REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE

REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

TOME / VOLUME 2

FOLHAS / SHEETS
MECUMBURA (1631), CHIOCO (1632), TETE (1633), TAMBARA (1634), GURO
(1732,1733), CHEMBA (1734), MANICA (1832), CATANDICA (1833), GORONGOSA
(1834), ROTANDA (1932), CHIMOIO (1933)
E / AND BEIRA (1934)

Escala / Scale 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

 Volume 2

REPÚBLICA DE MOÇAMBIQUE
REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

MINISTÉRIO DOS RECURSOS MINERAIS

MINISTRY OF MINERAL RESOURCES

DIRECÇÃO NACIONAL DE GEOLOGIA

NATIONAL DIRECTORATE OF GEOLOGY

NOTÍCIA EXPLICATIVA / MAP EXPLANATION

TOME / VOLUME 2

FOLHAS / SHEETS
MECUMBURA (1631), CHIOCO (1632), TETE (1633), TAMBARA (1634), GURO
(1732,1733), CHEMBA (1734), MANICA (1832), CATANDICA (1833), GORONGOSA
(1834), ROTANDA (1932), CHIMOIO (1933)
E / AND BEIRA (1934)

Escala / Scale 1:250 000

GTK CONSORTIUM 2006

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT CAPACITY BUILDING PROJECT

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 Volume 2

© National Directorate of Geology, Republic of Mozambique

Date: 31.12.2006

Electronically available on CD-ROM from:

In Mozambique: In South Africa
The Director The Director
National Directorate of Geology (DNG) Council for Geoscience (CGS)
Praça 25 de Junho, 380, 4th floor 280 Pretoria Str.
Silverton, Pretoria
PO BOX 217 Private Bag X112
Maputo, Mozambique Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
Tel: +258 (21) 312082/3 +27 (012) 8411018
+258 823128670
Fax: +258 (21) 429216 +27 (012) 8411221
e-mail: e-mail:
edaudi@teledata.mz, edaudi@tvcabo.co.mz rprice@geoscience.org.za

Price available on request

The National Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, Republic

of Mozambique, in collaboration with a consortium headed by the Geological Survey of
Finland (GTK), and with funding from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF Credit 335),
produced this Map Explanation, within the terms of the Mineral Resource Management
Capacity Building Project, (MRMP); contract 02/QCBS/B22./ MIREME-UCPM/2002.

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 Volume 2

The GTK Consortium’s field team comprised following geologists:

• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK – Project Director, Mineral Resources IM)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Deputy Project Director, Mineral Resources)
• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC – Project Advisor)
• Matti Lehtonen (GTK – Field Team Leader)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK –Mapping Expert)
• Tapio Koistinen (GTK – Mapping Expert, Structural Geology)
• Esko Korkiakoski (GTK – Mapping Expert, Mineral Resources)
• Saku Vuori (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• Tapio Kuivasaari (GTK – Industrial minerals)
• Toni Eerola (GTK – Mapping Expert)
• André Tahon (ITC – Mapping Expert)
• Robbert Rutten (ITC – Mapping Expert, Sedimentology)
• Bosse Gustafsson (SGU – Mapping Expert)
• Christer Åkerman (SGU – Mapping Expert)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Reinaldo Gonçalves Jr. (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources Expert)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda – Mapping Expert)
• Mário Deus (Gondwana, Lda – Mineral Resources Expert, Logistics)

DNG field geologists and technicians:

• Grácio Cune, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Olavo Deniasse, geologist, DNG Manic
• Sérgio Fernando, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Rogério Matola, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Hilário Mavie, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Inácio Saranga, geologist, DNG Maputo
• Celestino de Sousa, geologist, DNG Manica
• Gustodio Cornélio, technician, DNG Maputo
• Ernesto Correia, technician, DNG Tete
• Abdul Faquir, technician, DNG Maputo
• Victorino Joaquim, technician, DNG Maputo
• Jose Nampulula, technician, DNG Tete
• Viriato Nhampula, technician, DNG Maputo
• Luis Saunda, technician, DNG Tete
• Ussene Vasco Ussene, technician, DNG Sofala

The Remote Sensing/GIS team comprised:

• Olli Rantala (GTK – Head GIS Department)
• Antti Kahra (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK – GIS Expert)
• Ernst Schetselaar (ITC – GIS/RS Expert)
• Tsehaie Woldai (ITC – RS Expert)

The Airborne Geophysics team comprised:

• Colin V. Reeves (ITC – Interpretation Expert)
• Sally Barritt (ITC – Processing Expert)
• Hilkka Arkimaa (GTK – Interpretation Expert)
• Tapio Ruotoistenmäki (GTK – Interpretation and Processing Expert)

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 Volume 2

Written contributions to the present Map Explanation have been made by:
• A.B. Phil Westerhof (ITC/Westcourt GeoConsult – Principal Author)
• Yrjö Pekkala (GTK)
• Tapio J. Koistinen (GTK)
• Matti Lehtonen (GTK)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Mineral resources)
• Tuomo Manninen (GTK)
• Hannu Mäkitie (GTK)
• Saku Vuori (GTK)
• Toni Eerola (GTK)
• João M. Marques (Gondwana, Lda)
• Maurizio Ferrara (Gondwana, Lda)
• Irmeli Mänttäri (GTK – Geochronologist)
• André Tahon (ITC – Expert African Geology)

Databases:
• Olli Rantala (GTK – Designing, planning)
• Antti Kahra (GKT – Planning, cordination)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK – Data management)
• Jari Väätäinen (GTK – Photos)
• Petri Rosenberg (GTK – Observation data)
• Tapio Lehto (GTK – Mineral data)
• Esko Korkiakoski (GTK – Mineral data)

The processing of data and maps has been carried out by:
• Olli Rantala (GTK – Manager, databases and airphotos, photo data base)
• Antti Kahra (GKT – Data management)
• Hilkka Saastamoinen (GTK – Map digitations and data management)
• Eira Kuosmanen (GTK – GIS geologist, map production, satellite images)
• Anneli Lindh (GTK – Map production, data management)
• Hanna Virkki (GTK – GIS gelogist, map production)
• Merja Janhila (GTK – GIS geologist, map production)
• Riikka Koskinen (GTK – GIS geologist, map production)
• Mirjami Ajlani (GTK – Map production)
• Helena Saarinen (GTK – Map production)
• Marita Ranta-Pantti (GTK – Input of data)

Topographic base data:

• Antti Kahra (GTK – GIS geologist)
• Markku Tiainen (GTK – GIS geologist)
• Ernst Schetselaar (ITC – GIS geologist)

For future reference:

GTK Consortium (2006a). Map Explanation; Volume 2: Sheets 1630 – 1934. Geology of Degree Sheets
Mecumbura, Chioco, Tete, Tambara, Guro, Chemba, Manica, Catandica, Gorongosa, Rotanda, Chimoio and
Beira, Mozambique. Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, Direcção Nacional de Geologia, Maputo.

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 Volume 2

FOREWORD
The present Map Explanation (Volume 2) and related Geological Maps and Database have
been produced by a consortium composed of the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK, leading
partner), the International Institute for Geo-Information and Earth Observation (the
Netherlands), the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU), the Geological Survey of Denmark
and Greenland (GEUS) and Gondwana, Lda. (Mozambique) as part of the Geo
Infrastructure Development Project (GIDP), a sub-project of the larger Mineral
Resources Management Capacity Building Project (MRMP). This consortium will be
further referred to as ‘GTK Consortium’.
The above project and sub-project have been implemented under the National
Directorate of Geology (DNG), Ministry of Mineral Resources, and Republic of
Mozambique. The major task of the GIDP has been to re-map, upgrade and improve existing
geological maps in order to create a comprehensive and uniform coverage of geological maps
at scale 1:250 000 and a partial coverage of detailed maps (scale 1:50 000) of selected areas of
high mineral potential. The GTK Consortium undertook this task in LOT 2 (and Extension)
and LOT 3 (and Extension) as shown in Fig 1. A consortium comprising Norconsult and the
Geological Surveys of Norway and Great Britain (NGU and BGS) has co-implemented a
contract for LOT 1 (and Extensions; see Fig. 1). These projects were financed from a special
loan from the Nordic Development Fund (NDF). The remainder (Area D) of Mozambique
territory has been re-mapped by the South African Council for Geo-science (CGS) under a
separate bilateral contract.

Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-

mapped by the DNG in
collaboration with various
international consortia.

The present Map Explanation Volume 2 is a part of a series of Map Explanations

covering the territory of Mozambique as shown in Fig. 2. It is bounded by 16° South, 34° East
and the international border with Zimbabwe and contains the following Square Degree Sheets

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 Volume 2

(SDS): 1631/1632, 1633, 1634, 1732/1733, 1734, 1832/1833, 1834, 1932/1933 and 19341.
Each Map Explanation emphasises certain aspects of the geology of Mozambique. This Map
Explanation stresses the geodynamic development and mineral potential of the northern and
eastern margins of the Zimbabwe Craton and surrounding Proterozoic Fold Belts and the coal
potential of the Karoo Basins near Moatize.
All locations (e.g. in captions) are in UTM coordinates. Please note that in the area
covered by LOT 2 reference is made to the 36 K zone.

Fig. 2. Map Explanation Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+ Extension) and LOT 3 (+ Extension).

1
A degree sheet (1° x 1° or ~ 110 x 110 km) is numbered after the coordinates of the upper right corner. For
example, S DS 1834 is located south of 18° south and west of 34° east. SDS=Square Degree Sheet or
DS=Degree Sheet.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD ....................................................................................................... 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................... 8
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... 17
RESUMO ........................................................................................................... 20
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ 48
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................................................................... 61
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 61
1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT..................................................... 61
1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK........................ 61
CHAPTER 2 ...................................................................................................... 64
METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES.................................................. 64
2.1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 64
2.2. EXISTING DATA ...................................................................................... 66
2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS ....................................................... 66
2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps......................................... 66
2.3.2. Satellite Imagery........................................................................................................... 67
2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics.................................................................................................... 69
2.3.4. Digital Enhancement of Landsat 7 TM Scenes.......................................................... 72
2.3.5. Geological Interpretation of Landsat TM Scenes ..................................................... 73
2.3.6. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes ........................ 74
2.3.7. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets............... 75
2.4. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING............................................. 77
2.5. LABORATORY WORK ........................................................................... 77
2.5.1. Petrography .................................................................................................................. 78
2.5.2. Geochronology.............................................................................................................. 78
2.5.3. Lithogeochemistry........................................................................................................ 81
2.5.4. C-isotope Analyses........................................................................................................ 82
2.6. MAP PRODUCTS...................................................................................... 82
2.6.1. Base Maps ..................................................................................................................... 82
Datum Transformation ........................................................................................................... 82
Manual Digitising.................................................................................................................... 83
SRTM Digital Elevation Data................................................................................................. 83
2.6.2. Geological Maps ........................................................................................................... 84
2.6.3. Map Explanations ........................................................................................................ 86
2.7. MINERAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)....................................... 87

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CHAPTER 3 ...................................................................................................... 90
INFRASTRUCTURE........................................................................................ 90
CHAPTER 4 ...................................................................................................... 92
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY .......................................... 92
4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY............................................................................... 92
4.2. BASEMENT TECTONICS....................................................................... 93
4.3. CLIMATE................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER 5 ...................................................................................................... 96
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY................................................................................ 96
5.1. PRINCIPLES.............................................................................................. 96
5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT ................................................................. 97
5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY .......................................................................... 97
5.3.1. Archaean cratons and mobile belts............................................................................. 98
Granulite-gneiss belts............................................................................................................ 100
Granite-greenstone terrains .................................................................................................. 100
‘Younger Granites’................................................................................................................ 101
Late-Archaean basins, dykes and layered intrusions........................................................... 101
5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic fold belts ...................................................................................... 101
5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic fold belts......................................................................................... 102
5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African fold belts..................................................................... 103
5.3.5. Cambrian platform sedimentary rocks.................................................................... 105
5.3.6. Carboniferous platform sedimentary rocks ............................................................ 106
5.3.7. Sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Karoo......................................................... 107
5.3.8. Recent sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the East African Rift System ............. 109
5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES.............................................................. 111
5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles.............................................................................. 111
5.4.2. Superplumes ............................................................................................................... 114
5.5. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA............ 114
5.5.1. Phanerozoic Cover ..................................................................................................... 114
5.5.2. Crystalline Basement ................................................................................................. 115
5.6. TERRANES IN MOZAMBIQUE .......................................................... 116
CHAPTER 6 .................................................................................................... 118
SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – KALAHARI CRATON ............... 118
6.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 118

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6.1.1. Migmatic gneiss terrane............................................................................................. 119

6.1.2. Granite-Greenstone Terrane..................................................................................... 120
Mutare-Manica greenstone belt............................................................................................ 120
Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belt...................................................................................... 121
Granitoids .............................................................................................................................. 122
6.1.3. Archaean Rocks in Mozambique .............................................................................. 122
6.2. MUDZI METAMORPHIC COMPLEX (A3M) ................................... 123
6.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 123
6.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 124
Quartz monzonite and quartz monzodiorite (A3Mqm)......................................................... 125
Foliated granite (A3Mgr)....................................................................................................... 125
TTG gneiss and foliated granitoids (A3Mgn) ....................................................................... 126
Granodioritic gneiss (A3Mgd) ............................................................................................... 126
Metagabbro (A3Mgb) and garnet amphibolite (A3Mam)..................................................... 127
Garnet gneiss (A3Mgg).......................................................................................................... 127
6.2.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 128
6.2.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 128
6.3. MAVONDE COMPLEX ......................................................................... 129
6.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 129
6.3.2. Older granitoids.......................................................................................................... 130
Tonalitic gneiss (A2gt) ........................................................................................................... 130
Paragneiss with quartzitic intercalations (A3Mpgn)............................................................ 130
6.3.3. Manica Group............................................................................................................. 130
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 130
Macequece Formation* ........................................................................................................ 131
Talc-chlorite schist, talc schist, chlorite-amphibole schist (A3MMtc)................................ 131
Serpentinite and serpentine-rich metavolcanic rock (A3MMse) ......................................... 132
Quartz-sericite schist (A3MMqss) ......................................................................................... 134
Metachert (A3MMch) and Banded ironstone (A3MMfe)..................................................... 134
Lithic breccia (A3MMbr) and diamictite (A3MMdi) ............................................................ 135
Metabasalt and mafic schist (A3MMba) .............................................................................. 136
Felsic crystal tuff (A3MMff) and quartz-feldspar porphyry (A3MMqp).............................. 137
Volcanic conglomerate (A3MMvc) ....................................................................................... 139
Intermediate metavolcanic rock (A3MMiv) and tuff breccia (A3MMtb)............................. 140
Felsic metavolcanic rock (A3MMfv) and volcanic breccia (A3MMvb) ............................... 141
Geochemistry ......................................................................................................................... 141
6.3.4. Vengo Formation* (A3MV) ....................................................................................... 143
Volcanic conglomerate (A3MVco) and polymict conglomerate (A3MVclo)........................ 144
Metagreywacke (A3MVgy), Quartzite (A3MVqz), Arkosic quartzite (A3MVar), Mica schist
with aluminous and quartzitic layers (A3MVmc)................................................................. 145
Phyllite, graphite schist (A3MVps), Iron-rich lithic metasandstone/quartzite (A3MVss),
Marble (A3MVma)................................................................................................................. 147

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6.3.5. Munhinga Group (A3MH) ......................................................................................... 149

Ultramafic metavolcanic rock and talc-chlorite schist/BIF (A3MHuv).............................. 149
Quartzite (A3MHqz)............................................................................................................... 150
6.3.6. Neoarchaean granitoids and mafic plutonic rocks.................................................. 150
Porphyritic granite and granodiorite (A3Vpgd) ................................................................... 150
Massive granite (A3Vmgr)..................................................................................................... 151
Foliated granite, porphyritic in places (A3Vpg) ................................................................... 152
TTG- gneiss (A3Vgn) and banded TTG gneiss (A3Vbgn) .................................................... 152
Migmatite (A3Vmig) .............................................................................................................. 153
Metagabbro (A3Vgb).............................................................................................................. 153
Quartz dyke (A3Vqd), pegmatite (A3Vpm), aplite granite (A3Vagr) and granite (A3Vgr)... 154
Medium-grained foliated tonalite and granodiorite (A3Vto) ............................................... 154
Mafic to intermediate orthogneiss (A3Vogn)........................................................................ 154
6.3.7. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 155
6.3.8. Age ............................................................................................................................... 156
6.4. PALAEOPROTEROZOIC MAGMATISM ......................................... 158
6.5. UMKONDO GROUP............................................................................... 159
6.5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 159
6.5.2. Dacata Formation* (P2UD) ....................................................................................... 159
6.5.3. Age ............................................................................................................................... 160
6.6. UMKONDO IGNEOUS PROVINCE .................................................... 161
6.6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 161
6.6.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 161
Mashonaland ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerite and gabbro (P2ML) ............................................. 161
Metadolerite (P3db)................................................................................................................ 162
6.6.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 163
6.6.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 164
CHAPTER 7 .................................................................................................... 165
SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS165
7.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 165
7.2. MAVURADONHA METAMORPHIC SUITE (P3MV)....................... 167
7.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 167
7.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 167
Nyamasoto Biotite Gneiss Formation*................................................................................. 167
Kapfrugwa Carbonatite......................................................................................................... 167
Gungwa Metagabbro............................................................................................................. 168
Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex in Mozambique (P3MV) ......................................... 168
7.2.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 168
7.2.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 168
7.3. MASOSO METAMORPHIC SUITE (P3MO) ...................................... 169

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7.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 169

7.3.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 170
Leucomigmatite ..................................................................................................................... 170
Striped mafic gneiss............................................................................................................... 171
7.3.3. Metamorphism ........................................................................................................... 175
7.3.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 176
7.4. RUSHINGA GROUP (P1R)..................................................................... 177
7.4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 177
7.4.2. Rushinga Lithologies in Zimbabwe .......................................................................... 177
7.4.3. Rushinga Lithologies in Mozambique ...................................................................... 178
7.4.4. Rio Embuca Formation* ........................................................................................... 179
Lower quartzite (P1REqz)...................................................................................................... 179
Meta-arkose / Arkosic quartzite (P1REa) ............................................................................ 181
Biotite-garnet-sillimanite schist (P1REch) ........................................................................... 182
Mineralogy............................................................................................................................. 182
7.4.5. Monte Pitão Formation*............................................................................................ 184
Banded amphibolite (P1RPa) ................................................................................................ 184
Calc-silicate gneiss (P1RPcc) ................................................................................................ 186
Lower marble (P1RPml) ....................................................................................................... 187
Biotite gneiss (P1RPgn) ......................................................................................................... 188
Upper marble (P1RPma) ....................................................................................................... 188
Upper quartzite (P1RPq)........................................................................................................ 188
7.4.6. Metamorphism ........................................................................................................... 190
7.4.7. Age ............................................................................................................................... 191
7.4.8. Origin........................................................................................................................... 193
Mukota meta-anorthosite (P2MHan).................................................................................... 193
7.5. BASAL RUSHINGA INTRUSIVE SUITE (P3GR) ............................. 194
7.5.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 194
7.5.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 194
7.5.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 194
7.5.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 195
7.6. GAIREZI GROUP (P1Z) ......................................................................... 196
7.6.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 196
7.6.2. Lithologies ................................................................................................................... 197
Quartzite and polymictic conglomerate (P1Zq, P1Zc) .......................................................... 197
Marble (P1Zmb)..................................................................................................................... 198
Saccharoidal quartzite and orthoquartzite (P1Zqs).............................................................. 198
Muscovite-biotite schist (P1Zss) ............................................................................................ 198
7.6.3. Metamorphism ........................................................................................................... 200
7.6.4. Mineralogy .................................................................................................................. 201
7.6.5. Age ............................................................................................................................... 202
7.7. PALAEO/MESOPROTEROZOIC ROCKS EAST OF THE
RUSHINGA GROUP.............................................................................. 203

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7.7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 203

7.7.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 204
Nhamessolo Formation*....................................................................................................... 204
Garnetiferous quartzite (P1RNq) .......................................................................................... 204
Calc-silicate gneiss (P1RNc) ................................................................................................. 205
Marble (P1RNm )................................................................................................................... 205
Chíduè Formation ................................................................................................................. 206
Mungári garnet granite-migmatite (P2MG) ......................................................................... 207
Garnet (biotite) gneiss (P1ppg).............................................................................................. 208
Chacocoma porphyritic biotite granite (P2Cgr) ................................................................... 208
7.8. BÁRUÈ COMPLEX ................................................................................ 211
7.8.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 211
7.8.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 212
Chimoio Group (P2BC) ......................................................................................................... 212
Macossa Group(P2BM) ......................................................................................................... 218
Calc-silicate gneiss (P2BMcc) ............................................................................................... 223
7.8.3. Intrusive rocks ............................................................................................................ 224
Hornblendite (P2BUhb)......................................................................................................... 224
Pyroxene diorite (P2BUpd).................................................................................................... 224
Gabbro and gabbroic rock (P2GUgb) ................................................................................... 224
Monte Hombe tonalite and granodiorite (P2BMdg) ............................................................ 225
Amphibole-bearing granitic gneiss (P2BUgg)...................................................................... 226
Foz do Rio Banhale quartz diorite (P2BUdi)........................................................................ 227
Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss (P2BUlg)...................................................................... 227
Inchope orthogneiss (P2BUig) ............................................................................................. 229
Monte Panda granodiorite (P2Ugd)...................................................................................... 229
Monte Senge granite (P2Ugr)................................................................................................ 229
Lithogeochemistry ................................................................................................................. 230
Age ......................................................................................................................................... 231
7.9. GURO SUITE ........................................................................................... 232
7.9.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................... 232
7.9.2 Lithology ...................................................................................................................... 233
Serra Banguatere aplitic granite gneiss-migmatite (P3Oag) .............................................. 233
Magasso metagabbro and mafic gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogb)................................................ 235
Monte Calinga Muci granite gneiss-migmatite and mafic gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogm)...... 236
7.9.3. Lithogeochemistry..................................................................................................... 237
7.9.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 239
7.10. PAN-AFRICAN GRANITES ................................................................ 240
Monte Cáverie granite and pegmatite (P3CV)..................................................................... 240
CHAPTER 8 .................................................................................................... 242
WEST GONDWANA BASEMENT – TÊTE SUITE .................................. 242
8.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 242
8.2. TETE GABBRO-ANORTHOSITE INTRUSIVE SUITE ................... 242

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8.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 242

8.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 243
Pyroxenite (P2Tpx) ................................................................................................................ 244
Anorthosite (P2Tan) .............................................................................................................. 244
Fe-Ti-oxide rocks .................................................................................................................. 245
8.2.3. Origin........................................................................................................................... 245
CHAPTER 9 .................................................................................................... 246
PHANEROZOIC COVER ............................................................................. 246
9.1. KAROO SUPERGROUP ........................................................................ 246
9.1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 246
9.1.2. Lower Karoo Group................................................................................................... 247
Vúzi Formation* (CbV)......................................................................................................... 247
Moatize Formation*(PeM).................................................................................................... 247
Matinde Formation* (PeT, PeTc)......................................................................................... 248
9.1.3. Upper Karoo Group................................................................................................... 250
Cádzi Formation* (PeC) ....................................................................................................... 250
Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* (JrRN) ...................................................................................... 252
Serra Bombuè Formation* (JrSb)........................................................................................ 254
Rio Mazoe Formation* (JrIa and JrIb) ............................................................................... 255
Bangomatete Formation* (JrBr, JrBb)................................................................................ 258
Chueza Formation* (JrC)..................................................................................................... 263
9.1.4. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 266
9.2. RUKORE SUITE ..................................................................................... 266
9.2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 266
9.2.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 266
Felsic intrusives (JrR, JrRg, JrRf) ....................................................................................... 268
Mafic intrusives (JrRmd) ...................................................................................................... 270
9.2.3. Age ............................................................................................................................... 270
9.3. GORONGOSA INTRUSIVE SUITE ..................................................... 271
9.3.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 271
9.3.2. Lithology ..................................................................................................................... 271
Gabbro (JrGb) ....................................................................................................................... 272
Granite (JrGg) ....................................................................................................................... 272
9.3.3. Age ............................................................................................................................... 273
Gorongosa fault/fracture corridor and dyke swarm ............................................................ 273
9.4. EAST AFRICA RIFT SEQUENCES ..................................................... 273
9.4.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 273
9.4.2. Lupata Group ............................................................................................................. 274
Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 274
Tchazica Formation* (JrLT) ................................................................................................ 275
Monte Palamuli Formation* (JrLP) .................................................................................... 276
Monte Mazambulo Formation* (JrLM)............................................................................... 278
Monte Linhanga Formation* ............................................................................................... 278
Alkaline lavas (CrLM)........................................................................................................... 279

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Agglomerates (CrLMa) ......................................................................................................... 279

Sandstone and tuffitic sandstone (CrLMs)........................................................................... 279
9.4.3. Geochemistry .............................................................................................................. 280
9.4.4. Age ............................................................................................................................... 280
9.4.5. Cretaceous terrestrial sediments............................................................................... 282
Sena Formation* (CrS)......................................................................................................... 282
Grudja Formation* (CrG)..................................................................................................... 283
Mágoè Formation* (CrM) .................................................................................................... 283
Conglomerate (CrMc) ........................................................................................................... 284
Sandstone and conglomerate (CrMs) ................................................................................... 284
Limestone and sandstone (CrMl).......................................................................................... 285
9.4.6. Carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks ............................................................. 286
Monte Xiluvo carbonatite Suite (CrX).................................................................................. 286
Carbonatites emplaced along the mylonite floor of the Tete Suite; Rio Mufa (Crcb)........ 288
9.4.7. Tertiary terrestrial sediments ................................................................................... 289
Cheringoma Formation* (TeC)............................................................................................ 289
Inhaminga Formation* (TeI) ............................................................................................... 290
Mazamba Formation* (TeZ)................................................................................................. 290
Quartz breccia veins .............................................................................................................. 290
9.4.8. Quaternary.................................................................................................................. 291
Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps).................................................................................... 291
Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi) ................................................................................................ 291
Fluvial terrace sand (Qt)....................................................................................................... 292
Colluvium (Qc) ...................................................................................................................... 292
Pebble debris (Mantos de cascalheira) (Qp) ........................................................................ 293
Coastal dune sand (Qd)......................................................................................................... 293
Alluvium (Qa) ........................................................................................................................ 293
CHAPTER 10 .................................................................................................. 295
STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM .................................................... 295
10.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 295
10.2. ZIMBABWE CRATON......................................................................... 295
10.3. NORTHERN MARGIN OF THE ZIMBABWE CRATON .............. 295
10.4. EASTERN MARGIN OF THE ZIMBABWE CRATON .................. 296
10.2. STRUCTURES AND CONTACT RELATIONSHIPS OF THE TETE
SUITE ....................................................................................................... 304
10.3. METAMORPHIC CONDITIONS DURING PROTEROZOIC
TIMES ...................................................................................................... 305
CHAPTER 11 .................................................................................................. 309
GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION..................................................................... 309
11.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 309
11.2. TERRANE BOUNDARIES................................................................... 309

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11.3. GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION............................................................ 313

11.3.1. Archaean geodynamic evolution of the Zimbabwe craton ................................... 314
11.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic extension of the Zimbabwe craton .......................................... 316
11.3.3. Palaeoproterozoic orogeny ...................................................................................... 317
11.3.4. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran extension ............................................................... 317
11.3.5. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent .............. 317
11.3.6. Post-Rodinia break-up (Neoproterozoic) ............................................................... 320
11.3.7. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovicium) .......................... 322
CHAPTER 12 .................................................................................................. 325
MINERAL RESOURCES .............................................................................. 325
12.1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 325
12.2. MINERAL DEPOSITS AND OCCURRENCES ................................ 326
12.2.1. Metallic Minerals...................................................................................................... 326
Gold........................................................................................................................................ 326
Copper.................................................................................................................................... 331
Tin .......................................................................................................................................... 332
Iron......................................................................................................................................... 332
12.2.2. Industrial Minerals .................................................................................................. 334
Construction materials .......................................................................................................... 334
Clay ........................................................................................................................................ 337
Bauxite ................................................................................................................................... 338
Alumen................................................................................................................................... 338
Dimension stone .................................................................................................................... 339
Crystalline limestone (marble).............................................................................................. 340
Apatite, fluorite...................................................................................................................... 340
Mineral and thermal water ................................................................................................... 344
12.2.3. Energy Minerals ....................................................................................................... 344
Coal ........................................................................................................................................ 344
12.3. MINERAL POTENTIAL ...................................................................... 346
12.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION .............................. 348
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 350

Appendix 1. Definitions of lithostratigraphic units

Appendix 2. Age Results, Mozambique Mapping Project/LOT2: Map Explanation, Vol. 2
Appendix 3. Whole rock analyses
Appendix 4. Microprobe analyses

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ABSTRACT
Volume 2 is one of the four Map Explanations describing the results of the geological
mapping project in northwestern, central and southern Mozambique, covering 430 000 km2.
The project was carried out in the years 2002 – 2006, managed by the GTK Consortium
(Geological Survey of Finland as leading partner), for the client Ministry of Mineral
Resources, Maputo, Mozambique (through Direcção Nacional de Geologia).
Based on all available geological map data combined with interpretation of airborne
geophysics and satellite data a seamless geological map with one common lithostratigraphy
was created for the whole area. The new geology is presented in 38 map sheets in scale
1:250 000. From three separate ore potential areas there are 20 detailed map sheets in scale
1:50 000. The known mineral indications and occurrences (about 500 for the whole area) are
collected in a database and shown on the mineral resources maps.
Geologica observations were made on 18 100 outcrops. Lithogeochemistry was done
on 350 samples, 900 thin sections studied and 36 samples were dated using zircon U-Pb or
Sm-Nd method. Microprobe analysis of minerals and petrophysical measurements from rock
samples were also made. The collected data, e.g. observations on outcrops, photos,
geochemical analyses are spatially georeferenced and in digital form.
The geological description follows in chronological order from old to young, from
Precambrian through Phanerozoic up to Recent. In the structure of the Map Explanation, the
applied major division of the Precambrian conforms to the current international concept of
palaeogeographic reconstruction model involving the amalgamation of three continental units
called West, East and South Gondwana terranes. Where applicable, the major terrane division
is subdivided under separate Chapters.
In the Precambrian area covered by this Volume, only the South Gondwana is
represented in its original sense. Complication at the boundary occurred e.g. when parts of the
Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite, thought to originate within the West Gondwana block,
tectonically glided over to the South Gondwana side.
The margin of the Archaean Zimbabwe craton partly extends to the Mozambican side
of the border, notably in the Manica region, where U-Pb age of ca. 2.9 Ga was determined for
TTG gneisses. It also extends further north, where its extent was updated by mapping, partly
with the support of zircon datings. A preliminary interpretation of the extensively
allochthonous tectonic structure involving the basement and cover at the craton margin north
of Manica is given, not addressed in previous reports. The overprinting tectonism and
metamorphism affected the craton margin also up to 20 km east of Manica and even further
east, while the Manica area remained intact. Low-grade metamorphic metasediments and
metavolcanic rocks of the Umkondo Group south of Manica rest on the Archaean basement
and are described as a part of the domain.
The craton margin is flanked by a N-S oriented, rather narrow zone of Palaeo-
proterozoic shallow marine rocks of the Rushinga and Gairezi Groups, metamorphosed and
deformed in amphibolite facies conditions. This domain abruptly ends in the east against the
sheared boundary of the Mesoproterozoic Báruè Complex. The rocks of the Complex
comprise a variety of supracrustal and mostly felsic plutonic rocks, largely with gneissic and
migmatitic aspect. It is supposed that the Complex originated elsewhere and moved to its

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present position along a sinistral transcurrent fault along the partly buried eastern margin of
the Zimbabwe craton.
200 – 300 km north of Manica the craton margin region is characterized by highly
layer-parallel deformed felsic-mafic intrusive association of the Neoproterozoic Guro Suite,
covering a large area but with rather flat attitude implying not a great thickness. Many
characteristics, including the age of the ca. 850 Ma obtained for the Suite, which has not been
distinguished earlier as an independent unit, correspond to those of the Basal Rushinga
Intrusive Complex (BRIC) as it is called in studies accomplished in the Zimbabwean side of
the border. In the area assigned to the Guro Suite, extending from south of Tete town until the
Guro village in the south, there are several types of supracrustal and plutonic intercalates,
Mesoproterozoic or even older.
The Phanerozoic sediments and volcanic rocks in the area of this Volume fill rifted
troughs in two different directions. One is the E-W trending Mid-Zambezi trough, running
through the Tete region, and the other branches from there to SW, extending to the coast at
Beira, outside the Map Explanation area. The boundaries of the troughs are commonly
distinctive topographic features, normal faults, where the Precambrian side rises to a higher
average level. Along the boundary fault a spectacular fault gouge has regularly developed,
often brecciated and invaded by quartz at low pressure and low temperature.
The Phanerozoic rocks generally comprise sub-horizontal terrestrial sediments and
associated (sub-)volcanic rocks that have not been affected by penetrative deformation, but
may show extensive brittle deformation structures. The Phanerozoic cover is divided (from
old to young) into the Karoo Supergroup and East African Rift sequence. The former, which
has been deposited during the break-up of Gondwana, has been further divided into Lower
and Upper Karoo Groups. The East African Rift is divided into Lupata Group and the
overlying terrestrial lithologic units deposited during Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary.
The lowermost lithology of the Phanerozoic sequence in the Map Explanation area is
represented by coarse-clastic sandstones of the Permian Lower Karoo Group, best exposed
below the overlying Karoo volcanics northwest of the Mázoè River. The Upper Karoo
sediments mostly occur around the northern end of the Lupata Trough, while the Early
Triassic/Early Jurassic Upper Karoo basaltic lavas and rhyolites form a domal structure around
Serra Mevunge in the northwestern corner of the Volume 2 area.
A bimodal magmatism is represented by the Lower Jurassic Rukore Suite. The felsic
component comprises microgranite and related dykes and the mafic component by dolerite
dykes and small microgabbro intrusions.
The Jurassic Gorongosa Intrusive Suite comprises the prominent Serra da Gorongosa
Mountain, situated in the eastern part of Volume 2 area. The mountain corresponds to an
oval-shaped intrusive complex, consisting of a felsic core surrounded by mafic igneous rocks.
The core lithologies comprise micropegmatite-granite, which has intruded surrounding
tholeiitic gabbros.
The Cretaceous Lupata Group is composed of coarse clastic sediments and an alkaline
volcanic suite, mostly comprising phonolites and trachytes. Terrestrial, clastic sedimentary
rocks assigned to the Cretaceous and overlying the Karoo and Lupata lithologies occupy large
parts of the Volume 2 area, generally forming a flat, featureless countryside. Four
stratigraphical units have been distinguished (from bottom to top): Sena, Grudja, Incomanini
and Mágoè Formation*. Cretaceous carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks – nephelinite
and phonolite plugs, and various alkaline dykes – occur throughout the area. Carbonatite

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vents or plugs are located at Lupata Hill, Monte Muambe, Monte Chandava, Monte
Salambídua, Monte Buzimuana and various nephelinite and phonolite plugs emplaced into the
Sena Formation*. Minor related alkaline intrusions are Monte Chandava and Monte
Buzimuana carbonatite rocks. The Xiluvo Carbonatite Complex, made up of suevites and
alvikites, is located in the southeastern corner of the Volume 2 area.
A wide belt of Neogene sands and soils extends from Beira northwards to Lake
Niassa.

KEY WORDS: Alkaline rock, areal geology, carbonatite, coal, Cretaceous, East Africa Rift,
gold, Gondwana, geological mapping, gneiss, granitoid, inselberg, Irumide, Karoo, Manica,
metamorphism, migmatite, Mozambique belt, Palaeoproterozoic, Pan-African, Phanerozoic,
Precambrian, Proterozoic, schist, SHRIMP, Sm/Nd dating, structure, Tete, Umkondo, U/Pb
dating, Zimbabwe craton.

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RESUMO
RESUMO EXPANDIDO – VOLUME 2

Antecedentes do Projecto - Como parte da política mineral do Governo de Moçambique, o

Ministério de Recursos Minerais (MIREM), através da Direcção Nacional de Geologia
(DNG), fomenta o desenvolvimento da infraestructura geocientífica da nação, apoiando a
promoção de investimentos mineiros e o desenvolvimento econômico sustentável do país.
O mapeamento geológico tem sido practicado em Moçambique desde os tempos
coloniais e extensos levantamentos geofísicos, geoquímicos e geológicos tem sido feitos
desde a independência. Os arquivos da DNG contém um abundante acervo de informações
geocientíficas. Porém, uma grande parte desta informação é desactualizada em relação à
tecnologia empregada e as concepções geológicas que apoiam a moderna exploração mineral.
Portanto, é de extrema importância completar e modernizar a infraestructura geocientífica
nacional. Para se alcançar isto, o Governo de Moçambique implementou o Projecto de
Capacitação de Manejo de Recursos Minerais (PCMRM), como parte de um programa
internacional maior.
O objectivo principal do programa de mapeamento do PCMRM é de revisar os
mapeamentos prévios em determinadas áreas e de melhorar a qualidade de mapas geológicos
em outras, para que se consiga a ter uma cobertura consistente de todo o território
Moçambicano em termos de qualidade. O mapeamento geológico é baseado nos princípios
estratigráficos modernos e assim, o objectivo deste programa é também de resolver problemas
estratigráficos, fornecer um bom controle geocronológico e solucionar problemas estructurais.

