All bits set to zero (0000) indicates the lowest data rate of 1 Mbit/s. The granularity is 500 kbit/s,
thus 2 Mbit/s is indicated by 0010 and the maximum is 8.5 Mbit/s (1111). This system obviously
does not accommodate today’s higher data rates.
● Header error check (HEC): Finally, the PLCP header is protected by a 16 bit checksum with
the standard ITU-T generator polynomial G(x) = x16 + x12 + x5 + 1.

Direct sequence spread spectrum

 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is the alternative spread spectrum method
separating by code and not by frequency.
 In the case of IEEE 802.11 DSSS, spreading is achieved using the 11-chip Barker
sequence (+1, –1, +1, +1, –1, +1, +1, +1, –1, –1, –1).
 The key characteristics of this method are its robustness against interference and its
insensitivity to multipath propagation.
 Operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, at data rates of 1 Mbps [using Differential Binary
Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK) modulation scheme] and 2 Mbps [using Differential
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK)];
 The frame consistsof two basic parts, the PLCP part (preamble and header) and the
payloadpart. While the PLCP part is always transmitted at 1 Mbit/s, payload, i.e., MAC
data, can use 1 or 2 Mbit/s.
 The fields of the frame have the following functions:
 Synchronization: The first 128 bits are not only used for synchronization, but also gain
setting, energy detection (for the CCA), and frequency offset compensation. The
synchronization field only consists of scrambled 1 bits.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD): This 16 bit field is used for synchronization at the
beginning of a frame and consists of the pattern 1111001110100000.
 Signal: Originally, only two values have been defined for this field to indicate the data
rate of the payload. The value 0x0A indicates 1 Mbit/s (and thus DBPSK), 0x14 indicates
2 Mbit/s (and thus DQPSK). Other values havebeen reserved for future use, i.e., higher
bit rates. Coding for higher data rates is explained in sections 7.3.6 and 7.3.7.
 Service: This field is reserved for future use; however, 0x00 indicates an IEEE 802.11
compliant frame.
 Length: 16 bits are used in this case for length indication of the payload in microseconds.
 Header error check (HEC): Signal, service, and length fields are protected
by this checksum using the ITU-T CRC-16 standard polynomial.

Infra red
 The PHY layer, which is based on infra red (IR) transmission, uses near visiblelight at
850–950 nm. Infra red light is not regulated apart from safety restrictions(using lasers
instead of LEDs).
 The standard does not require a line-of-sight between sender and receiver, but should also
work with diffuse light. This allows for point-to-multipoint communication.
 The maximum range is about 10 m if no sunlight or heat sources interfere with the
transmission.Typically, such a network will only work in buildings, e.g., classrooms,
meeting rooms etc.
 Frequency reuse is very simple – a wall is more than enough to shield one IR based IEEE
802.11 network from another.
3. HIPERLAN protocol architecture and physical layer and MAC,
ETSI standard
European standard, cf. GSM, DECT, ...
Enhancement of local Networks and interworking with fixed networks
integration of time-sensitive services from the early beginning
HIPERLAN family
one standard cannot satisfy all requirements
range, bandwidth, QoS support
commercial constraints
HIPERLAN 1 standardized since 1996 – no products!

HIPERLAN/1HIPERLAN/1
 is a RLAN standard that was introduced by the ETSI in 1995.The standard allows nodes
to be deployed either in a prearranged or in an adhoc fashion.
 Apart from supporting node mobility,HIPERLAN/1 provides forwarding mechanisms
(multi-hop routing).
 Thus, coverage is not limited to just the neighboring nodes.
 HIPERLAN/1 provides a data rate of around 23.5 Mbps without utilizing much power,
thus having the capability to support multimedia data and asynchronous data effectively.
 This data rate is significantly higher than that provided by IEEE 802.11.
 The HIPERLAN/1 protocol stack is restricted to the two lower-most layers in the OSI
referencemodel: the data link layer (DLL)and the physical layer.
 The DLL is further divided into the medium access control (MAC) sublayer and the
channel accesscontrol (CAC) sublayer.

