Stability Design of Steel Frames

Stability Design of Steel Frames

W. F. Chen
School of Civil Engineering
Purdue University

E. M. Lui
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Syracuse University

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Chen, Wai-Fah, 1936-

Stability design of steel frames/
by W. F. Chen, E. M. Lui
p. cm.
Includes index
ISBN 0-8493-8606-3
1. Structural frames-Design and
construction. 2. Building, Iron and steel.
3. Structural stability.
I. Lui, E. M. II. Title.
[TA660.F7C45 1991]
624.1‘773-dc20 91-7742

A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 91007742

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New Directions in Civil Engineering
SERIES EDITOR: W. F. CHEN Purdue University
Contents

Preface, vii
Notation, ix
1 Analysis of Beam-Columns,
2 Design of Beam-Columns, 39
3 Second-Order Rigid Frame Analysis, 145
4 Simplified Second-Order Rigid Frame Analysis, 203
5 Behavior and Modeling of Semi-Rigid Connections, 235
6 Analysis of Semi-Rigid Frames, 275
7 Design of Semi-Rigid Frames, 343
Index, 373

v
Preface

Since the publication of the two-volume book on Theory ofBeam-Columns by W.F.

Chen and T. Atsuta in 1976-77 (McGraw-Hill, New York), our understanding of
certain aspects of the behavior and design of steel members and frames has
increased considerably and many extensions and advances during the last 10 years
have been made. In particular, the rapid development in computer hardware and
software has made it possible for engineers and designers to predict structural
behavior quite accurately. The advancement in structural analysis techniques
coupled with the increased understanding of structural behavior has made it
possible for engineers to adopt the limit state design philosophy. A limit state is
defined as a condition at which a structural member or its component ceases to
perform its intended function under normal conditions (serviceability limit) or
failure under severe conditions (ultimate limit state). The recently published Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Specification by the American Institute of
Steel Construction (AISC, 1986) is based on the limit states philosophy and thus
represents a more rational approach to the design of steel structures in general, and
beam-columns in particular.
This book is a concise encapsulation of recent research works on the analysis
and design of steel members and frames. The primary objective is to provide the
reader with a course of reference for current topics of interest in inelastic member
and frame analysis/design and the effect of joint flexibility on frame behavior and
design.
The book is a practical work that will usefully supplement the traditional texts
on the theory and design of structural stability. The systematic layout of selected
topics from structural members to connections to frames makes it possible to lead
the reader to the front of present research without presupposing prior familiarity
with the subject. In fact, much of the material presented in the recent monographs
Joint Flexibility in Steel Frames (1987) and Steel Beam-to-Column Connections
( 1988), edited by W.F. Chen (Elsevier Applied Science, London) is of a fairly recent
origin, and is combined here with the more recent work completed at Purdue,
Syracuse, and elsewhere, to form the basis of the present book. The material
presented here in a unified format may not be found in the standard reference works
of the field.
W.F. Chen
E.M. Lui
1991

vii
Notation

Load and moment

axial load
PIPy = nondimensional axial load
elastic buckling load
n 2 EI/L2 = Euler buckling load
n 2 EII(KLf = elastic buckling load considering column end restraining
conditions
nominal axial strength
ultimate strength of column considering geometric imperfections and
material plasticity
PY AFy = yield strength
M bending moment
m MIMy = nondimensional bending moment
Ml,M2 smaller and larger end moments of beam-column, respectively
Mer elastic buckling moment
Mocr (n/L)../(ElyGJ) ../(1 + W~ = elastic buckling moment under uniform
moment, where W~ = (n 2 /L2 )(£Cw/GJ)
CmM2 = equivalent uniform moment
nominal flexural strength
required flexural strength in member due to lateral frame translation
required flexural strength in member assuming there is no lateral
translation of the frame
ZFy = plastic bending moment
plastic bending moment considering the influence of axial load
ultimate bending moment capacity of beam considering geometric
imperfections and material plasticity
SFY = yield moment

Geometry and dimensions

A cross-sectional area
b compression element width
br flange width
Cw warping constant for a section
e end eccentricity
d overall depth of member
h story height
I Ar2 = moment of inertia

ix
X NOTATION

J uniform torsional (or St. Venant) constant for a section

L length
r ..J(IIA) =radius of gyration
S elastic section modulus
thickness of connected part
u,v displacements in x and y direction, respectively
Z plastic section modulus
<I> curvature
<l>y MyfEI = yield curvature
rf> <1>/<I>Y = nondimensional curvature
Ab ..J(M/Mcr) =beam slenderness
Ac ..J(P/Pek) = KL/nr ..J(FyiE) =column slenderness parameter
c5 lateral deflection of column
d lateral deflection of frame
d0 first-order lateral translation deflection of the story under consideration
y angle of twist

Material parameters
E modulus of elasticity of steel (29 000 ksi)
G shear modulus of elasticity of steel ( 11 200 ksi)
Fy, ay yield stress
v Poisson's ratio

Stability and LRFD related factors

AF amplification factor
B1 P-o moment amplification factor for beam-columns in LRFD
Cm/[ 1 - (PIPek)] ;;;;. 1.0
B2 P-d moment amplification factor for beam-columns in LRFD
1/[1 - L(PIPek)] or 1/[1 - L(Pd0 /hll)]
Cb Mc/Mocr =equivalent moment factor for beams
em equivalent moment factor for beam-columns
K ..J(Pe/Pek) =effective length factor for prismatic member
k ..J(PIEI)
GA, G8 joint bending stiffness ratio
rf> resistance factor
rPb resistance factor for flexure= 0.90
rf>c resistance factor for compression= 0.85
u kL/2
stability functions
 NOTATION Xi