Metodologia - A metodologia de implementação do projecto incluiu a execução de uma série

de tarefas relevantes ao mapeamento, assim como um programa de treinamento dos
funcionários da DNG. A preparação desta nova geração de mapas geológicos tem sido
convenientemente subdividido em quatro fases: (1) Fase de preparação, (2) Compilação e
síntese da informação geológica existente, (3) Fase de mapeamento e (4) Preparação dos
productos finais.
Os productos cartográficos digitais são baseados na interpretação interactiva de uma
variedade de dados digitais (imagens de satélite, dados aeromagnéticos e radiométricos),
trabalho de laboratório (petrologia, litogeoquímica e geocronologia, compreendendo
SHRIMP, datação U-Pb e Sm-Nd convencionais) e verificação de campo. A interpretação
interactiva das imagens compiladas e processadas (e.g. Landsat-7, banda 5 em combinação
com três séries de dados radiométricos, i.e. K, eTh e eU, co-registradas em um pixel/grade de
tamanho célula comum, após o qual estas foram “fundidas” em imagens compostas a cores
pela aplicação de um algoritmo algébrico aos pixels/grades), se monstrou muito eficaz.
Todos os dados, existentes e novos, foram incorporados ao Sistema de Informação
Mineral (SIM) no formato ArcGIS, que pode ser consultado na DNG.

Infraestructura e Geomorfologia - A infraestructura e geomorfologia da área coberta por

esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 2), referida como a “área de mapeamento”, serão
discutidas nos Capítulos 3 e 4. O último inclui uma breve revisão das zonas fisiográficas ou
ciclos, de acordo com King (1961) e se relaciona com o conceito de “tectônica do
embasamento”.

Litoestratigafia e geologia regional - Princípios lito- e tectonoestratigráficos modernos tem

sido aplicados na prepação dos productos de mapas digitais. Para facilitar a correlação das

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unidades lito- e tectonoestratigráficos de Moçambique com os de países vizinhos, a geologia

regional da África é brevemente revisada.

Tabela A.1. Os domínios tectono-magmático-estructurais da África.

Evento/Sistema Era Idade (Ma)
Sistema de Rift do Leste Fase Principal Neoceno - Presente 23 - 0
Africano (SRLA) Fase Inicial Cretáceo - Paleoceno 140 - 23
Terrenos Gondwânicos Evento Karoo Carbonífero Superior- 318 - 180
Jurássico Inferior
Plataformas Pós-Pan- < 542
Africanas
Pan-Africano Orogenia Pan-Africana Neoproterozóico- Cambriano 750 - 490
Bacias do Pan-Africano Neoproterozóico 900 - 700
Inicial
Kibariano/Irumidiano/Grenvilleano Mesoproterozóico 1450 - 900
Ubendiano/ Usagarano Fase Tardio Palaeoproterozóico ~ 1860
Fase Inicial 2100 - 2025
Crátons (terrenos granito-greenstone) e Faixas Arcaico 3800 - 2500
Móveis

O continente Africano é composto por um mosaico de crátons e faixas móveis

Arcaicos, amalgamados por cinturões dobrados Proterozóico-Cambrianos e cobertos por uma
associação de sedimentos indeformados e rochas extrusivas de idades Neoproterozóica,
Carbonífera Superior-Jurássica Inferior e Cretácea-Quaternária (Tabela A.1; Gabert 1984,
Dirks & Ashwal, 2002). Os cinturões dobrados mais jovens, deformados durante as Orogenias
Herciniana e Alpina, possuem uma extensão apenas local.
As unidades litoestratigráficas que jazem sob o território de Moçambique, podem ser
convenientemente subdivididos entre o embasamento cristalino de idade Arcaica-Cambriana e
a cobertura Fanerozóica. O embasamento cristalino é composta por uma assembléia
heterogênea de paragneisses, granulitos e migmatitos, ortogneisses e rochas ígneas. Do ponto
de vista geodinâmico, aceita-se geralmente que o embasamento cristalino de Moçambique
compõe-se de três terrenos2 distintos, que se colidiram e amalgamaram durante o Ciclo
Orogênico Pan-Africano (COPA). Antes da amalgamação Pan-Africana, cada terreno foi
caracterizado por uma evolução geodinâmica específica. Estes terrenos são provisoriamente
denominados como os Terrenos Gondwana Leste, Gondwana Oeste e Gondwana Sul (Tabela
5.4). A evolução geodinâmica e as margens - as suturas destes Terrenos serão discutidos no
Capítulo 11.
Estando localizado próximo à juncção tripla entre a faixa Irumide (~1.02 Ga), faixa
Zambezi (~850-450 Ma) e a faixa Moçambique (750-550 Ma), a geologia do embasamento da
área de mapemento é extraordinariamente complexa, com a presença de todas estas três
faixas:
● Gondwana Sul – Compreende o Cráton Zimbabwe e várias unidades tectono- ou
litoestratigráficas em cinturões dobrados Proterozóicos, que foram empurrados
ou depositados no topo da margem norte e leste do Cráton. A sua borda norte
corresponde com a Faixa Pan-Africana Damara-Lufiliano-Zambezi (DLZ) e
falha Sanângoè, sobreposta.
● Gondwana Leste – Compreende o Cráton Congo/Tanzania ou África Central e
várias unidades tectono- ou litoestratigráficas em cinturões dobrados

2
O termo ”terreno” é utilizado para indicar a unidade tectônica de dimensôes variáveis, i.e. uma placa litosférica,
um fragmento de placa ou lasca ou ainda, uma massa tectônica como o “nappe”. Por outro lado, o “terreno” é
um termo genérico, similar à “área”.

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Proterozóicos, que foram empurrados ou depositados no topo da margem sul e

leste do Cráton. Na Tanzania, a frente do empurrão vergente a oeste da Faixa
Moçambique, marca o limite entre os Terrenos Gondwana Oeste e Gondwana
Leste. Mais ao sul, esta sutura é pobremente definida, mas no Bloco Tetê-
Chibata – um fragmento tectônico menor delimitado pela Zona de Cisalhamento
Sanângoè e o Deslocamento Mwembeshi – esta sutura corresponde
supostamente ao contacto entre o domínio maior de direcção WSW-ENE e o
Grupo Angónia, de direção NW-SE. A Suíte Furancungo (Granito
Desaranhama), igualmente de direcção NW-SE, representa supostamente a
soleira da massa de empurrão Angónia, pertencendo, porém, ao Terreno
Gondwana Oeste (GTK Consortium 2006d).
● Gondwana Leste – Na Tanzania, este compreende o embasamento cristalino –
os Granulitos Orientais – a leste da sutura Pan-Africana. Mais ao sul, este
compreende a maioria das rochas em Malawi e Moçambique setentrional. O seu
núcelo Arcaico é supostamente localizado em Madagascar e Índia.

Na área de mapeamento, o embasamento cristalino pertence quase que inteiramente ao

Terreno Gondwana Sul e ao Suíte Gabro-Anortosítico de Tête (SGAT). O Terreno Gondwana
Sul compreende o Cráton Zimbabwe, Arcaico – sendo parte do Cráton Kalahari – e várias
unidades empurradas em cinturões dobradas Proterozóicas, que serão discutidas nos Capítulos
6 e 7, respectivamente. A Suíte Tête é considerada uma massa de empurrão alóctone (vide
Capítulo 8), sendo agora a sua maior parte localizada ao sul da Zona de Cisalhamento
Sanângoè, mas tendo sido originado mais provavelmente a partir do Terreno Gondwana
Oeste, ao norte da Zona de Cisalhamento Sanângoè.
Cada Terreno mencionado acima, é producto de desenvolvimento geodinâmico
específico e individual. Os princípios da geodinâmica e da formação crustal – Ciclo de
Wilson, de Supercontinentes e Superplumas – säo brevemente revistos na Secção 5.4.

EMBASAMENTO DO GONDWANA SUL – CRÁTON KALAHARI

Rochas Arcaicas em Moçambique – A margem oriental do Cráton Arcaico de Zimbabwe

extende-se a Moçambique (Capítulo 6). A parte norte da margem oriental do Cráton é
atribuída ao Complexo Mudzi (Capítulo 6) e a parte sul, ao Complexo Mavonde. Na sua parte
meridional, o Cráton é composto por um terreno granito-greenstone clássico.
Os supracrustais do cinturão de rochas verdes Mutare-Manica são atribuídas ao Grupo
Manica, que tem sido subdividida (da base ao topo) em Formações Macequece e Vengo*.
Rochas do cinturão greenstone Cronley-Munhinga são atribuídas ao Grupo Munhinga, que
supostamente corresponde ao Grupo Manica.
No contexto dos terrenos granito-greenstone, seria lógico subdividir as rochas félsicas
em, ao menos, rochas félsicas mais antigas e mais jovens do que as rochas supracrustais nas
faixas de rochas verdes. A presente situação do mapeamento e, em particular, o insuficiente
conhecimento geocronológico, näo permitem isto. Consequentemente, todas as rochas félsicas
(com menores intercalações ultramáficas) tem sido atribuídas ao Complexo Mavonde. As
rochas félsicas mais antigas que ~2.64 Ga são atribuídas aos “Granitos Mais Antigos”.

Complexo Mudzi (A3Mq) - As rochas do Complexo Mudzi estão expostas ao longo da

margem norte do Cráton Zimbabwe e se extendem ininterruptamente a Moçambique na região
de Cuchamano (SDS 1631/1632), povoado de Mudze Chizimwe (SDS 1633, Fig. 6.2., perfil)
e mais ao sul (SDS 1732/1733, 1832/1833).

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As litologias félsicas do Complexo Mudzi ocorrem em estructuras dômicas (e.g.

Monte Senga Senga) ou em seqüências de gneisses bandadas Arcaicas, empilhadas por
empurrões, com a separação do embasamento/cobertura (thin-skinned) e com intercalações de
metagabros Arcaicos, que possuem um mergulho suave a sul e ocorrendo sub- e sobrejacentes
aos xistos e quartzitos Gairezi. As unidades mapeáveis seguintes tem sido atribuídas ao
Complexo Mudzi: Ortogneisses Félsicos, que compreendem (1) Quartzo-
Monzonitos/Quartzo-Monzodioritos (A3Mqm), (2) Granitóide Foliado, localmente porfirítico
(A3Mgr) e (3) Gneisse TTG, Granitóide Foliado (A3Mgn), com idades U-Pb magmáticas
variando de 2600 a 2710 Ma. Os membros máficos subordinados incluem: (4) Gneisse
Granodiorítico, contendo bandas amfibolíticas (A3Mgd), (5) Metagabro (A3Mgb) e (6)
Amfibolito/Granada-Amfibolito (A3Mam). Finalmente, a menor proporção do Complexo
Mudzi é composta por gneisses com protólito sedimentar e inclui (7) Granada-Gneisse
(A3Mgg). A relação estratigráfica mútua entre estas unidades permanece desconhecida.
Portanto, a sucessão destas litologias na legenda do mapa näo possui um significado crono-
estratigráfico.
As análises SHRIMP de zircões zonados dos Ortogneisses Mudzi (A3Mgn), expostos
em uma estructura dômica Arcaica, fornecem três idades diferentes:
● Zircões zonados constituem uma sub-série mais antiga com a idade magmática
de 2713±22 Ma,
● Estes zircões sofreram um evento metamórfico a ~2.54 Ga, indicado pela
neoblastese e sobre-crescimentos metamórficos do zircão. Isto pode representar
a fase de retrabalhamento e rehidratação sob condições de fácies amfibolito para
rochas equivalentes em Zimbabwe, referidos por Barton et al. (1991) e Vinyu et
al. (2001),
● Uma sobre-impressão metamórfica Pan-Africana a 520±16 Ma.

As datações de zircões por U-Pb convencional de gneisses similares, forneceram resultados

comparativos. A plotagem concórdia das três fracções de zircões fornecem uma idade de
interceptação superior de 2632±3 Ma. Como acima, a interceptação mais baixa a 554±33 Ma
reflecte a sobre-impressão Pan-Africana.

Complexo Mavonde (A3V) - O conjunto de granitóides do Cráton Zimbabwe é mais jovem

que o Supergrupo Bulawayo Superior, sendo assim, mais jovem que as rochas do Cinturão de
Rochas Verdes Manica e incluindo as Suítes Neoarcaicos Wedza (~2.65 Ga) e Chilimani
(~2.60 Ga). Porém, mapeamento e dados geocronológicos insuficientes não podem excluir a
presença de granitóides mais antigos. Os granitóides TTG formam um domínio bastante
uniforme e amplo, extendendo-se ao longo da fronteira com Zimbabwe por ~200 km, a meio
caminho entre as cidades de Manica e Chimoio, constituindo uma paisagem suave e ondulada,
com raros e inconspicuos Inselbergs, que subjazem as cristas estreitas com direcção norte,
formados por quartzitos Gaireze em estructuras sinclinais (SDS 1832/1833 e 1932/1933). A
parte oeste do domínio, próxima à fronteira com Zimbabwe, é caracterizada por uma
topografia de montanhas mais elevadas.
Os granitóides Neoarcaicos no Complexo Mavonde é caracterizada, em termos gerais,
por composições graníticas a tonalíticas (e.g. gneisse TTG). Variedades aplíticas e
migmatíticas estão presentes em certos locais. Gneisses máficos e metagabro são tipos de
rochas subordinados. Os granitóides apresentam geralmente cor cinza e possuem granulação
bastante fina a média, sendo variavelmente foliadas e gradando localmente a rochas
porfiríticas. Sendo suavemente foliadas nas suas porções ocidentais, o Complexo Mavonde
assume progressivamente uma foliação e mergulho mais accentuados a leste, possuindo uma
direcção N-S, manifestando o cisalhamento dúctil do Pan-Africano Tardio. Para leste, porém,

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pode se observer a manifestação da deformação progressiva, causada pelo cisalhamento dúctil

Pan-Africano.
Porém, as relações mútuas entre as diversas litofácies dos granitóides não são
conhecidas. O Gneisse TTG, félsico e variavelmente bandado (A3Vgn e A3Vbgn) e
Tonalito/Granodiorito (A3Vto) foram mapeados em várias localidades. O maior corpo de
Granito Porfirítico e Granodiorito (A3Vpgd), com cristais comuns de feldspato alcalino com
2-4 cm de comprimento, ocorrem ao sul da estrada Manica-Chimoio. A hornblenda domina
entre os minerais máficos. Os tipos discretamente foliados a não-foliados, ocasionalmente
com feldspatos alcalinos grosseiramente orientados, incluem o Granito Aplítico (A3Vagr),
Granito (A3Vgr), Granito Maciço (A3Vbmgr) e Granito Migmatítico (A3Vmi). Os membros
foliados incluem o Granito Foliado, localmente porfirítico (A3Vpg). As variedades mais
máficas incluem o Ortogneisse Máfico a Intermediário (A3Vogn) e Metagabro (A3Vgb). O
Pegmatito (A3Vpm) é supostamente a rocha ígnea mais jovem.
Os granitóides do Complexo Mavonde säo peraluminosos ou metaluminosos e são
classificados no campo dos granitos, tendo uma uma menor proporção de composições
granodioríticas, tonalíticas ou quartzo-monzodioríticas. Nos diagramas TAS, os componentes
máficos são toleíticos e os componentes félsicos, entre calco-alkalinos e toleíticos. A
classificação lito-geoquímica sugere uma assinatura predominantemente “entre-placas” e
“arco vulcânico”, implicando uma origem de granitos do tipo A para alguns dos granitóides.
Não se pode distinguir uma diferença entre os granitóides e gabros dos complexos granitóides
Mudzi e Mavonde.
A geocronologia do zircão desta rocha forneceu um grande leque de idades entre < 2.65
Ga e ~2.5 Ga. Necessita-se de mais dados para resolver a crono-estratigrafia dos granitóides
do terreno granito-greenstone do lado leste do Cráton Zimbabwe em Moçambique.

Granitóides mais antigos (A2gt) - Os “Granitóides mais antigos” são evidenciados por uma
amostra de gneisse tonalítico, coletado ao longo da estrada Manica-Chimoio, a 5 km a leste de
Manica. A datação U-Pb SHRIMP forneceu a a idade magmática concórdia de 2907±16 Ma.
Os núcleos alterados, metamícticos, indicam idades-zircão mais antigos de componentes
herdados. A idade sugere a correlação com a Sebakhewan em Zimbabwe. A extensão de este
tipo de rocha na área é desconhecida.
As margens norte e sul do segmento de Mutare são cercadas por granitos intrusivos. No
limbo norte do sinclinório, stocks de quartzo-diorito intrudem as rochas verdes em
Penhalonga e na Velha Missão de Mutare. O stock quartzo-diorito-tonalito-granodiorito
Penhalonga, datado em 2741±3 Ma (Chenjerai et al. 1993), é a intrusão mais antiga no
cinturão de rochas verdes.
Outra unidade litológica (A3Mpgn), considerada mais antiga que o cinturão de rochas
verdes de Manica, é também atribuída aos “Granitos mais antigos”. A rocha é um biotita-
gneisse de granulação média a grossa, possuindo feldspato alkalino do tipo Augen, com
foliação e lineação, além do dobramento de pequena escala, exposta sobre uma superfície com
dimensões de 25 x 25 km, a leste de Rotanda (SDS 1932/1933). A unidade subjaz a
sedimentos e metasedimentos dos Grupos Umkondo e Gairezi. As relações de contacto com
os granitóides circundantes não são claras.

Grupo Manica (A3M) - O Segmento Mutare do Cinturão de Rochas Verdes de Manica é um

sinclinório mergulhante a leste, composto por uma seqüência basal vulcano-sedimentar e uma
superior, dominada por sedimentos, ambas atribuídas ao Grupo Manica. A litoestratigrafia
basal de rochas verdes não é bem estabelecida. Wilson (1979) colocou a seqüência dominada
por vulcânicas nas “Rochas Verdes Superiores” do Supergrupo Bulawayo Superior e a
sucessão metasedimentar Mbeza superior no Supergrupo Shamvaian. Porém, em algumas

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publicações posteriores, o Grupo Bulawayo foi interpretado como correspondendo às “Rochas

Verdes Inferiores” (Foster & Wilson 1984). Seguindo Hunting (1984), a seqüência basal de
rochas verdes, dominada por vulcânicas no Segmento Mutare do cinturão de rochas verdes de
Manica, é referida como a Formação Macequece*. As supracrustais inconformavelmente
sobrejacentes, dominadas por sedimentares, são atribuídas à Formação Vengo*.
A Formação Macequece* (A3MM) é principalmente composta por metavulcânicas
ultramáficas e máficas e seus productos derivados retrogressivos e metassomáticos, como
serpentinitos e talco+ clorita+tremolita-xistos, com intercalações de formações ferríferas
bandadas (BIF), metacherts e conglomerados polimícticos, cobertos por rochas
metavulcânicas andesíticas, dacíticas e riodacíticas, de origem predominantemente
piroclástica.
A geoquímica das rochas metavulcânicas Macequece mostra um amplo leque de
composições, com tufos a cristal mais ácidos no “campo dos riolitos”, os feldspato pórfiros no
“campo dos riodacitos a dacitos” e as vulcânicas máficas e intermediárias no “campo dos
andesitos e basaltos sub-alkalinos”. As rochas metavulcânicas ultramáficas, com a textura
spinifex e os serpentinitos, mostram a afinidade komatítica.
As unidades mapeáveis a seguir foram identificadas (grosseiramente da base para o
topo): (1) Serpentinito e Meta-komatíto (A3MMsc), (2) Talco-clorita-xistos (A3MMtc), (3)
Rocha Metavulcânica Máfica e Ultramáfica (A3MMro), (4) Metabasalto e Xisto Máfico
(A3MMba), (5) Rocha Metavulcânica Máfica e Intermediária (A3MMtu), (6) Brecha
(A3MMbr), (7) Rocha Ferrífera Bandada (A3MMtcf), (8) Metachert (A3MMch), (9)
Formação Ferrífera Bandada (A3MMbaf), (10) Quartzo-Sericita-Xisto (A3MMqss), (11)
Diamictito (A3MMdi), (12) Metagré Lítico Rico em Ferro (A3MMss), (13) Tufo Félsico a
Cristal (A3MMff), (14) Quartzo-Feldspato Pórfiro (A3MMqp), (15) Brecha-Tufo (A3MMtb),
(16) Conglomerado Vulcânico (A3MMvc), (17) Rocha Vulcânica Intermediária (A3MMiv),
(18) Aglomerado (A3MMag), (19) Rochas Metavulcânicas Félsicas (A3MMfv).
A idade-modelo da galena de 2650 Ma, de um depósito de ouro estructuralmente
hospedado, apresenta a idade mais confiável para as litologias do cinturão de rochas verdes. A
idade correspondente ao Bulawayo Superior pode corresponder às condições de pico
metamórfico que afetou os supracrustais do cinturão de rochas verdes, um pouco mais antigo.
A Formação Vengo* (A3MV) pode ser correlacionada com os sedimentos Shamvaian do
Arcaico Superior em Zimbabwe, repousando inconformavelmente ou com contactos
tectônicos sobre rochas verdes metavulcânicas, contendo material clástico grosseiro derivado
de terrenos granito-greenstone. As rochas da Formação Vengo* tem três áreas maiores de
ocorrência, sendo as mais extensas a faixa sinforme com a largura de 1-1.5 km e com a
direcção E-W, começando a partir da Serra Vengo e seguindo em direcção a leste por ~15 km.
Esta unidade é a continuação da Série Mbeza de Zimbabwe (Wilson 1979).
As litologias maiores compreendem conglomerados basais, grafita-filitos e sericita-
xistos com finas intercalações de quartzitos com mármore cinza, rocha ferrífera bandada e
quartzito lítico ferruginoso. As seguintes unidades mapeáveis foram identificadas
(grosseiramente da base ao topo): (1) Conglomerado Vulcânico (A3MVo), (2) Conglomerado
Polimítico (A3MVclo), (3) Quartzito (A3MVqz), (4) Metagrauvaca (A3MVgy), (5) Filito e
Grafita-Xisto (A3MVps), (6) Rocha Ferrífera Bandada (A3MVfe), (7) Metachert (A3MVch),
(8) Mármore (A3MVma), (9) Quartzo-Sericita Xisto (A3MVqs), (10) Meta-Arcóseo e
Quartzito Arcóseo (A3MVar) e (11) Mica-Xisto (A3MVmc).
As litologias da Formação Vengo* são compreendidas entre ~2613 e ~2601 Ma (cf.
Hofman et al. 2002).

Grupo Munhinga (A3MH) - O Cinturão de Rochas Verdes Cronley-Munhinga é localizada a

cerca de 50 km ao sul do Cinturão de Rochas Verdes Mutare-Manica e continua em

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Moçambique por cerca de 25 km na direcção ~E-W, quando se curva em direcção ao norte e

afinando-se até desaparecer. Diferentemente do Cinturão de Rochas Verdes Mutare-Manica, a
estreita seqüência Cronley-Munhinga está somente desenvolvido de modo incompleto,
compreendendo apenas metavulcânicas máficas e ultramáficas, os seus derivados
metasomáticos e quartzito. Em Moçambique, somente (1) Rocha Metavulcânica Ultramáfica
e Talco-Clorita Xisto (A3MHuv), (2) Quartzito (A3MHqz) e (3) Rocha Ferrífera Bandada
(A3MHfe) são expostas no Cinturão de Rochas Verdes Cronley-Munhinga.

Grupo Umkondo (P2U) - O Grupo Umkondo forma uma seqüência Proterozóica de

metasedimentos e metalavas basálticas a andesíticas sub-horizontais de baixo-grau, que
repousam inconformavelmente sobre litologias Arcaicas da Faixa Limpopo oriental e Cráton
Zimbabwe (SDS 1932/1933, 2032/2033).
Duas novas unidades litoestratigráficas foram definidas pelo Consórcio GTK,
compreendendo derrames basálticos subaéreos da Formação Espungabera* (P2UEv) (topo)
e metasedimentos bem preservados da Formação Dacata* (P2UD) (basal). A última
Formação* é subdividida em cinco membros (da base para o topo): O Membro Quartzítico
Inferior (P2UDlq), Membro Grafita-Xisto (P2UDsc), Membro Chert (P2UDch), Membro
Siltito (P2UDs) e Membro Quartzito Superior (P2UDqz). Destes, somente os Membros
Quartzito Inferior e Siltito são encontrados na área do mapeamento.
Não existe informação geocronológica direta. A correlação da seqüência Umkondo com
o Grupo Ahlmannryggen da leste da Antarctica, de ~1130 Ma, pode sugerir uma idade
Mesoproterozóica (Munyanyiwa, 1997; Thomas, 1998; Masters, 2006). Porém, uma idade
Paleoproterozóica não pode ser excluída (vide abaixo).

Diques de Doleritos e Microgabro - Três grupos de diques máficos foram intrudidos no

terreno granito-greenstone do Cráton Zimbabwe Oriental: (1) diques máficos no Cinturão de
Rochas Verdes de Manica-Mutare, (2) metadoleritos nos gneisses Arcaicos e metasedimentos
do Grupo Gairezi e (3) diques e sills dos doleritos micro-gabróicos de Mashonaland nos
quartzitos Umkondo. Anteriormente, todos os diques eram agrupados em uma família e
denominados de Doleritos Umkondo (doleritos pós-Unkondo, Hunting 1984), pertencendo à
“Província Ígnea de Umkondo”, com uma idade mesoproterozóica de ~1100 Ma (e.g.
Wingate, 2001).
A datação Sm/Nd recente, efectuado pelo Consórcio GTK, forneceu uma idade de
1102+52 Ma, confirmando o dado geocronológico mais antigo. O dolerito intrudido no
Cinturão de Rochas Verdes de Manica é datada de 1783±51 Ma e o metadolerito foi datado de
973±73 Ma. Os valores epsilon diferentes e os diagramas de discriminação lito-geoquímicas
indicam fontes de magma diferentes para os doleritos Mashonaland Mesoproterozóicos e os
doleritos Paleoproterozóicos da área de Manica.

EMBASAMENTO DO GONDWANA SUL –

AS FAIXAS DE DOBRAMENTOS PROTEROZÓICAS

Introducção - As faixas de dobramentos Proterozóicas, que ocorrem ao longo da margem

norte e leste do Cráton Zimbabwe, se extendem a Moçambique.
A Faixa Zambezi, de direcção E-W, parte da Faixa continental Damara-Lufiliana-
Zambezi (DLZ), flanqueia o Cráton Zimbabwe ao norte. Esta faixa orogênica contém uma
pilha de massas de empurrão ou “nappes”, que incluem componentes Arcaicos (>2.5 Ga),
Mesoproterozóicos (~1.0-1.4 Ga) e Neoproterozóicos (0.8-0.5 Ga)(Dirks et al. 2003). A Faixa

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Zambezi meridional é largamente composta por dois nappes (estructuralmente do topo à base
e de N to S):
● Terreno Alóctone Zambezi – Compreende os Suítes Metamórficos Mavuradonha e
Masoso, de alto grau (fácies granada-granulito) sensu Barton et al. (1985; 1991), re-
nomeados Complexo Mavuradonha e Complexo Masoso nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa.
● Terreno Gneisse Marginal – Subdividido em Zimbabwe em Suíte Metamórfico
Chimanda e Suíte Metamórfico Rushinga. Somente a última unidade, renomeado de Grupo
Rushinga nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa, extende-se a Moçambique.
As massas estructurais do Terreno Gneisse Marginal estão tectonicamente sobrepostos
ao Terreno Gneisse Migmatítico alóctone do Cráton Zimbabwe (vide a Seccao 6.1.1.). Os
granitóides Neoproterozóicos tem sido aparentemente emplaçados ao longo de plano de
empurrão entre estes dois terrenos e são incorporados por Barton et al. (1991) no Complexo
Intrusivo Basal de Rushinga (CIBR), re-nomeado como Suíte Intrusivo Basal de Rushinga
(SIBR) nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa.
A margem leste do Cráton Kalahari é parte da Faixa Moçambique, com direcção N-S e
esta pode também ser subdividida em um número de massas de empurrão ou unidades
tectono-estratigráficas:
● Grupo Gairezi – O Grupo Gairezi é composto por metasedimentos fortemente
deformados, empurrados e dobrados junto com gneisses Arcaicos e repousam
inconformavelmente sobre estes.
●Complexo Báruè – O conjunto de rochas Proterozóicas ocorrentes ao longo da
margem oriental do Cráton Zimbabwe, a sul da latitude 17.5° S, é atribuída ao Complexo
Báruè.
● Suíte Guro – A suíte magmática bimodal de idade ~ 850 Ma, compreende granito
aplítico e migmatito, alternado com metagabro e migmatito máfico.

Suíte Metamórfico Mavuradonha (P3MV) - O Complexo Metamórfico Mavuradonha tem

uma extensão bastante limitada ao longo do Rio Luia, próximo á fronteira com Zimbabwe
(SDS 1632). A unidade ocorre na forma de uma seqüência de gneisses máficos e félsicos, que
podem ser correlacionados com o Metagabro Gungwa e a Formação Nyamasoto* em
Zimbabwe. A sucessão é composta por gneisses fortemente deformados, foliados e dobrados,
megulhando suavemente (~20-50°) para NNW a NNE, apresentando um bandamento
composicional distincto de bandas e listras félsicos e máficos. São comuns os fragmentos de
feldspato alcalino arredondados, com até 5 cm de diâmetro e provavelmente derivados da
boudinagem de diques pegmatíticos, assim como porfiroblastos de hornblenda verde escuras,
com um diâmetro de 1-5 mm.
A origem destes gneisses composicionalmente bandadas é de certo modo obscuro;
mesmo que algumas das bandas máficas possam representar diques gabróicos achatados e
foliados, os contactos muitas vezes difusos das bandas e listras sugerem uma origem
piroclástica ou vulcanoclástica à estas rochas.
Näo existem dados de idade para os gneisses Mavuradonha. Fábricas dúcteis ao longo
do Empurrão Mavuradonha tem dado a idade de 820 Ma (Barton et al. 1991).

Complexo Metamórfico Masoso (P3MO) - Os contactos norte e leste do Complexo

Metamórfico Masoso (SDS 1632) são definidos por falhas normais contra o Supergrupo
Karoo (fig. 7.2) e a Formação Mágoè*, do Cretáceo. O contacto meridional com a Suíte Guro
é formado por uma série de planos de falhas de empurrão, com direcção grosseiramente a E-
W e vergentes ao norte. O contacto de falha setentrional com as rochas Karoo é caracterizada
por uma forte brechação e milonitização.

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As rochas mais distantes do plano de falha aparentemente escaparam do cisalhamento

frágil, preservando assim, o seu bandamento composicional distincto, definido por camadas
mais escuras, alternadas com camadas mais félsicas, quartzo-feldspáticas rosadas, que
possuem bastante pequenos porfiroblastos de feldspato alcalino róseo. As camadas ricas em
amfibólio variam de lâminas esverdeadas a horizontes amfibolíticas verde escuras, com
espessuras locais de vários metros. Localmente são encontrados grandes segregações de
porfiroblastos de hornblenda, com dimensões de até 15 cm, assim como muitos porfiroblastos
pequenos de granada, de 2-8 mm em diâmetro. Duas gerações de pegmatitos a microclínio,
tanto sin- como pós-tectônicos, invadiram os gneisses bandados, que são também
intersectados por diques basálticos da Suíte Rukore e por um enxame de finos veios de
calcedônia com fluorita, de direção NE (Barton et al. 1991). Xenólitos máficos contendo
granada, com diâmetros de alguns centímetros a 2-3 m e relembrando eclogitos, são
encontrados nos gneisses listrados ao longo do Rio Luia.
As idades publicadas (e.g. Barton et al. 1991; Maringa et al. 1998; Vinyu et al. 1999)
confirmam que ao menos dois eventos tectono-metamórficos afetaram a margem setentrional
do Cráton Zimbabwe e que os protólitos das unidades Proterozóicas devem ser mais antigas
que 850 Ma. Barton et al. (1991) sugerem que esta idade reflecte apenas um evento
(emplaçamento do nappe tectônico), dentro de uma evolução geodinâmica muito mais
complexa. Alternativamente, esta idade pode reflectir a fase da empurrão de descolamento
extensional (Dirks et al. 1998). O evento tectônico mais jovem, entre 600 e 500 ma, reflecte o
“Pan-Africano sensu stricto” e manifesta a colisão entre o Gondwana Sul e Oeste. A
geocronologia da Suíte Masoso relembra em grande parte os dados similares da Suíte Guro.

Grupo Rushinga (P1R) - Na área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa, as rochas do
Grupo Rushinga ocorrem ao longo da fronteira com Zimbabwe no domínio norte (SDS
1631/1632), separada do domínio sul por uma protrusão da fronteira internacional (SDS 1633,
1732/1733). A abundância de diques máficos e félsicos ou plutões (Suíte Intrusiva Rukore) do
Karoo Tardio no domínio norte e a ausência destas no domínio sul é um facto surpreendente.
Baseado na secção estratigráfica-chave no Monte Pitão (Canto SE da SDS 1632), o
Grupo Rushinga tem sido subdividido em Moçambique em (1) Formação Rio
Embuca*(P1RE), quartzo-feldspática a pelítica e (2) Formação Monte Pitão (P1RP),
mármores e rochas calco-silicatadas. A sucessão difere fortemente da coluna estratigráfica
estabelecida por Barton et al. (1991) em Zimbabwe, como mostrado na Tabela 7.1.
A Formação Rio Embuca* inclui (da base ao topo) (1) Quartzito Inferior (P1REa), (2)
Gneisse Quartzo-Feldspático (P1REqf), (3) Meta-Arcóseo/Quartzito (P1REa) e (4) Biotita
Xisto (P1REch). O Quartzito Inferior (P1REqz), feldspático a orto-quartzítico, com lentes de
Metaconglomerados (P1REc), é exposta principalemente ao longo de suaves cristas e restando
directamente sobre os gneisses do embasamento Arcaico, com um contacto supostamente
tectônico. Meta-Arcóseo/Quartzito Arcóseo (P1REa), é uma rocha quartzo-feldspática
levemente amarelada a castanho-rosada, de granulação mediana e finamente bandada. Esta é
geralmente associada com amfibolitos bandados. A sua similaridade geral com algumas
variedades félsicas da Suíte Guro podem localmente dificultar a separação entre estas
unidades rochosas. Biotita Xisto (P1REch), que geralmente contém granada e silimanita,
forma horizontes finas mas contínuas ao longo dos supracrustais do Rushinga. As variedades
transicionais de quartzitos a silimanita a gneisses feldspáticos com nódulos de silimanita são
comuns. Os xistos aluminosos compreendem localmente só porfiroblastos de granada e
silimanita fibrolítica, com teores de Al2O3 de até 24%, sugerindo assim, um protólito de
paleosolo.
A Formação Monte Pitão* compreende (da base ao topo) (1) Amfibolito Bandado
(P1RPa), (2) Gneisse Calco-Silicatado (P1RPcc), (3) Mármore Inferior (P1RPm1), (4) Biotita

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Gneisse (P1RPgn), (5) Mármore Superior (P1RPma) e (6) Quartzito Superior (P1RPq).
Amfibolitos Bandados (P1RPa) e os gneisses a hornblenda associados, formam horizontes
sub-contínuos. A secção, localizada no Rio Mazoe, a ~ 2 km a E da fronteira com Zimbabwe,
compõe-se de predominantemente de amfibolitos bandados e gneisses quartzo-feldspáticos.
Rochas Calco-Silicatadas (P1RPcc) são geralmente associados com mármores e gneisses
pelíticos. Os gneisses calco-silicatadas são rochas de granulação média, variavelmente
foliadas, apresentando um bandamento composicional distincto. A alteração intempérica de
camadas ou enclaves de mármore deixam geralmente finas, mas profundas cavidades de
dissolução em superfícies alteradas.
As análises SHRIMP de zircões detríticos de biotita-granada-silimanita xisto da
Formação Rio Embuca*, efectuadas pelo Consórcio GTK, demonstraram a idade máxima de
~2.0 Ga. Esta é considerada como a época do desenvolvimento da bacia Rushinga e a
deposição da seqüência sedimentar. Acredita-se que os zircões mais antigos, com idades
SHRIMP de 2.54 e 2.8 Ga, representem grãos detríticos derivados do Cráton Zimbabwe. A
idade da sedimentação Paleoproterozóica para o Grupo Rushinga é confirmada pelos elevados
valores de δ13 das rochas carbonáticas, claramente superiores aos valores marinhos normais de
0‰. Estes valores altos não podem ser explicados pela alteração secundária e muito
provavelmente representam períodos de excursões de δ13 marinhas positivas, características
do período de 0.6-1.0 Ga ou de 2.0-2.3 Ga. Devido à ausência de zircões detríticos mais
jovens que ~ 2.0 Ga, uma idade deposicional mais jovem é considerada como improvável.