The Physical Layer

 The tasks of the physical layer are modulation and demodulation of a radio carrier with a
bit stream, forward error-correction mechanisms, signal strength measurement, and
synchronization between the sender and the receiver.
 The standard uses the CCA scheme (similar to IEEE 802.11) to sense whether the
channel is idle or busy.

The CAC Sublayer

 The CAC sublayer offers a connectionless data service to the MAC sublayer.

 The MAC layer uses this service to specify a priority (called the CAM priority)which is
the QoS parameter for the CAC layer. This is crucial in the resolution of contention in the
CAM.EY-NPMA After a packet with an associated CAM priority has been chosen in the
CAC sublayer for transmission, the next phase is to compete with packets of other nodes
for channel access.
  The channel access mechanism is a dynamic, listen-and-then-talk protocol that is very
similar to the CSMA/CA used in 802.11 and is called the elimination yield nonpre-
emptive multiple access (EYNPMA) mechanism.
 Figure shows the operation of the EY-NPMA mechanism in which the nodes 1, 2, 3,
and 4 have packets to be sent to the AP.
 The CAM priority for nodes 2 and 4 is higher with priority 2 followed by node 3with
priority 3, and node 1 with the least priority of 4.
 The prioritization phase will have k slots where k (can vary from 1 to 5
with k − 1 having higher priority than k) refers to the number of priority levels.

1. Prioritization: This phase culls out nodes with packets of the highest CAM
priority and lets them participate in the next phase.
 The prioritization phase consists of two events, namely, priority detection and priority
assertion.
 During the priority detection period, a node listens to the channel for a number of time
slots proportional to the CAM priority assigned to the packet that the node wants to send.
 In Figure, the nodes 2 and 4 wait for one slot and assert their priority in the second slot as
they hold packets with higher priority, and nodes 3 and 1 wait for slots equal to their
priority level.
 By listening to the channel,nodes 3 and 1detect the existence of other nodes with higher
priority and hence leave the prioritization phase.
 If a low-priority node has succeeded in waiting up to this slot, it enters the priority
assertion period during which it sends a burst,signaling its selection to the next stage.
 In this process, the node(s) with the highest CAM priority will finish the prioritization
phase first and hence will beselected for the next phase.

2. Contention: This phase is to eliminate as many nodes as possible, in order to

minimize the collision rate during transmission.
 This phase extends to a maximum of 13 slots, each of the same width as that of the slots
in the prioritization phase.
  In this phase, the nodes that transmitted a burst in the previous phase, resolve access to
the channel by contention.
 This phase consist of two sub-phases, namely, the elimination phase and the yield phase.
Nodes in this phase (nodes 2 and 4 in Figure ) .
 To transmit a burst for a geometrically distributed number of time slots the probability
of a node's transmission extending to a slot length of k slots(where k < 12 slots) is
0.5k+1] which is then followed by a sensing period of 1 slot.
 During this period, if a node detects another node's burst, it stops the contention process
(node 2 in Figure )
 This period during which each contending node will have to listen to the channel for a
slot duration is called the elimination survival identification interval.
 If the channel is sensed idle during this interval, the node reaches the yield phase. This
period is also called elimination survival verification.
 This ensures that the node(s) which sent the elimination burst for the maximum number
of slots will be chosen for the next phase.
 The next phase is the yieldphase which complements the elimination phase; it involves
each node listening to the channel for a number of time slots (up to a maximum of 15
slots, eachwith duration of the slot duration in the prioritization phase).

3. Transmission: This is the final stage in the channel access where the
transmission of the selected packet takes place.
 During this phase, the successful delivery of a data packet is acknowledged with an ACK
packet.
 The performance of EY-NPMA protocol suffers from major factors such as packet
length, number of nodes, and the presence of hidden terminals.
 The efficiency of this access scheme varies from 8% to 83% with variation of packet
sizes from50 bytes to 2 Kbytes.
 . The other two conditions during which channel access can take place are
(a) the channel free condition, when the node senses the channel free for some
amount of time and then gains access, and
(b) the hidden terminal condition, when a node is eliminated from contention,
but still does not sense any data transmission, indicating the presence of a
hidden node.

