Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
How did you find the last module? Were you surprised at the immense work of the
three systems? If so, there are more surprises that await you in this module, and more
enjoyable activities, too. Continue studying the modules and see how wonderful the human
machine is.
“Keep in touch” is a line you may have used many times before. This means that you
want to communicate constantly with friends and relatives. Have you ever thought of how
your body communicates with itself or the outside world?
There are two main systems that your body uses to stay in touch. These are the
nervous system and the endocrine system.
In order to achieve the objectives of this module successfully, you have to remember
the following:
A. Match the hormones in Column A with the glands that produce them in Column B. Write
only the letters of the correct answer.
Column A Column B
1. adrenalin a. pituitary
2. thyroxine b. thyroid
3. melatonin c. parathyroid
4. progesterone d. thymus
5. testosterone e. ovaries
6. parathormone f. testes
7. growth hormone g. adrenal
8. thymusin h. pancreas
9. glucagon i. pineal
10. oxytoxin j. hypothalamus
-2-
B. Identify the system to which each of the following structures or organs belong.
You perform different activities from the time you wake up in the morning to the time
you sleep at night. Do you know what coordinates all of these actions? This system makes
you feel, know, and do anything. In this lesson, you will study the control system of all your
body functions – your nervous system.
Let’s look at the parts of the human nervous system in more detail. The nervous
system uses special cells to keep in touch. These cells help the body communicate with
other body parts.
-3-
Dendrites carry impulses towards the cell body. A cell may have as many as 200
dendrites carrying impulses toward the cell body. A single dendrite can be over one meter
long. Look at the parts of the nerve cell below.
Axons carry impulses away from the cell body. Axons pass impulses to the dendrites
of other neurons.
Neurons can be grouped together into bundles called nerves. Thus, nerves are
tissues. A nerve is like a telephone cable with smaller wires bound together, as shown in
figure 2.
Stimulus - (plural: stimuli) is any information received by the nervous system about a
condition in the environment. The nervous system also receives information about
conditions inside the body. In order to survive, an organism must be able to receive
stimuli from inside and outside the body.
The nervous system is assisted by five organs - the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and
the skin. The sense organs are constantly receiving information from the environment and
sending messages to the brain.
-4-
The Nerve Impulse
Neurons are cells with the special ability to carry signals or impulses. It may be
difficult to believe, but thoughts, emotions, learning and many body functions are controlled
by nerve impulses. And the nerve impulses are carried by the neurons.
Let us see how well you remember the concepts in Lesson 1. Answer the following
questions.
-5-
What you will do
Activity 1.1 How can you measure reaction time?
Materials:
Metric ruler
Data chart
Procedure:
Reaction time is the length of time it takes for a message to travel along your nerve
pathways.
2. Have your partner hold a metric ruler at the end with the highest number.
3. Place the thumb and forefinger of your left hand close to, but not touching, the
end with the lowest number.
4. When your partner drops the ruler, try to catch it between your thumb and finger.
5. Record where the top of your thumb is when you catch the ruler. This number
gives how many centimeters the ruler fell.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 five more times.
7. Repeat steps 2 to 5 five more times using your right hand to catch the ruler.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 5 five more times using your left hand with your eyes closed.
Your partner will signal you by saying “ now” when the ruler drops.
9. Repeat steps 2 to 5 five more times using your right hand with your eyes closed.
10. Switch the roles and drop the ruler for your partner.
11. To complete your data chart, change all the centimeters to seconds by multiplying
by 0.01.
12. Get the average.
-6-
Answer the following questions:
1. Did you catch the ruler faster with your left hand or right hand when your eyes
were open? Which hand is your writing hand?
2. Did you catch the ruler faster with your left hand or right hand when your eyes
were closed?
3. Did you catch the ruler faster with your eyes opened or closed?
4. Explain why a message moving along nerve pathways takes time.
5. Describe the nerve pathway that the message followed when you saw the ruler
fall.
Now you know why different pathways carry messages from the brain to the toe and
from the toe to the brain. Messages do not travel in both directions along the same neuron.
Only the axon of the neuron gives off the chemical that crosses the space between neurons.
The Brain
The brain is the main control center of coordination. It is about the size of a small
head of a cauliflower. In some ways it even looks likes a head of cauliflower with ridges and
furrows over its surface. The brain weighs about 1.4 kilograms and is protected by the skull.
-7-
What you will do
Self-Test 1.2
Using the word/ words below, answer the questions that follow.
-8-
Activity 1.2 Reflex Action
Any message received by your body must go to the brain before you can react to it.