Grupo Gairezi (P1Z) – As rochas tradicionalmente atribuídas aos Grupos Gairezi e Fronteira
ocorrem junto à fronteira entre Zimbabwe e Moçambique. Na Província de Manica estes são
encontrados em forma de uma faixa alongada que começa na Monte Senga Senga (norte) e
continua quase até o Rio Save (sul). As litologias do Grupo Gairezi podem ser facilmente
distinguidos dos granitóides e litologias Arcaicos subjacentes do Complexo Báruè, tanto em
fotografias aéreas (Hunting, 1984) como em imagens Landsat. Estes formam terrenos
montanhosos elevados, com cristas longas, accentuando-se claramente dos terrenos suaves a
leste e oeste.
Os autores anteriores (referências em Hunting, 1984) já denotaram as grandes diferenças
entre as rochas do “Sistema Fronteira/Série Gairezi”, consistindo em metasedimentos
fortemente deformados e recristalizados, dobrados juntamente com gneisses Arcaicos e
jazendo, em maior parte, incomformavelmente sobre estes e os estratos de relevo baixo e
pouco ou não-metamorfisados do Grupo Umkondo (vide a Secção 6.5). Na década de 1960,
pesquisadores da Universidade de Leeds (referências em Hunting, 1984) e subsequentemente
Barton et al. (1991), contrariaram este ponto de vista, baseado em elementos estratigráficos
comuns em ambas as successões. Eles argumentaram que a “Série Gairezi” era o equivalente
estratigráfico da parte basal do “Sistema Umkondo” e que as diferenças litológicas maiores
eram explicadas pelas variações de fácies entre as unidades. Consequentemente, ambas as
seqüências foram atribuídas ao “Sistema Umkondo”, sendo as exposições a oeste colocadas
sob os termos de fácies Rhodesianos ou Inhangas e as do leste, sob fácies Moçambique,
Fronteira ou Gairezi. A DNG tem apoiado esta subdivisão ao adotar o termo “Sistema
Umkondo” para todas as rochas supracrustais e agrupando as exposições a oeste e leste nas
Formações Umkondo e Fronteira, respectivamente. Hunting (1984) atribuiu as rochas que
formam a Serra Gairezi na parte norte da Província Manica ao Grupo Gairezi2 . As litologias
que formam a Serra Sitatonga e as Montanhas Chimanimani a sul, foram incluídos por este no
Grupo Fronteira. A análise das imagens Landsat e fotografias aéreas demonstram, porém,
que as litologias que, segundo Hunting (1984), pertencem aos grupos Gairezi e Fronteira, são,

2
Para uma breve história da nomenclatura estratigráfica, vide o parágrafo 3.2.4.

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na verdade, restos erosionais da mesma seqüência metasedimentar e, consequentemente, o

Consórcio GTK atribuiu ambos ao Grupo Gairezi.
O Grupo Gairezi consiste predominantemente em xistos pelíticos e orto-quartzitos
brancos a cinzentos. Mármore e meta-conglomerados polimíticos são subordinados. As
relacções estratigráficas entre estes vários tipos de metasedimentos permanecem obscuros
(Tabela 7.3). Lentes e camadas de Meta-conglomerado (P1Zc) intraformacional e polimítico
são encontradas na parte basal do Quartzito (P1Zq) na região de Chicamba Real. Os clastos
compreendem outras rochas supracrustais, como xistos, em adição a gneisses graníticos e
granodioríticos (Fig. 7.27C). Finas intercalações de Mármore (P1Zmb), de granularidade
média e cor cinza-branco a vermelho-salmão, são comumente expostas na parte norte (e.g. a
oeste de Monte Senga-Senga; Fig. 7.28). Cristas proeminentes de Quartzito Sacaróide
(P1Zqs), de cor branca, ocorrem na parte sul da área de mapeamento (SDS 1932-1933) Ao
norte, a oeste do povoado de Catandica, quartzitos similares ocorrem na forma de finas, mas
contínuas cristas, formando uma estrutura anelar peculiar de ortoquartzito do Monte Senga-
Senga, cercando um domo gnéissico Arcaico. Feições primárias, como o acamadamento
plano-paralelo ou cruzado, são raramente visíveis (Fig. 7.27C). Xistos pelíticos e semi-
pelíticos alternam com ortoquartzitos. Xistos aluminosos (P1Zss) são predominantemente
muscovita-biotita- e clorita xistos e estão expostos na região elevada a leste de Catandica.
Porfiroblastos de granada e silimanita são comuns nas rochas dominadas por muscovita (e.g.
N e E do reservatório de Chicamba). Prismas de cianita, localmente com até 5 cm de
comprimento, ocorrem em uma quantidade substancial nos estratos metapelíticos do Grupo
Gairezi ao redor do Monte Senga-Senga (Fig. 7.31A).
As análises SHRIMP de zircões detríticos do granada-cianita xisto do Grupo Gairezi
sugerem uma idade máxima de 2041±15 Ma e proveniência Arcaica para sedimentos
metapelíticos do mesmo (7.6.3). Esta idade máxima é marcadamente similar à idade máxima
encontrada nos metasedimentos do Grupo Rushinga (Secção 7.4.6). As similaridades
litológicas entre os grupos Gairezi e Rushinga, especialmente na sua parte basal (Formação
Rio Embuca*), junto com os resultados das idades e a continuidade regional ininterrupta,
sugerem que o Grupo Gairezi e a parte basal do Grupo Rushinga sejam estratigraficamente
equivalentes (cf. Barton et al. 1991).

Complexo Báruè – Pinna et al. (1987) distingüíram várias unidades lito-estratigráficas no

Complexo Báruè (Secção 7.7), que não podem ser identificados como entidades separadas nas
imagens de satélite e mapas geofísicos. Como conseqüência, estas sub-unidades não foram
mantidas. O Complexo Báruè, redefinido e reduzido, tem sido subdividido em Grupos
Macossa e Chimoio, largamente expostos entre ~17°30’ e 20° S. As margens leste e sul do
complexo Báruè são formados por formações do Karoo e coberturas mais jovens, limitadas
por falhas ou inconformidades. A margem oeste é uma considerável zona de cisalhamento
dextrógiro, que ocorre ao longo da margem leste exposta do cráton Arcaico (Capítulo 10). Ao
norte, o Complexo termina supostamente em uma frente de empurrão direccionada ao norte.
Apesar de ambas unidades possuírem similaridades litológicas e estructurais, o Grupo
Macossa mostra uma predominância mais clara de rochas de derivação supracrustal.
As litologias do Complexo Báruè desenvolvem tipicamente uma paisagem ondulada,
fracamente dissecada, com Inselbergs formados por rochas intrusivas. Nas fotografias aéreas
e mapas aerogeofísicos, o Complexo é caracterizado por uma foliação com tendência
concêntrica, que aparentemente forma uma série de estructuras do tipo cogumelo,
manifestando padrões de dobras de interferência (vide Figs. 2.9. e 2.10). O padrão de
dobramento sugere um significativo fluxo dúctil em níveis crustais médios (a rasos?), o que é
confirmado pelo metamorfismo dinamo-termal de alto grau, como é manifestado por uma
variedade de gneisses, migmatitos e granitóides de grau médio a alto, com intercalações

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subordinadas de rochas máficas, quartzitos, mármores e rochas calco-silicatados associados.

Os protólitos sedimentares destas litologias correspondem mais provavelmente à uma
seqüência turbidítica monótona, depositada sobre uma margem continental passiva e
empurrados sobre a margem do Cráton Zimbabwe durante o Ciclo Orogênico Grenvilleano
(~1.1 – 1.0 Ga). Na presente Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 1), o Complexo Báruè foi
subdividido em oito formações regionais informalmente definidos, nas quais cerca de 12
variedades de rochas ígneas foram emplaçados. O presente estado da compreensão não
permite o agrupamento destas unidades de acordo com a posição destas na coluna
estratigráfica.
O Grupo Macossa compreende as seguintes unidades mapeáveis: Gneisse Leucocrático
(P2BMlc), Gneisse Quartzo-Feldspático (P2BMqf), Meta-arcósio (P2BMar), Quartzito
Feldspático (P2BMfq), Granada-Silimanita Gneisse, Mica Gneisse e Metagrauvaca
(P2BMsi), Mármore (P2BMma) e Gneisse Calco-Silicatado (P2BMcc).
O Grupo Chimoio é composto por Metasedimento Siliciclástico (P2BCss), Gneisse
Monte Chissui, Biotita Gneisse Félsico e Metagranito (P2BCfg), Paragneisse Migmatítico
(P2BCmi), Metagranito a Granada e Paragneisse (P2BCmg), Hornblenda Gneisse e
Amfibolito (P2BChg) e Mica Xisto e Mica Gneisse (P2BCch).
Corpos variavelmente deformados de rochas plutônicas félsicas e máficas, incluindo
uma variedade de ortogneisses de afinidade granítica e tonalítica, meta-diorito, meta-gabro e
hornblendito, intrudiram os metasedimentos do Complexo Báruè. O Consórcio GTK datou
três amostras de ortogneisses pertencentes ao complexo Báruè (Secção 7.7.7). O metagranito
intrusivo nos metasedimentos siliciclásticos (P2BCss) forneceu a idade magmática SHRIMP
de 1119±21 Ma. Zircões herdados desta amostra tem idades de ~1.83 Ga, 2.03 Ga e 2.50 Ga.
Ortogneisses granodioríticos, emplaçados nos paragneisses do Grupo Chimoio, definem a
idade magmática SHRIMP de 1079±7 Ma. A idade TIMS de monazita de ~ 530-510 Ma da
mesma rocha manifesta claramente a sobre-impressão Pan-Africana. O metatonalito do Monte
Chissui fornece idades aparentes de interceptação da concórdia de ~1300 e 600 Ma. A idade
superior de interceptação de 1.30 Ga é relativamente alta e estranha na população das rochas
Moçambicanas. A idade de interceptação inferior indica provavelmente os efeitos do
metamorfismo Pan-Africano, que pode ter causado a migração das taxas Pb/U do zircão à
esquerda da tendência original de perda de chumbo. Assim, é possível também que a idade
1.3 Ga seja meramente a idade máxima do meta-tonalito. A idade 207Pb/206Pb mais alta de ~
1150 Ma pode ser assim, a idade mínima desta rocha. Alternativamente, esta idade de 1.3 Ga
pode reflectir a extensão pré-cinemática Kibariana.

Unidades miscelâneas previamente atribuídas ao Complexo Báruè – Nos mapas

anteriores (Hunting, 1984), o complexo Báruè extende-se de 16° S a 20° S. No presente mapa,
a área ocupada pelo Complexo Báruè foi reduzida (Capítulo 7.8.), extendendo-se agora
somente até 17°30’ S. O que resta na área ao norte (entre 16° S e 17°30’ S), compreende as
rochas sedimentares das Formações Chiduè* e Nhamessolo*, dominadas por mármore,
granito Chacocoma e seus derivados tectônicos, assim como granito-migmatito a granada e o
gneisse migmatítico a granada.
O antigo “Gneisse Chacocoma” sensu Hunting (1984) dos “domos” Mázoè e
Chacocoma, em baixo da Suíte Tête, é agora parte do extenso Granito Chacocoma,
Mesoproterozóico. O gneisse/migmatito com granada parece estar restricto à zona tectônico
arqueada, que é o limite do empurrão setentrional do Complexo Báruè, redefinido no novo
mapa. O mesmo limite restringe a distribuição setentrional da Neoproterozóica Suíte Guro,
redefinida (abaixo). Isto implica na origem tardia do empurrão mencionado.
A posição das formações Chiduè e Nhamessolo é mais problemático. Diferentemente
das mármores do Grupo Rushinga, que jazem próximos ao embasamento Arcaico, as

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Formacões Chiduè e Nhamessolo, dominados por mármores, são supostamente mais jovens e
dificilmente são vistas como equivalentes laterais deste. Porém, os estudos isotópicos de
rochas carbonáticas das Formações Chiduè e Nhamessolo* fornecem valores igualmente
anômalas de C δ13 que as rochas carbonáticas do Grupo Rushinga (Tabelas 7.4 e 7.2). Na
legenda do mapa, a Formação Nhamessolo, mesmo que descripto aqui junto aos seus vizinhos
geográficos, é locado no Grupo Rushinga.

Suíte Guro – A Suíte Guro é apresentado nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 2), como
uma nova unidade litológica. As rochas da Suíte Guro (e as litologias intercaladas, vide
acima) são expostas em uma área de 100 x 100 km, ao norte do redefinido Complexo Báruè,
entre Tete e Guro-Mungári (16° e 17°30’ S) e foram anteriormente incorporados no
Complexo Báruè, sensu Hunting (1984).
A Suíte Bimodal Guro é composto por membros máficos e félsicos. Os teores de SiO2
dos componentes félsicos variam entre 68.1 e 77.6 % e os dos membros máficos, entre 44.7 e
50.6 % (Apêndice 3, Tabela 7.4. anál. 4-27). O membro félsico é denominado de Granito
Aplítico Gneisse-Migmatito Serra Banguatere e o membro máfico de Metagabro e Gneisse-
Migmatito Máfico Magasso. Estes ocorrem mais comumente juntos, em um arranjo bandado,
com a predominância do membro félsico. Esta assembléia bandada é denominada de granito
Gneisse-Migmatito com Gneisse Migmatito Máfico Monte Calinga Muci.
O Granito Aplítico Gneisse-Migmatito Serra Banguatere (P3Oag) representa o
componente félsico puro da suíte bimodal, composta por camadas, cujas espessuras variam de
alguns centímetros a mais de cem metros. Aquelas com a espessura adequada, são mostradas
no mapa em forma de corpos alongados, reflectindo as suas formas tabulares.
O Metagabro e Gneisse-Migmatito Máfico Magasso (P3Ogb) forma o componente
máfico da Suíte Bimodal Guro. Este é o componente inferior do complexo de injecão máfico-
félsico e ocorre somente de forma ocasional em grandes afloramentos, sem o componente
félsico. Somente alguns poucos corpos arredondados mapeáveis, alguns com consideráveis
dimensões, foram desenhados no mapa.
A unidade maior da Suíte Guro é o Granito Gneisse-Migmatito e Gneisse-Migmatito
Máfico Monte Calinga Muci (P3Ogm). Este é a combinação de componentes máficos e
félsicos intercamadadas com limites agudos, que ocorrem intimamente lado a lado em
camadas, bandas ou lâminas paralelas, tendo, na maioria dos casos, a predominância do
membro félsico sobre o componente máfico.
A Suíte Guro é considerado representar um sistema ígneo sin-cinemático de multi-
injecção. As injecções mais tardias são menos foliadas, com relações de contacto discordantes
com a fábrica das anteriores. Os membros félsicos e máficos são aproximadamente
contemporâneos, o que é demonstrada por relações de contacto variáveis, mas que são difíceis
de serem definidos, devido ao achatamento e estiramento tectônicos desta assembléia
bimodal.
O Consórcio GTK datou três amostras da Suíte Guro, dos quais, em resumo, três idades
podem ser deduzidos: (1) idade magmática de zircão de 867±15 Ma, (2) idade metamórfica de
zircão de 850-830 Ma e (3) uma segunda sobre-impressão metamórfica de 512±4 Ma. A idade
(1) pode ser atribuída ao emplaçamento magmático da Suíte Guro. A idade (2) pode estar
relacionada com falhamento de descolamento extensional (cf. Dirks et al. 1998) e idade (3) à
sobre-impressão metamórfica Pan-Africana.

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GONDWANA OESTE – SUÍTE TÊTE

A única unidade representativa do Terreno Gondwana Oeste é a Suíte (Gabro-

Anortosito) Tête (SGAT). A alóctone SGAT foi supostamente emplaçada magmaticamente
no embasamento do Gondwana Oeste, mas subsequentemente transportado para sul à sua
posição atual, cobrindo parcialmente a sutura entre os Terrenos Gondwana Sul e Oeste. A
maior parte da SGAT ocorre ao norte da latitude 16° e é descripto em maior detalhe na Nota
Explicativa do Mapa, Volume 4 (GTK Consortium, 2006d).
As rochas básicas e ultrabásicas da SGAT são caracterizadas por baixas assinaturas
radiométricas, resultando em cores escuras na imagem radiométrica ternária (Fig. 8.1a).
Anomalias locais altas a muito altas de Th-U e U são encontrados em janelas do
embasamentoe no próprio SGAT, correspondendo às áreas de alteração hidrotermal e
mineralizações associadas na base e soleira da Suíte. Fortes anomalias aeromagnéticas (Fig.
8.1b) provêem uma ferramenta de mapeamento adicional útil e mostram que a suíte ígnea não
extende significativamente à profundidade, além da sua presente exposicão. Considerações a
partir de vários dados (aeromagnéticos, topografia, estructura, observações de campo)
indicam que a suite ígnea forma um lopólito (alóctone), com a espessura que não excede 2 a 3
km nas suas porções mais espessas.
A SGAT é predominantemente composta por gabros e leuco-gabros geralmente
maciços, de granularidade média a muito grosseira ou até pegmatítica, com anortosito
subordinado e tipos de rochas ultramáficas de menor importância, principalmente piroxenito e
Fe-Ti-óxidos. Uma grande substituição dos minerais originais, em combinação com a
imposição de uma fábrica planar, ocorrem em vários lugares na suíte, sendo, porém, mais
comum ao longo do contacto basal com o embasamento cristalino. Estas zonas de contacto
são geralmente caracterizadas pelo cisalhamento frágil e dúctil.
Nesta Nota Explicativa do Mapa, as litologias da SGAT compreendem Piroxenito
(P2Tpx), Anortosito (P2Tan) e Rocha a Óxidos de Fe-Ti (não constando no mapa).

COBERTURA FANEROZÓICA

A cobertura Fanerozóica em Moçambique compreende sedimentos terrestres e marinhos e

rochas (sub-)vulcânicas associadas pós-Pan-Africanas, geralmente (sub-)horizontais. A
cobertura Fanerozóica é convenientemente subdividida (da base ao topo) em Supergrupo
Karoo e seqüências depositadas contemporaneamente com o desenvolvimento do Sistema de
Rifte da África Oriental. O primeiro, depositado durante o Evento Karoo, anuncia a separação
abortada do Gondwana. As seqüências do Rifte da África Oriental compreendem uma
assembléia vaga de sedimentos e rochas (sub-)vulcânicas associadas, que podem ser
relacionadas com o rifteamento, migração e dispersão do Gondwana. O desenvolvimento do
Sistema de Rifte da África Oriental (SRAO) foi superposta aos últimos processos
geodinâmicos.

Supergrupo Karoo – As rochas Karoo de Moçambique ocorrem em várias estructuras do

tipo Graben de rifte/margem passiva. Estas incluem (de norte a sul) o Graben Metangula
(Província de Niassa), Bacia Rovuma (Província de Cabo Delgado) e o Graben do Meio-
Zambezi (Província de Tête). Mais ao sul, rochas vulcânicas básicas e ácidas dos monoclínios
de Nuanetsi-Sabi e Lebombo compõem a maior parte da seqüência Karoo. O Graben do
Meio-Zambezi é localizado na área da Nota Explicativa do Mapa e consiste de uma seqüência
espessa de grés e argilitos com camadas de carvão próximas à sua base. Quantidades
significativas de rochas vulcânicas são encontradas no Karoo Superior mas, ao contrário do

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esquema regional, estão ausentes no topo do Karoo. Os centros vulcânicos do Karoo Superior
compreendem o domo de Luia. A província vulcânica regional maior da parte mais superior
do Karoo (~180 a 190 Ma), presente na Bacia Principal do Karoo na África do Sul, Antárctica
e Moçambique nos monoclinios de Canxixe, Nuanetsi-Sabi e Lebombo, é chamado de Suítes
Rukore e Gorongoza na área da Nota Explicativa do Mapa.

O Grupo Karoo Inferior – A história deposicional do Grupo Karoo Inferior inicia-se com a
glaciação da idade correspondente à Dwyka (Carbonífero Superior) e termina com a
deposição de depósitos clásticos mixtos de granulação grosseira a fina durante o Permiano.
A Formação Vúzi* (CbV) foi depositada em uma ambiente flúvio-glacial durante o
Carbonífero Superior. Esta aparece restricta às depressões mais baixas da paisagem pré-Karoo
e consequentemente é exposto somente em poucas localidades (SDS 1634). As litologias mais
expressivas compreendem conglomerados fluviais, grés feldspáticos, lamitos carbonosos,
siltitos e camadas com carvão.
Os afloramentos da Formação Moatize* (PeM) são encontrados ao longo do banco
norte do Rio Zambezi, em três sub-bacias carboníferas, i.e. bacias Chicôa-Mecúcoè,
Sanângoè-Mefidéze e Moatize-Minjova. Na última, a Formação Moatize* é bem exposta no
Vale do Rio Moatize (SDS 1633), onde esta alcança a espessura de 340 m e consiste, em sua
maior parte, de grés carbonosos com seis camadas diferentes de carvão. Outras sub-bacias
com carvão serão discutidas na Nota Explicativa do Mapa, Volume 4 (GTK Consortium,
2006d). A unidade compreende arcóseos brancos a cinzas, grés conglomeráticos ocasionais,
grés de grão fino com argila ou micáceo (com flora fóssil) e argilitos negros com camadas de
carvão, subordinados (Fig. 9.1).
Sobre a Formação Moatize*, carbonífera, depositou-se a Formação Matinde* (PeT,
PeTc) que compreende uma espessa successão intercalada de grés muito grosseiros e
conglomerados polimíticos, encontrado na parte norte da área da Nota Explicativa do Mapa
(SDS 1632-1634; e.g., na Folha Chioco, ao norte do contacto tectônico entre o Fanerozóico e
os terrenos Proterozóicos). Grés grosseiros ou conglomeráticos similares afloram também sob
derrames de lavas basálticas no núcleo do domo vulcânico da Serra Mavunge. Os sedimentos
da Formação Matinde* na área de Birira (SDS 1633), são predominantemente compostos por
gré e subordinadamente por siltito de cor creme e conglomerado, que alternam com riolitos e
basaltos das formações sobrejacentes do Karoo Superior. Grés macio, alterado, com lâminas
finas de cor creme são expostos em um tributário do Rio Mavúzi (Fig. 9.2). Grés grosso e
muito grosso, com algumas camadas conglomeráticas, ocorrem na mesma localidade (Fig.
9.3). A idade Permiana Inferior a Média é assumida à Formação Matinde*, equivalente à Ecca
Média/Superior da Bacia Principal do Karoo na África do Sul.

O Grupo Karoo Superior – O Grupo Karoo Superior compreende uma série de successões
terrestres, juntamente com rochas (sub-)vulcânicas inter-estratificadas ou intrusivas de idade
Triássica Inferior a Jurássica Inferior, incluindo as Suítes Rukore e Gorongosa, bimodais,
agora datadas de 180-190 Ma. As observações de campo destas foram efectuadas
principalmente nas áreas de Massangano, Brira e Canal de Lupata (SDS 1633) e do domo da
Serra Mevunge3 (SDS 1631-1632).
A Formação Cádzi* (PeC) é exposta na forma de uma faixa arqueada, cercando a ponta
norte do Canal de Lupata (SDS 1633-1634), compreendendo grés arcóseos de granularidade
média a grosseira (Fig. 9.4), calcáreo e grés carbonáticos. Camadas similares de gré
mineralogicamente imaturo afloram também mais ao sul, ao longo do contacto tectônico com
3
A estructura vulcânica dômica do Karoo Superior, localizada nas Folhas de Mecumbura e Chioco (SDS
1631/1632) foi denominada de Domo de Luia por Hunting (1984), mas renomeado por Consórcio GTK como
a Serra Mevunge, baseado na parte mais alta do domo (966 m),

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o terreno Proterozóico adjacente (Fig. 9.5a,b). Em certos locais, horizontes conglomeráticos

com clastos angulosos a bem arredondados, ocorrem com estes grés (Fig. 9.6). Troncos de
árvores petrificados foram encontrados na região de Doa. A Formação Cádzi* tem sido
geralmente considerado como tendo a idade Permiana Superior a Triássica Inferior.
A Formação Rio Nhavúdezi* (JrRN) compreende uma successão de basaltos,
encontrados ao longo do Canal de Lupata, mas formando uma maior unidade litológica a sul
do povoado de Nhamatanda (SDS 1934), onde esta continua como a faixa Canxixe,
Nuannetsi-Sabi, com uma largura variando de 5 a 20 km, por mais de 250 km a SW da
fronteira com Zimbabwe (Nota Explicativa do Mapa, Volume 1; GTK Consortium, 2006a). O
contacto da soleira é exposta em um tributário do Rio Mebahata (SDS 1734), onde a lava
basáltica brechada de um derrame sobrejaz uma variedade conglomerática da Formação
Chueza* (Fig. 9.7). O contacto superior com as rochas riolíticas da Formação Serra Bombuè é
gradacional, começando na parte superior da Formação Rio Nhavúdezi com finas camadas de
riolito, intercaladas com lavas basálticas (Fig. 9.8).
Os basaltos Rio Nhavúdezi formam rochas de cor cinza escura a verde acastanhada, de
textura fina, amidaloidal e geralmente afíricas. As variedades porfiríticas com fenocristais de
plagioclásio ocorrem localmente. As amígdalas preenchidas por calcedônia e zeolitas são
comuns na parte superior dos fluxos de lava. Alguns dos fluxos de lava exibem disjuncções
colunares bem desenvolvidas (Fig. 9.9). Textralmente, os basaltos de grão fino são rochas
sub-ofíticas, contendo plagioclásio, clinopiroxênio e olivina como minerais predominantes.
Biotita e clorita secundárias são os accessórios mais comuns. Do ponto de vista lito-
geoquímico, as lavas do Rio Nhavúdezi são toleítos subalcalinos.
Os riolitos da Formação Serra Bombuè* (JrSb) formam uma crista de direcção norte,
com menos de 4 km de largura e mais de 30 km de comprimento, suavemente inclinada (12-
20°) a leste a W do Canal de Lupata, NW da montanha de Gorongosa (SDS 1734), espremida
entre as lavas basálticas das Formações Rio Nhavúdezi* e Chueza*. O contacto com a
Formação Rio Nhavúdezi* é gradacional (Fig. 9.10). O riolito Serra Bombuè é uma rocha de
textura fina, cor chocolate e bastante maciço, indicando derrames bastante espessos e
resfriamento lento. Localmente pode se observar um bandamento de fluxo. Variedades
brechadas, com fragmentos de contornos bem definidos e texturas esferulíticas, ocorrem na
parte basal da successão riolítica.
A Formação Rio Mazoe* (JrIa, JrIb) é bem definida nas Folhas de Chioco (SDS 1632)
e Tête (SDS 1633), onde as lavas basálticas e andesíticas da Formação Rio Mazoe* jazem
sobre grés da Formação Matinde* do Karoo Inferior, sendo, por sua vez, cobertos por riolitos
da Formação Bangomateta*. Os afloramentos a oeste da ponte do Rio Mazoe e nas partes
centrais do domo da Serra Mevunge compreendem lavas basálticas intemperizadas de forma
variegada, muitas vezes dificultando a identificação apropriada das rochas.
Consequentemente, dados radiométricos foram utlizados para separar os basaltos das
variedades mais félsicas na seqüência vulcânica. O basalto de grão fino forma uma pilha de
derrames com inclinação suave (12-20°) a SWW, encontrada nos bancos dos rios (Fig. 9.11).
Contactos ricos em vesículas definem espessuras de derrames individuais, variando de 2 m a
15 m na parte basal da pilha. Muitas das características típicas dos basaltos do tipo flood tem
sido observados, como zonas basais de vesículas alongadas do tipo pipe, cilindros vesiculares
verticais e disjuncção colunar nos núcleos de derrame e estructuras de lavas cordadas
(pahoehoe) nas superfícies de derrame (Fig. 9.12). A ausência de material sedimentar ou
piroclástico entre os derrames de lava confima a intensidade e taxa de erupção altas, o que
também é típico de províncias continentais de basaltos do tipo flood. As vesículas contém
calcita e zeolita. Orifícios de até 20-30 cm de tamanho apresentam frequentemente lineações
brilhantes de crisocola de cor azul-verde.

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Derrames vulcânicos similares, mas menos espessos, ocorrem na área do domo da Serra
Mevunge, onde jazem sobre os grés do Karoo Inferior, sendo cobertos por fluxos riolíticos da
Formação Bangomateta*. Orifícios preenchidas por zeolita e calcita, encontrados na parte
superior do derrame, excedem localmente 30-40 cm em tamanho (Fig. 9.13). Lavas basálticas,
expostas a 3 km a leste do povoado de Changara, formam uma região montanhosa, que se
extende por uma superfície de 10 x 10 km. Concentrações de geodos de quartzo são
encontrados em alguns lugares, marcando partes superiores de derrames de lava. Na área de
Birira (SDS 1633), as camadas de basalto podem alternar-se com derrames riolíticos (Fig.
9.14). Derrames riolíticos mais espessos a sul de Birira compõem colinas proeminentes e são
intercalados com derrames basálticos. Derrames riolíticos igualmente extensos e espessos
capeiam derrames basálticos da Formação Rio Mazoe* na estructura dômica da Serra
Mevunge (SDS 1632) e a E da confluência dos rios Luia e Mazoe (SDS 1633), extendendo-se
por mais de 80 km a NW e formando o taboleiro da Montanha Bangomateta.
A idade K-Ar antiga de 166±10 Ma (Flores, 1964) foi invalidada, em vista dos
resultados geocronológicos recentes, que sugerem uma idade Jurássica Inferior (180-190 Ma).
Na área do Rio Mazoe, a Formação Bangomateta* (JrBr, JrBb) compreende uma pilha
de derrames riolíticos que mergulham suavemente (10-35°) a SW. Os piroclásticos
predominam ao longo dos Rios Mazoe e Luia. Uma seqüência heterogênea de riolitos mostra
feições típicas de tufos soldados de fluxos de cinzas ou ignimbritos nas proximidades do
Monte Inhamangombe (Figs. 9.15A-D). Os lapíli-tufos e brechas piroclásticas, geralmente
mal seleccionados e maciços, compreendem fragmentos de contornos bem definidos (tufos
soldados, Fig. 9.15A) ou fragmentos de púmice vesicular em vários graus de soldagem (Fig.
9.15B). O bandamento de fluxo (Fig. 9.15C) e litófises associados, preenchidos por quartzo e
zeolita (Fig. 9.15D), são também manifestações da soldagem de depósitos piroclásticos.
Tufitos de grão fino, maciços a laminados, são encontrados localmente nas áreas mais distais
ao Monte Inhamangombe. Estes provavelmente representam as fácies não-soldadas, mais
distais de tufos de fluxos de cinzas ou depósitos de queda de cinzas ácidas. Uma ponta ou
lobo de lava riolítica bem preservada é exposta no desfiladeiro do Rio Mazoe, a
aproximadamente 10 km a E do Monte Inhamangombe. Este fluxo é rico em pequenas
vesículas deformadas, fenocristais orientados de feldspato (traquíticos) e bandamento de fluxo
distincto. Vários orifícios largos (até 4 x 8 m em diâmetro) presentes nos fluxos, representam
possivelmente um alinhamento de chaminés vulcânicos (Fig. 9.16). O Monte Inhamangombe
forma uma estructura circular com ~seis km de diâmetro, em parte com proeminentes
escarpas, próxima à confluência dos Rios Mazoe e Luia. As rochas riolíticas da área
compreendem principalmente vários tipos de depósitos piroclásticos, incluindo brechas
pumíceas, aglomerados e tufos diversamente soldados de fluxos de cinza, ricos em litófises
preenchidos por quartzo (Fig. 9.17). A sua configuração como uma caldeira é sugerida pela
presença de uma brecha grosseira e caótica, compreendendo grandes fragmentos (até 2 m de
diâmetro) angulares a sub-arredondados de lava e tufo, encontrada na borda SSE da estructura
vulcânica (Fig. 9.18). Esta brecha, que aparece ter dezenas de metros de espessura total,
representa provavelmente a brecha de tálus de um sistema de falha sin-vulcânica que circunda
o reservatório de magma (caldeira).
A interpretaço de imagens de satélite e a abundância de potássio nos dados
radiométricos manifesta a presença de riolitos Bangomateta na área do domo da Serra
Mevunge (SDS 1632). Na parte norte do domo, a successão vulcânica mergulha 10-12° a NE,
devido ao basculamento local e forma uma pilha de derrames em forma similar a terraços. A
larga extensão e a forma tabular destes infere uma única unidade de resfriamento de tufos de
fluxo de cinzas. A sete quilômetros a SEE do Monte Chimandau, os bancos dos rios e o
toposolo altamente intemperizado do riolito vesicular, similar a uma lava esponjosa (Fig.
9.19), é rico em geodos esféricos de ágata. Estes nódulos estratificados de calcedônia,

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originalmente desenvolvidos como cavidades de gás (litófises) em um tufo soldado (Ross &
Smith 1961), são comumente conhecidos como “ovos do trovão” (thunder eggs) e confirmam
a natureza piroclástica das rochas riolíticas. Porém, na parte central do domo da Serra
Mevunge, as estructuras de riolitos (e.g. bandamento de fluxo), indicam que também houve
extrusão de derrames de lava. Derrames riolíticos contendo bandamento de fluxo e
dobramento superficial típica de lava viscosa também ocorrem (Fig. 9.20) a ~cinco km a NE
do Monte Balati. Na mesma área, a lava riolítica contém pequenos fragmentos (<5 cm) de
grafita, derivados provavelmente de sedimentos com carvão do Karoo Inferior, subjacente.
Riolitos porfiríticos, contendo pequenos fenocristais de feldspato e quartzo (<5 mm) imersos
em uma matriz de textura fina, são encontrados em certos lugares. Os mergulhos abruptos a
verticais locais do bandamento de fluxo do riolito sugerem proximidade com condutos
vulcânicos. Um derrame de obsidiana, com mais de três metros de espessura, é exposta por
alguns centenas de metros a aproximadamente 10 km do Monte Sluxia. Esta rocha maciça
tem cor cinza desembotada em superfícies alteradas, enquanto nas superfícies de fractura
conchoidais mostra-se preto vítreo, com um brilho lustroso (Fig. 9.12). As análises químicas
do derrame de obsidiana são idênticas ao derrame de lava riolítica da área do Rio Mazoe.
Derrames de riolito de textura fina, cor-de-rosa a avermelhados e amigdaloidais ocorrem a 7
km a norte do povoado de Birira (SDS 1633). As amígdalas estão preenchidas geralmente por
calcita e localmente por zeolita. Aglomerados riolíticos são também encontrados. Horizontes
bem bandados de cor cinza de calcedônia e piroclásticos, com mergulhos de 15-20° a SW, são
encontrados Em outros locais, estas rochas vulcânicas são cortadas por veios de calcita, com
espessuras de até 10 cm.
Idade Jurássica Média é tradicionalmente atribuída à Formação Bangomateta*. Porém,
visto os dados geocronológicos mais recentes, a idade Jurássica Inferior é mais provável.
Os derrames basálticos da Formação Chueza* (JrC) estão ininterruptamente expostos
entre os povoados de Sinjal e Chueza, na parte nordeste do Canal de Lupata (SDS 1634)(Fig.
9.23), onde estes repousam directamente sobre os basaltos da Formação Rio Mazoe*.
Basaltos similares são também encontrados na região de Massangano (SDS 1633). Geodos de
até 30 cm de diâmetro possuem finos cristais de calcita com até 10 cm de comprimento no
Monte Cinzeiros. Basaltos similares são também encontrados ao longo da escarpa do Monte
Linhanga e no Monte Cuadezo. Ao longo do declive oeste da Canal de Lupata uma excelente
secção de basaltos Cueza podem ser vistas, próxima ao povoado de Búzua (SDS 1734), onde
uma pilha de derrames de lava subhorizontais aflora completo no desfiladeiro do Rio Pompue.
Derrames com até 5 m de espessura mostram padrões de juntas de resfriamento regulares,
topos com pequenas amígdalas arredondadas e bases com tubos de amígdalas alongadas, com
até 15 cm de comprimento, demonstrando a direcção de fluxo a noroeste (Fig. 9.24A e
9.24B). Nos derrames basálticos encontra-se localmente estructuras arredondadas, similares a
pequenos pães, que provavelmente representam secções verticais de pontas de línguas de
derrames de lava (Fig. 9.24C). Um túnel colapsado de lava com aproximadamente um metro
de diâmetro, foi encontrado em um desfiladeiro de um rio.
Um contacto tectônico milonitizado entre os basaltos Chueza e gneisses
Mesoproterozóicos, com um mergulho abrupto a leste (60°), é exposta no banco sul do Rio
Pompue, a ca. cinco km do povoado de Búzue (Fig. 9.25).
A idade dos basaltos da Formação Chueza* tem sido tradicionalmente comparado com
os flood basaltos Drakenberg (~180 Ma). Visto os dados geocronológicos novos, uma idade
mais antiga deve ser assumida à esta.

Suíte Rukore – A Suíte Intrusiva Rukore forma a cadeia de montanhas de Rukore, que é
topograficamente contígua com a área granítica montanhosa do Rukore, com ~20 km2 em
área no território de Moçambique (parte sudoeste da Folha de Chioco, SDS 1632). A relação

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espacial íntima com o (micro)granito Rukore e dolerito, as similaridades composicionais e

texturais e as relações intrusivas variáveis dos diques doleríticos e microgranito indicam um
emplaçamento aproximadamente contemporâneo dos componentes máficos e félsicos.
Pequenas intrusões, plugs e diques da Suíte Rukore (JrR, JrR, JrRf) são abundantes no
embasamento e estratos vulcano-sedimentares do Karoo, onde estes intrudiram forçadamente
ou foram emplaçados ao longo das zonas de fraqueza Mesozóicas e pré-Mesozóicas
reactivadas. As intrusões félsicas da Suíte compreendem o microgranito (e.g. Granito
Rukore), pórfiro (e.g. Pórfiro Bungue), riolito, tufo félsico e plugs de composição dacítica.
Alguns raros componentes félsicos possuem composição nefelino-sienítico ou fonolítico.
Enclaves máficos magmáticos, com xenocristais de feldspato alcalino, não são incomuns (Fig.
9.28). As texturas micrográficas e granofíricas freqüentes do granito Rukore indicam a sua
origem sub-vulcânica, hipabissal.
Os diques quartzo-feldspato pórfiros da Suíte Rukore formam cristas proeminentes, do
tipo bloco, na área do Rio Mazoe, onde estes estão invariavelmente associados e
ocasionalmente cortados por diques doleríticos. Os diques quartzo-feldspáticos, com uma
direção geral NW, ocorrem em zonas de enxames, medindo até 30-50 m de largura e vários
quilômetros de comprimento. Estes diques maciços de vermelho-tijolo, são geralmente
distinctamente porfiríticos, com fenocristais arredondados de quartzo e de feldspato zonados
com até 30-40 mm de tamanho, “fluctuando” na matriz quartzo-feldspática microcristalina
(Fig. 9.29). Intrusivas máficas da Suíte Bimodal Rukore incluem diques com composições
micro-gabróicas ou basálticas. Os stocks de (micro)gabro de textura fina a média foram
emplaçados nos grés do Karoo na área de Massangano, no banco direito do Rio Zambezi.
A datação Sm-Nd, efectuada por Consórcio GTK, forneceu a idade de 195-180 Ma para
o microgranito Rukore (Mänttäri, 2005b).