HIPERLAN 1 - MAC layer

services via a priority scheme Packet forwarding

 support of directed (point-to-point) forwarding and broadcast forwarding (if no path
information is available)
 support of QoS while forwarding
Encryption mechanisms
 mechanisms integrated, but withouCompatible to ISO MAC
Supports time-bounded t key management
Power conservation mechanisms
 mobile terminals can agree upon awake patterns (e.g., periodic wake-ups to receive
data)
 additionally, some nodes in the networks must be able to buffer data for sleeping
terminals and to forward them at the right time (so called stores)

5. Bluetooth physical and MAC layer

Radio (Physical) Layer

The radio part of the specification deals with the characteristics of the transceivers and design
specifications such as frequency accuracy, channel
interference, and modulation characteristics.
 The Bluetooth system operates in the globally available ISM frequency band and the
frequency modulation is GFSK.
 It supports 64 Kbps voice channels and asynchronous data channels with
a peak rate of 1 Mbps.
 The data channels are either asymmetric (in one direction) or symmetric (in both
directions).
 The Bluetooth transceiver is a FHSS system operating over a set of m channels each of
width 1 MHz.
 In most of the countries, the value of m is 79. Frequency hopping is used and hops are
made at a rapid rate across the possible 79 hops in the band, starting at 2.4GHz and
stopping at 2.480 GHz.
 The choice of frequency hopping has been made to provide protection against
interference.
 The Bluetooth air interface is based on a nominal antenna power of 0 dBm (1mW) with
extensions for operating at up to 20 dBm (100 mW) worldwide. The nominal link range
is from 10 centimetres to 10 meters, but can be extended to more than 100 meters by
increasing the
transmit power (using the 20 dBm option).

Piconets and Scatternets

Bluetooth enabled electronic devices connect and communicate wirelessly through shortrange devices
known as Piconets.

Bluetooth devices exist in small ad-hoc configurations with the ability to act either as master or slave the
specification allows a mechanism for master and slave to switch their roles. Point to point configuration
with one master and one slave is the simplest configuration.
When more than two Bluetooth devices communicate with one another, this is called a PICONET. A
Piconet can contain up to seven slaves clustered around a single master. The device that initializes
establishment of the Piconet becomes the master.

The master is responsible for transmission control by dividing the network into a series of time slots
amongst the network members, as a part of time division multiplexing scheme which is shown below.

The features of Piconets are as follows −

 Within a Piconet, the timing of various devices and the frequency hopping sequence of individual
devices is determined by the clock and unique 48-bit address of master.

 Each device can communicate simultaneously with up to seven other devices within a single
Piconet.

 Each device can communicate with several piconets simultaneously.

 Piconets are established dynamically and automatically as Bluetooth enabled devices enter and
leave piconets.

 There is no direct connection between the slaves and all the connections are essentially master-to-
slave or slave-to-master.

 Slaves are allowed to transmit once these have been polled by the master.
  Transmission starts in the slave-to-master time slot immediately following a polling packet from
the master.

 A device can be a member of two or more piconets, jumping from one piconet to another by
adjusting the transmission regime-timing and frequency hopping sequence dictated by the master
device of the second piconet.

 It can be a slave in one piconet and master in another. It however cannot be a master in more than
once piconet.

 Devices resident in adjacent piconets provide a bridge to support inner-piconet connections,

allowing assemblies of linked piconets to form a physically extensible communication
infrastructure known as Scatternet.

Spectrum
Bluetooth technology operates in the unlicensed industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band at 2.4 to
2.485 GHZ, using a spread spectrum hopping, full-duplex signal at a nominal rate of 1600 hops/sec. the
2.4 GHZ ISM band is available and unlicensed in most countries.

Range
Bluetooth operating range depends on the device Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 meter or 3 feet
Class 2 radios are most commonly found in mobile devices have a range of 10 meters or 30 feet Class 1
radios are used primarily in industrial use cases have a range of 100 meters or 300 feet.

Data rate
Bluetooth supports 1Mbps data rate for version 1.2 and 3Mbps data rate for Version 2.0 combined with
Error Data Rate.