Think of what happens when somebody is about to strike you with an object. You raise your
arms after the message that is headed your way reaches your brain. Some messages do
not make it to the brain. They go directly to the muscles. The body therefore reacts in a
very short time. Quick reactions that don’t use the brain are called reflexes. How does a
reflex work?
You must remember that reflexes are involuntary, very quick, and help protect the
body from further harm.
The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral
nervous system includes all the nerves carrying signals to and from the brain and spinal
cord. Both divisions have a neuroganglia cell, which protects or assists neutrons.
The peripheral nervous system of humans has thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves,
which connect with the spinal cord. It also has twelve pairs of cranial nerves, which connect
directly with the brain. Some nerves of the peripheral system carry only sensory
information. Study figure 3. Note how the nerves all over the body are connected to the
spinal cord and to the brain.
The optic nerves, which carry visual signals from the eyes are like this. Other nerves
contain both sensory and motor axons. For example, the vagus nerves have sensory axons
leading into the brain as well as motor axons leading out to the lungs, gut, and heart.
The peripheral nervous system has two subdivisions called somatic and autonomic.
The somatic is concerned with the movements of the body’s head, trunk, and limbs. Its
sensory axon carries signals inward from receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles, and
-9-
tendons while its motor axons carries signals out to the body’s skeletal muscles. The
autonomic system deals with the “visceral” portion of the body – that is, the internal organs
and structures. Its sensory and motor axon carry signals from and to smooth muscles,
cardiac (heart) muscle, and the different regions inside the body.
The parasympathetic system opposes the sympathetic system and thus maintains
a system of checks and balances. The principal nerve of parasympathetic system is the
vagus nerve, and abdomen. To illustrate how the check-and-balance system works, when
there is fire you can carry heavy loads down your house to save them from getting burned,
but you will need the help of several persons to bring back these things after the fire.
Another example is if a person has become instantly mobilized and rushed into a
highway to save a child from an oncoming car, he may well faint as soon as the child has
been swept out of danger.
As a living thing you must know what is going on around you. You use your eyes to
do this. But what if you are blind, do you think you still have other ways to keep in contact
with your surroundings?
The human body has many sense organs. These are the ear, eyes, nose, skin, &
tongue. These sense organs are parts of the nervous system that tell what is going on
around you. These sense organs aid in the survival of human beings.
Each sense organ is specialized as to what it can detect. The ears detect moving air
molecules. The eyes detect light. The nose and tongue detect chemicals. The skin detects
heat, cold, touch and pressure.
- 10 -
The Ear
1. The pinna (earflap) catches sound waves and helps direct this to a narrow tube.
The pinna is made up of cartilage. It is soft and bends easily.
2. A narrow tube leads into the ear. This tube is the ear canal. This part of the ear
carries sound waves to the middle ear.
3. Sound waves which pass through the ear canal bump against a thin membrane
called the eardrum. When sound waves strike the eardrum, this vibrates back
and forth.
The middle ear has two main parts. Look at figure 6 as you read points 4 and 5.
4. Three small bones make up one of the main parts of the middle ear. Due to their
shapes, the bones are called the hammer, anvil and stirrup. These bones are
small and are connected to one another. When the eardrum vibrates, the
hammer moves. This movement causes the other two bones to move.
5. The stirrup is connected to another membrane, the oval window. The oval
window is a membrane in the middle ear that vibrates with the motion of the ear
bones.
The inner ear has two main parts. Study figure 6 as you read 6 and 7 to know what
they do.
6. This part is called the cochlea. It looks like a small-shell and is filled with liquid. It
is a coiled chamber that contains nerve cells. When the oval window vibrates, it
makes the liquid in the cochlea move. The nerve cells in the cochlea detect this
movement.
- 11 -
7. Each nerve cell in the cochlea is connected to a large nerve, the auditory nerve.
The auditory nerve carries messages of sound to the brain. Once these
messages reach the brain, they are interpreted. This is the final step in hearing.
You hear a person singing, a cat mewing, or some other sound.
The Eyes
How do your eyes give you information about your surroundings? What are the parts
of the human eye?
The figure above shows the parts of the human eye. Do you know the work of each
part? Continue reading to master the parts and function.
The eyelids found outside the eyes are for protection and moistening. Whenever
you blink, liquid spreads over the front of your eye.
The sclera is the white outer covering of the eye. It protects and holds the eye
together.
The iris is a muscle. It adjusts the amount of light entering the eye. It is that part that
gives the eye its color.
The pupil is an opening in the center of the iris. Light enters the eye through the
pupil. As the amount of light varies, the size of the iris changes. This causes the pupil to
become large or small. This is the reason why we can see in the dark.