Suíte Intrusiva Gorongosa - A Suíte Intrusiva Gorongosa, que mede 30 km a N-S e 25 km a

E-W, consiste de um núcelo félsico, circundado por rochas ígneas máficas, que juntos formam
o proeminente marco geomorfológico da Serra de Gorongosa (1862 m), situado no limite
entre SDS 1833 e SDS 1834. As litologias do seu núcelo compreendem Micropegmatito-
granito e sienito (JrGg), composto por albita, ortoclásio, quartzo, clinopiroxênio e hornblenda
(Fig. 9.30), que intrudiu uma intrusão máfica mais antiga, composta por gabro toleítico (Fig.
9.31), Norita e olivina gabro (JrGb), que, por sua vez, intrudiu litologias circundantes do
Grupo Macossa do Complexo Báruè. A Suíte Intrusiva Gorongosa é associada com um
enxame de diques félsicos e máficos de direcção NNE-SSW, que radiam a norte e sul da
intrusão.
A datação TIMS de duas fracções de zircão do sienito, efectuada por Consórcio GTK,
forneceu idades concordantes e idênticas de 181±Ma, contemporâneas com a Suíte Rukore.

Seqüências do Rifte da África Oriental – O Supergrupo Karoo, manifestando a fase de

rifteamento abortado, é seguido por um período de rifte continental, migração e dispersão do
Gondwana. Esta fase é contemporânea com o desenvolvimento do Sistema de Rifte da África
Oriental (SRAO), qujo desenvolvimento iniciou no Cretáceo, mas foi accelerado durante o
Terciário. A separação continental continua até hoje, como demonstrada pela recorrente
actividade tectônica ao longo da SRAO. Nas partes central e sul de Moçambique, este
processo deu o início ao surgimento do rifte Luia de direcção NW-SE e ao Graben da Baixa
Zambezi, ambos superpostos no Graben Karoo do Médio Zambezi, de direcção E-W. A Bacia
Moçambique também se iniciou como uma complexa estructura rifte, com estructuras Horst e
Graben de segunda ordem, mas desenvolvidas em uma margem passiva, embasada por rochas
vulcânicas do Karoo Tardio de idade Jurássica Inferior e cobertos por successões
sedimentares do Cretáceo Médio e mais jovens, porém, com um hiato de ~40 Ma entre estes.

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Estas successões incluem uma série de seqüências de plataforma rasa e de águas mais
profundas, restrictas a várias estructuras de rifte estreitas e rochas (sub-)vulcânicas
subordinadas (para detalhes, vide a Nota Explicativa do Mapa, GTK Consortium 2006a).
Seis maiores seqüências desposicionais podem ser reconhecidas e incorporadas no
esquema estratigráfico para toda bacia (costa dentro e costa fora)(cf. Coster et al. 1989):
● Seqüência 1: Deposição Jurássica Superior(?)-Cretácea Inferior do Grupo Lupata e o
emplaçamento contemporâneo de rochas vulcânicas da Província Alcalina de Chilwa com
inconformidades Neocomianos (Berriasiano até Barremiano) e Aptianos.
● Seqüência 2: Deposição Cretácea Superior da Formação Sena* e inconformidade
intra-Senoniano a nível de toda bacia.
● Seqüência 3: Deposição Cretácea Superior (Campaniano-Maastrichtiano) a Paleoceno
da parte basal da Formação Grudja*, separada da parte superior das formações Grudja* e
Mágoè* por uma inconformidade Paleocênica Inferior.
● Seqüência 4: Deposição Eocênica da Formação Cheringoma* por cima da
inconfomidade do Eoceno Inferior e em baixo das inconformidades intra-e tardi-Oligocênicas.
● Seqüência 5: Deposição Oligocênica-Pleistocênica das formações Inhaminga e
Mazamba*, productos da erosão e redeposição em outros lugares.
● Seqüência 6: Depósitos Quaternários subdivididos em depósitos Pleistocênicos, como
Terraços Fluviais e Depósitos Coluviais e Depósitos Holocênicos, como depósitos de
composição areno-argilosa e lamosa, dunas costeiras e depósitos aluviais.

Estas seqüências são separadas de uns dos outros por inconformidades angulares e períodos
de não-deposição ou erosão devido aos ciclos transgressão-regressão, resultantes da
interacção entre episódicas fluctuações eustáticas do nível do mar, subsidência da bacia e
soerguimento continental.

Seqüência 1: Jurássico Superior(?) – Cretáceo Inferior - O Grupo sedimentar Lupata e

rochas vulcânicas alcalinas associadas do Canal de Lupata do Rio Zambezi, atribuídas à
Província Alcalina Chilwa (Bloomfield, 1968), representa uma nova fase de rifteamento a
~140 Ma, após 40 Ma de estabilidade. A espessura das successões do Lupata variam. De
acordo com Flores (1964), a unidade superior tem cerca de 150 m de espessura nas
proximidades do Canal de Lupata, aumentando até cerca de 200 m ao norte do Monte Dómuè.
Nesta região a “Formação Superior Lupata” repousa inconformavelmente no topo da
Formação Uçúpè* (Grés). No banco direito do Rio Lupata e próximo às ruínas da estação
ferroviária Chueza, a unidade está em paraconformidade com os basaltos Chueza,
sobrejacentes.
O Consórcio GTK redefiniu o Grupo Lupata de acordo com a nomenclatura
internacional. Os nomes informais das formações são (da base para o topo): Formação Grés
Basal Tchazica*, seguido por Riolito Monte Palamuli e a contemporânea Formação Grés
Monte Mazambulo*, coberta pela Formação Fonolito Linhanga*.
Os grés basais da Formação Tchazica* (JrLT) estão expostas ao longo da margem oeste
do Canal de Lupata e são constituídas por camadas feldspáticas de grés de camadas grossas e
de cor marrom claro, intercamadadas com horiontes conglomeráticas (Fig. 9.32). Os clastos
são derivados do subjacente Karoo e do embasamento cristalino. Grés de textura média a
grosseira, esbranquiçados a cinzentos, com finos horizontes avermelhados de 4-5 centímetros
de espessura ocorrem na mesma região (Fig. 9.33). A unidade apresenta uma espessura
máxima de 105 m.
As rochas sedimentares da Formação Tchazica foram datadas como de Lias (Jurássica
Inferior) por Real (1966). Em vista da idade das rochas vulcânicas associadas, a idade
Cretácea Inferior é mais provável.

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A Formação Monte Palamuli (JrLP) é nomeada conforme o Monte Palamuli (524 m),
localizado a N do Rio Zambezi, na região da Doa. A unidade continua mais a SE, onde
riolitos formam uma cadeia de montanhas com 50 km de comprimento, paralela à fronteira
com Malawi, entre o Monte Mfpumba e Monte Chombamuani, a cerca de seis quilômetros do
povoamento de Sinial. Esta pilha de riolitos tem espessura de cerca de 60 a 120 m,
culminando localmente a ~180 m. O contacto superior é geralmente com fonolitos
sobrejacentes da Formação Monte Linhanga*, porém, em outros locais, estes são separados de
uns dos outros por clásticos da Formação Mazambulo, que é contemporânea. Os riolitos da
Formação Monte Palamuli* repousam sobre os grés da Formação Tchazica* ou rochas
vulcânicas ou sedimentares pertencentes ao Supergrupo Karoo.
A unidade é composta principalmente por riolitos de cor vermelha em terrenos
variavelmente accidentados ou formando platôs (Fig. 9.34). Na área de Chueza, o riolito é
maciço, amigdaloidal, vesicular e porfirítico, mostrando grandes fenocristais de sanidina
esbranquiçados, contrastando com a cor cor-de-rosa escura da matriz vítrea a microcristalina.
Outras rochas são brechadas ou tufáceas. Ágatas, com um diâmetro de 10 cm, são encontradas
na área em associação com riolitos. Próximo à represa do Rio Sorodeze, um derrame maciço
de riolito de cor vermelha é exposta (Fig. 9.35 e 9.36). Horizontes de tufo riolítico, com até 30
cm de espessura, são inter-estratificados com os derrames de lava principais em certos
lugares.
A Formação Monte Mazambulo* (JrLM) compreende uma seqüência de
granodecrescência ascendente de sedimentos clásticos. Grés de cor marrom avermelhado,
bem estratificados, de grão médio a grosso a conglomerático, com horizontes de
conglomerado polimítico, progradam verticalmente a grés síltico. Localmente tem se
encontrado estratificação cruzada de alto ângulo no grés (Fig. 9.37A e 9.37C). A SE do
Monte Nhmalongo, gré ou siltito da grão fino, cor vermelho- tijolo, com raízes fósseis, é
exposta em baixo de um derrame de lava félsica da Formação Monte Palamuli*, tendo uma
espessura de 10-20 m (Fig. 9.37B).
Lavas alcalinas da Formação Monte Linhaga (CrLM), exposta em ambos os bancos do
Rio Zambezi, é nomeada conforme uma colina proeminente (577 m) ao longo da margem
nordeste do polígono com o formato semi-circular. A parte convexa do polígono forma uma
escarpa que, em algumas localidades, ascende a ~400 m por cima do terreno circundante. O
Canal de Lupata forma aparentemente o centro do vulcanismo alcalino Cretáceo, do mesmo
modo que o domo da Serra Mevunge é o núcelo do vulcanismo Karoo. Os traquitos e alcali-
basaltos Cretáceos continuam a leste e sul e são intercamadados com a Formação Sena,
sobrejacente. A unidade pode ser separada em quatro diferentes derrames, visíveis na forma
de patamares pronunciados ao se aproximar do Rio Zambezi. A textura traquítica-porfirítica é
característica para estas lavas alcalinas com fenocristais alinhados de feldspato potássico e
analcita (Fig. 9.38). Litologias incluem traquito e subordinadamente tufo, basalto e analcita-
fonolito. A sua espessura é de aproximadamente 300 m, como pode ser deduzida a partir de
dados de sondagem obtidos pela Gulf Oil Company (Flores, 1964). Geofisicamente, os
traquitos são difíceis de serem distingüidos das rochas vulcânicas Karoo subjacentes,
possuindo, porém, uma assinatura magnética e radiométrica mais uniforme.
Os sub-tipos incluem Aglomerado Traquítico (CrLMa), constituído por ejectólitos
cimentados, incluindo cristais de analcita, lapíli e bombas vulcânicas (Fig. 9.39B) e
afloramentos muito pequenos de Grés, Grés Tufácea e Tufo (CrLMs) que tem sido
encontrados no topo do riolito ao longo da margem norte do polígono de Lupata. A partir da
sua posição estratigráfica, pode se concluir que as rochas sedimentares-epiclásticas mixtas
pertencem à parte basal da Formação Monte Linhanga*. Estes grés são grauvacas
feldspáticas, com aproximadamente 25% de matriz de grão fino.

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As rochas vulcânicas do Grupo Lupata tem sido tradicionalmente correlacionadas com o

Karoo Superior. Inexistem dados geocronológicos modernos e os dados mais antigos de K40-
Ar40 fornecem um amplo leque de idades de ~106 a ~166 Ma (Cretácea Inferior). A idade de
140 Ma é mais apropriada e corresponde com a idade do kimberlito nas fracturas extensionais
Riedel nas estructras de rifte marginal do Graben Maniamba (Província de Niassa), datada de
138±9 Ma (Key et al. 2006).

Seqüência 2: Cretáceo Médio a Superior – Compreende as Formações Sena e Mágoè*. As

rochas sedimentares assinaladas à Formação Sena* (CrS) cobrem o Supergrupo Karoo e
Grupo Lupata ou jazem diretamente sobre o embasamento cristalino. Estas rochas ocupam
grandes extensões do país, notavelmente na área do Canal de Lupata. As areias e cascalhos
Cretáceos formam a planície monótona do interior. Nos mapas aeromagnéticos, estas rochas
mostram uma susceptilidade magnética muito baixa. A sua radioactividade natural é
moderada, mas um zoneamento distincto pode ser observado na região entre Rios Pompue e
Nhamapasa (SDS 1733/34 e SDS 1833/34) e aparece ser relacionado com a proporção de
material arenoso versus argiloso.
A Formação Sena* é predominantemente composta de gré conglomerático
avermelhado, fracamente cimentado, com clastos vulcânicos. A porção basal da unidade
compreende camadas impuras de calcáreo, com restos de flora fóssil e argilitos calcáreos com
fragmentos de escamas de peixe, artrópodos e flora fóssil. O Consórcio GTK distingue três
unidades mapeáveis com o status de membros nesta formação (da base para o topo): (1) o
Membro Gré Thorium, (2) o Membro Conglomerado Basal, e (3) o Membro Conglomerado-
Gré Superior.
Grés arcóseos do Membro Gré Thorium (CrSt), com alta assinatura de tório, formam
uma zona com largura de 10-25 km, com direcção norte, que ocorre ao longo do limite Pré-
Cambriano-Fanerozóico entre as montanhas Súdeza e Panda (SDS 1634 e 1934), sul do
povoado de Nhamatanda). No fundo de algumas perfurações de petróleo profundas da
Formação Sena* tem sido encontrados calcáreos impuros e xistos calcáreos com fragmentos
de flora fóssil, escamas de peixe e artrópodos. Mais para cima na seqüência sedimentar da
Formação Sena*, camadas conglomeráticas são interestratificadas com grés de granulação
média a grosseira, tentativamente assinaladas ao Membro Conglomerado Basal (CrSb), com
clastos de granito, gneisse, quartzito, fragmentos de feldspato e lavas (Fig. 9.41). A erosão de
camadas conglomeráticas deu origem a superfícies de debris de clastos, que frequentemente
cobrem os grés da Formação Sena*. A deposição do Membro Conglomerado Basal manifesta
um ambiente de alta energia fluvial, incluindo rios entrelaçados e leques aluviais, com
conglomerados interdigitados com areias fluviais em uma bacia Cretácea, controlada por
falhas. Áreas aleatórias de grés grosseiros e grés conglomeráticos, assinalados ao Membro
Conglomerado-Gré Superior, ocorrem no centro e no canto sudeste da Folha de Chemba (SDS
1734), onde formam feições geomorfológicas tabulares, como colinas alongadas e elevadas
com a típica, densa floresta.
Uma idade Albiana-Turoniana (Cretácea Média) ou Barremiana-Maastrichtiana
(Cretácea Médio a Superior) é geralmente atribuída aos depósitos da Formação Sena*.
A Formação Mágoè (CrM) é exposta na região Zumbo-Changara e nas planícies e
terras baixas a E e W do domo da Serra Mevunge (SDS 1632). É composta por três membros
(da base para o topo) (Real 1966): (1) Conglomerado, (2) Gré e (3) Membro Gré-Calcáreo. O
Membro (2) grada a e é contemporâneo com partes do gré da Formação Sena* no contíguo
Canal de Lupata, na parte leste da Província de Tête. Depósitos clásticos grosseiros,
assinalados ao Membro Conglomerado (CrMc) tem sido encontrados em muitos lugares na
base da Formação Mágoè*. Um conglomerado polimítico, com clastos bem arredondados de
micro-gabro, basalto, riolito, quartzo de veio e rocha quartzosa, possuindo diâmetros entre 10

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a 40 cm e com a idade correspondente ao Karoo, é exposta no cruzamento entre a estrada

Chioco e o Rio Birira e nos bancos do mesmo rio. Em um tributário do Rio Luia, próximo ao
declive sul do domo da Serra Mevunge, os blocos arredondados são compostos somente por
lavas máficas e félsicas das formações subjacentes do Karoo (Fig. 9.42A). Na zona de falha
entre o embasamento e as rochas Fanerozóicas no Rio Nhamafite, fragmentos angulosos a
sub-arredondados do conglomerado são predominantemente compostos por pegmatito,
granito e vários tipos de xistos ou gneisses, imersos em uma matriz imatura, similar a
grauvaca (Fig. 9.42B).
O Membro Gré (CrMs) cobre as planícies e terras baixas a E e W do domo da Serra
Mevunge (SDS 1631-1632). Devido à sua natureza friável e posição sub-horizontal ou
levemente basculada, os grés estão pobremente expostos somente como íngremes bancos
erosionais cavadas nos sedimentos por rios grandes (Fig. 9.43). Em geral, os grés Mágoè
compreendem grés feldspáticos esbranquiçados ou marrom-avermelhados de granulação fina
a média, com horizontes conglomeráticos finos ou raros clastos derivados de rochas
vulcânicas máficas e félsicas do Karoo. A estratificação laminar ou paralela é frequentemente
bem desenvolvida (Fig. 9.44A).
O Calcáreo e gré (CrMl) da Formação Mágoè compreende finos e pobrementre
acamadados calcáreos lacustres e subordinadamente, grés pobremente cimentados. Em fotos
aéreas, a unidade apresenta um bastante distictiva cor clara, com a característica padrão de
drenagem dendrítica. Esta forma áreas desérticas, esparsamente vegetadas, com um solo
amarelo, pedregoso, seco e infértil.

Seqüência 3: Cretáceo Superior (Campaniano-Maastrictiano) a Paleoceno - A

Formação Grudja* (CrG), que ocorre predominantemente na área coberta pelas Folhas 1834
e 1835, sendo composto por gré glauconítico, com lamito calcáreo e grés calcáreo
subordinados e de cor amarelo-esverdeados, contendo fósseis de Lopha (Alectronya ungulata)
na base, seguido por calcáreo maciço e fossilífero, com até 200 m de espessura.
A idade Turoniana-Campaniana (Cretácea Superior) é aceita para a parte inferior desta
unidade. A parte superior da seqüência é atribuída à idade Maastrichtiana-Paleocênica.

Carbonatitos e rochas alcalinas associadas – Plugs nefeliníticos e fonolíticos, diques

alcalinos, doleríticos e granofíricos ocorrem por toda área, particularmente na adjacente
Malawi, sendo parte da Província Alcalina de Chilwa. Na área coberta por esta Nota
Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 2), condutos ou plugs carbonatíticos são localizados no Morro
Lupata, Monte Muambe, Monte Chandava, Monte Salambidua, Monte Buzimuana e vários
plugs nefeliníticos e fonolíticos foram emplaçados na Formação Sena*. No Monte Muambe, o
carbonatito está em uma estructura anelar, formado por grés, brechas e rochas feldspáticas
(fenitos), cortados por traquito e veios sideríticos e manganíferos. Intrusões alcalinas menores
na Monte Chandava e Monte Buzimuana são apresentadas apenas como complexos anelares e
diques radiantes de solvsbergita e outras rochas alcalinas. O carbonatito do Rio Mufa,
redescoberta na área desta Nota Explicativa do Mapa, pertence ao mesmo grupo, assim como
as ocorrências da Monte Maunde e Monte Fema (Nota Explicativa do Mapa, Volume 4, GTK
Consortium, 2996d). Estes corpos carbonatíticos foram emplaçados na zona de empurrão
tectônico em baixo da alóctone Suíte Tete (abaixo).
Compexo Carbonatítico Xiluvo, composto por sövita e alvikita, é localizado a ~ 14 km
a W do povoado de Nhamatanda (Quadrante NW da Folha de Beira), SDS 1934).
Morfologicamente, o Xiluvo é caracterizado por uma série de elevações, formando
grosseiramente uma estructura sub-circular, com 4,5 km de diâmetro (Fig. 9.45). O complexo
Carbonatítico de Xiluvo é formado por uma estructra anelar na seguinte seqüência:
● Núcleo central constituído de carbonatito a calcita;

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● Um anel ao redor do núcelo central, constituído por brechas vulcânicas, que podem
apresentar fragmentos de rochas carbonatíticas com calcita a cimento ferruginoso e
componentes de quartzo, feldspato, xisto, quartzito e rocha básica; e
●Uma zona externa muito complexa ao redor do anel, na qual rochas traquíticas e
porfiríticas cortam densamente a rocha quartzo-feldspática encaixante.

O emplaçamento de magma carbonatítica foi seguida por uma fase hidrotermal,

resultando em diques de quartzo brechados. Contemporaneamente ao emplaçamento
carbonatítico, rochas piroclásticas foram projectadas não só ao redor da cratera, mas também
mais longe, como pode ser observada em afloramentos de aglomerados até há 10 km da
cratera. As rochas carbonatíticas são cobertas por solo avermelhado, apresentando às vezes
feições kársticas.
O Carbonatito Xiluvo foi emplaçado durante o Cretáceo Inferior e Médio, após à
intrusão de pipes e diques de traquitos hiper-alcalinos com augita-aegirina.
Uma série de corpos carbonatíticos foi emplaçado na zona de empurrão milonítica, em
baixo da soleira da alóctona Suíte Tete.
O Carbonatito do Rio Mufa (Crcb) é situado a 30 km a oeste de Tête, próximo à estrada
principal a Songo. A ocorrência é situada a SW do domo de Mazoe, cujas margens NE e SE
são flanqueadas por carbonatitos próximos de Monte Muande e Monte Fema,
respectivamente. A origem carbonatítica destas ocorrëncias é discutida na Nota Explicativa do
Mapa, Volume 4, Capítulo 9 (GTK Consortium, 2006d). A camada de carbonatito do Rio
Mufa forma uma crista elevada, estreita, de direcção E-W, com declives íngremes (Fig. 9.46A
e 9.46B). A camada carbonatítica é espremida entre o gneisse milonito-flaser do Granito
Chacocoma e o gabro da Suíte Tete. O declive sul muito íngreme da crista mostra
bandamento de fluxo, expresso pelas variações de cor e tamanho de cristal e pela variação no
teor de apatita, controlado pelo acamadamento (Figs. 0.46C e 9.46D). Algumas camadas
contém abundantes concentrações de magnetita, resistentes ao intemperismo.

Seqüência 4: Eoceno – A Formação Cheringoma* (TeC) forma uma faixa contínua ao

longo do limite nordeste da depressão Zângue-Urema (SDS 1834), cobrindo áreas extensas a
N do Rio Búzi (SDS 1934). Esta unidade, separada por um hiatus Paleocênico-Eocênico dos
depósitos Cretáceos subjacentes, é composta por calcáreos glauconíticos e dolomíticos, com
grés calcáreos no topo. As fácies deposicionais desta formação, rica em fósseis, correspondem
à fácies marinho raso de alta energia na zona fótica, incluindo águas marinhas oxigenadas e
tropicais. A idade Eocênica Média a Superior é geralmente aceita à Formação Cheringoma*.

Seqüência 5: Oligoceno-Plioceno – Os Grés Terciários da Formação Inhaminga* (Tel) são

predominantemente encontrados fora da área da Nota Explicativa do Mapa e somente
pequenas, limitadas ocorrências existem na Folha de Beira (SDS 1934). Estes depósitos,
separados por um hiatus das formações subjacentes, são compostos por grés argilíticos e grés
grosseiros (topo) púrpuras e vermelhas. A idade Miocênica é comumente aceita como sendo a
idade da Formação Inhaminga*.
Grés arcóseos e horizontes conglomeráticos casuais da Formação Mazamba* (TeZ)
jazem sobre os grés púrpuras da Formação Inhaminga* no canto sudeste da área da Nota
Explicativa do Mapa (SDS 1834-1934). Estes depósitos compreendem predominantemente
grés arcóseos de granulação média a grosseira, de cor amarelo-acastanhado, pobremente
cimentados e em certos locais, fracamente silicificados, que mudam a grés brancos a amarelo
pálidos na parte superior da seqüência. A fácies iniciais da Formação Mazamba* é litorânea,
com raros fósseis, passando a fácies continentais a oeste. As rochas tem idade Pliocênica.

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Os Veios de quartzo brechados formam cristas proeminentes, sinuosas a irregulares,

possuindo uma textura brechada, com fragmentos angulosos e irregulares de rochas
encaixantes ou quartzo em uma matriz carbonática ou silícica. A “massa silícea pulverizada
de falha” (fault gouge) marca frequentemente o limite entre o embasamento cristalino e as
rochas Fanerozóicas de cobertura (Fig. 9.47). Estas brechas possuem comumente cavidades e
vãos nos quais são às vezes encontrados cristais de quartzo bem desenvolvidas. Os veios de
brecha contém também outros minerais, como feldspato alcalino, calcita, fluorita, barita,
hematita e, em menor proporção, sulfitos. Acredita-se que estes se formaram durante períodos
de tempo longos, através do rejuvenescimento episódico e repetido das falhas do
embasamento.

Seqüência 6: Quaternário – Os depósitos Quaternários são extensos não só nos vales dos
rios maiores, mas também nas depressões estructurais causadas por falhamentos
Phanerozóicos em blocos.
Areias de Terraços Fluviais (Qt) são largamente expostas ao longo dos rios Mazoe e
Luia e nos seus tributários (SDS 1632, SDS 1933). A N do povoado de Nhacolo, no lado
norte do Rio Zambezi (SDS 1634), terraços fluviais mostram altitudes locais variando de 20 a
100 m em cima do rio actual. Os terraços superiores são atribuídas á idade Pleistocênica
Inferior. Nos bancos íngremes do Rio Mazoe, uma secção de depósitos fluviais consiste
predominantemente de areia, mas também de variedades com cascalho, que não são incomuns
na base da seqüência (Fig. 9.48). Ao longo do Rio Zambezi, os Depósitos coluviais (Qc)
constituem depósitos desagregados, heterogêneos e inconsolidados, ocorrendo em zonas de
subsidência tectônica, como por exemplo a Zânguè-Urema (SDS 1834-1934) e ao longo dos
rios principais da área da Nota Explicativa do Mapa. O grosso do material pedogênico ou
rochoso foi depositado por lavagens efectuadas pelas chuvas e pela lenta solifluxão pelos
declives abaixo, assistida pela gravidade e acumulando-se geralmente na base dos declives ou
estructuras dômicas em forma de depósitos maciços, não-seleccionados (Fig. 9.49).
Durante o Pleistoceno, a erosão normal, actuando sobre unidades de grés Terciários,
especialmente aquelas da Formação Mazamba*, causaram a acumulação da Areias Argilosas
de Planície Eluvial de Inundação (Qps). Estes depósitos säo encontrados na parte sul e leste
da Folha de Beira (SDS 1934).
Lamas de Planície de Inundação Eluvial (Qpi) são encontradas em elevações mais
baixas no canto sudeste da SDS 1934, cobrindo grandes áreas planas. Estes terrenos argilosos
possuem uma permeabilidade muito baixa e formam áreas de freqüentes inundações com
lagunas e pântanos. Estes depósitos subjazem os depósitos de areia argilosa de planícies de
inundação eluvial.
Areias de Dunas Costeiras (Qd) säo encontradas ao longo da zona litorânea da costa
Moçambicana, a sul do estuário do Rio Búzi (SDS 1934).
Depósitos Aluviais (Qa), compostas por siltes, areias e cascalhos, são distribuídos nas
planíceis de inundação dos rios principais, como Luenha e Zambezi, onde bancos de areia
proeminentes são frequentemente depositados nos fundos dos rios (Fig. 9.50). Grandes
acúmulos de aluviäo ocorrem também em algumas outras regiões, como por exemplo ao
longo dos rios Sorodeze e Mazoe.
Pequenas ocorrências de Debris de Clastos (Qp) existem em ambos os lados do Rio
Revue (SDS 1934), cobrindo os grés Cretáceos da Sena. Estes depósitos, formando elevações
do tipo terraço e cristas com até 30 a 40 m de altura, são predominantemente compostos por
clastos arredondados de cascalho de quartzo, quartzito e basalto com até 20 a 30 cm de
tamanho. Porém, estes horizontes de debris de clastos não são depósitos, mas sim, gerados por
processos de formação de solo.

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ESTRUCTURA E METAMORFISMO

O Cráton Zimbabwe tem idades de cristalização entre ~3.55 e 2.54 Ga e é predominantemente

composto por terrenos granito-greenstone e de gneisses Arcaicos ao longo das suas margens
norte e sul (Fig. 6.1). A acresção crustal episódica é manifestada pela deposição de várias
gerações de supracrustais de baixo grau nas chamadas “faixas de rochas verdes”, cada uma
associada com o emplaçamento de uma suíte TTG contemporânea ou pouco mais jovem
(Tabela 6.1). O terreno de gneisse Arcaico ao norte compreende o Terreno Gneisse
Migmatítico, composto por orto- e para-gneisses de grau amfibolítico, com relictos de rochas
de fácies granulítico.
A margem norte do Cráton Zimbabwe é parte da Faixa Zambezi, Pan-Africana, o
segmento leste da faixa orogênica transcontinental Damara-Lufiliana-Zambezi (515-560 Ma),
separando o Cráton Congo do Cráton Kalahari. A faixa é composta por crosta mais antiga
retrabalhada, pertencente a vários terrenos e ao material magmático juvenil de menor
proporção. As massas de empurrões, vergentes a sul, foram agrupadas em Terreno Alóctone
Zambezi e Terreno Gneisse Marginal (Secção 7.1). Dois períodos tectono-metamórficos tem
sido reconhecidos nas unidades tectônicas da Chewore Inliers (Goscombe et al. 1994, 1998;
Johnson & Oliver 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004). M1 ocorreu sob condições de fácies granulito de
alta temperatura-baixa pressão (>800° C, < 4,4 kbar; Gosgombe et al. 1994) a 1068±21 Ma. A
recristalização subsequente ocorreu em condições de estilo colisional de granada-amfibolito
de alta pressão-temperatura média (> 13 kbar, 600-700° C) a 526±17 Ma.
A margem leste do Cráton Zimbabwe é parte da Faixa Moçambique e é composto por
massas de empurrão com a separação embasamento/cobertura (thin-skinned) e lascas,
vergentes a oeste e envolvendo fragmentos de rochas Arcaicas e Proterozóicas do Cráton
Zimbabwe (Fig. 10.1). O último compreende os grupos para-autóctones Gairezi e Rushinga e
o alóctone Complexo Báruè, supostamente derivado da Antártica durante o Ciclo Orogênico
Grenvilleano a ~1100 Ma e contendo quantidades significativas de material magmático
juvenil. Este evento dinamo-termal D1 deu origem à foliação gnéissica e migmatítica S1, que
geralmente tem um mergulho suave a leste, desenvolvida sob condições metamórficas M1 de
amfibolito superior. Em muitas das lascas da margem cratônica, a S1 dos planos de
cisalhamento é paralelo aos limites das massas tectônicas, enquanto em outras exposições,
esta é superposta às estructuras planares Arcaicas mais antigas.
O Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano é expressa pela compressão N-S ao longo da zona
colisional setentrional e pelo desenvolvimento de uma zona de cisalhamento sinistral de
direcção N-S ao longo da margem leste do Cráton exposto. A compressão N-S causou o
desenvolvimento de estructuras dobradas F2 de direcção E-W e, onde superposta às dobras F1
de grande escala, estructuras de interferência F1/F2 do tipo cogumelo, visíveis nas imagesn de
satélite (Fig. 2.9). As condições metamórficas M2 alcançaram novamente condições
amfibolíticas, causando a remobilização de vários tipos de rochas e abundante emplaçamento
de pegmatitos. O cisalhamento sinistral D2 deu origem à foliação vertical S2 e bandamento
migmatítico. Os resultados do evento de cisalhamento sinistral de direcção N-S pode ser bem
vista em um afloramento a sul de Catandica, a ca. 11 km a norte de Vanduzi (Fig. 10.3-5). O
metadiabásio a leste de Manica sofreu o metamorfismo Pan-Africano a 503±8 Ma (Ap. 2),
idade obtida de granada-rocha total pelo método Sm-Nd.
O emplaçamento da Suíte Guro, bimodal, datada de 867±15 Ma, ocorreu sob condições
extensionais em um ambiente de margem cratônica, sendo afectado logo após por um
empurrão de descolamento (de direcção E a NE?), datado de 850-830 Ma. Dirks et al. (1998)
advogou um cenário similar à Suíte Masoso (Seccão 7.3). A espessura desta unidade sub-
horizontal pode ser relativamente pequena (1-2 km).

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A deformação Pan-Africana Tardia é expressa em forma de uma série de zonas de

cisalhamento sinistrais, desenvolvidas a leste de Manica, na área marginal do Cráton
Zimbabwe e Complexo Báruè (Manhiça et al. 2001). O mesmo cisalhamento é responsável
pelo curvamento da Faixa de Rochas Verdes de uma direcção E-W a N-S. Este cisalhamento
sinistral é uma feição regional no Orógeno da África Oriental.

EVOLUÇÃO GEODINÂMICA

Após a tentativa de demarcação dos limites – suturas ou pseudosuturas – entre os “blocos de

construcção” – Terrenos Gondwana Oeste, Leste e Sul – que constituem o embasamento
cristalino Moçambicano, precendentes da amalgamação Pan-Africana, a evolução
geodinâmica da área coberta por esta Nota Explicativa (Volume 2) é esquematizada (Capítulo
11). A evolução Arcaica do Cráton Zimbabwe é bem documentada por outros trabalhos e é
aqui apenas brevemente revista. A extensão Paleoproterozóica ocorrida ao longo da margem
leste do Cráton, com a deposição das successões dos Grupos Gairezi e Rushinga, datadas de
2.04 Ga, podem ser correlacionadas com eventos extensionais em escala regional no Cráton
Kalahari.
A evolução Proterozóico-Ordoviciana é esquematizada em termos de uma successão de
eventos compressivos e extensivos, afectando as placas litosféricas e resultando na formação
de Supercontinentes, seguida pela sua separação, migração e dispersão. Esta compreende a
formação da Rodínia (Fig. 11.3) durante o Mesoproterozóico Ciclo Grenvilleano (~ 1.1 a 1.0
Ga), seguida pela separação pós–Rodinia (e.g. emplaçamento da bimodal Suíte Guro a ~867 e
852 Ma) e formação do Gondwana durante o Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano durante o
Neoproterozóico-Ordoviciano (~690-470 Ma).
Dois cenários são geralmente propostos ao Ciclo Orogênico Pan-Africano na África
oriental e meridional. Um dos modelos propõe o consumo do Oceano Moçambique e a
colisão e amalgamação (~ 640-550 Ma) do Gondwana Leste e Oeste (Fig. 11.1). Este modelo
assume a extensão do Orógeno da África Oriental (OAO) a sul de ~ 16° S na Antártida. Nesta
Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 2), um modelo alternativo é advogado, baseado na
suposição de três maiores “blocos de construcção” pré-Pan-Africanos: os Terrenos Gondwana
Oeste, Leste e Sul. Isto é baseado na reinterpretação da evolução geodinâmica da faixa de
dobramentos Zambezi-Lufiliana-Damara e dados paleomagnéticos, que sugerem que o Cráton
Kalahari e a Antártica não teriam se separado após o Ciclo Orogênico Grenvilleano. Este
modelo implica na colisão e amalgamação do Gondwana Oeste e Leste e na formação da
OAO entre 690-580 Ma ao norte de 16° S. A sul de 16° S, este foi seguido pela colisão e
amalgamação do Gondwana Norte (= Gondwana Leste + Oeste) e Gondwana Sul (Kalahari
Cráton + Antártica) e na formação do Orógeno Kuunga entre 580-480 Ma (Fig. 11.4).
O rifteamento abortado do Gondwana foi registrado pela deposição dos sedimentos
Karoo entre Carbonífero Superior e Jurássico Inferior e culminando com o vulcanismo da
Grande Província Ígnea do Karoo (GPIK), com o seu pico ao redor de 183 Ma. Na área
coberta por esta Nota Explicativa do Mapa (Volume 2) surgiu o Graben do Médio Zambezi,
de direcção E-W e iniciou-se a evolução da Bacia Moçambique.
Após a estabilidade de ~ 40 Ma, o rifteamento começou novamente ao redor de 140 Ma,
com a evolução da Bacia Moçambique. Desenvolveram-se mais sub-bacias internas de
direcção NW-SE no topo do Graben do Médio Zambezi, de direcção E-W. O rifteamento
incipiente foi associado com vulcanismo alcalino da Província Alcalina de Chilwa (e.g. Grupo
Lupata).