Connection parameters
C, D curve-fitting constants
K standardization parameter
M connection moment
Mu connection ultimate moment capacity
n shape parameter
Rk connection stiffness
Rk R~IEI = nondimensional connection stiffness

Rkb design connection stiffness for calculating M 11

Rkf, Rkp strain-hardening connection stiffness
Rki initial connection stiffness
RkO design connection stiffness for calculating Mnt
er connection rotational deformation
1: Analysis of Beam-Columns

1.1 Introduction, I 1.4.3 General Cross-Sections Under Biaxial

Bending
1.2 General Behavior of Beam-Columns, 3
1.5 Member Analysis by Newmark Method, 18
I. 3 Analysis of Beam-Columns, 5
1.6 Member Analysis by Cranston Method, 22
1.4 Cross-Section Analysis for 1.6.1 Cross-Section Analysis
Moment-Curvature Relation, 6 1.6.2 Membet Analysis
1.4.1 Rectangular Cross-Section Under 1.6.3 Estimation of Assumed Values
Uniaxial Bending 1.6.4 General Remarks
1.4.2 General Cross-Section Under Uniaxial
Bending References, 3 7

1.1 Introduction
Beam-columns are structural members subjected to combined axial forces and
bending moments. The bending moments that are present in a beam-column consist
of two types: primary bending moments which arise from moments applied or
induced at the ends of the member and/or moments from transverse loadings on the
member; secondary bending moments which arise as a result of the axial force acting
through the lateral displacement of the member. The so-called P-r5 moments are
moments caused by the axial force acting through the lateral displacement of the
member relative to its chord (Fig. 1.1 a), whereas the P-Ll moments are moments
caused by the axial force acting through the relative lateral displacement of the two
ends of the member (Fig. 1.1 b).
Secondary moments generally produce detrimental effects to slender compres-
sion members and so they must be accounted for in design. The nature and the
manner in which these secondary moments are incorporated in the analysis and
design of structural members in frames will be addressed in this and the following
chapters.
Beam-columns can be considered as the basic element of a structural frame.
Beams and columns are special cases of beam-columns. In the case of beams, the

p
; ~ -=::::;::;------
--.............::=----__..1=----r- p

Deflected configuration

(a) P - o Effect

Fig. 1.1 Secondary P-delta effects

1
2 CHAPTER 1

Deflected configuration

(b) P - t::, Effect

Fig. 1.1 Continued

effect of axial force on the primary bending moments is negligible, but in the case
of beam-columns this effect may be such as to add significant additional moments
to the primary moments. At the present time, the design methodology for frames is
based essentially on the behavior of individual members that comprise the frame
rather than on the entire frame itself, i.e. the design is performed on a member level.
Thus the usual procedure for a frame design is first to carry out an elastic frame
analysis and to determine the axial force and bending moments on each member.
The design of each member is then carried out one at a time by using an ultimate
strength interaction equation that expresses a safe combination of axial force and
bending moments that the member can sustain. A detailed discussion of these
beam-column design interaction equations is given in Chapter 2. At the present
time, it suffices to say that the design of a structural frame is merely a selection of
members that comprise the frame. Realistically, a frame should be designed based
on an interactive system behavior rather than on a collection of individual
behaviors of beam-columns. Nevertheless, this will require a considerable change in
the concept and philosophy of structural design which is currently not feasible;
however, with the present rapid infusion of computing into structural engineering,
such a challenge may be achieved in the next decade.
Although a structural frame is designed at the member level, the member is by
no means treated as a totally isolated element. It is easily conceivable that an
isolated member behaves rather differently from a framed member because of the
interaction effect that always exists among adjacent members of a frame. To account
for this interaction approximately, the concept of effective length has been widely
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 3

used in present engineering practice. The determination of the effective length of a

framed member is addressed in Chapter 2.
In addition to member interaction in a frame, it is well known that the behavior
of a member depends on the types of loadings on the member. Different loadings
will produce different moment patterns and the response of the member changes
according to these moment patterns. For the purposes of design, a parameter
referred to as the equivalent moment factor (the em factor) has been introduced in
engineering practice to account for the effect of moment gradient in a member. The
Cm factor is also discussed in Chapter 2.
The study of the behavior and analysis of beam-columns has been the subject
of intense research for decades and quite a voluminous number of publications are
available in the open literature. Interested readers should refer to the book by
Galambos (1968) and the two-volume work by Chen and Atsuta (1976, 1977) for
a detailed discussion. For the present time, only those equations which are pertinent
to the scope of this book will be derived and discussed.
In the next section, the general behavior of beam-columns is discussed. This is
followed by the discussion of two computer-based methods, namely the Newmark
method and the Cranston method, for the analysis of the elasto-plastic behavior of
beam-columns.