The cornea is the clear outer covering at the front of the eye. It has two functions. It
allows the light to enter the eye through the pupil. It also bends light as it enters the eye so
that the object will be in focus.
The lens muscle attaches to the lens. It pulls on the lens and changes its shape.
This helps you see up close and far away.
- 12 -
The retina is a structure in the eye made of light-detecting nerve cells.
The vitreous humor is the liquid inside the eye. Its main work is to give the eye its
round shape.
The optic nerve is a nerve that carries messages from the retina to the brain. When
a message reaches the vision center of the brain, the message is interpreted. Then, the
brain flips the message right side up.
What does 20/20 vision mean? The eye doctor uses a chart to measure how sharp a
person’s eyesight is. The degree of sharpness is called VISUAL ACUITY and this is
measured by a SNELLEN Chart.
If you can see a standard-sized letter at 20 feet, you have 20/20 vision. If what you
can see at that distance is a letter that is twice as large as the standard-sized letter, then
you have 20/40 vision.
Have you ever experienced taking an eye test in school? If so do you still remember
what you did? Would you like to try doing the test again?
The purpose of this activity is to show you what happens at an eye doctor’s office.
The results are approximate. They are not medically reliable.
Procedure:
1. Tape the eye chart (available in the school clinic, or an optical clinic) to a wall at
eye level.
2. Stand 20 feet from the chart. If you wear glasses, take them off.
3. Make a copy of the table.
4. Have your lab partner stand next to the chart and record the number of errors you
make in the table.
5. Cover your right eye. Read the eye chart starting at the top. Your partner is to
record the number of errors you make on each line.
6. Repeat the steps with the left eye covered and then with both eyes open.
- 13 -
Number of Errors
Letter Size
Left Eye Right Eye Both Eyes
on Chart
Open Open Open
20/100
20/80
20/60
20/50
20/40
20/30
20/25
20/20
20/16
The major sense organ for taste is the tongue. It detects chemicals in the mouth. As
the tongue senses different chemicals, you taste the sweetness of sugar and the bitterness
of ampalaya.
- 14 -
Have you ever experienced having cold? Did
you have trouble tasting things when you have
colds? Do you think the nose has something to do
with taste? The sense of taste and smell work
together. They both detect chemicals. Your sense
of smell enables you to detect chemicals in the air,
or odors.
Encircle the words or group of words in the grid which are related to the sense
organs. These maybe spelled horizontally, vertically or partly horizontal and vertical.
L E N S E A R H
B O P I N N A E
T E S I G H T A
O T K E S E O R
N E I B M A U I
G E N E E R C R
U W T L Y C H I
E S L S E E R S
- 15 -
Skin
Your skin functions not only for protection but also as a sense organ. It contains
many kinds of nerve cells that detect changes around the body. Take a closer look at the
structure of the skin found in your other module. Five nerve cell types are shown. Each
nerve cell detects a different condition. The nerve cells detect pain, pressure, touch, heat
and cold. Observe that most nerve cells are found in the dermis. Only nerve cells that
detect pain are found in both the epidermis and the dermis.
To end up the lesson about the sense organs a summary is given below.
- 16 -
Activity 2.2 Palpation
We shall make use of palpation to examine some sense organs. Follow the steps
below to enjoy the activity.
Ear
1. Grasp your pinna or auricle, the shell-like part of the external ear. Say ah! remove
your hand and say ah! again. Compare the loudness of the sound you hear.
2. Insert your small finger into the ear canal. Was it able to get inside?
Eye
1. Trace a finger around the entire margin of the eye region. On the upper part, feel
your eyebrows, then your eyelids.
2. On the middle side feel for the bone that contains the tear-gathering sac. This is
where your tears come from.
Nose
1. Touch the upper most part of your nose, its root, between the eyebrows.
2. Trace the bridge of your nose, this is below the root.
Run your index finger and thumb along opposite sides of the bridge of your nose.
Have you ever experienced being chased by a dog or any other animal, or maybe
heard somebody shout fire! fire!? What was your reaction? Why did you react that way?
Well, in this lesson, you will learn why your reactions in times of emergencies are different
from your normal reactions (or from how you would react in normal conditions)
Animals have an additional system for sending messages through their bodies. This
system doesn’t use nerve cells. It uses chemicals formed in special glands. Blood is used
as the pathway for delivering these chemical messages through your body.