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RECURSOS MINERAIS

O modelamento metalogenêtico e a selecção de alvos de prospecção são baseados na

relação íntima entre a geodinâmica e metalogenia, geralmente aceita, no contexto de uma
database mineral conhecida (Appendix 12.1). Os alvos recomendados para prospecção são
(Capítulo 12):
● A faixa de rochas verdes de Utali-Manica para depósitos vulcanogênicos
maciços de sulfitos (VMS), depósitos de Ni nos komatiitos, depósitos de ouro
(+Cu+Ag), hospedados por BIFs e estructuras;
● O carvão da Formação Matinde* do Karoo Inferior é, sem dúvida, o maior
recurso mineral de Moçambique;
● As intrusões estratificadas da Suíte Tête e outras (ultra)máficas possuem
potencial para platinóides, cromita, ilmenita, níquel, cobre e ouro;
● Os carbonatitos do Karoo e mais jovens possuem potencialidade para depósitos
de fosfato, pirocloro, REEs e fluorita;
● Os supracrustais metamorfisados e migmatisados Báruè são possivelmente
derivados a partir de seqüências turbidíticas monôtonas e possuem potencial
para depósitos de ouro estructuralmente hospedados. Assumindo-se que os
metasedimentos do Complexo Báruè foram empurrados ao topo do Cráton
Zimbabwe, a possível remobilizacão de metais por baixo aumenta a
potencialidade. Atenção especial deve ser dada às falhas no limite com Karoo
(tambèm fluorita) e às falhas preenchidas por material pulverizado e brechado
(gouge) (Fig. 6.2, veja também a Secção 4.2).
● Os granitóides TTG emplaçados no Complexo Báruè possuem potencial para
pegmatitos, veios e stockworks com estanho, tungstênio, niôbio-tântalo, pedras
semi-preciosas, etc.
● As rochas supracrustais dos Grupos Gairezi, Rushinga e Umkondo guardam
potencialidade para paleo-pláceres (ouro, diamante), depósitos do tipo
unconformity e possivelmente também a depósitos sedimentares exalativos
(“Sedex”) do tipo Broken Hill.

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters and root mean square errors valid for
provinces of Sofala (north of Beira corridor), Manica, Tete and Zambezia computed by
Norconsult International on the basis of 32 common points in the Tete and MOZNET
data (Norconsult International, 1998). .......................................................................... 68
Table 2.2. Summary of isotopic age determinations from Mozambique samples, Map
Explanation Vol. 2 area................................................................................................. 81
Table 2.3. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 (+ Extension) area, showing Degree Sheet
number, Sheet Codes and Names.................................................................................. 85
Table 2.4. Geological Map Sheets and Map Explanations in the LOT 2 (+ Extension) area,
showing Degree Sheet number, Sheet Codes and Names............................................. 86
Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains. ..................................................... 98
Table 5.2. Lithostratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al. 1996).108
Table 5.3. Basement terranes in Mozambique. .................................................................... 117
Table 6.1. Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al.
2002). .......................................................................................................................... 119
Table 6.2. Synthesis of geochronological data, Mutare-Manica greenstone belt.................. 156
Table 7.1. Comparative stratigraphic sub-division of the Rushinga sequence...................... 178
Table 7.2. Showing δ13C and δ18O values for carbonate rocks from Rushinga Group. Also
given are proportions of dolomite in the carbonate fraction:...................................... 192
Table 7.3. Subdivision of the Gairezi / Fronteira Group according to Hunting (1984) and
Consortium (2006) ...................................................................................................... 197
Table 9.1. Lithostratigraphic units in the Lupata Group. ...................................................... 274
Table 9.2. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group........................................... 281
Table 12.1. Monte Muambe, reserve calculation. ................................................................ 341

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1. Configuration of areas re-mapped by the DNG in collaboration with various
international consortia. .................................................................................................... 6
Fig. 2. Map Explanation Volume numbers in LOT 2 (+ Extension) and LOT 3 (+ Extension).
......................................................................................................................................... 7
Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project. ........................................... 65
Fig. 2.2. Layout of the Landsat-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000
topographic and geological Degree Sheets over the LOT2 project area (Image by E.
Schetselaar). .................................................................................................................. 68
Fig. 2.3. Map of Mozambique showing survey blocks covered by air-borne geophysics....... 70
Fig. 2.4. Comparison of the spatial resolution of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies from
the 1983 (right) and 2003 (left) airborne surveys. The white line marks the boundary
between the two surveys. .............................................................................................. 71
Fig. 2.5. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images by E.
Schetselaar). .................................................................................................................. 73
Fig. 2.6. Image clips to illustrate the effects on integrated enhancement of Landsat TM and
gamma ray spectrometry channels. Left original ternary radiometric map, right ternary
radiometric map ‘sharpened’ with Landsat TM5. The black polygons correspond with
(ultra-)mafic rocks of Atchiza Suite (Images by E. Schetselaar).................................. 75

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Fig. 2.7. Lithological units of the Rushinga Group from geological maps of the Zimbabwe
border region can be traced on a Landsat TM colour composite into Mozambique. Pink
lines show the Hunting (1984) compilation, blue lines the Landsat interpretation
prepared by the Consortium (Image by E.Schetselaar). ............................................... 76
Fig. 2.8. Complex fold structures and shear zone (green dotted line) in mafic and quartzo-
feldspathic units of the Báruè Complex. Pink lines show the Hunting compilation, blue
lines the Landsat interpretation prepared by the Consortium (Image by E. Schetselaar).
....................................................................................................................................... 76
Fig. 2.9. IHS composite image of gamma-ray spectrometry channels and Landsat TM band 7
of the Báruè Complex (on the right). Red, darker areas are interpreted as more mafic
gneiss units, whereas the green (Th rich) units appear to correspond to felsic units,
possibly including late granitoid intrusives. Pink area in the upper left corner
corresponds to lithologies of the Rushinga Group (Image by E. Schetselaar). ............ 77
Fig. 2.10. (A) Sample locations for geochemical analysis, (B) Sample locations for
petrographic studies. ..................................................................................................... 78
Fig. 2.11. Sample locations for geochronological studies from Lot 2 area, Volume 2. .......... 79
Fig. 2.12. Histogram showing magmatic age peaks as achieved from GTK Consortium
datings within Lot 2 area............................................................................................... 80
Fig. 2.13. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032). ................... 84
Fig. 2.14. Map sheet division for Lot 2, based on SDS grid.................................................... 85
Fig. 2.15. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets scale 1 : 250 000.
Degree sheets 1630, 1631/1632, 1633,1634, 1732/1733, 1734, 1832/1833, 1834,
1932/1933 and 1934 will be discussed in Map Explanation - Volume 2. .................... 87
Fig. 2.16. The structure of the mineral database used in LOT 2............................................. 88
Fig. 2.17. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for
identification. ................................................................................................................ 89
Fig. 2.18. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit in
formation....................................................................................................................... 89
Fig. 4.1. Silicified fault gouge between the Precambrian and Phanerozoic terrains. South of
the Changara village. .................................................................................................... 94
Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 MA (Dirks and
Ashwal, 2002). .............................................................................................................. 99
Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002). . 103
Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 500 Ma) (Dirks and
Ashwal, 2002). ............................................................................................................ 104
Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (~ 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwall, 2002).
..................................................................................................................................... 106
Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo rocks (outcrop and subsurface) in southern Africa (adapted
from Verniers et al. 1989)........................................................................................... 107
Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002). ........................ 110
Fig. 5.7. Africa in the Tertiary-Quaternary (30 Ma – Recent) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002). ... 111
Fig. 6.1. Simplified map of the Zimbabwe Craton showing the major litho-tectonic units (after
Hofmann et al. 2002). Key: 1 = Mutare-Manica greenstone belt; 2 = Makaha
greenstone belt; 3 = Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt. The northern Archaean gneiss
terrain comprises the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT). ................... 118
Fig. 6.2. Profile across the Zimbabwe craton margin, drawn along the Múdze river channel,
south of the Cuchamano village, lat. 17°02´. The banded gneisses, granites and mafic
intercalates of the Archaean Mudzi Complex (grey) are overlain by supracrustal rocks
of the Rushinga Group. The basement is well exposed upstream the river, west of the
Múdze Chizimwe village, as is also the sheared basement/cover junction. The early

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recumbent tectonic structure of the cover is affected, together with the basement, by
later upright structure, well exposed in the vertical walls in the gorge across a quartzite
ridge in the middle of the profile. ............................................................................... 124
Fig. 6.3. Mountainside of shallow-dipping Archaean granite gneiss-migmatite, intercalated by
mafic, metagabbroic bands. At the root of the mountainside in the bush zone there is
underlying Gairezi mica schist. The uppermost crest and the slope behind are in turn
capped by Gairezi quartzite – see Fig. 6.4. The site is visible from the local village
road, running in the southern side of the Senga Senga ring structure, 25 km west of
Guro (0510825/ 8059716).......................................................................................... 126
Fig. 6.4. Gairezi quartzite continuing along the crest of the mountain seen in the previous
picture (0510290/ 8059716). The allochthonous tectonic position of the Archaean slab
shown in Fig. 6.3 is illustrated in Fig. 10.1, where the highest ridge in the left hand part
of the profile is the same as the ridge in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4.......................................... 127
Fig. 6.5. A hill of Archaean metagabbro and gneiss (0503448/ 8068699). ........................... 128
Fig. 6.6. Margin of a garnet-rich layer in Archaean gneiss. SE of the Massanga village
(0510867/ 8092125). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................................................... 128
Fig. 6.7. Spinifex textured ultramafic komatiite of the Macequece Formation*. (0477781/
7914693). Scale bar is 8 cm........................................................................................ 132
Fig. 6.8. Pillow resembling structure in ultramafic metavolcanic rock of the Macequece
Formation*. (0481904/7914425). Scale bar is 8 cm................................................... 132
Fig. 6.9. Serpentinite of the Macequece Formation. Serra Mancota (0491879/7912561)..... 133
Fig. 6.10. An unusually dense set of thin veins of asbestos in serpenttinite of the Macequece
Formation. A fresh cut of the same rock in bottom right. Western end of Serra Isitaca
(0469161/7906104). Scale bar is 8 cm. ...................................................................... 133
Fig. 6.11. Quartz-sericite schist of the Macequece Formation* (0499777/ 7913381)........... 134
Fig. 6.12. (A) Bedded metachert of Macequece Formation*. W of Serra Mancota
(0487641/7912903), (B) Detailed photo of bedding in metachert (0493823/7915570),
(C) Thinly bedded iron formation of the Macequece Formation*. SE of Serra
Penhalonga (0483914/7910010). Scale bar is 8 cm.................................................... 135
Fig. 6.13. (A) Diamictite with angular to subrounded blocks of banded ironstone, metachert
and minor amount of metavolcanic rocks. Serra Penhalonga (0477114/7912164), (B)
Chaotic deposition of diamictite. South of Serra Vengo (0486042/7912942). Scale bar
is 8 cm. ........................................................................................................................ 136
Fig. 6.14. Basaltic pillow lava of the Macequece Formation*. Fresh cut of the same rock in
bottom right. (0486694/7914559). Scale bar is 8 cm.................................................. 137
Fig. 6.15. Well preserved tuffite in weathered mafic schist, Macequece Formation* (493553/
7915854). Detailed photo of the rock in upper left corner. Scale bar is 8 cm. ........... 137
Fig. 6.16. (A) Felsic crystal tuff on southern slope of Serra Penhalonga, (B) Close-up photo
from the same rock (0476402/7912066), (C) Felsic crystal tuff altered to kaolin
(0476116/7912273), (D) Small enclaves of felsic crystal tuff in amphibole bearing
quartz-feldspar porphyry (0476525/7915035)............................................................ 138
Fig. 6.17. (A) Polymict volcanic conglomerate of the Macequece Formation*. Large light
coloured cobbles are felsic crystal tuff, (B) A proper cut indicate foliation, (C) Primary
bedding in felsic crystal tuff and jasper-bedded metachert. Note also weathering crust
in mafic pebbles of Fig. C. Serra Penhalonga (0476234/7911904). Scale bar is 8 cm.
..................................................................................................................................... 139
Fig. 6.18. Altered and weathered intermediate metavolcanic rock of the Macequece
Formation*.................................................................................................................. 140
(0474508/ 7910608). .............................................................................................................. 140

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Fig. 6.19. (A.) Tuff breccia of Macequece Formation*, (B) Fresh cut is from the rock in Fig.
A (0475851/7910573). Scale bar is 10 cm................................................................. 140
Fig. 6.20. Rhyolitic volcanic breccia, of the Macequece Formation*. Penhalonga Valley
(0477799/ 7910096). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................. 141
Fig. 6.21. Chemical classification diagrams of metavolcanic rocks from the Manica
greenstone belt and ca. 1.8 Ga old dolerites intruding the Manica greenstone belt. For
comparison, plotted is an outlined area of ca. 1.1 Ga old dolerites from Lot 3 area and
two analyses of ca. 1.0 Ga old metadolerites.............................................................. 142
Fig. 6.22. A nearly monomictic volcanic conglomerate at the lower contact of Vengo
Formation*. Northern slope of Serra Isitaca. (0474777/7908663). Scale bar is 10 cm.
..................................................................................................................................... 144
Fig. 6.23. Basal conglomerates of the Vengo Formation*. (A) Polymict conglomerate
between Archaean granite and phyllite of Vengo Formation*. Contact to granite is not
exposed, but is presumable tectonic (0493843/7917753), (B) Conglomerate between
metabasalt of the Macequece Formation* and marble of the Vengo Formation*
(0479785/ 7915525), (C) Sheared conglomerate between mafic metavolcanic rock of
the Macequece Formation* and phyllite of the Vengo Formation*
(0493374/7916039). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 145
Fig. 6.24. Small-grained meta-greywacke in the northern slope of Serra Isitaca,
M’Beza/Vengo Formation*. Close-up photos of the same rock below. (0475200/
7909150). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 146
Fig. 6.25. A. Openly folded, interbedded phyllite and quartzite of Vengo Formation*
(0493105/ 7916543). Close-up photos: (A) Phyllite, (0492870/7916747), and (B)
Quartzite (0493328/ 7916369). Scale bar is 10 cm..................................................... 147
Fig. 6.26. Iron-rich lithic metasandstone and quartzite of Vengo Formation*
(0497101/7916391). (A) quartzite and remobilised magnetite (0497101/7916391), (B)
a detailed photo from the bed in central part of the main photo, (C) thinly bedded low-
grade iron formation (0497108/7916188). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................. 148
Fig. 6.27. Marble outcrop of the Vengo Formation* in the area between Rio Revué and Rio
Chua (0479789/ 7915474). Scale bar is 10 cm. .......................................................... 148
Fig. 6.28. Banded ironstone, close to the small village of Parafina, 23 km SW from the
Chicamba dam (0506495/7861279). Scale bar is 10 cm. ........................................... 149
Fig. 6.29. (A) Deformation related shear banding of porphyritic granite-granodiorite close to
Rio Revué. N of the Chicamba Real dam (0506572/7896051), (B) U-Pb dated,
porphyritic and coarse-grained granite-granodiorite in a quarry along the Manica –
Chimoio road, north of the Chicamba Real dam (0509201/ 7898987), (C) K-feldspar
bearing, fine to medium-grained granodioritic-dioritic fragments within porphyritic
granite-granodiorite SE-Vumbarimira, East of Mte Vumbamira (0504278/ 7886156).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 151
Fig. 6.30. Medium-grained granodiorite SW of the Chicamba Real dam (0492233/7873881).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 151
Fig. 6.31. Weakly foliated, porphyritic granite of the Mavonde Complex, NW of the
Chicamba Real dam (0500996/7894157). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................... 152
Fig. 6.32. (A) Small-scale folding of banded tonalitic gneiss, close to Rio Munhinga, West of
Serra Gurrambira (0514709/7857585), (B) Boudin of mafic dyke that cuts the banded
gneiss. Rio Revué, 7 km East of the Chicamba Real dam (0520038/7877034). Scale
bar is 10 cm................................................................................................................. 153
Fig. 6.33. (A) Felsic neosomes and intermediate paleosomes in migmatite exposed near Rio
Nhamangutena, south of the Chicamba Real dam (0508399/7871923), (B) Typical

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medium and even-grained gabbroic rock with brown weathering surface. Rio
Munhinga, north of the Rotanda village (0487702/7850629). Scale bar is 10 cm. .... 154
Fig. 6.34. Chemical classification diagrams of Archaean granitoids and gabbros/dolerites. 155
Fig. 6.35. Boulder field of Palaeoproterozoic dolerite in Machipanda area. Serra Isitaca in the
background (0474346/7903337)................................................................................. 158
Fig. 6.36. Medium grained uniform gabbroic rock representing characteristic type of
Mashonaland mafic rocks. Chimanimani area 25 km´s ENE from Mt.Binga. (7832192/
0492127). .................................................................................................................... 161
Fig. 6.37. A road cut 40 km east of Manica. Gairezi schist with quartz veins, weathered
brownish red. (0515362/7896822).............................................................................. 162
Fig. 6.38. Gairezi schist, the same road cut as above. The middle part of the figure shows a
metadolerite dyke, 5 – 6 m wide, weathered into brown in situ soil, where the original
metadolerite has been preserved only as exfoliation spheroids. ................................. 162
Fig. 6.39. A detail from above. The sample for a Sm/Nd dating was taken from the spheroid
at the lower left hand part, a very hard in situ relict of the original dyke................... 163
Fig. 7.1. Textures in compositionally banded gneisses of the Mavuradonha Complex. (A)
Smoothly north-east dipping gneiss in the Luia River (0399501/8182166), (B) Tight
chevron folds in the same rock, (C) Quartz-feldspar fragments and augens, probably
after boudinaged pegmatite dykes (0400138/8182503), (D) Hornblende porphyroblasts
in a banded gneiss. Rio Luia (0400475/8182534). Scale bar is 10 cm...................... 169
Fig. 7.2. Roughly NW-dipping fault surface (dashed line) between (top) clastic sediments of
the Matinde Formation* (Lower Karoo) and (bottom) Proterozoic Masoso rocks. The
hill in background comprises mylonitic rocks (see below) of the Masoso Suite. 'Big
bend' of the Luia River (044658/8185187)................................................................. 170
Fig. 7.3. (A) Brecciation of rocks due to brittle deformation at the northern fault zone of the
Masoso Suite. 'Big bend' of the Luia River (0455554/8188053), (B) Blastomylonite
with large feldspar augen near the northern fault zone of the Masoso Suite. About 9 km
west of the 'Big bend' of the Luia River (0446310/8185019). Scale bar is 15 cm. ... 171
Fig. 7.4. (A) Striped mafic gneiss (metatuffite?) of the Masoso Suite, (B) Detailed photo of
metatuffite (?) with random feldspar porphyroclasts. Note that bands or laminae have
sharper upper contacts, possibly showing bifurcation and erosional features (micro-
channelling?). 'Big bend' of the Luia River (0456394/8186302). Scale bar is 15 cm.172
Fig. 7.5. Banded metatuffite (?) with coarse feldspar-rich boudins of microcline pegmatite
dykes. Masoso Suite. 'Big bend' of the Luia River (0446460/ 8183671). Scale bar is 15
cm................................................................................................................................ 173
Fig. 7.6. Striped gneiss of the Masoso Suite with plenty of quartzofeldspathic segregations.
Note intruding pegmatite dykes of two generations. Rio Luia (0466641/8179565).
Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................................................................................................... 173
Fig. 7.7. (A) Recumbent folding in felsic gneiss of the Masoso Suite in Rio Luia
(0459874/8182853), (B) Box fold with a subhorizontal fold axis in metatuffite (?) of
the Masoso Suite. Rio Luia (0471273/8178107), (C) Mafic gneiss of the Masoso Suite
showing compositional banding and tight refolded isoclinal folds. Note cross-cutting
pegmatite ‘schlieren’ in top of block. Southern tributary of the Luia River
(0465295/8176701). Hammer is 65 cm long, scale bar is 15 cm. .............................. 174
Fig. 7.8. (A) Garnet-rich xenolith in striped mafic gneiss of the Masoso Suite, (B) Detailed
photo of the xenolith. Rio Luia (0449677/8183970). Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of
coin is 3 cm. ................................................................................................................ 174
Fig. 7.9. Microphotograph of mafic xenolith in striped mafic gneiss of the Masoso Suite (G -
garnet, H - hornblende). Rio Luia (0449677/8183970). Width of photo is 25 mm.... 175
Fig. 7.10. Detail map from Monte Pitão area......................................................................... 179

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Fig. 7.11. (A) Sub-horizontal beds of feldspathic Lower Quartzite along the bank of the Rio
Embuca (0496514/ 8123294), (B) Vein quartz pebble metaconglomerate of the Lower
Quartzite. Rio Embuca Formation* of the Rushinga Group. East of the Cuchamano
village (0491956/8126197). Scale bar is 8 cm............................................................ 180
Fig. 7.12. Massive but weakly foliated quartzofeldspathic gneiss, forming a ridge around a
granitic intrusion. Rio Embuca Formation*. Pico Cocodeze (0492186/8154974). Scale
bar is 10 cm................................................................................................................. 181
Fig. 7.13. (A) Steeply east dipping arkosic quartzite interlayer in banded amphibolite of the
Rio Embuca Formation*. Rio Mázoè (0498959/8154014), (B) Laminar parallel
bedding in arkosic quartzite of the Rio Embuca Formation*. Rio Mázoè
(0498959/8154014). Scale bar is 15 cm. .................................................................... 182
Fig. 7.14. (A) Distinct bedding in mica schist with vein quartz lenses (sweat-outs?) arranged
parallel to palaeo-bedding. A thick orthoquartzite interbed is exposed on the right. Rio
Embuca Formation*. Rio Mazoe (0492410/8153865), (B) Detailed photo of massive
garnet-sillimanite gneiss in Rio Mazoe (0498006/8127875). Scale bar is 8 cm. ....... 183
Fig. 7.15. Weathered surface with quartz-sillimanite nodules in quartzofeldspathic gneiss of
the Rio Embuca Formation*. South of the Mazoe River (0498975/ 8144425). Scale bar
is 15 cm. ...................................................................................................................... 183
Fig. 7.16. (A) Transition zone between banded amphibolite and pinkish laminar arkosic
quartzite (on the left). Monte Pitão Formation*. Rio Mazoe (0484557/8154515), (B)
Banded amphibolite (green) with pegmatites (pinkish). Note pegmatitic dykes are both
parallel and oblique to banding. Note also angular amphibolite boudins in pegmatite.
Monte Pitão Formation* in Rio Mazoe (0499557/8154165), (C) Detailed photo of
compositional banding. Scale bar is 15 cm. .............................................................. 184
Fig. 7.17. Banded amphibolite with regular arrays of leucosome or quartz-filled tension
gashes, oblique to banding. Note that gashes are confined to specific, slightly darker
(less ductile?) layers. Monte Pitão Formation*. Rio Mázoè (0501282/8154634). Scale
bar is 15 cm................................................................................................................. 185
Fig. 7.18. (A) In situ blocks on top of calc-silicate rock ridge. Monte Pitão Formation*.
(0499220/8144361), (B) Narrow solution cavities formed after dissolution of
carbonatic bands on the weathering surface of calc-silicate rock of the Monte Pitão
Formation*. South of Mte Metungurué (0492812/8127621). Scale bar is 8 cm. ...... 186
Fig. 7.19. Ellipsoidal epidote-bearing 'concretions', possibly after boudinaged marble layers
in calc-silicate rock of the Monte Pitão Formation*. (0498805/ 8153867). Scale bar is
12 cm........................................................................................................................... 187
Fig. 7.20. Distinct banding in Lower marble of the Monte Pitão Formation* in Rio Múdze
(0493465/ 8117732). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................................................... 187
Fig. 7.21. Fresh outcrop of flattened quartz(-garnet)-sillimanite nodules in the biotite-garnet-
sillimanite schist of Monte Pitão Formation*. Mte Pitão (0497671/8123740). Scale
bar is 8 cm................................................................................................................... 188
Fig. 7.22. Eastwards overturned open fold of the Upper Quartzite. The deep gorge of the
Múdze River, across the high quartzite ridge 2 km east of the Múdze Chizimwe
village. Note the two persons for realizing the scale (0494231/8117398). ................ 189
Fig. 7.23. Base of the Upper Quartzite in the synclinal structure illustrated by Fig. 6.2, middle
part of the profile. Close to the previous figure in Rio Múdze (0494231/ 8117398). 189
Fig. 7.24. (A) Very coarse-grained Upper quartzite on top of a ridge, east of Cuchamano
(0491735/8124162), (B) Pressure solution bands in Upper quartzite. Múdze River
(0494231/8117398). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 190
Fig. 7.25. Location of carbonate rock samples for C-isoptope analyses, Rushinga Group.
Marble is shown as orange colour on map.................................................................. 192

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Fig. 7.26. Coarse-grained, 'spotted' meta-anorthosite in the Mazoe River (0483702/ 8153290).
Scale bar is 8 cm. ........................................................................................................ 193
Fig. 7.27. (A) Highly foliated quartzite of the Gairezi Group near the Zimbabwean border,
NW of Mte Binga (0495667/7819717), (B) Small scale, tangential cross-bedding in
saccharoidal quartzite of the Gairezi Group. Mte Songuiero (0516476/7983378), (C)
Polymictic conglomerate of the Gairezi Group. Mte Chicamba Real
(0519336/7884309). Scale bar is 8 cm. ...................................................................... 199
Fig. 7.28. Salmon-red marble of Gairezi Group with obscure bedding. West of Monte
Metambisse (0504009/ 8042246). Scale bar is 10 cm. ............................................... 200
Fig. 7.29. Crenulation microfolding on the foliation surface of the garnet staurolite mica
schist of the Gairezi Group. W of Serra Metambisse (0503171/ 8042632). Scale bar is
10 cm........................................................................................................................... 200
Fig. 7.30. Knife-blade outcrops produced by the subvertical foliation in the muscovite-biotite
schists of the Gairezi Group. SE of Mte Tiguire (0509959/ 8043535)....................... 201
Fig. 7.31. (A) Kyanite prisms in a garnet-kyanite mica schist of the Gairezi Group. W of Mte
Senga-Senga (0507755/8063987), (B) Staurolite and garnet porphyroblasts in a
muscovite-biotite schist layer of the Gairezi Group. North of Mte Metambisse
(0509035/8064117), (C) Garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss of the Gairezi Group. Mte
Nhanareze (0524774/7970755). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................. 202
Fig. 7.32. Garnet-rich bands in quartzite of the Nhamessolo Formation*. N of Rio Pompue
(0619058/ 8090728). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................................................................... 204
Fig. 7.33. (A) Alternating layers of calc-silicate rock, marble and quartzite of the Nhamessolo
Formation*. Rio Ludezilicura (0614312/8087833), (B) Banded calc-silicate rock of
the Nhamessolo Formation*. Rio Ludezilicura (0611999/8088225). Scale bar is 15 cm.
..................................................................................................................................... 205
Fig. 7.34. Megacrystic marble of the Nhamessolo Formation*. Marble ridge to the west of
Mte Bongururo (0592524/8085674). Scale bar is 15 cm............................................ 206
Fig. 7.35. Garnet-bearing migmatites and gneisses. (A) Ghostly remnants of psammitic
palaeosome in garnet-bearing Mungári leucomigmatite. Rio Ludezilicura
(0601526/8080343), (B) Migmatitic garnet (biotite) gneiss, which comprises fragments
of psammitic beds. SE of the Guro village (0551420/8054080). Scale bar is 10 cm . 208
Fig. 7.36. Deformed K- feldspar phenocrysts in the Chacocoma granite. NE of the Mazoe
village (0548786/ 8178067)........................................................................................ 209
Fig. 7.37. (A) Strongly mylonitized Chacocoma granodiorite. Main road SE of Mte Caroeira
(0560146/ 8203686), (B) Ruptured mafic band in Chacocoma gneiss, tension cracks
filled with quartofeldspathic material. A hill south of Mte Caroeira
(0560391/8203461). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 210
Fig. 7.38. (A) Slightly deformed (Pan-African) pegmatite dykes cut strongly deformed
Chacocoma granite. A hill south of Mte Caroeira (0560391/8203461), (B) Large
xenolith of the highly deformed Chacocoma granite in Pan-African pegmatite. A road
cut south of Monte Caroeira (0558051/8200388). Scale bar is 10 cm. ...................... 210
Fig. 7.39. (A) Pure, fine-grained quartzite in Rio Meassangaze (0561608/7867454), (B)
Recrystallized quartzite with (eroded) pelitic interbeds. Scale bar is 10 cm. ............. 213
Fig. 7.40. Porphyroblastic semipelitic paragneiss with quartzofeldspathic interbeds. Chimoio
Group, west of the Pungué River bridge (0614093/7900199). Scale bar is 15 cm..... 213
Fig. 7.41. Migmatitic paragneisses of the Chimoio Group. (A) Banded psammitic gneiss with
plenty of segregated leucosome lenses and veins in the Pungué River
(0597116/7917271), (B) Strongly migmatised, garnetiferous paragneiss northeast of
Mte Chimoio (0549203/7901742), (C) Migmatitic paragneiss with garnet-rich
melanosome rafts. Rio Pompue (0614699/8085107), (D) Stromatic structures in

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migmatitic paragneiss northwest of Mte Bangontauro (0620099/8054653). Scale bar is

10 cm........................................................................................................................... 215
Fig. 7.42. Sedimentary structures in paragneisses of the Chimoio Group. (A) Paragneiss with
well-preserved bedding, composed of alternating micaceous (dark brown) and
quartzitic (light greyish brown) layers. Road cut northwest of Mte Cùncuè
(0636968/7984106), (B) Obscure bedding in psammitic paragneiss. Rio Lucite
(0545833/7789400). Scale bar is 10 cm, compass is 12 cm. ...................................... 215
Fig. 7.43. Texturally rather massive, foliated tonalitic gneiss, which comprises clinopyroxene.
Rio Sangadeze (0627142/ 8052904/). Scale bar is 10 cm. ......................................... 216
Fig. 7.44. Typical metagranitic sugarloaf mountain of Monte Chimoio (0543610/7899353).
..................................................................................................................................... 217
Fig. 7.45. Phyllitic schist with crenulation cleavage. NE of the Inchope village (0605515/
7877969). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 218
Fig. 7.46. (A) Garnet-rich leucosome lenses in quartzofeldspathic gneiss of the Macossa
Group. Rio Pompué (0615987/8085822), (B) Large enclaves of garnet-quartz
intergrowths in semipelitic paragneiss of the Macossa Group. Rio Nhandugue
(0599392/7998519). Scale bar is 15 cm. .................................................................... 219
Fig. 7.47. Quartz-feldspr gneiss of the Macossa Group with leucosome segregations. Rio
Nhandugue (0588802/ 8014904). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................................................ 220
Fig. 7.48. Meta-arkose with thin, amphibolitic bands. Chimoio Group. South of Mte Senge
(0575910/ 8068060). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................................................................... 220
Fig. 7.49. Thinly bedded garnet-bearing feldspathic quartzite of the Macossa Group. Rio
Mudicapinda (059592/7605199). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................................................ 221
Fig. 7.50. (A) Primary sedimentary bedding in metagreywacke of the Chimoio Group. Rio
Nhandugue (0621907/7980956), (B) Garnetiferous semipelitic gneiss of the Chimoio
Group. Nhandugue River (0595823/8003075), (C) Massive micaceous gneiss of the
Chimoio Group with plenty of oriented potassium feldspar porphyroblasts. North of
the Gorongosa village (0613173/7937710). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................................ 222
Fig. 7.51. (A) Banded calc-silicate gneiss with thin, psammitic interbeds in the Nhaluiro
River (608958/8057192), (B) Strongly folded and contorted calc-silicate rock of the
Macossa Group with weathered-out marble interbeds. Rio Nhandugue
(0598897/7999904). Scale bar is 15 cm. .................................................................... 223
Fig. 7.52. Exfoliated outcrop of massive, coarse-grained gabbro, located south of Mte
Chimoio (05437927/898098)...................................................................................... 224
Fig. 7.53. Monte Urderi, located 30 km north of the Chimoio town. The mountain has a
broadly rounded form, which indicates that it is composed of gneissose granitoids.. 225
Fig. 7.54. Monte Hombe granitoids. (A) Weakly foliated, even-grained granodiorite in Rio
Nhazonia (0536820/7971501), (B) Granodioritic gneiss with light fresh surface. 15
km east of Mte Hombe (0533822/7951895), (C) Tonalitic hornblende gneiss, which
comprises amphibolitic bands and granitic segregations. 10 km south of Mte Hombe
(0544686/7934094). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 226
Fig. 7.55. (A) Amphibole-bearing granite gneiss with garnet-bearing leucosome segregations.
E of the Vanduzi village (0533071/7904133), (B) Detailed photo of the same rock, (C)
Porphyric texture preserved in amphibole-bearing granite gneiss. W of Mte Nhambira
(0544811/7976702). Scale bar is 10/15 cm. ............................................................... 227
Fig. 7.56. (A) Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss with garnet-rich leucosomes. South of the
Macossa village (0597896/801894), (B) Compositionally intermediate variety of
Tomonda leucocratic gneiss, comprising orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene
(0627886/8073037). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 228

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Fig. 7.57. (A) Granodioritic orthogneiss east of the Inchope village (0599337/7875146), (B)
Strongly migmatised gneiss west of Monte Chigove (0529339/7893701). Scale bar is
10 cm........................................................................................................................... 229
Fig. 7.58. Medium-grained, deformed Monte Senge granite. NE of Mte Senge (0593237/
8082809). Scale bar is 15 cm...................................................................................... 230
Fig. 7.59. Chemical classification diagrammes for rocks of the Báruè Complex.................. 231
Fig. 7.60. Ridge-forming vertical sheet of felsic component of the bimodal Guro Suite. Monte
Nhadimba.................................................................................................................... 234
Fig. 7.61. (A) Streaky fabric in aplitic granite of the Guro Suite. Old quarry E of the
Cuchamano village (0494400/ 8126625), (B) Wall-parallel fabric developed witin a
discordant felsic dyke of the Guro Suite. Magassa village (0562800/8195751). Scale
bar is 8 cm................................................................................................................... 235
Fig. 7.62. Flattened and stretched mafic and felsic association of the Guro Suite. Rio Luenha
bridge (0527931/8134434).......................................................................................... 236
Fig. 7.63. (A) Detailed photo of mafic and felsic components in Fig. 7.62, (B) Intrafolial
isoclinal folds and a gabbroic boudin of the mafic component of the Guro Suite, hosted
by the felsic component. NW of Monte Nhadimba (0551345/ 8192806). Scale bar is 15
/ 8 cm........................................................................................................................... 237
Fig. 7.64. Chemical classification diagrammes for rocks of the bi-modal Guro Suite.......... 238
Fig. 7.65. (A) Pegmatitic variety of Monte Caverie granite. SE of Mte Nhambalati
(0520308/8204740), (B) Medium-grained dyke of Monte Caverie granite intrudes
foliated Chacocoma granite. NE of Mte Caconde (0530317/8211588). Scale bar is 10
cm................................................................................................................................ 241
Fig. 8.1. Geophysical signatures of the Tête Suite. (A) Th-U-K ternary radiometry,
coregistered with Landsat TM Band 5, showing the low to very low radiometric
signature of the gabbro-anorthosite suite, (B) Aeromagnetics – Total magnetic
intensity image of the suite. Note NE-SW directed sinistral faults cutting the suite.. 243
Fig. 8.2. Orthocumulate texture in coarse-grained gabbro-anorthosite of the Tete Suite. An
outcrop by the Tete-Songo road. The dark minerals are orthopyroxene (reddish brown
and magnetite (black). (0595846/8225674). Width of the number plate is 5 cm. ...... 244
Fig. 8.3. Hypothetical reconstruction of the original position of the Tête Suite prior to SE-
directed tectonic transport over a distance of ~ 40  45 km (length of arrow). The
Chipera massif could represent the western autochthonous extremity of the Tête Suite.
The Chimadzi possibly qualifies as a feeder. Background image is Th-U-K ternary
radiometry, co-registered with Landsat TM Band 5 (after Tahon, 2003)................... 245
Fig. 9.1. Coal seam in cross-bedded sandstone of the Moatize Formation*. Road cut east of
the Moatize town (0581066/8218213)........................................................................ 248
Fig. 9.2. Well-bedded sandstones with interlayered clay laminae. The Matinde Formation* in
Rio Mavúzi (0527823/8191363). Hammer is 65 cm long. ......................................... 249
Fig. 9.3. Pebbly sandstones with intraformational conglomerate horizons. The Matinde
Formation*. Rio Mavúzi (0527823/ 8191363). Hammer is 65 cm long. ................... 250
Fig. 9.4. Large scale cross-bedding in coarse-grained sandstone of the Cádzi Formation*.
North of Mte Nhambanda (0710658/ 8126999). Scale bar is 10 cm. ......................... 251
Fig. 9.5. Sandstones of the Cádzi Formation*. (A) Thick beds of mineralogically immature
sandstone. Road cut east of Rio Muche bridge (0640385/7984758), (B)
Microphotograph of mineralogically immature arkosic sandstone, which composes
about equal amount of quartz and feldspar grains (0589536/8179007). Scale bar is 10
cm, width of photo is 11 mm. ..................................................................................... 251
Fig. 9.6. Highly immature, conglomeratic sandstone of the Cádzi Formation*. Road cut east
of Rio Muche bridge (06414355/ 7985068). Scale bar is 10 cm. ............................... 252