1.2 General behavior of beam-columns

The general behavior of a beam-column can best be studied by investigating the
load-deflection relationship of the member. Figure 1.2 shows an !-shaped member
subjected to an axial force P and end moments M 0 . Suppose P is applied first and
then held constant. The moments are subsequently applied and increased mono-
tonically about the major principal axis of the cross-section. The variation of M 0
with end rotation (}0 is then plotted. This M 0 -0 0 curve is shown as a full line in Fig.
1.2. The curve is nonlinear almost from the start because of the P-~ effect. The axial
force acts through the displacement caused by the applied end moments creating an
additional rotation at the ends. The P-~ effect becomes more and more significant
as the applied end moments increase. At point A, the combined effect of the primary
moment M 0 and the secondary P-~ moment causes yielding of the most severely
stressed fibers of the cross-section. This yielding reduces the stiffness of the member.
This is reflected in the further decrease in slope of the M 0 -0 0 curve beyond point
A. As deformation increases, the P-~ moment also increases. This secondary
moment will share a proportionately larger portion of the moment capacity of the
cross-section. Eventually, at point B, the rate of increase of the internal resisting
moment of the cross-section is just equal to the rate of increase of the applied
moment M 0 and the P-~ moment. Beyond point B, any further increase in
deflection must be accompanied by a decrease in applied moment M 0 as the rate of
increase of the P-~ moment becomes much faster than the rate of increase of the
4 CHAPTER I

Inelastic lateral
torsional buckling

Elastic lateral
torsional buckling

Fig. 1.2 Behavior of a beam-column

internal moment of the cross-section. Failure of the member by the formation of

a plastic hinge occurs at point C when the moment-carrying capacity of the
cross-section is finally exhausted.
In the foregoing discussion, it is tacitly assumed that other forms of failure do
not occur before the formation of a plastic hinge. If the member is slender and the
cross-section is torsionally weak, lateral torsional buckling may occur. Lateral
torsional buckling may occur in the elastic range (curve 1) or in the inelastic range
(curve 2) depending on the slenderness of the member. A member with a high
slenderness ratio will experience elastic lateral torsional buckling, whereas a member
with an intermediate slenderness ratio will experience inelastic lateral torsional
buckling. Lateral torsional buckling will not occur if the slenderness ratio of the
member is low or if the member is bent about the minor principal axis of the
cross-section. Lateral torsional buckling will also be absent regardless of the
slenderness ratio in members for which the moments of inertia of the cross-sections
are equal for both principal axes (e.g. a square box section) or for cross-sections with
axisymmetry (e.g. circular sections). Lateral torsional buckling is an important design
criterion for steel members since it is clear from Fig. 1.2 that the occurrence oflateral
torsional buckling reduces the maximum load-carrying capacity of the member.
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 5

Another form of failure which may occur in the member is local buckling. Local
buckling is the buckling of component elements of the cross-section. An element
with a high width to thickness ratio is very susceptible to local buckling. Like lateral
torsional buckling, local buckling may occur in the elastic or inelastic range. The
effect of local buckling is to reduce the load-carrying capacity of the cross-section.
Local buckling is accounted for in design by the use of a reduced width for the
buckled element.
The analysis of beam-columns is an inherent complicated problem. To trace a
load-deflection curve, like that shown in Fig. 1.2, one must resort to some type of
approximate or numerical technique. This is because the differential equations
governing the inelastic behavior of a beam-column are highly nonlinear even for the
simplest loading case (Chen and Atsuta, 1976, 1977). Although a number of
methods are available for the analysis of beam-columns, they all involve some form
of simplifying assumptions to make the problem tractable. In Sections 1.5 and 1.6,
two such methods are described. The first method was developed by Newmark
(1943) for the analysis of the in-plane bending response of beam-columns. The
second method was deve1oped by Cranston ( 1983) for the ana1ysis of the biaxia1
bending behavior of beam-columns.

1.3 Analysis of beam-columns

The analysis of the inelastic behavior of beam-columns normally proceeds in two
steps.
1 Cross-section analysis.
2 Member analysis.
In a cross-section analysis, the behavior of a cross-section subjected to the
combined action of axial force and bending moments is investigated. The result is
usually expressed in a set of equations relating the moment M and the curvature <I>
for a certain value of axial force P (the M-<1>-P relationship). If axial deformation
is significant, another set of equations relating the axial force P and axial strain e for
a certain value of moment M (the P-e-M relationship) must also be developed.
However, for most beam-column problems, flexural deformation is usually an order
of magnitude larger than axial deformation and so reasonable results can generally
be obtained by using the moment-curvature-thrust (M-{/}-P) relationship only. Once
the M-<1>-P relationship is established, member analysis can proceed.
In a member analysis, the member is divided into a number of segments
whereby equilibrium and compatibility conditions along the length of the member
at each division point are enforced for a given set of loadings or deflections. The
analysis thus consists of finding successive solutions as the applied load or deflection
of the member is increased in steps. When enough of these analyses have been
performed, the load-deflection relationship of the beam-column can be traced on a
pointwise basis. The maximum load-carrying capacity of the member is obtained as
the peak point of this load-deflection curve. In the following, we first discuss the
6 CHAPTER I

various approaches for obtaining the M-<1>-P relationship of a given cross-section;

the Newmark and Cranston methods of member analysis are then presented.

1.4 Cross-section analysis for moment-curvature relation

We start with the rigorous derivation of the M-<1>-P relationship of a rectangular
cross-section under uniaxial bending to highlight the use of formal mathematics to
obtain closed-form solutions. This is followed by a description of an effective
numerical method of rigorous analysis capable of dealing with a general cross-
section under uniaxial bending. A tangent stiffness formulation based on this
numerical method is then developed to obtain the moment-curvature relationship
of general cross-sections under biaxial bending.