The second system that allows different parts of your body to keep in touch is called
the endocrine system. The endocrine system is made of small glands that make special
chemicals for carrying messages through the body. The glands are found throughout the
body. The chemicals made by endocrine glands are called hormones. Hormones found in
the blood, once in the blood, hormones travel to different organs of the body. Changes take
place in the organs when they receive the chemical messages that hormones carry.
- 17 -
Any organ, tissue or group of cells that
make a secretion is called a gland. There
are two kinds of glands: exocrine and
endocrine glands.
Summarize the endocrine glands and their locations by completing the table on the next
page.
- 18 -
Endocrine Location
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A hormone is a special chemical substance. The word hormone comes from the
Greek word that means “to excite”. In fact, that’s exactly what a hormone does. A hormone
excites, or turns on, a body activity.
Hormones regulate nearly all the activities in your body. There is an ideal constant
state, or homeostasis. For example, body metabolism, growth and blood pressure must be
kept at constant states. These and many other body activities are kept at their constant
state by hormones. Hormones keep many of the body’s activities at homeostasis by
regulation.
Remember :
made by a gland
secreted directly into the bloodstream
that acts as a chemical messenger
that excites a body activity
that controls by regulation.
The thyroid gland is located at the bottom of the neck and secretes a thyroid
hormone. The thyroid hormone regulates metabolism, or the release of energy to the body.
If too much thyroid hormone is secreted, a person may lose weight because food is burned
- 19 -
up too quickly. Thus the child may be hyperactive or mentally retarded. Study the diagram
below. It shows how the thyroid gland works and its possible effects.
On the other hand, if too little thyroid hormone is secreted the child will develop into a
midget who is overweight. Too little thyroid hormone results in low metabolism, which slows
down the growth and development of tissues.
Figure 11
http//trainingseen.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/unit6_3_glnd1_pitiutary.
- 20 -
The Adrenal Gland
Figure 12
http//trainingseen.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/
unit6_3_glnd3_adrenal.
Figure 13
http//trainingseen.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/
unit6_3_glnd4_pancreas.
- 21 -
If too little insulin is secreted the person suffers from diabetes. With diabetes, the
cells do not get enough sugar, and extra sugar is not stored in the liver. Valuable sugar is
then wasted when it is excreted in the urine.
Figure 15
http//trainingseen.cancer.gov/module_anatomy/
unit6_3_glnd5_gonads.
- 22 -
The pituitary gland is a pea-sized
organ tucked away at the base of the brain.
The pituitary gland secretes several
hormones, many of which regulate the
activities of the other glands. For this
reason, the pituitary gland is called the
master gland.
The pituitary gland stimulates the thyroid, adrenal, and sex glands to regulate their
activities. It also secretes a skin color hormone that regulates skin color and a growth
hormone that regulates growth.
To summarize this is how the pituitary gland influences other endocrine glands.
The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped structure located on the upper back part
of the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces a hormone called melatonin, which
is thought to inhibit the functions of the reproductive system. Melatonin may play an
important role in the onset of puberty in humans.
- 23 -
What you will do
Activity 3.1 Concentration: The Hormone Game
This is a variation on the game Concentration. In this game, you are to match a gland
with a hormone and with the activity it regulates.
Procedures:
1. Cut each card in half across the width. You now have 60 cards.
2. Write the word thyroid on 2 of the cards.
3. Repeat step 2 for parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas and sex gland.
4. Write the word pituitary on 10 of the cards.
5. Mix these 20 cards up, turn them over and spread them out in a group to the left
of the table. Write gland on the back of each card.
6. Write the name of each of the 10 hormones you have studied on 2 cards. You will
have used 20 cards when you finish.
7. Write hormone on the back of each card. Mix these 20 cards up, turn them over
and spread them out in a group in the center of the table.
8. Write what each hormone regulates on 2 cards. You will have used 20 cards
when you finish.
9. Write regulates on the back of each card. Mix these 20 cards up, turn them over,
and spread them out in a group to the right of the table.
10. Taking turns, each player turns over 1 card from each group. A match is a gland,
its hormone, and what hormone it regulates. If the cards match, pick them up and
try for another match.
11. If the cards do not match, the player returns all 3 cards face down and the next
player continues.
12. The game ends when all of the cards have been picked up. The winner is the
player with the most cards.
Let’s Summarize
1. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and nerves.
2. The nervous system coordinates the life-support system of the body.
3. A stimulus is any information received about a condition in the environment.
4. A response is a reaction to a stimulus.
5. A nerve impulse is a signal that travels along a set of nerves.
6. The nerve is a conductor, an organ that carries the nerve impulse.
7. The brain and the spinal cord are the interpreters; that is, organs that process
messages.