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Fig. 9.7. Exposed contact between basaltic lava of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* (top) and
underlying conglomerate of the Cádzi Formation*. A tributary of Rio Mebahata
(0635136/ 8017203). Scale bar is 8 cm. ..................................................................... 253
Fig. 9.8. Rhyolitic interflows in the upper part of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* in Rio
Mebahata (0636470/8016042). Hammer is 65 cm long. ............................................ 253
Fig. 9.9. Columnar jointing in amygdaloidal basalt of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*. Rio
Mebahata (0636409/8016210). Scale bar is 8 cm....................................................... 254
Fig. 9.10. Contact between rhyolitic lava flow of the Serra Bombuè Formation* (top) and
brecciated basalt flow of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*. Rio Mebahata (0636470/
8016042). Hammer is 65 cm long............................................................................... 255
Fig. 9.11. A pile of thin, vesicle-rich basaltic lava flows of the Rio Mazoe Formation*. W of
the Rio Mazoe bridge (0540215/8170865). ................................................................ 256
Fig. 9.12. Ropy lava (pahoehoe) structure in basaltic lava flow. Rio Mazoe Formation*. West
of the Rio Mazoe bridge (0539576/ 8170743). Scale bar is 15 cm. .......................... 256
Fig. 9.13. Large, zeolite-filled vugs (gas cavities) in the upper zone of basaltic lava flow of
the Rio Mazoe Formation*. Serra Mevunge dome (0420090/ 8227068). Scale bar is 15
cm................................................................................................................................ 257
Fig. 9.14. Exposure showing contact between vesicular Bangomatete rhyolite (light grey; top)
and Mazoe basalt (dark grey; bottom) near the Birira village (0519978/8181483). Scale
bar is 8 cm................................................................................................................... 257
Fig. 9.15. Volcanic structures in rhyolitic flows of the Bangomatete Formation*. (A) Volcanic
breccia with fragment of welded (ash flow) tuff, having fiammes and
glomeroporphyric aggregates of alkali feldspar, probably due to vapor-phase
crystallisation, (B) Pumice fragments with roundish or tubular vesicles in non-welded
upper part of tuff. NW of Monte Inhamangombe (0521321/8174795), (C) Flow-
banding in the core of the flow. Rio Luia and Rio Mazoe confluence
(0523887/8168344), (D) Quartz and zeolite-filled lithophysae in the basal zone of
rhyolitic flow. Scale bar is 15 cm. ............................................................................. 259
Fig. 9.16. Rhyolitic lava flow with small eruptive vent in background. The Bangomatete
Formation. Rio Mazoe (0532910/ 8170633). ............................................................. 259
Fig. 9.17. Quartz-filled lithophysae in welded ash-flow tuff of the Bangomatete Formation*.
Mte Inhamangombe (0523787/8169299). Scale bar is 15 cm. .............................. 260
Fig. 9.18. A chaotic breccia, comprising of large, angular basaltic and rhyolitic fragments,
probably representing a talus breccia around the caldera. Bangomatete Formation*.
North bank of the Rio Mazoe (0524862/ 8168927). Scale bar is 15 cm ................... 260
Fig. 9.19. Highly vesicular rhyolite of the Bangomatete Formation*. East of Mte Chimandau
(0615085/7989540). Diameter of coin is 2.5 cm. ....................................................... 261
Fig. 9.20. Surface folding of viscous rhyolite lava flow belonging to the Bangomatete
Formation*. NE of Mte Balati (0402690/8203478). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................... 262
Fig. 9.21. Massive obsidian flow within the rhyolites of the Bangomatete Formation*. Note
the conchoidal fracture in the sample on the right in the picture. Location ~ 10 km W
of Mte Sluxia (0405729/ 8207966). Scale bar is 15 cm. ............................................ 262
Fig. 9.22. Rhyolite feeder, showing strong weathering of the Bangomatete Formation*. Birira
area (0521570/ 8180637). Scale bar is 10 cm............................................................ 263
Fig. 9.23. Exposure of basalt flows of the Chueza Formation* in the Chueza area
(0657706/8174088). Scale bar 10 cm. ........................................................................ 264
Fig. 9.24. (A) Basaltic lava flows with elongated and bended pipe amygdules, showing the
flow direction from southeast, (B) Detailed photo of lava flow contact with fork-like
pipe amygdules at the base of the upper flow, (C) A vertical cross section of lava lobes

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in a thin, basaltic lava flow. The Pompue River gorge in the Búzue village
(0624901/8092174). Scale bar is 15 cm. .................................................................... 265
Fig. 9.25. Tectonic contact between basalts of the Chueza Formation* (on the left) and
Mesoproterozoic gneisses. South bank of the Pompue River (0620158/8090549). Scale
bar is 15 cm................................................................................................................. 265
Fig. 9.26. Chemical classification diagrammes for Karoo volcanic rocks in the LOT2 area.267
Fig. 9.27. Exposure of Rukore granite and dolerite dyke. The Rukore Suite. Mte Rukore
(0472208/8158403). Scale bar 8 cm. .......................................................................... 268
Fig. 9.28. Granite of the Rukore Suite. Note felsic and mafic enclaves, the latter with feldspar
phenocrysts in a microcrystalline matrix. Texture of felsic enclave is subvolcanic. Mte
Rukore (0472208/8158403). Scale bar is 8 cm........................................................... 269
Fig. 9.29. Quartz-feldspar porphyry dyke with zoned feldspar phenocrysts and small, basaltic
enclaves. North of Rio Mazoe (0459259/8191348). Scale bar is 15 cm. ................... 269
Fig. 9.30. Medium-grained, massive gabbro of the Gorongosa Intrusive Suite. NW slope of
Gorongosa Mountain (0608226/ 7952881). Scale bar is 10 cm. ................................ 272
Fig. 9.31. Syenite granite of the Gorongosa Intrusive Suite, sampled for age determination. E
slope of Gorongosa Mountain (624079/ 7964478). Scale bar is 10 cm..................... 272
Fig. 9.32. Sandstone of the Tchazica Formation* showing subvertical jointing in the
Massangano area (0597759/ 8168051). Scale bar is 10 cm........................................ 275
Fig. 9.33. Bedding in reddish sandstone of the Tchazica Formation* (0598465/ 8167699).
Marker pen is 14 cm long. .......................................................................................... 275
Fig. 9.34. Lower part of the Lupata Group on the left bank of the Zambezi River. Behind one
of the authors rhyolites of the Monte Palamuli Formation* form the top of the plateau,
overlying sandstones of the Tchazica Formation*...................................................... 276
Fig. 9.35. Monte Palamuli rhyolites (Lupata Group) outcropping at the Chueza dam on the
Sorodeze River (0658433/8174691). .......................................................................... 277
Fig. 9.36. Massive rhyolite lava flows of the Monte Palamuli Formation* at the Sorodeze
River dam, in the Chueza area (0658433/8174691) Scale bar is 10 cm. .................... 277
Fig. 9.37. (A) Tabular cross-bedding in coarse-grained sandstone of the Monte Mazambulo
Formation*, (B) Fossil root in fine-grained sandstone of the Monte Mazambulo
Formation*. Southeast of the Mte Nhamalongo (0603484/8157829), (C) Tangential
cross-bedding and conglomeratic interbeds in coarse-grained sandstone of the Monte
Mazambulo Formation*. Southeast of the Mte Nhamalongo (0602534/8157764).
Scale bar is 15 cm. ...................................................................................................... 278
Fig. 9.38. Detailed photo of trachytic texture in phonolitic lava of the Monte Linhanga
Formation*. SW of Mte Palamuli (0617605/8162505). Scale bar is 10 cm............... 279
Fig. 9.39. (A) Trachytic Agglomerate Member of the Monte Linhanga Formation* forming
the northeast escarpment of Monte Cuadezo in the Chueza area (0657474/8173990),
(B) Detailed photo of trachytic agglomerate with roundish ejecta. The Monte Linhanga
Formation*. SW of Monte Palamuli (0617017/ 8162544). Scale bar is 15 cm.......... 280
Fig. 9.40. Chemical classification diagrams for volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group. The
rocks clearly plot in the field of phonolite (a) or phonolite-trachyte (b and c). The
alkaline trend is obvious (d) as well as the high Fe/Mg ratio (e)................................ 281
Fig. 9.41. Polymictic conglomerate with well-rounded quartzite and lava clasts. The Basal
conglomerate Member of the Sena Formation*. NE of the Canxixe village (0654401/
8077386). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 283
Fig. 9.42. (A) Polymictic basal conglomerate of the Mágoè sandstone, comprising granioids
and gneisses mostly from the Precambrian terrain. Rio Nhamafite (0461002/ 8191284),
(B) Polymictic basal conglomerate of the Mágoè Formation*, comprising rounded

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clasts of Karoo volcanics. Tributary of the Luia River south of of the Serra
Mevunge dome (0394485/8190520). Scale bar is 15 cm. ............................. 284
Fig 9.43. High wall of slightly tilted Mágoè sandstone, unconformably covered by massive
colluvial (Quaternary) deposits (dark brown). A tributary of Rio Molinge (0420866/
8230611). .................................................................................................................... 285
Fig. 9.44. Large-scale tabular cross-bedding in a variously altered Mágoè sandstone. A
tributary of Rio Metangua (0450792/8206993), (B) Tile-red, fresh sandstone portions
in a strongly altered Mágoè sandstone. Rio Caluaze (0419975/ 8229045). Scale bar is
15 cm, hammer is 50 cm long..................................................................................... 285
Fig. 9.45. A photo taken towards east from the top of Xiluvo Mount, showing a quarry in a
satellite intrusion in the background. (0612643/7872650). ........................................ 287
Fig. 9.46. Rio Mufa carbonatite; subcontinuous outcrop along the crest of the local ridge. (A)
Top of the ridge. The background belongs to the Precambrian granitoids, to the left
there is the overlying Tete gabbro rising to higher altitudes. Open warps of the
layering, with northerly fold axis, (B) Carbonatite debris on the crest, steep slopes to
both sides, (C) Obscure layering by colour variation, apatitic bands and clusters of
magnetite (width of the number plate is 5 cm.), (D) Close-up from Figure A: the
layering is shown by the grain size and compositional variation, including the variable
contents of apatite and magnetite. SE of Mte Caconde (0532281/8213274). ............ 289
Fig. 9.47. Fault gouge fill showing rhyolitic country rock fragments cemented by a network
of milky quartz. E slope of Mte Domba (0507839/ 8146860). Scale bar is 15 cm. ... 291
Fig. 9.48. Steep wall of reddish brown fluvial sand, covered by ~2 – 3 m thick, light brown
layer of colluvium. Rio Mazoe (504110/8154833)..................................................... 292
Fig. 9.49. Massive colluvium deposit at the southern margin of the Mevunge dome (0393485/
8189658). Scale bar 15 cm.......................................................................................... 293
Fig. 9.50. Large sand bank in the Zambezi River. The Lupata gorge (0616700/ 8162200).
Note a helicopter as a scale......................................................................................... 294
Fig. 10.1. Profile extending from Archaean crust across Palaeoproterozoic formations until
the Mesoproterozoic Báruè Complex, showing extensive allochthonous structure at the
Zimbabwe craton margin. Latitude ca. 17°30', south of Guro. Cf. Figs. 6.3 and 6.4. 297
Fig. 10.2. Gairezi schist veined by quartz, very fine schistosity expressing itself as silky lustre
under sunshine, folded, with crenulation cleavage in the axial plane. Village road to
Gairezi. (0507904/ 8064042). Scale bar is 10 cm..................................................... 298
Fig. 10.3. Section in horizontal roadside ditch outcrop showing thin-skinned stacking of
Archaean basement, Gairezi and Báruè lithologies. The current attitude of the sinistral
shear between the blocks I and III is subvertical. (0529791/7914931). ..................... 300
Fig. 10.4. The roadside ditch outcrop of Fig. 10.3. The outcrop along the ditch represents the
shear zone (a part of it) between the Báruè Complex in the east (to the right in the
picture) and the Archaean craton margin in the west, with local covers of the Gairezi
schists. The hill at the left background is an isolated block of Archaean granitoid
surrounded by Gairezi schists, probably with tectonic contacts. N of the Vanduzi
village (0529791/ 7914931)........................................................................................ 301
Fig. 10.5. Sheared Gairezi quartzite in the core of the shear zone of the previous two pictures.
Width of number plate is ~10 cm................................................................................ 301
Fig. 10.6. Intensively deformed garnet-muscovite-biotite schist of the Gairezi Group.
Metamorphic grade is that of lower amphibolite facies. Serra Nhamahono (0504242/
7976586). Scale bar is 10 cm...................................................................................... 306
Fig. 10.7. Microphotograph of post-metamorphically deformed garnet-muscovite-biotite
schist of the Gairezi Group. Old foliation is overprinted by crenulation cleavage. Thin

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section is from the schist in Fig. 10.6. (0504242/ 7976586). Width of photo is 20 mm.
..................................................................................................................................... 306
Fig. 10.8. Intensively melted garnet-biotite gneiss in the Báruè Complex. Metamorphic grade
is intermediate between amphibolite and granulite facies. Rio Nhangoma
(0604113/8078811). Scale bar is 10 cm. .................................................................... 307
Fig. 11.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs and Thomas (2004). Key: ANS =
Arabian-Nubian Shield; EAAO = East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M = Madagascar; Da
= Damaran; Z = Zambezi Belt. ................................................................................... 310
Fig. 11.2. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Distribution of lithologies
reflecting consuming/collisional lithospheric margins. Ophiolite body south of Nyika
Plateau (Zambia) has been added (adapted from Grantham et al. 2003 with updates).
..................................................................................................................................... 313
Fig. 11.3. Reconstruction of Rodinia after Li et al. (1995), Dalziel (1997) and Hoffman
(1999) showing mountain belts formed during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle and the
formation of juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9 Ga). Key: M = Madagascar, S = Sri Lanka,
KAL = Kalahari craton, N = Natal, A = Areachap and associated terrains, Fk =
Falkland Islands, H = Haag Nunatacks. L = Lurio belt, K = Kibaran belt and NET =
NE Tanzania................................................................................................................ 319
Fig. 11.4. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Ages and locations of various
major structural/tectonic features (e.g., major thrust belts, shear zones) showing
direction of tectonic transport and shear sense. Key: PC = Palgat-Cauvery Shear Zone;
RC = Rayner Complex; A = Achankovil Shear Zone; GC = Grunehogna cratonic
fragment; H = Heimefrontflella; RF = Ranotsara Shear Zone; U = Urfjell; N =
Namama Shear Belt; O = Orvinfjella Shear Zone; M = Manica Shear Zone (adapted
from Grantham et al. 2002). ....................................................................................... 324
Fig. 12.1. Monarch gold mine, production plant. .................................................................. 328
Fig. 12.2. Two gold mineralised shear zones in the Manica area: Mutambarico and Andrada.
Map by courtesy of the Pan African Resources Company, March 2006.................... 329
Fig. 12.3. Excavating for gold in Bandire. Weathered mica gneiss with horizontal quartz
veins. ........................................................................................................................... 330
Fig. 12.4. Gold bearing quartz veins in weathered mica schist near Mavita, Rotanda. Gold
occurs in the white, tightly folded quartz streaks. ...................................................... 330
Fig. 12.5. Artisanal excavation for gold-bearing quartz veins at Teçequire Mountain, south of
Serra da Gorongosa. The quartz veins are horizontal and can easily be removed from
the weathered bedrock. ............................................................................................... 331
Fig. 12.6. Banded iron stone in Honde. Batch is 10 cm long. ............................................... 333
Fig. 12.7. Hilltops consisting of titano-magnetite-rich lenses surrounded by gabbro and
anorthosite in Machédua, Tete Province..................................................................... 333
Fig. 12.8. Stone quarry south of the town of Tete. Small-scale artisanal work is ongoing. .. 335
Fig. 12.9. Nharuchonga quarry along the Beira-Chimoio road. ............................................ 335
Fig. 12.10. Carbonatite and felsic volcanic rocks are quarried for railway aggregate at Xiluvo.
..................................................................................................................................... 336
Fig. 12.11. Aggregate quarry in operation at Matsinho. Rock is a hard, quartz rich gneiss.. 336
Fig. 12.12. Dormant quarry, south of Chimoio town, DS 1833, 547254/7882478, hornblende
gneiss with folded quartz and pegmatite veins is quarried for aggregates. ................ 337
Fig. 12.13. Ceramica Villa Pery excavation for saprolitic clay in the Cafumbe area (DS 1933,
559331/ 7889311). ...................................................................................................... 338
Fig. 12.14. Monte Fema carbonatite (SDS 1633, 53803/8223684). ...................................... 342
Fig. 12.15. Quartz veins with greenish fluorite at Dombe. Scale bar is 8 cm........................ 343

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT

The mining policy of the Government of Mozambique focuses on the promotion of private
investments to develop the mining sector, based on a favourable geological environment and
mineral potential of the country. As part of this policy, the Ministry of Mineral Resources
(Ministério dos Recursos Minerais, MIREM), through the National Directorate of Geology
(Direcção Nacional de Geologia, DNG), fosters the development of the national geo-scientific
infrastructure in support of mining investments promotion and the sustainable social and
economic development of the country. The availability of basic geological information is an
important parameter to promote investments as well as an essential tool for planning of
construction of infrastructure and for natural disasters mitigation.
Mozambique has made great efforts in developing the basic geo-scientific
infrastructure of the country. Geological mapping has been carried out since colonial times
and extensive geophysical, geochemical, and geological surveys have been carried out since
independence. The archives of the DNG contain an impressive wealth of geo-scientific
information. However, most of this information is now outdated in reference to the
technology used and the geological concepts supporting mineral exploration. Moreover, the
geological mapping carried out in the decade before independence (1975) and during the
period of civil strife was limited by the difficulties to carry out fieldwork. Therefore, it is of
utmost importance to complete and modernise the national geo-scientific infrastructure. To
achieve this the Government of Mozambique has implemented the Mineral Resources
Management Capacity Building Project (MRMP), as part of a major international
programme.
The main objective of the mapping programme of the MRMP is to revise previous
mapping in certain areas and to upgrade the quality of geological maps in others, to provide a
consistent coverage in terms of quality throughout the Mozambican territory. The geological
mapping is based on modern lithostratigraphic principles and therefore the objective of this
programme is also to resolve stratigraphic problems, provide good geochronological control
data and resolve structural problems.

1.2. HISTORY AND SYNTHESIS OF PREVIOUS WORK

Holmes (1918) published the first contribution on the general geology of Mozambique. Other
pioneer studies include Anthoine and Dubois (1925) and Andrade and de Freire (1929).
Geological investigations continued during Portuguese colonial rule (Longyear Company,
1955a,b; Freitas, 1957, 1959), culminating with a monography on the geology of
Mozambique by Afonso (1976). After independence in 1975 the DNG has launched various
geo-scientific programmes in collaboration with foreign and international organisations,
including the BRGM (France), Bulgargeomin (Bulgaria), Aquater S.p.A. (Italy), Hunting
Geology and Geophysics Ltd (UK) and UNDP. These programmes were mainly in the fields
of regional geochemistry and airborne geophysics. Mineral resources of the country were

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studied in late 1970’s and beginning of 1980’s by the Swedish iron ore producer LKAB (iron
ores, tin and coal). At the same time many of the industrial mineral occurrences were
investigated by the Geological Institute in Belgrad (Brodoimpeks-Geosavod), from former
Yugoslavia (Brodoimpeks, 1983,1984 and 1985).
Between 1981 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Ltd initiated a new phase
of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project, covering the Tete province and
parts of Manica, Sofala and Zambézia provinces, under the aegis of the Mozambican
Government. The project was successful in its main objectives of setting the geological
context for known mineral deposits in a large area of basement rocks, establishing an
inventory of mineral occurrences and in defining priorities for future follow-up work.
The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time (1980 – 1984) the
northern part of Mozambique resulting in novel ideas comprising the existence of
allochthonous nappes and Klippen in the Mozambican Belt. It further resulted in the
publication of a new geological map of Mozambique – scale 1:1 000 000 – that also showed
new insights into the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al. 1986, 1987; Pinna and Marteau,
1987). An essential difference with former studies was the general acceptance of geologic-
tectonic rejuvenation of almost all rock sequences. The main part of the crystalline basement,
including the (ultra-)mafic intrusions, i.e., the Atchiza, Nhantreze and Tete Suites shifted
from the Neoarchaean/ Palaeoproterozoic to the Mesoproterozoic/ Neoproterozoic.
The crystalline basement was subdivided, in accordance with the BRGM map, into
three periods:
• Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic units along the Zimbabwean border, composed of
greenstone belts and a granite-gneiss terrains.
• Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic (Irumide and Mozambican Tectonic Cycles)
units that are subdivided into two litho-units:
o Orogenic units that were formed at the end of the Precambrian B and the
beginning of the Precambrian A (sensu BRGM map, 1987), which were
believed to correspond with a projected elongation of the Irumide Belt of
Zambia and Congo (1300 Ma) and subjected to Mozambican tectogenesis
(1100 – 850 Ma). The Mozambique Belt was assigned to these units and
indicated on account of ages of the magmatic sequences (charnockites,
enderbites, anorthosites at 1070 – 900 Ma, and migmatites and granitoids at
1100 – 900 Ma).
o Supracrustal sequences – granulites and (blasto-)mylonites at 1000±150 Ma –
that include allochthonous as well as autochthonous complexes.
• Late Neoproterozoic units (Pan-African Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 450 Ma, as well as
the Katangan Tectonic Cycle, 850 – 600 Ma), marked by intensive tectonism,
followed by Pan-African intrusions (500±100 – 410 Ma).

The BRGM map also presented the most important source for the stratigraphic sub-
division of the rock units that underlie the territory of Mozambique. The ‘Provisional
Stratigraphic Scheme of Mozambique’ (Lächelt et al. 1997) and the ‘Stratigraphic Correlation
Scheme’ compiled on behalf of the SADC countries (Hartzer, 1998) mainly follow the
exposition of the 1987 BRGM map. A review of the mineral resources of Mozambique is
contained in Afonso and Marques (1993) and Afonso et al. (1998). All existing information

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on the geology of Mozambique has been recently compiled and reviewed in an impressive
monograph by Lächelt (2004).
Critical in understanding poly-metamorphic units and geodynamic development of the
Mozambique basement are correct radiometric age determinations. Prior to the Hunting
(1984) and BRGM studies these were overwhelmingly K-Ar and Rb-Sr whole rock ages.
These gave mixed or, at best, cooling ages. New geochronological methods (SHRIMP, U-Pb
zircon, Sm-Nd and Ar-Ar) have been developed since and produce far more reliable results.
The present Project (2002 – 2006) builds on the older results, in particular the Hunting
(1984) surveys (see also Barr et al. 1986; Barr and Brown, 1988) in parts of the area covered
by the present Map Explanation. For the remaining portions information has been drawn from
the geological reports in Direcção Nacional de Geologia (DNG) in Maputo. The present
Project endeavours previous studies to apply correct lithostratigraphic nomenclature with
formation names as the primordial lithostratigraphic unit. Strictly speaking, this requires the
selection of a ‘type-locality’ with an official topographic name for each formation. This task
falls outside the mandate of the Project. Consequently, most formation names have to be
considered as informal and provisional4.
The upgraded geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium during the Project
have benefited optimally from new GIS-based image processing technology, new airborne
data and 36 new geochronological age determinations.

4
In agreement with the Client ‘Formation*’ will be used to indicate an informal use.

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CHAPTER 2

METHODOLOGIES AND PROCEDURES

2.1. INTRODUCTION
The scope of the work did not allow for comprehensive traditional field mapping on, for
example, 1:50 000 scale and subsequent compilation of the results on 1:250 000 scale.
Modern digital mapping methods have been used, based on the interactive interpretation of
merged satellite imagery and airborne geophysical data (magnetic and radiometric surveys),
digitally merged aerial photographs, existing geological maps and limited field verification.
The revised and upgraded maps produced by the GTK Consortium are not static, printed maps
that have to last for 15 to 20 years, but dynamic products that can be up-dated any time new
data become available and adapted to requirements of the end-user (thematic maps).
Project implementation methodology included execution of a group of tasks relevant
to the mapping, as well as a programme of training for DNG staff. Preparation of this new
generation of upgraded geological maps has been conveniently subdivided into four phases of
which the flow sheet is outlined in Fig. 2.1:
• Preparation phase: This included collection and quality assessment of all available
relevant data and documentation; acquisition of equipment and material;
organisation of logistics (transport, setting up field camps, mobilisation of field
teams, etc.).
• Compilation and synthesis of the existing geological information: Based on
existing geological maps (when available), satellite imagery, airborne geophysical
data and aerial photographs, first drafts of up-dated geological maps and legends
were prepared. Based on these, field verification, mapping and sampling
programmes were planned and executed.
• Mapping phase: Field traverses were selected in function of accessibility and
focusing on problem areas, i.e., areas where the geology based on interpretation of
satellite imagery and airborne data deviates from the interpretation as presented in
the existing geological maps. Field verification also comprised sampling of rock
specimen for future reference. Part of the samples has been selected for
petrographic, litho-geochemical or geochronological studies and the rest stored in
DNG.
• Preparation of the final products: Preparation of digital map products and
databases including final map legends.

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Data Gathering and

Flow sheet of geological mapping

Satellite images and

Geolocical data
aerial photographs
Preparation
Phase I:

Base data Processing of the

Geophysical data satellite images and
DEM
aerial photographs
DML 1st version

Interpretation of satellite images

and aerial photographs
Geological data
Geological Review and Compilation of Map Data

interpretation
Compiled
Compilation of geological
geological maps
field maps
Geophysical data
processing

Field survey
Phase II:

(geological mapping)

Databases
- Field geological db for
observations
- Result of analyses Laboratory studies
- Description of lithology (Petrographic, geochemical and
- Mineral Occurrence db geochronological studies)
- Lithostratical classification
db Preliminary
Products and
Geological and mineral Reports
occurrences data - draft geological
processing maps
Technical reports
(Notes to geological maps)
Verification and Final Digital Products

Preparation of the geological and Digital geological

photograph databases and ArcInfo
coverages
maps and
Production of the databases on
Phase III:

Geological maps and CDROM

observation database
Preparation of the Final Legend

Final geological
DML - Final version map printouts

Fig. 2.1. Outline of flow sheet of different phases of the Project.

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2.2. EXISTING DATA

This mainly included geological maps on different scales, aerial photographs, satellite
imagery (Landsat-7 ETM) and airborne geophysical data available in the archives of the
DNG. Part of the airborne geophysical data was gathered during the Project period under a
parallel programme.
The GTK Consortium has merged the existing and newly acquired airborne
geophysical data. Use was made of digital elevation data from the Shuttle Radar Topographic
Mission (SRTM) and ASTER VNIR scenes. The quality of the existing geological maps was
variable. Maps were available as printed copies or only as blue prints. Some parts of the
territory of Mozambique were only covered by a photo-geological interpretation or had
remained unmapped. GPS track logs collected by the Consortium during Project
implementation demonstrated that the topographic base of the existing geological maps was
generally below modern requirements. They showed non-systematic offsets in the order of
200 to 300 metres.

2.3. COMPILATION AND SYNTHESIS

Within the scope of the Project the following activities have been carried out:
• Compilation and scanning of existing analogue map products (topographic and
geological) into a seamless digital database.
• Re-interpretation and compilation of the map legends in terms of the new
lithostratigraphic framework of Mozambique.
• Preparation of a new set of up-graded geological maps, based mainly on an
interactive interpretation of composite imagery based on merged remote sensing
and airborne geophysical datasets and comparing with existing maps.

2.3.1. Digitising and Compilation of Existing Geological Maps

The 1:1 000 000 scale geological map of Mozambique compiled by BRGM (1987) and the
1:250 000 scale Hunting (1984) map sheets have been digitised and the polygons were coded
correlatively as far as possible. The BRGM map was the more recent of the two and
represented more developed concepts vis-à-vis regional correlation of lithostratigraphic units
and therefore contributed more to the preliminary legend of the map upgrades (first draft).
The Hunting (1984) and BRGM (1987) almost similar versions of the geology of the LOT 2
area were given common colours for comparison and to use them separately at different
occasions.
Digital provisional geological maps (first draft), based on the existing Hunting (1984)
map sheets and the geological interpretation of enhanced satellite imagery and airborne
geophysics were prepared of the whole LOT 2 area. Line codes used in the provisional
geological maps followed the line coding of the published geological maps, including
observed, inferred and probable lithological contacts, reverse, normal and strike-slip faults,
foliation trends and unconformities. Dykes were digitised as polylines and were therefore not
included in the Arc-mode topology. Polygons were initially coded according to the legend of

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the Hunting (1984) geological maps. Additional coding was applied to geological features
inferred from the interpretation of airborne geophysical and remote sensing data sets.
During the process of naming the polygons, it was found that many polygons in the
Hunting (1984) compilation maps had no label. In most cases, similarity in size (usually
small) and shape of such polygons left little doubt as to which unit the polygon should be
assigned to. Only in a few cases several alternative interpretations were possible. These
polygons were ‘earmarked’ for validation during later interpretation of Landsat imagery.
Most linear geological features (ca. 95%) in the Hunting (1984) maps were encoded as
inferred features, suggesting that the fieldwork conducted by the Hunting project provided
only a few possibilities to trace lithological contacts along strike during geological field
mapping. Structural elements, like foliation and bedding elements were also extracted from
the Hunting (1984) geological maps. The line elements were digitised to recompile the
structural information in tabular format (strike and dip at every point). The line segments
were digitised using the right hand rule so that the dip orientation was taken into account.

2.3.2. Satellite Imagery

Satellite images (Landsat-7 ETM) had been collected and registered by CENACARTA,
Maputo, in UTM Zone 36S projection, Clarke 1866, Tete Datum, using existing topographic
maps as reference data. The images have been selected from different years and seasons in
order to obtain scenes with no or minimal cloud coverage. Consequently, colour differences
between different scenes could not be avoided. The scenes covering LOT 2 were geo-
referenced and reformatted into mosaics corresponding with the 1:250 000 scale topographic
map sheets. The layout of the Landsat TM scenes and the mosaics, corresponding with the
1:250 000 topographic map sheets, is shown in Fig. 2.2.
GPS track logs collected by the Consortium, using a handheld unit (Garmin 12XL),
revealed offsets that amounted up to systematic shifts of 200 – 300 meters, predominantly in
northing. Given the fact that both the track logs and ETM scenes were registered on the same
projection and ellipsoid, the systematic displacements were due to the fact that the
transformation parameters between the Tete and MOZNET data were initially not known and,
consequently, set to zero. Subsequently, the required datum transformation became available
to the Consortium through a technical report on the adjustment of the old geodetic network of
Mozambique by Norconsult International (1998). The recommended Bursa-Wulf (or Helmert)
transformation parameters for the project area are presented in Table 2.1. Due to GIS software
limitations and processing efficiency, the rotation and scaling factors were ignored in the
datum transformation. This appeared reasonable and the discrepancies were reduced well
below the accuracy of single handheld GPS units.
All TM scenes covering the LOT2 area were re-sampled to fit the MOZNET datum
using bi-cubic re-sampling. The re-registration of Landsat scenes using the GPS stations
collected during the fieldwork improved the registration and there was no need to apply
datum transformations afterwards.
Although the mismatches between GPS track logs and the TM scenes were reduced to
about 100 meters, non-systematic distortions, probably induced by poorly chosen ground
control points of previous geodetic surveys, are still present. It must be noticed that these
errors can only be resolved by collecting additional GPS control points.

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Table 2.1. Bursa-Wolf transformation parameters and root mean square errors valid for provinces of Sofala
(north of Beira corridor), Manica, Tete and Zambezia computed by Norconsult International on the basis of 32
common points in the Tete and MOZNET data (Norconsult International, 1998).
Parameter Value R.M.S. Unit
1 Shift dX -73.472 16.9006 Metres
2 Shift dY -51.66 20.4291 Metres
3 Shift dZ -112.482 24.289 Metres
4 Rotation about X -0.95259 0.6613 " (arc seconds)
5 Rotation about Y -4.60029 0.6928 " (arc seconds)
6 Rotation about Z 2.368262 0.6606 " (arc seconds)
7 Scale 0.585646 2.4102 Parts per million

Fig. 2.2. Layout of the Landsat-7 TM scenes and mosaics, corresponding with 1:250 000 topographic and
geological Degree Sheets over the LOT2 project area (Image by E. Schetselaar).

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2.3.3. Airborne Geophysics

Available air-borne geophysical data comprised the old (e.g., Hunting, 1983; other data) and
the recently collected Fugro (2003) data (Fig. 2.3). The Hunting data was received as contour
maps and as digital grids. The grid data included total magnetic field, potassium, thorium,
uranium channels and total count. The grids were useful for a quick assessment on how to
exploit the data in map production and geological mapping. The Hunting airborne
geophysical data were seriously hampered by the effects of flight-based level shifts and
micro-levelling errors. This restricted their use for digital classification and other image
processing applications. Hence, the line data from the Hunting geophysical surveys were
recovered as ASCII line data from the GEODESA5 archives at ITC to investigate if these
levelling errors could be reduced to produce better grids for geological interpretation. The
recovery and processing of the line data, proved to be effective in:
• Reducing significant level shifts of the Th channel in the northern block of the
survey area.
• Reducing the micro-levelling errors of the aero-magnetic data.

The U channel, suffering from similar flight-based level shifts, could not be improved
since the shifts were ‘smeared out’ over adjacent flight lines, apparently induced by previous
attempts to correct level shifts by filtering the data.
The new preliminary airborne geophysical survey data (Fugro, 2003) were received
through DNG in September 2003. The data suffered from the following shortcomings:
• Incomplete overlap between older and new surveys.
• Absence of calibration details and values of Cosmic Stripping Ratios and Aircraft
background.
• Absence of height attenuation coefficients.
• No stripping ratios and their calibration details.
• No specific details on data correction and reliability (% errors) in areas of extreme
topography.
• Presence of a large number of negative values in all radiometric channels in areas
of flat topography (in database and grids).

The line data of K, eTh, eU, TC and the total magnetic field channels were registered
on the MOZNET datum and gridded on 200 meter cells using a minimum curvature gridding
algorithm. Reduction to the pole, vertical derivative and residual magnetic field grids were
computed from the total magnetic field grid in order to further facilitate the interpretation of
regional geological units and structures.

5
GEODESA (1996 – 2000) was the name for an Institutional Strengthening project, addressing 12 Geological
Survey organisations in eastern and southern Africa and the Mineral Coordination Unit of SADC (Lusaka) and
co-implemented by SEAMIC (Dar es Salaam), ITC and TNO-NITG (the Netherlands).

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Fig. 2.3. Map of Mozambique showing survey blocks covered by air-borne geophysics.

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Tests with the preliminary Fugro magnetic grid show that it can be successfully
merged with the old Hunting data without applying any regional correction other than IGRF
removal. Overlapping areas ‘blend‘ well to give continuity of short-wavelength features
across the boundary, although the difference in resolution of the two grids is apparent. The
latter is due to three factors: (a) lower flying height (100m versus 120m), (b) greater down-
line sampling (0.1s versus 1s) and (c) improved navigational accuracy (differential GPS
versus Doppler + visual). Regression analysis of the overlapping parts of the grids for the
gamma-ray spectrometry data cover almost the full dynamic range and provide reasonable, if
not perfect, equations for back calibration of the older data. The calculated sensitivity
constants are not too far from what would be expected for the crystal volume and flying
height used in the older survey but they may be a little biased by the present number of
negative values in the new survey.
The difference between the expression of short-wavelength anomalies in the 1983 and
2003 aeromagnetic survey data are illustrated in Fig. 2.4. In the 2003 area, short-wavelength
anomalies are resolved from each other and appear sharp and continuous in the image. In the
older survey data, evidence of short-wavelength features is apparent but individual anomalies
and trends are not always clear.

Fig. 2.4. Comparison of the spatial resolution of short-wavelength magnetic anomalies from the 1983 (right)
and 2003 (left) airborne surveys. The white line marks the boundary between the two surveys.

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2.3.4. Digital Enhancement of Landsat 7 TM Scenes

Several enhanced products were derived from the Landsat-7 scenes to support geological
interpretation. Enhancement methods include linear and interactive contrast stretching of
single bands and colour composite images and principal component analysis. In selecting the
band triplets for generating colour composite images from a total of twenty possible
combinations of the six 30-meter bands, the discrimination of rocks (or related soil cover) was
considered an important factor in selecting an optimal triplet for lithological units.
Another less important factor was the possibility to detect lithological variations
indirectly and present these broad-scale geobotanic relationships in natural vegetation
communities. The band combinations (Red = TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM1) and (Red =
TM7, Green = TM3, Blue = TM2) provided attractive colour composites, particularly for
Landsat scenes acquired over relatively dry areas or during dry seasons. Both band triplets
utilise strong and broad absorption features of carbonate and hydroxyl-bearing minerals
between about 2.2 - 2.4 micron, a range overlapping with the wavelength position of TM7.
In addition, these band combinations give information about the spectral slope
between 0.4 and 0.7 micron (the visible range comprising TM1, TM2 and TM3) that is
diagnostic to iron- oxide minerals (Goetz et al. 1983). Good exposures of carbonate and mica
rich rocks typically appear in shades of blue on such colour composites, whereas rocks with
red alteration, due to high contents of iron-oxides, appear in yellow to reddish tones. The use
of these diagnostic spectral properties of rocks and derived soil material is obviously
hampered in areas with a moderate to dense vegetation cover. In these areas, subtle geo-
botanic relationships between natural vegetation communities and their substrate may be
employed instead, by using band combinations that include the prominent and steep slope
between the visible red and near infra-red range of the green vegetation spectrum. Hence, the
combination (Red = TM 4, Green = TM7 and Blue = TM3) was used as an additional
combination to maximise spectral discrimination of lithological units in areas with higher
green biomass densities. Examples of colour composite images generated from the band
combinations are shown in Fig. 2.5.
Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to exploit another important diagnostic
image characteristic for discriminating lithologies. In short, PCA generates a new orthogonal
set of bands along the lines of maximum variance among the original bands (Curran, 1985).
This effectively minimizes redundant information, particularly because the original bands
tend to be highly correlated. The new bands, called principal components, are ordered
according to their percentage of variance. Thus the highest percentage of the total variance is
mapped on the first principal component, whereas the lowest percentage of the total variance,
often considered as noise is mapped on the last principal component. The first principal
component contains the information that is common among the multi-spectral bands, which is
usually strongly related to the scene illumination. As a result PC1 provides optimal
enhancement of relief features provided by the sun illumination of the scene, which may be
exploited for outlining lithological units on the basis of their variable geomorphologic
expression. PC1 images, for example, appeared to enhance the differences between granites
and intrusive mafic intrusives and the differences among felsic suites themselves, as well as
the more subtle small-scale linear patterns reflecting differences in the degree of penetrative
foliation/bedding fabric in various plutonic, metamorphic and sedimentary rock units.