1.4.1 Rectangular cross-section under uniaxial bending

Figure L3a shows a rectangular cross-section subjected to an axial thrust P and a
bending moment M. By assuming that: ( 1) plane sections before bending remain
plane after bending, (2) the cross-section geometry remains unchanged after the
loads are applied, and (3) the stress-strain behavior of the material exhibits an
elastic-perfectly plastic characteristic, the M-<1>-P relationship can be derived
rigorously (Chen and Lui, 1987) by the use of the following formal integrations for
axial force P and bending moment M

P= LazdA (1.4.1)

M = LyazdA (1.4.2)

X ---f---,

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3 Cross-section behavior of a rectangular cross-section

 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 7

In the above equations, az is the normal stress and A is the area of the cross-section.
Depending on the yield pattern of the cross-section, three possible stress
distributions can be identified. They are shown in Fig. 1.3b and are referred to as
elastic, primary plastic, and secondary plastic stress distributions. The resulting
nondimensional moment-curvature-thrust relationships that correspond to these
stress distributions are as follows.
For 0 ... t/1 ... (1 - p)
m = t/1 (1.4.3a)
For (1 - p) ... cp ... 11(1 - p)
2(1-p)3/2
m = 3(1 - p)- ·Jt/1 (1.4.3b)
For t/1 ?:: 11( 1 - p)

m = lo - p2) - _1_ (1.4.3c)

2 2cp2
where
m = MlMy, t/1 = <l>l<l>y, p = PI Py (1.4.4)
in which
2
My = bd ay is the moment at first yield (1.4.5)
6
2ay (1.4.6)
<l>y = Ed is the curvature at first yield
Py = bday is the yield load ( 1.4. 7)
Equations (1.4.3a-c) are plotted in Fig. 1.4. Note that the moment capacity of
the section reduces as the magnitude of axial force increases. This is expected
since a larger proportion of the section capacity is consumed by the axial effect.

1.4.2 General cross-section under uniaxial bending

For cross-sections which are not rectangular or for which the material exhibits a
more complicated stress-strain behavior, or if residual stresses are considered,
closed-form solutions for the M-<1>-P relationships are rather difficult, if not
impossible, to obtain. For a general cross-section subjected to a combined axial
thrust and bending moment about one of the principal axes (Fig. 1.5), the M-<1>-P
relationships can be obtained by an effective computer-based numerical procedure
described below.
The development of the procedure follows an approach reported by El-Metwally
and Chen ( 1989) for reinforced concrete section. The basic assumptions used are as
follows.
8 CHAPTER 1

1.6

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

t/> = .!!?.._
"'y
Fig. 1.4 M-ff>-P curves for rectangular cross-sections

1 The strain distribution across the cross-section is linear (i.e. plane sections before
bending remain plane after bending).
2 The axial force acts through the centroid of the cross-section.
3 Shear deformation is neglected.
4 The shape of the cross-section remains unchanged throughout the course of the
loading.
Suppose an initial load vector {P0 , M 0 }T that corresponds to a known initial
deformation vector {e0 , <1> 0 }T is known, a new load vector {P1, MdT that corresponds
to a new deformation vector {e 1 , <l>dT can be written as

>

Fig. 1.5 Arbitrary cross-section subjected to an axial force and a bending moment
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 9

and

(1.4.9)

In the above equations, P, M, e and ~ are the axial thrust, bending moment, axial
strain and curvature, respectively.
A relationship between the incremental load vector {M, L\M}T and the
incremental deformation vector {.1e, .1~}T can be formulated as follows. Knowing

dP= aP de+ aP d~
ae ~ (1.4.10)

aM aM (1.4.11)
ae
dM=-de+-d~
~

we have, in matrix form

(1.4.12)

where S is the section incremental stiffness matrix.

Upon replacing the differential changes of the quantities by finite changes we
obtain

(1.4.13)

or

(1.4.14)

The elements of the section incremental stiffness matrix S can be obtained using
finite differences. For example

aP M P2-P1 (1.4.15)
ae~ .1e=~

If central difference is used, then P 1 is evaluated from a strain (e- ~.1e) and P 2 is
evaluated from a strain (e + ~.1e), where e is the current state of strain and .1e is an
assumed axial strain increment. In a numerical implementation, P 1 and P 2 are
1Q CHAPTER 1

obtained by evaluating Eq. {1.4.1) numerically by dividing the cross-section into

small elemental areas. The normal stresses az are assumed to be constant for each
elemental area and are summed for all elements of the cross-section to obtain the
axial force. Note that az can be calculated for each element from the strain by using
the known stress-strain relationship of the material. If residual stresses are present,
they can be incorporated into the analysis readily by adding their contribution to the
stresses produced by the applied forces.
Similarly

(1.4.16)

where M 1 is calculated from a curvature (<I>- ~A<I>) and M 2 is calculated from a

curvature (<I>+ ~A<I>). <I> is the current curvature and A<l> is an assumed curvature
increment. The moments are evaluated numerically using Eq. (1.4.2). However,
before az can be obtained from the stress-strain relationship, the normal strain ez
must be known. The normal strain for each elemental area can be ca!culated from
the curvature <I> by the kinematic relationship