8. The nervous system controls by coordination.
- 24 -
9. The basic unit of the nervous system is the neuron. A neuron has three parts: cell
body, dendrite, and axon.
10. Dendrites carry impulses toward the cell body.
11. Axons carry impulses toward the cell body.
12. The spinal cord carries nerve impulses from all over the body to and from the
brain.
13. The brain is the control center of coordination.
14. Each area of the brain controls a specific activity.
15. The endocrine system regulates all of the body activities to keep them operating
at homeostasis.
16. A secretion is any chemical given off by a cell, tissue or organ.
17. Glands produce secretions.
18. An endocrine gland makes a secretion that travels through a duct.
19. An endocrine gland makes a secretion that empties directly into the blood.
20. Hormones are chemical messengers that do their work away from their gland.
21. A hormone excites a body activity.
22. Hormones do their job by regulation.
23. The glands of the body are the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, sex glands
and pituitary.
24. The thyroid hormone regulates metabolism.
25. The parathyroid hormone regulates the amount of calcium in the blood and
bones.
26. Adrenalin regulates the burning of sugar.
27. Insulin regulates energy for an emergency.
28. The sex hormone regulates the male and female sex characteristics.
29. The pituitary gland regulates other glands.
30. The female sex hormone is the estrogen or progesterone.
31. The male sex hormone is the androgen or testosterone.
Posttest
Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a
separate sheet of paper.
- 25 -
4. Which gland is located behind the stomach?
a. pancreas b. pituitary c. thyroid d. testes
5. The growth of the adams apple and hair in the armpit is caused by the secretion of which
gland?
a. ovaries b. parathyroid c. testes d. thyroid
10. What organ sends and receives messages to and from all parts of the body?
a. brain b. cerebellum c. cerebrum d. medulla oblongata
11. What do you call any information received by the nervous system?
a. news b. question c. response d. stimulus
12. What part of the nervous system connects organ, muscles or skin to the spinal cord?
a. brain b. body nerves c. body tissue d. cerebrum
17. What part of the eye regulates the amount of light passing through it?
a. lense b. iris c. cornea d. retina
- 26 -
19. Which part of the brain controls heart beat breathing and blood pressure?
a. cerebellum b. cerebrum c. medulla d. pons
Key to Answers
Pretest
A. B.
1. g 6. c 11. Nervous System 16. Nervous System
2. b 7. a 12. Endocrine System 17. Endocrine System
3. i 8. d 13. Reproductive System 18. Nervous System
4. e 9. h 14. Endocrine System 19. Nervous System
5. f 10. j 15. Endocrine System 20. Nervous System
Lesson 1
Self-Test 1.1
Activity 1.1
- 27 -
Self-Test 1.2
Lesson 2
Activity 2.1
Self-Test 2.1
L E N S E A R H
B O P I N N A E
T E S I G H T A
O T K E S E O R
N E I B M A U I
G E N E E R C R
U W T L Y C H I
E S L S E E R S
Self-Test 2.2
Lesson 3
Self-Test 3.1
- 28 -
Table:
1. pituitary – brain
2. thyroid – neck
3. thymus – chest cavity
4. adrenals – top of kidneys
5. pancreas – below the stomach
6. testes – below the abdominal cavity
7. ovaries – below the pelvis
Self-Test 3.2
Self-Test 3.3
1. secrete adrenaline
2. helps us during emergency
Self-Test 3.4
Self-Test 3.5
Posttest
1. c 6. c 11. d 16. a
2. c 7. c 12. b 17. b
3. a 8. a 13. d 18. c
4. a 9. c 14. b 19. c
5. c 10. a 15. a 20. d
- 29 -
References
Books:
Daniel, L. (1994). Life science. Westerville, OH: Merill Publishing Co., Mcmillan/McGraw-
Hill.
Grabowski, T. (2003). Principles of anatomy and physiology. NY: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.
Holo, W. (1984). Human anatomy and physiology. (3rd Ed.) Iowa: W. C. Brown Publishers.
Dubuque.
Hopson, J.L. & Wessells, N.K. (1990). Essentials of biology. USA: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company.
Kaskel, A., Hummer, P.J. & Daniel, L. (1988). Biology: An everyday experience. USA:
Merill Publishing Co.
Mariele, E.N. (1998). Essentials of human anatomy and physiology. (3rd Ed.) New York,
USA: Addison- Wesley Longman, Inc.
Pikering, W.H. (2000). Complete biology. New York: Oxford University Press
Wong, H.K. & Dolmatz, S. (1986). Biology: The key ideas. Eaglewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice – Hall, Inc.
Electronic Sources:
- 30 -