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Fig. 2.5. Subset colour composite images for different band combinations (Images by E. Schetselaar).

2.3.5. Geological Interpretation of Landsat TM Scenes

The digital compilation of the Hunting (1984) geological maps was employed as the basis for
the geological interpretation. The codes of the interpreted line work that form the polygon
boundaries of lithological units refer to normal, unconformable and fault contacts of various
nature. The source of these new polylines could be differentiated from the older line work
derived from the digitised Hunting (1984) geological maps.
The Hunting (1984) digital geological map compilation was superimposed on
enhanced geophysical grids, remote sensing images, integrated image products of gamma-ray
spectrometry and Landsat data and merged digital images of digital geological map
documents of neighbouring countries and Landsat colour composites. The main objectives of
the interpretation were:
• Resolve mismatches between adjacent map sheets of the Hunting (1984) geological
coverage
• Trace geological structures and lithological units from geological maps of
neighbouring countries, particularly Zimbabwe, where maps show more litho-
logical and structural details
• Identify discrepancies between the Hunting (1984) geological maps and geological
features inferred from the enhanced image products
• Resolve intersecting boundary conflicts between image-inferred and map digitised
geological features

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2.3.6. Integrated Enhancement of Radiometric and Landsat TM Scenes

Previous studies have shown that integrated enhancement of remote sensing and airborne
geophysical data sets may yield significant geological information, not obvious in enhanced
products of the individual data sets (Harris et al. 1994). The integration of gamma-ray
spectrometry grids and satellite imagery of higher spatial resolution in image products, in
particular, has proven useful to enhance geological information. Such integrated
enhancements allow the interpretation of the geochemical information contained in the
gamma-ray spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological
contacts, faults and foliation trends (Wilford et al. 1997; Schetselaar, 2000).
The digital processing methods used to generate integrated enhancements are all based
on the principle of mapping co-registered grids/images on distinct perceptual attributes of
human colour vision using image algebraic operations. In practice, the geo-science data sets
are first co-registered on a common pixel/grid cell size, after which they are ‘fused’ in colour
composite images by the application of an algebraic algorithm to the pixels.
Composite enhanced image products of geophysical grids and Landsat TM scenes
were prepared to aid the extraction of complementary geological information. Grids of K, eTh
and eU were registered with Landsat-7 band 5 on 50-meter pixels and integrated using the
HDF transform (Chavez et al. 1991):
Red = (K + 3.TM5)/4
Green = (eTh + 3.TM5)/4
Blue = (eU +3.TM5)/4

The ternary/TM5 image data appear to be an ideal enhancement for geological

interpretation as it allows interpreting the geochemical information of the gamma-ray
spectrometry channels in the context of structural features, such as lithological contacts,
foliation trends and various erosional landforms. In other occasions, merging of remote
sensing and airborne magnetic data produced powerful imagery for geological interpretation.
A subset of the composite image is shown in Fig. 2.6. Optimal image products for geological
interpretation can be summarised as follows:
• IHS colour composite images of gamma-ray spectrometry channels (K, eTh, eU)
and high-passed filtered Landsat TM band 7, co-registered on 30 metre pixels.
Chromatic (hue and saturation) contrasts provide lithological differentiation
(mostly of igneous rocks) whereas image texture allows differentiating various
sedimentary units. High spatial resolution intensity from Landsat provides, in
addition, structural details to differentiate foliated from non-foliated rocks.
• Landsat TM colour composites, bands 7, 3 and 1, provide high spatial resolution
and multispectral details to further confirm and better outline the geometry of units
inferred from the IHS composite images.
• First vertical derivative of pole-reduced magnetic data, further enforces geological
significance of lithological differentiation and shows complementary structural
details (particularly dykes).
• ASTER VNIR colour composite images (15 metre spatial resolution) for detailed
interpretation of geological boundaries and structures and for tracing tracks/roads.

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Fig. 2.6. Image clips to illustrate the effects on integrated enhancement of Landsat TM and gamma ray
spectrometry channels. Left original ternary radiometric map, right ternary radiometric map ‘sharpened’ with
Landsat TM5. The black polygons correspond with (ultra-)mafic rocks of Atchiza Suite (Images by E.
Schetselaar).

2.3.7. Digital Interactive Interpretation of Compiled and Processed Data Sets

Geological interpretation work of the mapping area was conducted mostly interactively using
GIS functionality. The digital approach facilitated an interactive enhancement of the various
remote sensing and airborne geophysical datasets and made it possible to compare the digital
compilation of the geological maps prepared by Hunting (1984) with any enhanced product at
any scale.
The interactive overlay of the digital compilation of the Hunting (1984) geological
maps on various enhanced image data proved to be useful for matching the lithostratigraphic
map units with image characteristics on which basis the lithological units were recognised on
the enhanced imagery. It is obvious that the relationships between lithostratigraphic concepts
and contrasting image characteristics, such as tone, texture and patterns are never a one-to-one
relationship. Several units on the map may match with only one identifiable unit on the
enhanced imagery or vice versa. As a result, in places with good field control and lack of
diagnostic image features, generalisation towards areas with less or no field control is
unavoidable.
It became clear during the integrated geological interpretation that in the areas with no
or few field observations many additional geological features could be identified from the
compiled remote sensing-airborne geophysical imagery (Figs. 2.7, 2.8. and 2.9). This was
particularly true for the area south of Changara where virtually no fieldwork had been
conducted. On the other hand, for some areas north of Lake Cabora Bassa, the Hunting
compilation contained geological details that could not be identified on any of the compiled
data sets. Of the six lithological units recognised by detailed field studies of the Fíngoè
Group, for example, only three units (marble, quartzite and schist) could be detected during
the interactive digital interpretation.
The envisaged geological coverage also includes a provisional mineral map for each of
the 1:250 000 scale maps, accompanied by a geo-referenced inventory of mineral deposits and
occurrences that have been captured in an electronic database, such as MS Access or Corel

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Paradox. The preparation of these mineral maps and the database has taken place simul-
taneously with the geological mapping.

Fig. 2.7. Lithological units of the Rushinga Group from geological maps of the Zimbabwe border region can
be traced on a Landsat TM colour composite into Mozambique. Pink lines show the Hunting (1984)
compilation, blue lines the Landsat interpretation prepared by the Consortium (Image by E.Schetselaar).

Fig. 2.8. Complex fold structures and shear zone (green dotted line) in mafic and quartzo-feldspathic units of
the Báruè Complex. Pink lines show the Hunting compilation, blue lines the Landsat interpretation prepared
by the Consortium (Image by E. Schetselaar).

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2.4. FIELD VERIFICATION AND MAPPING

Field verification and mapping took place by a team of field geologists from the Consortium,
in close cooperation with geologists and technicians from the DNG, during three consecutive
field seasons (March – November 2003, 2004 and 2005) along pre-selected itineraries in
function of access and complexity of geology from different base camps. More remote areas
were surveyed from fly camps. Transport was generally by 4 x 4 traction vehicles, ATV’s,
motorbikes and foot traverses. Helicopter transport was used for field verification in the least
accessible and most remote areas.

Fig. 2.9. IHS composite image of gamma-ray spectrometry channels and Landsat TM band 7 of the Báruè
Complex (on the right). Red, darker areas are interpreted as more mafic gneiss units, whereas the green (Th
rich) units appear to correspond to felsic units, possibly including late granitoid intrusives. Pink area in the
upper left corner corresponds to lithologies of the Rushinga Group (Image by E. Schetselaar).

A total of ~ 7600 GPS-controlled field observations were entered into field forms and,
subsequently, together with representative digital photograph(s) of the outcrop(s), entered as
.pdf files into the DML and subsequently into the observation database. All observation points
and attached data have also been stored in a GIS database for preparing work sheets.
Rock samples collected during field verification have been archived, photographed
digitally and stored at the DNG regional or head offices.

2.5. LABORATORY WORK

Laboratory work comprised (1) petrographic study of selected thin sections, (2) geo-
chronological study of selected rock samples, (3) litho-geochemical study of various rock
types and (4) microprobe analysis of minerals of selected polished thin sections.

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2.5.1. Petrography

Rock samples collected during field verification have been archived, photographed digitally
and transported to DNG sample storage facilities. The digital photographs have been stored in
the DML.
Out of nearly 4000 samples, 254 (total 533/Lot 2) have been selected for thin section
preparation and petrographic study. The selected samples were first sent to DNG in Maputo
for cutting and storage of a reference sample. The thin sections have been prepared at the
CGS laboratories in Pretoria, South Africa. Sample locations for which a petrographic slide
has been prepared are shown in Fig. 2.10B.

Fig. 2.10. (A) Sample locations for geochemical analysis, (B) Sample locations for petrographic studies.

2.5.2. Geochronology

Limited geochronological data from Mozambican rocks is contained in Sacchi et al. (1984),
Barr and Brown (1987), Bigioggero et al. (1990), Costa et al. (1992, 1994), Pinna et al.
(1993), Manhiça (1998), Evans et al. (1999), Jamal et al. (1999) and Manhiça et al. (2001).
Grantham et al. (2002) has collected the above, published geochronological data, together
with similar data from neighbouring areas. In addition to previous age determinations, a total
of 36 representative rock samples, collected from Lot 2 area by the field teams, have been
dated by the GTK Consortium. The results are presented in Mänttäri (2005a,b and 2006) and
reproduced for the area covered by this Map Explanation in App. 2. Sample locations for age
determinations are shown in Fig. 2.11 and a summary of the geochronological results is
presented in Fig. 2.12.
Three geochronological methods have been used by the Consortium: (1) convential
TIMS U-Pb dating, (2) SHRIMP U-Pb dating on zircons and (3) Sm-Nd mineral dating.
These methods are described in App. 2.

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The age results from the Mozambican rock samples dated by the Consortium are
collected in Table 2.2. The probability density plot with histograms of all the dated magmatic
ages including also the results from report part 1/2) is presented in Fig. 2.12. Pan-African
metamorphism at ca. 520 Ma was observed from many samples. In sedimentary rocks
Archaean zicons up to 3.1 Ga were observed.

Fig. 2.11. Sample locations for geochronological studies from Lot 2 area, Volume 2.

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7
Magmatic ages from 30 Mozambiquean rock samples

Relative probability
4
Number

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200

Age / Ma

Fig. 2.12. Histogram showing magmatic age peaks as achieved from GTK Consortium datings within Lot 2
area.

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Table 2.2. Summary of isotopic age determinations from Mozambique samples, Map Explanation Vol. 2 area.

2.5.3. Lithogeochemistry

Out of the total 352 analysed rock samples 175 come from the map explanation Volume 2
area (Fig. 2.10A). The samples were analysed using high precision methods and applying
state-of-the-art instrumentation (XRF, ICP-AES, ICP-MS) in GTK laboratories in Finland.
Major, minor and many trace elements have been determined using the XRF pressed
powder pellet method. Where desired the XRF results have been supplemented with ICP-AES
or ICP-MS analyses (e.g., rare earth elements) after total digestion of the sample (HF-HClO4-
digestion). Carbon and Loss on Ignition (LoI) have been carried out where needed. In special
cases also Fe (II), H2O+ and H2O¯ have been determined.
The results of chemical analyses are presented in table format in App. 3 and in several
classification and discrimination diagrams located in relevant sections of the text. The
following diagrams have been used for classification of volcanic and plutonic rocks and
estimation of geotectonic setting:
• (Na2O+K2O) vs. SiO2 (TAS, Le Bas et al. 1986)
• SiO2 vs. Zr/TiO2 (Winchester and Floyd 1977)
• (Na2O+K2O)-FeOt-MgO (AFM, Irvine and Baragar (1971)
• Al2O3-(FeO+Fe2O3+TiO2)-MgO (Jensen 1976)

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• Q’ vs. ANOR (Streckeisen and LeMaitre 1979)

• A/NK vs. A/CNK (Maniar and Piccoli 1989)
• Mn*10-TiO2-P2O5*10 (Mullen 1983)
• MgO-Al2O3-FeOt (Pearce et al. 1977)
• LogRb vs. Log(Y+Nb) (Pearce et al. 1984)

The Fe# sign, which occurs in the text of the geochemistry chapters and in the chemical tables
of Appendix 3, means Fe2Otot /(Fe2O3tot + MgO).
The chemical compositions of minerals have been determined from polished thin
sections using Cameca SX100 electron microprobe in the Geological Survey of Finland.
Conditions of analysis were: voltage = 15kV, intensity of beam current = 25nA, beam
diameter = 5 micrometers. About 500 analyses have been carried out from 15 thin sections
from the area of this Map Explanation. A selection of the most relevant analyses is presented
in App. 4.

2.5.4. C-isotope Analyses

Carbonate rock samples have been collected from the metamorphic terrain in Mozambique.
Mostly, they represent sedimentary carbonate rock occurrences, but in a few cases evidence
favouring a carbonatitic origin has been presented. The isotopic studies were done in order to
get information on the depositional age of the units and to test the hypothesis for carbonatitic
origin for the samples from Mt Muande, Mt Xiluvo and Boroma.
The proportions of calcite and dolomite were determined in the mineralogical
laboratory of the Geological Survey of Finland, Espoo using a semi-quantitative XRD
procedure. The samples were analysed for the isotopic composition of carbon and oxygen
using the traditional phosphoric acid method in the Department of Geology, University of
Helsinki. The samples with calcite as the dominant carbonate mineral were reacted at 72°C
and those with dolomite at 90°C and analysed by a Finnigan Delta Advantage mass
spectrometer running in a continuous flow mode.
The calcite-dolomite proportions and the results of the isotopic determinations are
being discussed in relevant chapters in this explanation. The analysed data are shown in
tables. The δ18O values are given relative to the VPDB standard, but for the suspected
carbonatites the values have also been recalculated relative to the VSMOW standard.

2.6. MAP PRODUCTS

2.6.1. Base Maps

Datum Transformation
Since the available 1:250 000 topographic maps of Mozambique use UTM Tete datum in
stead of Moznet datum, the geodetic reference system could not directly be used for preparing
base maps for plotting geology. Consequently, the UTM grid coordinates have been
transformed from the Tete datum to the Moznet datum. This is implemented as a three-step
process:
1) UTM (Tete datum, zone 36/37, Clarke 1866 ellipsoid) → 3D geocentric.
2) 3D geocentric (Tete datum) → 3D geocentric (WGS84).

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3) 3D geocentric → UTM 36/37 (WGS84).

Step 1 and 3 are purely mathematical. In step 2 the standard 7-parameter Helmert
transformation (also known as Bursa-Wulf formula; see Table 2.1) is used (Norconsult,
2002).
Using these values and the network of GPS track logs recorded by the mapping teams,
the topographic map sheets have been rectified to the Moznet coordinate system. UTM zone
36 was used west of the meridian 36°W, and UTM zone 37, east of 36°W.

Manual Digitising
Using the rectified topographic map sheets as background in ArcMap, a number of shape
files, including point names (e.g., hill tops), roads and paths, railroads, power lines and towns
and villages, have been created by manual digitising. In some cases, the manual digital results
have been adjusted using Landsat imagery.
It was also noted that the hydrography had changed significantly since the old
topographic maps were made in the 1970’s and earlier. The hydrographic map themes were
therefore based mainly on satellite images. The rivers were predominantly digitised on top of
the satellite images while picking up the names from the topographic maps. The other three
hydrographic themes were made semi-automatically from the satellite images using the
method described below:
• Only Landsat-7 band 4 was used because it shows significant discrimination
between water covered surfaces and dry surfaces.
• The images were re-classified into 3 classes (land, water and no data) after an
empirically found threshold value (DN varying between 44 and 55).
• By using the raster-to-feature conversion in ArcMap a polygon theme (per image)
was prepared.
• The features were generalised and polygons with area less than 0.5 km2 were
deleted.
• Clouds and other errors were removed.
• By selecting the sea-polygon the islands theme and a coastline could be produced.
• The new coastline was inserted into the older MZ-poly theme containing the
complete Mozambique outline in small scale.
• The residual polygons were a mixture of lakes, parts of rivers and wetlands, which
were to be discriminated further.

SRTM Digital Elevation Data

Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (STRM) elevation data covering LOT 2 were collected
and processed. SRTM data covering Africa are available in the public domain from the
NASA SRTM ftp site ftp://edcsgs9.cr.usgs.gov/pub/data/ srtm/Africa since 1st of April 2004.
The grid size of the data set is 90 metres. It is a generalisation from the full resolution 30
metres data set.
SRTM digital elevation model (DEM) is less resolved than ASTER DEM’s but ten
times better than DTED0 or GTOPO30, which have previously been the best public elevation
data sets covering Mozambique. Many applications can be processed with this data and the

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Consortium has transformed the DEM covering the project areas into an easily usable form.
This data set has been found to be very useful for the project and it has been used for the
creation of elevation contours (Fig. 2.13) and structural interpretation.
SRTM data form a good source of elevation contours for the base maps at 1:250 000
scale. The spatial accuracy is usually better than 15 meters. A pilot study was performed on
map sheet 2032 (LOT 3) to produce contours with 50 meters interval.

Fig. 2.13. Unedited contours on the digital elevation model (map sheet 2032).

2.6.2. Geological Maps

The LOT 2 area covers most of the Tete Province and large parts of the Manica and Sofala
Provinces, a total of 190 000 km². LOT 2 Extension is located in the Zambézia Province and
has a surface of 30 000 km² (Fig. 1.1). A total of 16 geological map sheets, scale 1:250 000,
have been prepared. They may correspond with an area of 1° x 1° (Square Degree Sheet,
SDS). Occasionally, several Degree Sheets may be combined in a single map sheet (Fig.
2.15). Table 2.3 lists the names and numerical codes of the map sheets.
A total of 20 detailed geological maps, scale 1:50 000, have been prepared. Their
location is shown in Fig. 2.14.

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Table 2.3. Geological map sheets in the LOT 2 (+ Extension) area, showing Degree Sheet number, Sheet
Codes and Names.

No. Area Degree Sheet Sheet Code Name 1 : 50 000 Sheets

1 1430/1431 24/25 Inhamambo/Maluwera
2 1432 26 Chifunde
414, 415, 451,452, 453, 454,
3 1530/1531 35/36 Zumbo/Fíngoè-Mágoè 489, 490
4 1532 37 Songo
5 1533/1534 38/39 Cazula/Zóbuè
6 1631/1632 47/48 Mecumbura/Chioco 627, 628, 656
LOT 2

7 1633 49 Tete 629, 657

8 1634 50 Tambara
9 1732/1733 57/58 Guro 683, 684
10 1734 59 Chemba
803, 804, 805, 819, 820,
11 1832/1833 65/66 Manica/Catandica 821, 822
12 1834 67 Gorongosa
13 1932/1933 70/71 Rotanda/Chimoio 835, 836, 837, 838
14 1934 72 Beira
15 1735 60 Mutarara
16 Ext. 1736 61 Quelimane
17 1737/1738/1739 Namacurra/Maganja/Pebane

SDS numbers in bold are discussed in this Map Explanation.

Fig. 2.14. Map sheet division for Lot 2, based on SDS grid.

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2.6.3. Map Explanations

The LOT 2 area is covered by two Map Explanations (Table 2.3; see also Foreword, Figure
2). These Map Explanations aim to describe all aspects of the geology, structural and tectonic
settings, as well as mineral potential and metallogeny. The present Map Explanation is
Volume 2. The other Map Explanations are referred to as Volume 1 (GTK Consortium,
2006a), Volume 3 (GTK Consortium, 2006c) and Volume 4 (GTK Consortium, 2006d). The
grouping of Map Sheets covered by a single Map Explanation Volume is shown in Table 2.4
and Fig. 2.15.

Table 2.4. Geological Map Sheets and Map Explanations in the LOT 2 (+ Extension) area, showing Degree
Sheet number, Sheet Codes and Names.
Volume Area Square Degree Sheet Name 1:50 000 Sheets
Sheet Code
1430/1431 24/25 Inhamambo/Maluwera
1432 26 Chifunde
1530/1531 35/36 Zumbo/Fíngoè-Mágoè 414, 415, 451, 452, 453,
4 454, 489, 490
1532 37 Songo
1533/1534 38/39 Cazula/Zóbuè
1631/1632 47/48 Mecumbura/Chioco 627, 628, 656
LOT 2

1633 49 Tete 629, 657

1634 50 Tambara
1732/1733 57/58 Guro 683, 684
2 1734 59 Chemba
1832/1833 65/66 Manica/Catandica 803, 804, 805, 819, 820,
821, 822
1834 67 Gorongosa
1932/1933 70/71 Rotanda/Chimoio 835, 836, 837, 838
1934 72 Beira
1735 60 Mutarara-Morrumbala
3 Ext. 1736 61 Quelimane
1737/1738/1739 62/63/64 Namacurra/Maganja/Pebane
2032/2033 74/75 Espungabera/Chibabava
2034/2035 76/77 Nova-Mambone
2131/2132 78/79 Massagena
2133 80 Chidoco
2134/2135 81/82 Save/Bazaruto
2231 83 Chicualacuala
2232 84 Machaila
2233 85 Chigubo
2234/2235 86/87 Mabote/vilanculos
1 2331/2332 88/89 Rio Singuedzi/Massingir
2333 90 Rio Changana
LOT 3

2334/2335 91/92 Funhalouro/Inhambane

2431/2432 93/94 Chilembene
2433 95 Chókwè
2434/2435 96/97 Zavala/Inharrime
2531/2532 98/99 Maputo
2533/2534 100/101 Xai-Xai/Zavala
2632 102 Bela-Vista
SDS numbers in bold are discussed in this Map Explanation.

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Fig. 2.15. Division of Map Explanations and numbering of map sheets scale 1 : 250 000. Degree sheets 1630,
1631/1632, 1633,1634, 1732/1733, 1734, 1832/1833, 1834, 1932/1933 and 1934 will be discussed in Map
Explanation - Volume 2.

2.7. MINERAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS)

Existing mineral deposit data, obtained from the Council for Geoscience (CGS), Pretoria,
South Africa, was incorporated into ArcGIS project format. The data, dealing with
approximately 90 mineral deposits, have been reformatted into ArcView shape file in order to
facilitate matching with other geo-referenced data when producing mineral maps.
In addition, the GTK Consortium has compiled a new database of 520 mineral deposits
and occurrences, including stone, aggregate and grave quarries. This data covers the entire
LOT 2, LOT 3 and Extension Contract areas. The data has been compiled from analogue
DNG reports, published sources and data extracted from the Internet. In doing so, it was

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found out that the location of several mineral deposits and showings in different databases
was not coherently documented. GPS-controlled field checks were obviously needed.
Inspection of mineral occurrences proved to be time consuming and often impossible.
This was due to the inaccuracy of the reported coordinates (~ one minute, meaning a
maximum error of ~ one km) in existing documents and, having been abandoned for over 40
years, a general lack of surface features of most workings. Occasionally, even greater
discrepancies, up to 2 – 3 km, were found when comparing indicated locations with GPS-
verified locations.

Fig. 2.16. The structure of the mineral database used in LOT 2.

It was found, for example, that some major deposits such as the Boroma limestone
mine and Monte Fema iron deposit had discrepancies of 3.5 and 2 km, respectively. Dispite
the difficulties, a total of 50 mineral occurrences from this Explanation area were located and
surveyed in detail, comprising an inventory of the mineral commodities and mode of
occurrence, sampling and digital photographs taken.
During mapping of Karoo formations a number of coal deposits have been surveyed
and added to the Data Capture Forms with over 150 entries in Tete province, collected from
DNG reports. Adding analogue information into a digital database is an ongoing process. The
database structure is shown in Fig. 2.16. An example of data capture, showing different
attributes, is presented in Figs. 2.17 and 2.18.

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Fig. 2.17. An example of the data capture for the mineral database, attributes for identification.

Fig. 2.18. An example on data capture for the mineral database, attributes for deposit in formation.

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CHAPTER 3

INFRASTRUCTURE

The area covered by this Map Explanation belongs provinces of Tete, Manica and Sofala.
Population density is generally low and ranges from < than 5 persons/km² in the Mágoè
district to < than 20 persons/km² in the Mutarara district at the border with Malawi. Tete, in
the northern part of the Map Explanation area (DS 1633), is by far the largest town in the
northwestern Mozambique with a population of 101 984 (1997 census). It is a commercial
and administrative centre, located at the Zambezi River, with a heavy traffic bridge that is part
of the international highway between Harare (Zimbabwe) and Blantyre (Malawi), crossing the
Tete corridor. Irrespective its huge water debit, the Zambezi River is unfit for shipping. A
recent study has demonstrated, however, that a restricted amount of dredging can significantly
improve navigation on this waterway (oral comm. J. Marques). Tete has an airport that is
being served on a regular schedule. Nearby Moatize, located some 20 km to the east, is a
rapidly growing population centre, thanks to international through-traffic by main road, coal
mining and booming coal exploration in the region. A railway, currently under reconstruction,
connects Moatize with the port of Beira.
Town of Chimoio, located 60 km east of Manica along the railway towards Beira, is
the biggest administrational, commercial and population center in the Map Explanation area,
with its population of 177 608 (1997 census). Chimoio is also surrounded by cultivated
farmlands, extensive to all directions. Industrial facilities include a large textile mill (currently
closed), cotton and sisal processing plants, sawmills, brewery and a soft drink bottling
factory. Barragem Chicamba is an artificial lake and hydroelectric plant in the Revùe River
between Manica and Chimoio. It has a stunning location with a sheered-off rock mass,
forming a natural V-shape, to house the dam.
In the southern part of the Map Explanation area Manica (altitude 667 m) is a major
commercial and population centre with 20 662 (1997 census) inhabitants close to the
Zimbabwe border with an international crossing point. A railway connects the port of Beira
with Manica and continues further into Zimbabwe. Gold mining (in the Mutare-Manica
greenstone belt) and farming have greatly contributed to the prosperity of the area. It is now
best known for the mineral water from the Vumba Mountains.
Apart from the Harare-Blantyre international highway, other paved roads in the
northern part of the Map Explanation area include the roads to Zambia, to Songo, and
southwards to Manica. A service road follows the electricity power line from Cahora Bassa
southwards to South Africa. Otherwise access is rather difficult in the northern area. In the
Tete map sheet (DS 1633) there is no direct road connection from Tete to the southeastern
quarter of the map sheet, southeast of the Luenha River. Access is through Changara and a
shortcut from the southern side of the Luenha bridge, or further southwards, through Mungári
(DS 1733) and from there to the north. In this way the lively centre of Mândiè is accessible, as
well as the areas further eastwards, in the direction of the Zambezi River. At Massangano,
east of Mândiè, the ruins of a fortress dating from the 18th century can be visited. The
northern bank of the Luenha River, with many villages of local importance, is accessible
through a historical road with idyllic bridges, starting from Mazoe by the main road south of
Tete. The perennial Luenha River, with its source area in Zimbabwe, is in its lowland area a

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shallow waterway with sand shoals, 100 – 200 m in width. South of Changara, in its upper
course, the river runs down across Precambrian terrain with its channel almost continuously
amongst rugged cliffs.
The area covered by the Tambara map sheet (DS 1634) is accessible by car
approaching from the south through Mungári (DS 1733), and from the area covered by the
Zóbuè map sheet (DS 1534) in the north. The latter road runs between the Zambezi River and
the border of Malawi. South of the Changara-Mungari latitude (ca. 17ºS) the road network is
dense enough for reaching by car almost all parts of the Map Explanation area. Most of the
roads to the mountainous Zimbabwe border regions, however, are poor, save the paved roads
through the international crossing points at Cuchamano (~ 17º S) and Machipanda, west of
Manica (almost 19º S). Between these two stations, roads branch from the main road a little
north of the Mungári road junction, at Guro, at the Macossa road junction, at Catandica
village and south of Catandica. There is no road to the mountainous Umkondo terrain in the
southwestern corner of the Map Explanation area, south of Manica (DS 1932). Practically all
the main roads and a multitude of small village roads and tracks have been registered as GPS
track logs by the GTK Consortium. Helicopter was used in remote areas without roads, to
save time in mapping.
In the northern, less densely populated parts of the Map Explanation area GSM
telephone connection links are currently available at Tete, Matambo, Songo and Changara. In
the southern part mobile telephone connection is also available in big population centres,
along the main roads including Catandica, Manica and Chimoio. The mobile phone network
is rapidly expanding.
At present landmines have generally been cleared. However, it is advisable to contact
local authorities for advice before going into the field.

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CHAPTER 4

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY

4.1. GEOMORPHOLOGY
The territory of Mozambique is divided into four physiographic zones or cycles (King, 1961).
Each zone or cycle has developed its own morphological plateau, separated by erosional
escarpments:
• Mountainous Zone or Gondwana Cycle (> 1200 m).
• Large Plateau Zone or African Cycle (500 – 1200 m).
• Intermediate Plateau Zone or Zumbo Cycle (200 – 500 m).
• Coastal Plain Zone or Congo Cycle (< 200m).

The Mountainous Zone was developed during the Gondwana Cycle that developed as
a consequence of the Permo-Carboniferous movements, the onset of the Karoo Event. It
essentially affected the crystalline basement and refers to plateaux located at altitudes
between 1500 and 1800 metres. It is distributed (outside the present degree sheets) along the
border with Malawi. This cycle is responsible for a major phase of peneplanation of the
African continent during an extensive erosional period from the Upper Karoo till the Upper
Jurassic/Lower Cretaceous
The Large Plateau Zone developed during the African Cycle, an Early Cretaceous
erosional phase that heralded the onset of the East African Rift Event. It corresponds to an
erosion level at altitudes of 500 to 1200 metres. In Mozambique it can be divided into three
distinctive sub-cycles, i.e., the Carumacáfuè Sub-cycle with peneplains at altitudes of 600 to
800 metres (with the best example of a perfect meseta at Mount Carumacáfuè), the
Messandaluz Sub-cycle with plateaux between 500 and 1000 metres of altitude, and the
Songo Sub-cycle with plateau altitudes of 1000 to 1200 metres.
The Intermediate Plateau Zone developed during the Zumbo Cycle, a phase of Middle
Tertiary epeirogenesis. It consists of a transitional erosional stage between the Large Plateau
and the Coastal Plain Zones. The altitude is between 200 and 500 metres, and it is developed
along the Zambezi Valley and its larger tributaries. This cycle almost completely eroded the
Karoo terrains and the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite. In the area of Precambrian rocks,
including Matambo, Missawa-Mândiè, Guro-Macossa, Marínguè and Changara-Vanduzi,
inselbergs were formed.
The erosional process ends with the Coastal Plain Zone developed during the Congo
Cycle, starting in Plio-Pleistocene times. It corresponds to the present Zambezi Valley from
near the Cahora Bassa dam and extending towards the east to the Lupata Trough, next
Tambara and continuing to Chinde-Quelimane on the shore of the Indian Ocean.
In the area covered by this Map Explanation altitudes range from sea level to over
2400 m a.s.l. The highest points of interest are: Monte Binga (2436 m) in the Chimanimani
Mountains, on the border with Zimbabwe is the highest point of the country (southern part of
SDS 1932), the isolated Serra da Gorongosa (1862 m) corresponds with a huge potassic
intrusive complex (western margin of SDS 1834) and Monte Zambelangombe (1205 m) in

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Mungari gneisses (north of the Macossa road in the southeastern quadrant of SDS 1733). The
border zone with Zimbabwe in the west, mainly underlain by Archaean crust of the
Zimbabwe Craton and quartzitic supracrustals, is in general rugged to mountainous, often
with difficult accessibility. Some parts of the western area owe their elevation to East Africa
Rift movements cutting the Precambrian crystalline basement. This is exemplified
spectacularly by a prominent east-dipping fault slope only a kilometre west of the town of
Catandica and by a similar SE-dipping fault slope in the southwestern corner of the Map
Explanation area. Impressively high inselbergs occur along the central northerly trending strip
of Precambrian rocks belonging to the Barue Complex. The topography generally drops
towards the Zambezi River and towards the coast. Vast lowlands spread out in the Cretaceous
rift area in the eastern part of the Map Explanation area.

4.2. BASEMENT TECTONICS

The drainage system and topography of Mozambique are further determined by basement
tectonics defining two conjugate sets, one with N-S and E-W trends and the other with NW-
SE and NE-SW orientation. They correspond with zones of crustal failure that have been
rejuvenated repeatedly, most recently during the Karoo and East Africa Rift Events. These
structures often define contacts between Precambrian basement and Phanerozoic cover.
The valleys of the Zambezi River and tributaries form a characteristic geographic
feature in the area. After leaving the deeply dissected domain underlain by the Proterozoic
Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite north of Tete, the river flows in an almost straight streambed
to the southeast within a wide trough filled with Phanerozoic sediments. North of Tete the
river is offset by an E-W fault over a distance of ~ 5 km to resume upstream its NW-SE
direction. Tributaries join the Zambezi River under a 90° angle, exhibiting predominantly NE-
SW directions. Further southeast, outside the area covered by this Map Explanation, it enters
the southern extension of the N-S trending Malawi rift before reaching the Indian Ocean. The
course of the river appears controlled by the alignment of commonly NW-SE and W-E
trending rift or fault features. Upstream, the E-W directed valley of the Zambezi River, the
stretch now occupied by the Cahora Bassa Lake, corresponds with the western continuation of
the E-W striking Sanângoè Shear Zone.
The courses of smaller streams and rivers are controlled by more local and variable
tectonic structures. In the northern part of the Map Explanation area a good example is the
Luenha River, the biggest tributary of Zambezi River in the area. It enters its lower, smoothly
flowing part exactly at the Precambrian-Phanerozoic junction at Changara, while crossing a
NW-SE trending ridge of siliceous fault gouge. Further down stream, close to the junction
with the Zambezi River, its local E-W course between Mândiè and Massangano is strictly
controlled over many kilometres by a similar linear ridge also composed of siliceous fault
gouge along its northern bank.
Similar ridges are sites of many spectacular linear topographic highs in the Tete map
sheet and elsewhere. In the areas south of the Tete, these narrow linear sub-continuous ridges
occur in rather easily accessible places along major roads or crossing river channels, thus
providing a good opportunity to study their composition, fabric, origin and emplacement time.
The fault character of these ridges is manifested by the fact that they commonly occur at the
boundary between Phanerozoic cover and Precambrian basement. Examples are the white-
coloured hill slopes south of Changara, a manifestation of a silicified normal, NE-dipping

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fault, with Precambrian basement exposed on the SW side (Fig. 4.1). The Phanerozoic cover
is systematically at a topographically lower level at Phanerozoic/ Precambrian fault contacts.
Another E-W trending linear ridge west of Tete is partly intra-basement. Similar ridges
proved an important aid during field verification to map accurately basement/cover contacts.
Ridges that could not be visited have been identified in satellite imagery or topographic maps
to complete the geologic picture.
Whenever asymmetrical ridges have been observed in the field, the relatively down-
thrown block was covered by recent sediments, concealing the underlying rocks. Karoo rocks
are generally exposed nearby.

Fig. 4.1. Silicified fault gouge

between the Precambrian and
Phanerozoic terrains. South of
the Changara village.

4.3. CLIMATE
In Mozambique four types of climate are distinguished:
• Tropical rainfall climate.
• Dry bushland-savannah climate.
• Tropical highland climate.
• Mountain climate.

Climate in the area covered by this Map Explanation depends mainly on altitude. The
lower ground from Tete to Guro has dry bushland-savannah climate while the higher Guro-
Manica area has tropical highland climate. The Zambezi valley, including the banks of the
Cahora Bassa Lake, rank among the hottest places in Mozambique with average annual
temperatures above 26° C and an annual rainfall of only 600 to 800 mm. While in Manica
area average annual temperature is just below 20°C and the rainfall 1400 – 1800 mm. Two
well-defined seasons can be defined:
• Rainy season from December to March.
• Dry season from April to November.

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Vegetation is mainly conditioned by climate and soil type. Plateaus and valleys
underlain by Karoo and younger rocks are characterised by the following flora:
• High and intermediate forests in valleys formed by the more deeply incised rivers.
• Savannah-like dry parklands in compact and sandy terrains.
• Shrub and bush savannah in terrains with a clayey-sandy soil or areas with coarse
grained, clastic sediments.