(1.4.17)

where y is the distance measured from the centroidal axis of the cross-section to the
centroid of the elemental area.
A similar approach can be applied to obtain values for the off-diagonal terms
aPia <I> and aM/ae. Once S is obtained, the following procedure can be used to
trace the M-<1>-P relationship of a general cross-section. The complete M-<1>-P
curve is traced in a step-by-step manner. The basic premise is that once an initial
load vector {P0 , M 0 }T that corresponds to an initial deformation vector {e0 , <1> 0}T
is known, a subsequent load vector {P1, MdT for a deformation vector {e 1, <l>dT
can be obtained by following the iterative steps outlined.
1 Assume an incremental load vector {AP, dM} T.
2 Calculate the section incremental stiffness matrix S as described above.
3 Evaluate the incremental deformation vector using Eq. (1.4.14).
4 Calculate the deformation vector {e 1 , <I> 1}T using Eq. (1.4.9).
5 Calculate the load vector {P 1 , M 1}T that corresponds to the deformation vector
calculated in step 4 by numerically integrating Eqs. ( 1.4.1) and ( 1.4.2) in
conjunction with a known stress-strain relationship.
6 Calculate {P1, M 1}T using Eq. (1.4.8).
7 Compare the load vector obtained in step 5 with that obtained in step 6. If the
difference between them is within an acceptable tolerance, the solution is said to have
converged. Otherwise, the difference between these two load vectors {AP, dM}T is
used as the new incremental load vector. Steps 2 through 7 are repeated until
convergence is achieved.
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 11

By using the above procedure, M-cf>-P curves can be generated which can
then be utilized in a beam-column analysis. To improve efficiency, it is advan-
tageous to express these curves in the form of mathematical expressions (Chen,
1971) analogous to the analytical expressions for the M-cf>-P relationship of a
rectangular section. Recall that for a rectangular section, three stress distributions
can be identified (Fig. 1.3b) which correspond to three regimes: elastic (when no
fiber has yielded), primary plastic (when the fibers in the compression zone of the
cross-section have yielded), and secondary plastic (when fibers in both the
compression and tension zones of the cross-section have yielded). These regimes
are shown schematically for an M-cf>-P curve in Fig. 1.6. The general mathe-
matical expressions for each regime can be written as follows.
For 0 :o;;:; r/> :o;;:; r/> 1

m=ar/> (1.4.18)
For r/> 1 :o;;:; r/> :o;;:; r/> 2

(1.4.19)

For r/>"" r/> 2

(1.4.20)

mpc --------------------------------

Secondary
plastic

m,

J p = constant j

<1>,

Fig. 1.6 Three regimes of moment-curvature curve for a constant axial force
12 CHAPTER I

In the above equations, a, b, c and fare curve-fitting constants, m and r/> are the
nondimensional moment and curvature as defined in Eq. (1.4.4), and mpc is the
limit moment as shown in Fig. 1.6.
The constants a, b, c and fare determined in terms of m 1 , m 2 , mpco r/> 1 and r/> 2
from the continuity conditions between adjacent regimes of the moment-curvature-
thrust curve. The continuity conditions are as follows.
At the primary yield point

(1.4.21)

At the secondary yield point

( 1.4.22)

The solution of Eqs. ( 1.4.21) and ( 1.4.22) yields the following expressions for a, b,
c and/

m,
a=- (1.4.23)
rP!
m2..Jr/>z- m,.../rjJ, (1.4.24)
b=
.../rf>z- .../rf>t

mz-m, (1.4.25)
c-- 1/...jrjJ, - 11.../r/>2

f = (mpc- m2)r/>l (1.4.26)

According to a study by Chen (1971 ), the values of m" m 2, mpc• r/> 1 and r/> 2 are
practically independent of the size of the section. Therefore, for a given cross-
sectional shape, only one set of expressions is needed to describe its m-rf>-p
relationship. Approximate expressions for m 1 , m 2 , mpc• r/> 1 and r/> 2 for wide flange
cross-sections are summarized in Table 1.1. Similar expressions for square and
circular tubes can be found in the books by Chen and Atsuta (1976) and Chen and
Han (1985). Figures 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9 show a comparison of the m-rf>-p curves
obtained analytically or numerically with the curve obtained using Eqs. ( 1.4.18) to
(1.4.20). Good approximations are observed. For fabricated cylindrical tubes
commonly used in offshore structures, additional studies on the cross-section
behavior, including the effects of hydrostatic pressure, cross-sectional imperfections,
residual stresses, local buckling and cyclic loading, have been reported recently by
Chen and Sohal ( 1988).
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 13

Table 1.1 Approximate m-<J>-p expressions for wide flange sections (Chen and Atsuta, 1976)
Strong axis bending, no residual stress
For all p
m1 = 1-p
</>1 = 1-p

For 0 ,;; p ,;; 0.225 For 0.225 ,;; p ,;; I

2
mpc = 1.11- 2.64p
m2 = I +0.778p-4.78p
</> 2 = 1/(1 - 3. 7p + 8.4p2)
mpc = 1.238- 1.143p- 0.095r
2
m2 = 1.20(1 - p)
</> 2 = 2.20(1 - p)

Strong axis bending, with residual stress, Urc = 0.3uy

For 0,;; p,;; 0.8 For 0.8,;; p,;; I
m 1 = 0.9-p ml =- 1.1 + 3.1p- 2r
</>1 = 0.9 -p "'I= 3.3- 8p+ 5r
For 0 ,;; p ,;; 0.225 For 0.225 ,;; p ,;; I
mpc = 1.11- 2.64r mpc = 1.238- 1.143p- 0.095p2
m2 = 0.9 + !.94p- 9.4p2 m2 = 1.1(1- p)
</> 2 = 11(1.11- 7.35p + 29.2r) <l>z- 1.3- p

Weak axis bending, no residual stress

For all p
ml = 1-p
</>1 = 1-p

For 0,;; p,;; 0.4 For 0.4,;; p,;; I

m2 = I + !.5p- 2.5p2 mz = 0.85 + 2.03p- 2.88p 2
2 2
cfJ 2 = l/(l-1.57p+0.725p ) cfJ 2 = 1/(0.368 + 0.645p- 0.862p )

For 0 ,;; p ,;; 0.252 For 0.252 ,;; p ,;; I

2
mpc = 1.51(1- 0.185p ) mpc = 2.58(0.52 + p)(l - p)

Weak axis bending, with residual stress, urc = 0.3uy

For 0,;; p,;; 0.4 For 0.4,;; p,;; I
m 1 =0.9-p m 1 = 0.567 + O.lp- 0.667r
cP!=0.9-p cP! =0.5
mz = 0.9 + p- 2.5r m2 = I + 0.25p- 1.25p2
<Pz = 1/(1.11 - 2.llp + 2.81r) <Pz = 1/(1.3- 2.45p + 2.45r)

For 0 ,;; p ,;; 0.252 For 0.252 ,;; p ,;; I

mpc = 1.51 - 0.28r mpc = 2.58(0.52 + p)(l- p)

1.4.3 General cross-sections under biaxial bending

In this section, a tangent stiffness formulation for the M-c'J>-P relationship of a
general cross-section is discussed. Similar to the approach discussed in Section
14 CHAPTER 1

1.2
p=P/P. = 0
y 0.1

0.2
1.0

0.8 0.4
M
m=-
My

0.6
0.6

0.4

0.8

----Actual
-Approx. -_I-wsx31

0 23 4 5
l/J = cJ>
Cl>y

Fig. 1.7 Comparison of actual and approximate m-¢-p curves (I-section without residual stresses bent
about the strong axis)

1.4.2, this numerical approach requires the discretization of the cross-section into
small elemental areas. The cumulative effect of the entire cross-section is
obtained by summing the effects of all the elements that comprise the cross-
section.
Figure 1.10 shows a cross-section subjected to an axial force P and moments Mx
and My about the x- and y-axis, respectively. By assuming that plane sections
remain plane, the normal strain of element i can be expressed as a linear function
of x andy as

(1.4.27)

where e0 is the strain at the centroid of the cross-section, <l>x is the curvature with
respect to the x-axis, <l>y is the curvature with respect to the y-axis, and er is the
residual strain. Because of the nonlinear nature of the problem, it is convenient to
express the strain in Eq. (1.4.27) in incremental form as

(1.4.28)
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 15

1.2

0.2
1.0

0.8 0.4
m=~
My

0.6
0.6

0.4

0.8

l
0.30y
----Actual
- --W8x31
--Approx.

0 23 4 5
tP=cp
cpy

Fig. 1.8 Comparison of actual and approximate m-rp-p curves (!-section with residual stresses bent about
the strong axis)

Note that L1er = 0 since the residual strain is a constant for a given element. The
corresponding stress increment is
( 1.4.29)
where Eeff(i) is the effective modulus of the i-th element which can be taken as the
slope of the known a-e curve for the case of a uniaxial state of stress or the slope
of the effective stress-strain (Chen and Han, 1988) for the case of a biaxial state of
stress that exists in the element.
The axial force and bending moment increments are related to the stress
increments by

M ~ L L1azdA ~ LAaziAi ( 1.4.30)

llMx ~ LYL1azdA ~ LYiL1aziAi (1.4.31)

(1.4.32)
16 CHAPTER 1

p=P/Py= 0

0.4

0.6

0.8

Actual

Approx.

3 4

Fig. 1.9 Comparison of actual and approximate m-rf>-p curves (tubular section without residual stresses,
MIMP = (1t/4)(MIM,))

In the above equations, the subscript i refers to the i-th element of the cross-section
and the summation is carried out over the entire cross-section. By substitution of
Eq. (1.4.29) into Eqs. (1.4.30) to (1.4.32), we have, after rearrangement

( 1.4.33)

where

sll = IEetf(i)Ai

sl2 = s21 = IEetf(i)Y;A;

 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 17

Fig. 1.10 General cross-section subjected to an axial force and biaxial bending moments

(1.4.34)

Symbolically, Eq. (1.4.33) can be written as

( 1.4.35)

from which M can be solved from

( 1.4.36)

In the above equation, M' is the incremental generalized stress vector, M is the
incremental generalized strain vector, and S is the section tangent stiffness matrix.
Once S which corresponds to a given state of stress (or strain) is evaluated, it is a
simple matter to find the path of generalized strain X for a given path of generalized
stress F through a step-by-step incremental calculation in conjunction with an
iteration procedure. The procedure is described below.
18 CHAPTER I

1 For given incremental generalized stress vector M, evaluate the section tangent
stiffness matrix S based on the state of stresses at the beginning of the increment.
2 Calculate the incremental generalized strain vector Musing Eq. (1.4.36).
3 Obtain total generalized strains by adding the incremental strains M to the
current state of generalized strains.
4 Calculate the total generalized stresses using the known stress-strain relationship
and the following relationships

(1.4.37)

(1.4.38)

(1.4.39)

5 Alternatively, calculate the total generalized stress vector by adding the incremen-
tal generalized stresses M in step 1 to the current state of generalized stresses.
6 Compare the total generalized stresses calculated in step 4 and step 5. If the
discrepancy is negligible, the solution is said to have converged. Otherwise, their
difference is used as the incremental generalized stress and steps 1 to 6 are repeated
until convergence.
Once the M-4>-P relationship is known, a beam-column analysis can be carried
out. In this chapter, two rather efficient and powerful numerical methods for
beam-column analysis are presented. They are the Newmark method and the
Cranston method.

1.5 Member ana1ysis by Newmark method

The Newmark method (Newmark, 1943) and its variant have been used quite
extensively for the analysis of beam-columns. It is particularly useful for determin-
ing the maximum load-carrying capacity of beam-columns stressed in the elastic or
inelastic range. In its original formulation, the method is applicable for elastic
behavior only. However, by slight modifications, the method can easily be extended
to account for inelasticity. In addition, the Newmark method can be applied to
members with variable EI and/or imperfections.
In the Newmark method, equilibrium and compatibility are enforced at selected
points on the member. These points are referred to as stations. For normal
application, these stations are usually equally spaced. However, this practice is just
a matter of convenience and not a rule. For inelastic analysis of beam-columns, the
moment-curvature-thrust relationship of the cross-section must be known. With a
known moment-curvature-thrust relationship, the steps for analyzing an inelastic
beam-column can be summarized as follows (Fig. 1.11 ).
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 19

Ms

~-~~~~-·-··· ..._.;
... _.. ~~p - X

vk

Fig. 1.11 Member discretization in the Newmark method

1 Divide the member into n segments by (n + 1) stations.

2 For a given set of loadings, assume a numerical value for the deflection at each
station. Denote these deflections as vk where k = 0 to n.
3 Compute the bending moment Mk at each station by the equilibrium
consideration

(1.5.1)

where M 1 is the primary moment due to in-span loads, end moments, and reactions.
Pvk is the secondary moment due to the P-t5 effect.
4 Using the known moment-curvature-thrust relationship for the cross-section,
compute the curvature <l>k at each station.
5 Evaluate a new set of deflections at the stations by the conjugate beam method.
This involves the following.
(a) Assume a curvature distribution between the stations. A linear or quadratic
<I> distribution as shown in Fig. 1.12 can be used as an approximation.
(b) Calculate the equivalent nodal loads using the formulas given in the figure.
The formulas in Figs. 1.12a and 1.12c should be used if one of the stations is
an end station or if there is an abrupt change in curvature due to a sudden
change in M or EI at one of the stations.
(c) Calculate the shear and moment of the conjugate beam (which are
equivalent to the slope and deflection of the real beam) using the calculated
nodal loads as conjugate beam loads.
6 Compare the deflections calculated in step 5 with the assumed deflections in
step 1. If the discrepancy is negligible, a solution is said to have been obtained.
Otherwise, use the calculated deflections as the new set of assumed deflections and
repeat steps 3 to 5 until convergence.
The above procedure must be repeated for every increment of applied load
in order to trace the load-deflection response of the member. The peak point
20 CHAPTER I

R i-1=(t,x/6) (2ri_ 1 +ri)

(a) R i ={t.x/6) (ri_ 1 +2ri)

--~--- ..................
....... .,
I
ri-1 ...__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - .JI ri+1

... ,.. ~x--.j j . - - ~X----1 ~~1'01 ..- -

.. ~X ---+j
xi-1 xi xi+1

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.12 Equivalent nodal loads

of this load-deflection curve is the maximum load-carrying capacity of the

member.
If the member is geometrically imperfect and has an initial deflection of v0 k> the
set of assumed deflections should be the additional deflections experienced by the
member. The bending moment at station i is evaluated using
(1.5.2)
For members with variable EI, the flexural rigidity of the member evaluated at
the station under consideration should be used in the calculation. If the member has
a sharp change in EI for a certain region of the member, the stations in that region
should be spaced more closely in order to obtain better results in the computation.
In applying the Newmark method for member analysis, it is important to select
a proper set of assumed deflections vk. An intelligent choice for vk can greatly
accelerate the convergence rate. The assumed deflections must satisfy the geometric
boundary conditions of the problem and should conform to the loads which are
applied to the member. In lieu of a more sophisticated approach, a rational choice
for vk would be the first-order deflections of the member.
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 21

An illustrative example
Using the Newmark method and the moment-curvature-thrust relationship given
below, determine the deflection at midspan of an initially crooked beam-column
shown in Fig. l.l3a for the following two loading cases: (a) P = 0. 5Py and M = 0.4My
(Fig. l.l3b) and (b)P=0.5Py and M=0.8My (Fig. 1.13c). Assume ay=0.001E.

Solution
For PIPy = 0.5, m = M!My and if>= <1>/<l>y, the moment-curvature-thrust relationship
is given by
if>= m, m,;;; 0.5

M V0 = (0.00 1 L) sin ( nx)/L M

p-E-~--------'-------- l+p
r-- --·· . .-___,
-x

! L

Y Deflected shape

~
Cross section
0}=0.1L

(a) The imperfect beam-column

+ .,_._liii=:::::'=:;~t~/~~~===='
0.4My V0 = (0.001L) sin (nx)/L 0.4My

0.5Py ;:;;;;;:;::::::o-
.jii,..;r.j-- 0.5Py

~4 ., 1,. L/4 ., 1,. L/4 .,~,. L/~

0 1 2 4
(b) Four segments with five division points

0.5Py +0 O.BMy
~--J_--- ~--~
2 3 ------'
O.BMy

4~ 0.5Py

(c) With larger end moments

Fig. 1.13 Analysis of an inelastic beam-column by Newmark method

22 CHAPTER I

0.5,;;; m,;;; 1.0

cf> = 2(1.5- m) 2 '

1
cf> = .j(2.25 -2m) ' 1.0,;;; m < 1.125

The basic quantities needed in the following calculations for the rectangular
beam-column shown in Fig. 1.13a are
Py = Aay = bhay

bh 2 h 0.1L PyL
My =Say =(lay =()PY =-6-Py = 60

<I> =My= PyL = Lbhay = _1_

Y EI 60EI 60E(bh 3/12) SOL

(~ r<l>y 8~0 =

In the following calculations (Tables 1.2 and 1.3), the assumed additional
deflections vk were taken as the first-order deflections of the member. The
equivalent nodal loads Rk were calculated using the equations in Fig. 1.12c for
stations 0 and 4 with r; _ 1 = - r; + 1 , and using the equation in Fig. 1.12b for
stations 1, 2 and 3.

1.6 Member analysis by Cranston method

The Cranston method (Cranston, 1983) of beam-column analysis is an extension
and refinement of the Newmark ~ethod described in the preceding section. The
method to be described below is 'capable of analyzing a biaxially loaded beam-
column of box and solid sections. The member can possess both geometrical
imperfections in the form of initial crookedness and variations of bending stiffness
El. The method ca'n also account for member end restraint and unloading of fibers
stressed into the inelastic range when subjected to a strain reversal. The general
assumptions used for the analysis are as follows.
1 Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending.
2 The normal stress at any point in the cross-section is dependent only on the
normal strain history of that point.
3 Lateral displacements are small in comparison to the length of the member.
4 The overall shortening of the member along its axis is negligible.
5 Shear and torsional deformations are negligible compared to lateral displace-
ments.
Assumptions 1 and 5 are not generally valid for beam-columns with torsionally
weak open thin-walled cross-sections. For these members, the Cranston method
cannot be applied. A brief description of the general procedure for the analysis is
 ANALYSIS OF BEAM-COLUMNS 23

Table 1.2 Case (a). For P = 0.5P, and M = 0.4JI, with n = 4 (Fig. 1.13b)

Station Common
factor
0 2 3 4
Primary moment
M, 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 My

Initial imperfection
Vok 0 0.0007 0.001 0.0007 0 L

Cycle I calculations
Assumed additional
deflections vk 0 0.00075 0.001 0.00075 0 L

P-J moment
P(vok + vk) 0 0.000725 0.001 0.000725 0 PyL
Change common factor 0 0.0435 0.060 0.0435 0 M,

Total moment
M, + P(v 0k + vk) 0.4 0.4435 0.460 0.4435 0.4 M,

M-cJ>-P relationship
q,k 0.4 0.4435 0.460 0.4435 0.4 cJ>y

Conjugate beam method

Rk 0.241 0.441 0.457 0.441 0.241 (L/4)cJ>y
(Jk 0.670 0.229 -0.229 -0.670 (L/4)cJ>,
vk 0 0.670 0.899 0.670 0 (L/4fcJ>,

Calculated additional
deflections v~) 0 0.00084 0.00112 0.00084 0 L

Cycle 2 calculations
Assumed additional
deflections v k 0 0.00084 0.00112 0.00084 0 L

P-J moment
P(vok + vk) 0 0.00077 0.00106 0.00077 0 PyL
Change common factor 0 0.0462 0.0636 0.0462 0 My

Total moment
M 1 + P(v 0k + vk) 0.4 0.4462 0.4636 0.4462 0 M,

M-cJ>-P relationship
q,k 0.4 0.4462 0.4636 0.4462 0.4 cJ>y
24 CHAPTER I

Table 1.2 (continued)

Station Common
factor
0 2 3 4

Conjugate beam method

Rk 0.241 0.441 0.458 0.441 0.251 (L/4)«l>y
(}k 0.670 0.229 -0.229 -0.670 (L/4)«l>y
vk 0 0.670 0.899 0.670 0 (L/4)2«l>y

Calculated additional
deflections v~> 0 0.00084 0.00112 0.00084 0 L

Since vf> = vk at the second cycle, the solution has converged. The total deflection at midspan is
Vm;dspan = Voz + Vz = O.OOIL + 0.00112L = 0.00212£

given first. A more detailed discussion follows. A full description can be found in
the 1983 report by Cranston.
1 Divide the member into n segments by (n + 1) stations. Denote the length of the
k-th segment as lk.
2 Discretize the cross-section into small elemental areas. For the i-th element,
denote its area as A;, normal strain as ez; and normal stress as azi·
3 Define a stress-strain relationship for the material.
4 Assume a set of displacements for the stations. For the end stations, the end
slopes are also assumed.
5 Perform a cross-section analysis (see Section 1.6.1).
6 Adjust the end slopes and applied loads until equilibrium and compatibility are
satisfied at the ends and at a control station.
7 Calculate the deflections at other stations.
8 Compare the calculated deflections with the assumed deflections. If the two sets
of deflections agree within appropriate limits, a valid solution is said to have been
obtained.
Figure 1.14 shows the beam-column under investigation. The beam-column is
held by restraining systems at ends A and B (stations 0 and n). The member is
prevented from sway movement, but is allowed to rotate at the ends. The member
may possess initial deformations u0 k and v0 k (k = 1 to n - 1) in the x and y
directions, respectively. The loadings consist of an axial load AP acting at the
centroid of the cross-section and end moments llixA• AMyA• AMxs and AMyB acting
as shown. A. is an analysis load factor. The lateral displacements of the member
under loads are denoted by uk and vk (k = 1 to n- 1) measured from line AB to the
centroid of the cross-section in the x and y directions, respectively. The end slopes
are denoted by exA• eyA• exB and eyB· All quantities are taken to be positive as shown
in the figure. Curvatures are positive when the slope is decreasing in the direction