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CHAPTER 5

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY

5.1. PRINCIPLES
Legends in the geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium are based on a
stratigraphic code that follows the recommendations of the International Sub-commission on
Stratigraphic Classification (ISSC) of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of
the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). Stratigraphic classification is the
systematic arrangement of the mappable rock bodies of the earth’s crust into units with
reference to any of the properties that rocks may possess. Lithostratigraphic classification is
based on lithostratigraphic units6 with each unit consisting dominantly of a certain rock type
or a combination of rock types.
The geological maps produced by the GTK Consortium may serve as examples for a
new generation of dynamic geological maps. This requires an update and standardisation of a
variety of legends employed in the past in existing geological maps, including the definition
of mappable lithostratigraphic units according to guidelines by the IUGS.
A geological legend comprises a short explanatory list of map symbols and the
sequence of rock units, the oldest at the bottom and the youngest at the top. The rock units
display a hierarchical relationship with subunits grouped together into larger units based on
geological relationships in space and time. These relate to the geodynamic development of the
area. Commonly used terms for lithostratigraphic rock units, in a hierarchical sequence (from
lower to higher rank) are: bed, member, formation, group, supergroup, complex and system.
The terms can be used in a formal and informal way. The use of a capital in, e.g., ‘Vúzi Tillite
Formation’ of the ‘Lower Karoo Group’ suggests that both rock units have been formally
defined, with a description of a ‘type-locality’ of every ‘Formation’ belonging to the ‘Group’.
‘Vúzi Tillite formation’, on the other hand, suggests a field name, an informally defined
lithologic unit7.
Mappable lithostratigraphic units are grouped in two vertical columns. The left column
comprises rock units that have been deposited on top of each other. Their contacts may be
concordant, para-concordant (concordant, but with a time hiatus between successive lithologic
units) or discordant. Rock types comprise mainly (meta-)sediments, (meta-) volcanics
(including pyroclastics) or rocks that have been tectonically emplaced (e.g., ophiolites or their
metamorphic equivalents). Intrusive igneous rocks are grouped in the column to the right.
These comprise plutonic igneous rocks (granite, gabbro, etc.) and igneous rocks of sub-
volcanic derivation (e.g., dolerite, diabase or intermediate to felsic dykes). The definitions of
lithostratigraphic units, with increasing rank, according to Bates and Jackson (1987) are
presented in App.1.

6
Since the 1980’s ‘chrono-stratigraphical’ nomenclature (series, stages and substages) used in earlier literature
has been generally superseded by lithostratigraphical nomenclature comprising supergroups, groups,
formations and members (Johnson et al. 1996).
7
At the request of the Client and Consulting Engineer informal use of the term ‘formation’ is indicated by an
asterix as in ‘Formation*’

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5.2. HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT

The first geological investigations in the area covered by this Map Explanation refer to studies
of coal occurrences and were executed by Guyot (1882), Thompson (1882), Lapierre (1883),
Zeiller (1883), Kuss (1884) and Potonié (1899). These authors mainly described in a broad
manner the lithostratigraphy of coal-bearing seams in the Lower Karoo near Moatize.
The work of these early pioneers was followed in the first half of the 20th century by
local and regional stratigraphic studies of the carbonaceous Karoo sediments (Potonié, 1900;
Gothan, 1912, 1914; Anthoine and Dubois, 1922, 1925; Gérard, 1924; Andrade, 1908, 1929;
Dixey, 1929). Similar lithologies in the Zumbo area (located further to the northwest) were
surveyed by Freitas (1932, 1939) and later Bebiano (1934, 1936). The coal-bearing basins
were further studied by Borges (1935, 1946), Teixeira (1943, 1946, 1947) and Gaspar (1948).
From the 1950’s till the 1980’s, various publications and technical reports were
elaborated based on fieldwork as part of a vast effort to improve the knowledge on the
geology and the economic value of the mineral resources of the Tete, Sofala and Manica
provinces. These works are contained in Teixeira (1950, 1951), Colin (1951), Borges (1952),
Longyear Company (1955), Real (1958, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1966), Carvalho (1960,
1961, 1962, 1964, 1969, 1975, 1977), Nunes (1961), Santos (1961, 1962, 1974), Pinto (1964,
1970, 1973) Feys (1965), Feys and Fabre (1966), Sousa and Mériaux (1971), Afonso (1975,
1976, 1984), Afonso et al. (1969, 1993, 1998), Sousa (1977, 1984), Limex (1981), LKAB
(1981, 1982) and Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited (1984).
The discovery of uranium mineralisation in the Mavudzi valley, northwest of Tete,
triggered initial interest in the Tete area (Luna and Freitas, 1953; Davidson and Bennet,
1960). The E. J. Longyear Company (1956) carried out the first systematic geological
investigations in this area (see also Lyall, 1955). Since then useful work has been carried out
in the province but with notable exceptions (Real, 1966; Vail, 1965; Vail and Pinto, 1966;
Coelho, 1969; Svirine, 1980), the results have remained unpublished.
Between 1980 and 1984 Hunting Geology and Geophysics Limited initiated new
phase of geological investigations (Hunting, 1984). They carried out a comprehensive mineral
exploration and reconnaissance geological mapping project under the aegis of the
Mozambican Government. The French BRGM surveyed approximately at the same time
(1980 – 1984) the northern part of Mozambique resulting in publication of a geological map –
scale 1:1 000 000 – that showed new insights in the geology of the Tete area (Pinna et al.
1986, 1987; Pinna and Marteau, 1987).

5.3. REGIONAL GEOLOGY

Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and covered by undeformed sediments and
extrusives of Neoproterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and Cretaceous-Quaternary
age. Younger fold belts, deformed during the Hercynian and Alpine orogenies, are only of
local extent. The first is of Middle Palaeozoic age and restricted in Africa to the Mauritides
and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest and the Cape fold belt in the south. Alpine
penetrative deformation (Cretaceous-Tertiary) is limited to the Kabylia-Rif-Betic orocline that
encloses the Alboràn Sea, the westernmost part of the Mediterranean.

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In eastern and southern Africa the following tectono-structural-magmatic domains –

the building blocks – each related to major and specific geodynamic events – can be
distinguished (Table 5.1., mainly after Gabert, 1984; Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

Table 5.1. Africa’s tectono-structural-magmatic domains.

Event/System Era Age (Ma)

East African Rift System Main Phase Neogene - Present 23 - 0
(EARS) Initial Phase Cretaceous - Paleogene 145 - 23
Late Carboniferous – Early
Karoo Event 318 - 180
Jurassic
Gondwanide Terrains
Post-Pan-African
< 542
Platforms
Pan-African Orogeny Neoproterozoic- Cambrian 750 - 490
Pan-African
Early Pan-African Basins Neoproterozoic 900 - 700
Kibaran Mesoproterozoic 1750 - 900
Late Phase ~ 1860
Ubendian/ Usagaran Palaeoproterozoic
Early Phase 2100 - 2025
Cratons (granite-greenstone terrains) and Mobile Belts Archaean 3800 - 2500

5.3.1. Archaean cratons and mobile belts

These include in Africa the West African, Nile or East Sahara, Central African or Congo and
Southern Africa or Kalahari cratons, the Malagasy Shield and interlocking Archean mobile
belts such as the Limpopo mobile belt. The latter high-grade mobile belt amalgamates the
Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons resulting into the Southern Africa or Kalahari craton for
which recently the term Kalahari craton has been coined (McCourt et al. 2004). Large parts of
Archaean cratons have been reworked during younger orogenies. Alternatively, Archaean
rocks also occur outside cratonic blocks in younger fold belts. Well-known examples have
been described in eastern Africa (Kenya, Tanzania) and the Bangweulu Block in northern
Zambia (Fig. 5.1).
Archaean cratons represent stable remnants of the Earth’s earliest continental
lithosphere. Seismic investigations confirm that the structure of the crust and sub-crustal
upper mantle of these cratons differ significantly from that of most post-Archaean terrains.
High-velocity mantle roots extent to at least 200 km, locally up to 250 – 300 km, beneath
cratonic terrains. Xenolith studies indicate that cratons have experienced a dynamic and
protracted history of tectono-thermal activity. Cratonisation occurred not as a discrete event,
but in stages, with final stabilisation postdating crustal formation. Archaean cratons are
generally composed of (from old to young) granulite-gneiss belts, granite-greenstone
associations, ‘younger granites’ and late-Archaean basins, mobile belts and dykes and layered
intrusions.

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Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cratonic Blocks Archaean Terranes in Cratons
I = West African Craton A = Reguibat Shield G = Tanzania Craton
II = Central African Craton B = Man Shield H = Zimbabwe Craton
III = Southern African Craton C = Chaillu – Gabon Block I = Kaapvaal Craton
IV = Nile or East Sahara Craton D = Zaire Block J = Malagasy Shield
V = Malagasy Shield E = Kasai Block K = Uganda and West Nile Complex
F = Angola Block L = Limpopo Belt (also 2000 Ma)
Palaeoproterozoic Terranes
Outside Cratons Palaeoproterozoic Terranes in Cratons
16 = Richtersveld terrane 1 = Birrimian: Reguibat Shield 7 = Ubendian belt
17 = Rehoboth Arc 2 = Birrimian: Leo Shield 8 = Usagaran belt
18 = Kimezian 3 = Gabon belt: Francevillian 9 = Bangweulu Block
19 = Nyasa province 4 = Angolan Birrimian 10 = Magondi belt
20 = Hoggar-Air massifs 5 = Ruwenzori belt 11 = Okwa gneiss
6 = Rusizian gneiss 12 = Kheiss belt
Archaean Intracratonic Basins Palaeoproterozoic Intracratonic Basins
M = Witwatersrand and Ventersdorp basins 13 = Griqualand basin
14 = Transvaal basin
15 = Waterberg-Soutpansberg basins

Fig. 5.1. Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic (Ubendian) terrains (3800 – 1750 MA (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

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Granulite-gneiss belts
Granulite-gneiss belts represent exhumed, high-grade, mid- to lower crustal levels with a
complex, composite structural evolution. Some retain a history that goes back to 4.0 Ga and
beyond. Predominant rock types are granulite- to upper amphibolite-facies quartzofeldspathic
gneisses, containing the remnants of some of the earliest known sedimentary and volcanic
rocks, as well as of layered igneous complexes (anorthosites). They are commonly folded into
large-scale interference patterns and intersected by major, crustal-scale shear belts.
Passchier et al. (1990) distinguished two major types of high-grade gneiss
assemblages. The first one is derived mostly from mafic to felsic volcanics, intruded by
granitoid gneisses of the TTG association8, and contains very little metasediments. The
second type is largely composed of metamorphosed clastic and carbonate sediments, often of
fluvial or shelf-type, intruded by dominantly S-type granitoid rocks. Field observations
suggest that the above two types merely represent the end-members of a continuous spectrum.
Rock types of the granulite-gneiss belts include quartzofeldspathic gneisses, mostly belonging
to the TTG suite (with a volumetrically small component of paragneiss), amphibolites
(derived from volcanic rocks), micaschists (assumedly derived from pelitic protoliths),
marbles and quartzites (stable shelf settings?), BIF’s and layered igneous complexes. These
units are most often conformable, probably as a result of intense deformation under ductile
conditions.

Granite-greenstone terrains
These comprise the oldest major belts of well-preserved volcano-sedimentary rocks. They
contain silicic to ultrabasic igneous rocks and volcanoclastic, siliciclastic and chemical
sedimentary units, intruded by voluminous granitoid bodies. Since the early 1970’s, a
tendency exists to emphasize the similarities between greenstone belts and to view their
stratigraphy and structure in over-simplistic terms. Detailed recent studies reveal, however,
that they are more complex than previously thought and that many differences exist between
individual greenstone belts. Since the late 1980’s, general consensus has developed on the
applicability of accretionary plate tectonics to the Archaean in general (albeit with adapted
parameters) and on the equivalence, in principle, between greenstone belts and island
arc/ophiolite complexes in particular (e.g. Windley, 1993; de Wit, 1998). Nevertheless,
opponents argue either that unequivocal proof of Archaean ophiolites is still lacking (Bickle
et al. 1994) or that plate tectonic processes were inoperative during the Archaean (Hamilton,
1998).
Many greenstone belts display a common subdivision into a lower, dominantly
volcanic sequence and an upper sedimentary succession. The lower sequence can be further
subdivided into a basal section of primarily ultramafic rocks and an upper volcanic section
with a predominance of calc-alkaline or tholeiitic, mafic to felsic volcanic material. The
ultramafic section is composed mainly of (ultra-)mafic volcanics, including komatiites, with
minor felsic tuffs. The upper volcanic section consists of (often pillowed) basalts, andesites
and rhyolites. On average, from bottom to top, the stratigraphic pile is characterised by (1) a
decrease in the volume of komatiites and – to a lesser extent – basalts, (2) an increase in the
volcanoclastic/flow ratio and (3) an increase in the relative abundance of andesites and felsic

8
TTG: Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite, geochemically similar to modern, mantle-derived I-type granitoids.

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volcanics. Sediments in the volcanic group comprise chemically precipitated cherts, jaspers
and banded ironstones, whereas the upper sedimentary succession consists of terrigenous
clastic deposits of shales, pelitic sandstones, greywackes, conglomerates and quartzites.

‘Younger Granites’
In most Archaean cratons the greenstone belts are pervasively invaded by granitoids that form
typical trondhjemite-tonalite-granodiorite (TTG) suites. It is generally believed that they
represent deeply eroded root zones equivalent to modern magmatic arcs. These are the so-
called ‘Younger Granites’.

Late-Archaean basins, dykes and layered intrusions

The prime example of a late-Archaean intracontinental basin is the South African Witwa-
tersrand basin that contains a sediment pile spanning a time interval from 2800 Ma to about
2000 Ma, deposited on the Kaapvaal Craton. Earth’s presumably oldest rift sequence is
represented by the Pongola Supergroup in the SE corner of the Kaapvaal craton. The ~ 2575
Ma Great Dyke in Zimbabwe represents a unique linear feature (480 km long, average width
of 8 km) that consists of four aligned lopoliths, representing layered (ultra-)mafic intrusions.

5.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic fold belts

These include the Usagaran-Ubendian fold belt along the western and southern border of the
Tanzanian craton but also further southwards in Niassa province (Mozambique), northeastern
Zambia and Malawi. An early and a late orogenic phase are generally distinguished. It is
argued that the early phase resulted in the development of the Usagaran fold belt during
north-directed collision and accretion during the Eburnian around ~ 2100–2025 Ma (Daly et
al. 1985; Daly, 1988) with granulite-facies metamorphic conditions. Zircon ages of 2084±8
Ma, corresponding with a phase of granitic magmatism, have been reported (Lenoir et al.
1994; Boven et al. 1999).
In the Ubendian belt this early phase of regional deformation and metamorphism was
followed by a Late Palaeoproterozoic phase of exhumation and extensive dextral shearing
along major, steep NW-SE directed shear zones. This resulted in widespread penetrative
deformation and development of a NW-SE fabric, transposition of the older E-W fabric and
retrogradation under amphibolite-facies P-T-conditions. Timing of this event is constrained
by the emplacement age of late-kinematic granitoids dated at 1847±37 Ma and 1864±32 Ma
(both whole rock Rb/Sr and zircon U/Pb ages). An upper limit for the Ubendian shear event
can be inferred from the age of the Kate shallow-level granite at ~1825 Ma (Schandelmeier,
1983). The latter is associated with volcanic rocks that unconformably overly Ubendian
gneisses. Rb/Sr data on the Kate granite further suggest that the main boundary fault between
the Bangweulu block and the Ubendian shear belt was reactivated 100 Ma after its
emplacement (at 1724±31 Ma; Lenoir et al. 1993). Whether this age has regional significance
is, however, uncertain. Ar-Ar stepwise heating analyses of different barrosite separates from
mafic tectonite has yielded a weighted average cooling age of 1848±6 Ma for the argon
fractions released at intermediate temperatures. This corroborates the above data and confirms
the age of 1950–1850 Ma for the Late Palaeoproterozoic Ubendian tectogenesis (Boven et al.
1999).

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5.3.3. Mesoproterozoic fold belts

In southern and central Africa this comprises the Kibaran (Fig. 5.2.) and Irumide fold belts.
On a global scale these fold belts can be correlated with the ‘Grenvillian orogeny’
culminating in the Rodinia Supercontinent around 1000 Ma. The Kibaran forms a curvi-linear
fold belt striking from Namibia via Zambia, Angola, eastern Democratic Republic of Congo,
Burundi, Rwanda and northwestern Tanzania into southern Uganda over a distance of 1500
km. The belt separates two lithospheric domains that were cratonised since the Ubendian, i.e.,
a lithospheric mass centred around the Congo craton in the west and a lithospheric domain
comprising the Kalahari and Tanzania cratons, the Bangweulu block and interconnecting fold
belts in the east. In Zambia the belt is exposed extensively and bifurcates into two separate
fold belts that enclose the Bangweulu block, with the Irumides in the southeast and the
Kibaran sensu stricto in the northwest. The belt is intersected by the Lufilian arc of
Neoproterozoic Pan-African age. Here, rocks of the Kibaran fold belt are exposed in a number
of windows unconformably overlain by rocks of the Katangan System. Metamorphism in the
Kibaran belt generally reached greenschist facies, peaking around 1300 Ma (1278±58 Ma),
with post-tectonic magmatism that according to Klerkx et al. (1984) continued up to 850 Ma.
Overlying strata, belonging to the Pan-African, Karoo and Kalahari Systems, largely
obscure the southern part of the Kibaran belt. Small windows of Kibaran metasedimentary
units and granitoids emerge, however, in the Damara belt of Namibia, Angola (Carvalho et al.
1987), Botswana and Zimbabwe. The UNESCO-sponsored IGCP 418 undertook to trace the
Kibaran belt into southwestern Africa (Botswana, Namibia) based on regional geophysical
and new geochronological data (Key, 1997). The Kibaran is now recognised in the northern
part of Zimbabwe as Irumide overprinting of older rocks. Radiometric dates from the
Chewore Inlier (quoted in Goscombe et al. 1997) confirm the presence of reworked Middle
Proterozoic rocks in northern Zimbabwe. While the northern Kibaran is an intra-cratonic fold
belt, zircon ages of 1390 Ma testify the presence of juvenile Middle Proterozoic oceanic crust
in the southern part of the belt (Johnson and Oliver, 1997). The end of the Middle Proterozoic
was characterised by a major phase of basic magmatism elsewhere in Zimbabwe, that
produced extensive flood basalts and major dolerite dyke swarms. Munyanyiwa (1997) has
suggested that this phase of basaltic magmatism heralded the break-up of Rodinia. The
recently completed airborne magnetic survey of northwestern Botswana has evidenced the
presence of Middle Proterozoic Kibaran rocks that are infolded with younger Neoproterozoic
rocks, with the same NE-SW strike, belonging to the Damara belt. Schwartz et al. (1995)
reported the presence of volcanic rocks with an age of 1106 Ma in Kibaran inliers in the
Damara belt.

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Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Mesoproterozoic Terrains on
Cratons
1 = Kibaran belt (failed rift)
2 = Kunene Anorthosite Complex
3 = Muva Group (platform)
4 = Umkondo Group (platform)
Mesoproterozoic Active Continental Mesoproterozoic Collisional
Margins Orogens
5 = Sinclair Province 9 = Choma-Kaloma block
6 = Namaqua belt 10 = Irumide belt
7 = Natal belt 11 = Zambezi belt
8 = Abbabis Gneiss 12 = Lurio belt

Fig. 5.2. Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) terrains (1750 – 900 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

5.3.4. Neoproterozoic Pan-African fold belts

The Mozambique belt can be considered as the ‘type-locality’ of the Pan-African orogeny and
was first named by Holmes (1951) who recognised a structural discontinuity between the
Archaean Tanzanian craton and younger gneisses to the east. Relatively recently, the term
‘East African Orogen’ (EAO) has been introduced to describe the Pan-African orogenic belt
of eastern Africa (Stern, 1994). It is one of the earth’s greatest collision zones that can be
followed over a distance of ~ 6000 km from Antarctica in the south to the Arabian Peninsula
in the north and has ~ 350 Ma of evolution (e.g., Stern, 1994, 2002; Jacobs et al. 1998;
Kröner et al. 2000a,b).

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Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Neoproterozoic Collisional Orogens
a = Mauritanites g = West Congo belt m = Lufilian arc
b = Bessarides h = Kaoko belt n = Zambezi belt
c = Rokolites i = Gariep belt o = East African: Nubian shield
d = Anti Atlas j = Saldahnia belt p = East African: Mozambique belt
e = Trans-Saharan: Pharusian belt k = Oubangide belt q = Ubendian belt
f = Trans-Saharan: Dahomeyan belt l = Damara belt
Neoproterozoic Failed Rifts Neoproterozoic Platforms-Foreland-Molasse Basins
1 = Gourma trough 5 = Anti-Atlas 9 = Owambo basin
2 = Sangha rift 6 = Taoudeni basin 10 = Nama basin
3 = Kundelungu basin 7 = Volta basin
4 = Bukoban 8 = Congo basin*

Sub-basins in the Congo basin include: NW: Sembe Ouesso basin;

NNE: Bangui-Lindian basins; SE: Bushimay basin; SW: West Congo basin

Fig. 5.3. Neoproterozoic-Early Paleozoic (Pan-African) terrains (900 – 500 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

The EAO is traditionally divided into a northern zone of juvenile Neoproterozoic crust
and a southern zone mainly comprising reworked older rocks. This is confirmed by modern
Sm-Nd model age studies. The tight clustering of Nd model ages in the northern zone
manifest an overwhelming presence of new Neoproterozoic crust extracted from depleted
mantle. Unlike the abundance of juvenile crust in the north, the southern part of the EAO is
composed of remobilised older rocks. Model Nd ages of rock samples of the Archaean
Tanzanian craton cluster tightly around 2.83±0.08 Ga (Stern, 2002). A Nd and Sr transect

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across Mozambique belt rocks immediately east of the Tanzania craton shows that the belt is
composed of reworked Archaean crust that show TDM ages of ~ 2.5 Ga (in the west) and
granulites with a TDM ages of 1.0 – 1.4 Ga (in the east) (Maboko, 2000; Stern 2002). These
ages supersede typical Pan-African K-Ar or Rb-Sr cooling ages of ~ 650 to 490 Ma known
for a long time (Cahen and Snelling, 1966). Biotite cooling ages show a pronounced age
gradient and manifest diachronous cooling across the belt with the western parts cooling
below ~ 300° C up to ~ 150 Ma earlier than the eastern parts. The oldest biotite ages of
618±14 Ma from the western margin provide the best minimum estimate for the age of the
pervasive amphibolite grade metamorphism. The EAO marks the disappearance of a major
oceanic basin – the Mozambique Ocean – and the collision between East and West Gondwana
(Roger et al. 1995). It is assumed that this regional metamorphic and deformational event
occurred prior to ~ 650 Ma (Maboko, 2000).
The Zambezi belt (n, Fig. 5.3.) of central southern Africa forms another Pan-African
fold belt. It constitutes the eastern segment of a transcontinental Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi
orogenic belt (~ 850 – 450 Ma). This transcontinental system separates the Congo craton from
the Kalahari craton (Shackleton, 1996).
The Pan-African orogeny is also present in West Africa, surrounding the West Africa
craton, as (clockwise, starting in the north) Anti-Atlas, Hoggar and the Dahomey belt. Further
southwards the orogeny continues into South America as the Brasilian orogeny and in Africa
as the West Congo and Gariep belts. Most recently the Pan-African orogeny has also been
recognised in large parts of southern Europe as the Cadomian. Pan-African continental
collision resulted in the development of the Pangea Supercontinent.

5.3.5. Cambrian platform sedimentary rocks

Large parts of the sediments deposited in the Pan-African ‘geosyncline’ have remained
undeformed They include the upper part of the Bukoban System in northwestern Tanzania,
the Kundulungu in Shaba, the Plateau Series overlying the Bangweulu block in northern
Zambia and the Buschimay, Bilatian and Lindian in the eastern Democratic Republic of
Congo. Molasse-type sediments of the Bukoban (Burundi, northwestern Tanzania) include
diamictites, sandstones, siltstones, shales and conglomerates with subordinate dolomitic
limestones, rhyolites and basaltic lavas. In Burundi these rocks are grouped together as the
Malagarasian (Waleffe, 1965). Volcanics of the latter have been dated and yield rather
consistent results (Deblond et al. 2001): 813±21 Ma and 810±25 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after
Cahen and Snelling, 1974) and 822±30 Ma (K-Ar, recalculated after Briden et al. 1971).
Late- to post-Pan-African platform foreland deposits overly Pan-African and older
basement with a marked unconformity – the Tassilian discordance with an age of ~ 570 Ma –
in northern and western Africa. Coeval deposition took place in the Cape fold belt
‘geosyncline’. The event is not present in Mozambican territory.

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5.3.6. Carboniferous platform sedimentary rocks

Cambrian-Carboniferous basins of the North and South African Gondwana margin (570 – 290
Ma) are exposed in northern and western Africa (Morocco, Mauritania, Algeria and Libya)
and the Cape fold belt (Fig. 5.4). Cambrian-Carboniferous foreland basins comprise the
Taoudeni, Bove and Volta basins (Fig. 5.4). The Mauritides and Cape fold belt manifest
Hercynian deformation.

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cambrian-Carboniferous Basins of the North and South African Gondwana Margin (570 – 290 Ma)
1 = Tindouf basin 5 = Oed Mya basin 9 = Murzuq basin
2 = Reggane basin 6 = Illizi basin 10 = Kufrah basin
3 = Bechar basin 7 = Ghadames basin 11 = Western Desert
4 = Ahnet basin 8 = Hamra basin 12 = Cape Sequence
Base of sequence is formed by the Tassilian discordance (~570 Ma)
Top of sequence is formed by the Hercynian unconformity (~290 Ma)
Cambrian-Carboniferous Foreland Basins (570 – 290 Ma)
A = Taoudeni B = Bove C = Volta basin
Permian-Triassic Rift-Sag Basins (Karoo: 290 – 180 Ma)
A = Congo basin D = Mid and Lower Zambezi rift G = Lebombo rift
B = Kalahari basin E = Luangwa rift H = East Africa rift
C = Karoo basin F = Tuli-Sabi-Soutpansberg rift I = Malagasy basin

Fig. 5.4. Gondwanide post-Pan-African terrains (~ 570 – 180 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwall, 2002).

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5.3.7. Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Karoo

Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic (290 to 180 Ma) continental sedimentation and
subordinate flood basalts and rhyolite extrusion testify the aborted break-up of Gondwana.
The term ‘Karoo’ was first used to describe a depositional sequence from the Great Karoo
Basin in South Africa, where it encompasses strata of Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic
age (SACS, 1980). Time equivalent depositional sequences, exhibiting similar sequential
trends, occur widespread in southern and eastern Africa (Figs. 5.4 and 5.5). They reflect
important tectonic and climatic events, posterior to the Pan-African orogeny, during the time
that Pangea had obtained its maximum size. During this period, while accretion was still
going on in some places, major rift structures started to propagate, eventually ending in the
break-up of Gondwana (Veevers and Powell, 1994; Wopfner and Casshyap, 1997; Wopfner,
1999, 2002).

Fig. 5.5. Distribution of Karoo

rocks (outcrop and sub-
surface) in southern Africa
(adapted from Verniers et al.
1989).

Three types of Karoo basins can be distinguished: (1) large foredeep/sag basins, (2)
passive margin basins and (3) intracratonic rifts (Figs. 5.4 and 5.5). Foredeep/sag basins
include, apart from the Great Karoo Basin, the Kalahari/Zambezi, Angola/Barotse and Congo
basins. These broad down-warps were initiated around ~ 290-280 Ma, posterior to the Late
Palaeozoic Gondwanide Orogeny (e.g., Cape Fold Belt). As the deposition continued, rifting
of such down-warps produced Graben-type structures, in which deposition of a great
thickness of Karoo sediments took place. Intracratonic rift basins appear controlled by crustal
weakness zones that were rejuvenated since the Middle and Late Triassic and accelerated

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during continental break-up, comprising an aborted attempt around ~ 190-180 Ma, followed
by continental dispersal starting at ~ 140 Ma. The tectonic history of the Metangula Graben
may serve as an example (Verniers et al., 1989): The lower and middle Karoo sediments
(Ecca age) were deposited in a limnic-fluvial system with a different basin form as shown by
lateral facies changes that are abruptly cut by present rift structures. At Metangula rift-type
NE-SW faulting occurred at the base of the upper Karoo (equivalent to middle Beaufort) with
the NW fault margin being most active, followed by rapid subsidence and basin infill.
Rejuvenation of rift faulting is reported during the upper part of the Beaufort or even
Stormberg. In the Mid-Zambezi basin, thick lake deposits of Permian age, reflecting a quiet,
foredeep/sag basin tectonic setting, are unconformably overlain by much coarser alluvial and
fluvial Triassic deposits (Engelbronner, 1996), supposedly reflecting rift faulting. In the Mana
Pools basin, a similar change in depositional environment can be observed.

Table 5.2. Lithostratigraphy of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa (Johnson et al. 1996).
Group Age Lithology
Drakensberg Early Jurassic (200 – Extensive flood basalts dated at ~ 180 Ma (Aldiss et al. 1984;
Basalts 180 Ma) Allsop et al. 1984; Fitch and Miller, 1984; Hooper et al. 1993).
Subordinate acid lavas.
Stormberg Late Triassic – Early The lower part comprises grey mudstones and sandstones with
Group Jurassic (215 – 200 local coal seams. Where not removed by erosion, this sedi-
Ma) mentary succession is capped largely by aeolian sandstones.
Thickness ~ 2000 m.
Beaufort ~ Late Permian – Mainly lighter-coloured mudrocks (including greenish, reddish
Group Middle Triassic (270 and purple varieties), sandstones and occasional conglomerates,
– 215 Ma for most part representing overbank fluvial deposits that
accumulated sub-aerially under oxidising (semi-arid and arid)
conditions. Characterised by vertebrate fossils rather than plant
remains. Thickness up to ~ 5000 m.
Ecca Group Early Permian – Late Dark-coloured shales with interspersed siltstones and
Permian (280 – 270 sandstones (coarse-grained and pebbly in places) and
Ma) occasional coal seams, deposited sub-aqueously under reducing,
generally moist conditions in marine, lacustrine, deltaic and
fluvial environments. Up to 3000 m in thickness.
Dwyka Group Late Carboniferous – An up to 800 m thick sequence reflecting a glacial or glacial-
Early Permian (290 – related origin (diamictites, conglomerate, fluvio-glacial pebbly
280 Ma) sandstone, rhytmites and mudrock with dropstones).

When comparing Karoo sedimentary successions, similar underlying processes and

sequence of events are reflected in individual basin fills. Each lithological sequence normally
commences with (fluvio-) glaciogene rock types. This is followed by an interval in which red
colours are absent and coal seams are commonly present. The higher strata exhibit reddish
and greenish mudrocks manifesting a change to oxidising sub-aerial conditions. Next, aeolian
sandstones often cap the older succession and reflect increasing aridity. Finally, basaltic lavas
complete the succession. Although the above general trends can be observed in most Karoo
sequences in southern Africa, rift development appears largely controlled by local tectonic
factors and, consequently, Karoo sequences may differ along strike in individual rift basins
and between different rift basins. Both basement geomorphology and syndepositional tectonic
movements have obviously controlled deposition of Karoo lithologies.

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Whereas the Karoo Supergroup in the Great Karoo basin has been divided into five
Groups9, a division into Lower and Upper Karoo Groups (e.g., Engelbronner, 1996) is
employed for most rift fills and also in this Map Explanation. The boundary between these
Groups corresponds approximately with the Permian-Triassic boundary.
From an economic perspective the Karoo is unique in that it hosts all the coal deposits
in southern Africa. The combined reserves are estimated at ~ 67 000 Mt, nearly 10% of the
world total (World Energy Council, 1992).
The upper part, e.g. the Beaufort Group, has been subdivided into a number of
biozones based on vertebrate assemblages. Subdivision of the lower Karoo is based on plant
fossils, including spores and pollen. Recently, some success is being achieved in dating thin
volcanic ash (K-bentonite) layers. A summary description (from young to old) is in Table
5.2.

5.3.8. Recent sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the East African Rift System

Renewed continental extension lead the development of the great East African Rift System
(EARS). An eastern branch can be followed from south of Lake Niassa (Lake Malawi) into
the Afar Triangle (Ethiopia) and further into the Red Sea, a young ocean. The Western Rift of
the East African Rift System branches off the Eastern Rift north of Lake Niassa (Lake
Malawi) and describes an arc-like structure of 1500 km of length till the Albert Lake in
northern Uganda. It obviously follows older crustal weakness zones in the Ubendian and
Kibaran fold belts.
Rift Valley faulting started during Cretaceous time but greatly accelerated during late
Cainozoic time (Figs. 5.6. and 5.7.) Rifting started with regional uplift between 120 and 75
Ma. In East Africa this caused uplift along the Western and Eastern Rift and subsidence in the
central part with the formation of Lake Nyanza, the bigger predecessor of Lake Victoria.
These differential vertical movements caused a new phase of erosion and deposition with the
desiccation of old peneplains and the formation of a new drainage system.
Incipient development of the East African Rift System coincides with the
emplacement of a family of carbonatites and associated rocks in east Africa that is called the
Chilwa Alkaline Province after the ‘type-locality’ on Chilwa Island in Lake Chilwa10 in
southeastern Malawi.

9
The Dwyka Formation (see Table 6.3) has been upgraded to Group (Johnson et al. 1996)
10
Lake Chilwa in Malawi is named Lago Chirua in Mozambique.

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Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Cretaceous Failed Rifts
a = Benue trough e = Doba-Doseo basin i = Melut basin
b = Gao basin f = Muglad basin j = Anza basin
c = Tenere basin g = White Nile rift k = Sirt basin
d = Bongor basin h = Blue Nile rift l = Lower Zambezi basin
Cretaceous Rifts Developed into Passive Margins of the African Craton
A = North Atlantic B = South Atlantic Margin (~135 and C = Indian Transform Margin
Margin (~200 Ma) 115 Ma) (~165 Ma)
Cretaceous-Tertiary Sag Basins
I = Taoudeni basin III = Chad basin V = Ogaden basin
II = Iullemeden basin IV = Congo basin

Fig. 5.6. Break-up of Gondwana (180 – 40 Ma) (Dirks and Ashwal, 2002).

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ATLAS
ATLAS
ATLAS
ATLASOROGEN
ATLAS
ATLAS OROGEN
OROGEN
OROGEN
OROGEN
OROGEN
Hot
Hot Spot
Hot
Hot
Hot
Hot Spot tracks
Spot
Spot
Spot
Spot tracks
tracks
tracks
tracks
tracks
Current
Current
Current
Current
Current hot
Current hot
hot spot
hot spot
spot
spot position
spot position
position
position
position
50
50 My
50
50
50 My
My ago
My
My ago
ago
ago
ago
100
100 My
100 My ago
My ago
ago
150
150
150
150
150 My
150 My
My
My
My ago
My ago
ago
ago
ago
ago
jj
kk

ll
nn

m
m

oo

aa
pp
A stationary bb
A stationary
African
African plate30-0
plate30-0 Ma
Ma
Quaternary
Quaternary volcanics
volcanics
Quaternary volcanics
Quaternary
Quaternary volcanics
volcanics
Tertiary
Tertiary
Tertiary volcanics
volcanics
volcanics
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Mesozoic
Mesozoic volcanics
Mesozoic volcanics
volcanics
volcanics
volcanics
Mid-Tertiary
Mid-Tertiary
Mid-Tertiary
Mid-Tertiary
Mid-Tertiary and
Mid-Tertiary and
and
and
and younger
and younger
younger
younger
younger cover
younger cover
cover
cover
cover
Alpine
Alpine
Alpine faulting
faulting
faulting &
&
& faulting
faulting
faulting ff
along
along
along E
along
along
along E
E
E
E African
E African
African
African
African rift
African rift
rift
rift
rift
rift

cc dd gg ii
ee hh

Courtesy Paul Dirks 2003

Hot spots and Their Tracks Below the African Plate
a = Ascension g = Shona m = Mt. Cameroon
b = St Helena h = Bouvet n = Afar
c = Tristan da Cunha i = Marion o = Victoria
d = Gough j = Hoggar p = Comores
e = Discovery k = Tibesti
f = Vema l = Jebel Mara
Fig 5 7 Africa in the Tertiary Quaternary (30 Ma Recent) (Dirks and Ashwal 2002)

5.4. GEODYNAMIC PRINCIPLES

5.4.1. Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles

The evolution of Africa’s chrono-magmatic-tectonic provinces – the ‘building blocks’ – all

related to major geodynamic events, can be viewed in terms of Supercontinent or Wilson
Cycles. In its simplest form, a Wilson Cycle involves formation of a Supercontinent from
smaller continental blocks, followed by fragmentation and then by re-assembly of a new
Supercontinent. Most computer models of Wilson Cycles suggest that continental break-up
and fragmentation is caused by shielding of the mantle by a large plate that carries the

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Supercontinent which, in turn, results in mantle upwelling beneath the plate during a period of
200 – 500 Ma (Gurniss, 1988; Lowman and Jarvis, 1999; Condie, 2002). Mantle plumes,
developing in a mantle upwelling (Courtillot et al. 1999; Golonka and Bocharova, 2000), in
combination with pre-existing weakness zones of crustal or lithospheric dimension define the
actual sites of fragmentation. Supercontinents formed at 2.7 Ga, 1.9 Ga, 1.2 – 1.0 Ga
(Rodinia), 650 – 550 Ma (Gondwana) and 450 – 250 Ma (Pangea) (Condie, 1998, 2000,
2001). The youngest orogenic peak at 100 – 50 Ma, as expressed by the Alpine-Cordilleran
fold belts, can be considered as the first step in the formation of a future Supercontinent.
Although periods of fragmentation (at one location) and collision (at another location)
may overlap, it is justifiable to translate the above Cycles into periods of crustal extension and
compression, each characterised by specific geodynamic processes. The coeval development
of the extensive East African Rift System (EARS) and the continuous compressive movement
of the Indian craton below Asia may serve as a modern analogue.
Mantle upwelling results in mantle plumes, doming and crustal extension. The
emplacement of small volumes of ultra-potassic magmatic rocks (carbonatite, kimberlite and
associated alkaline or ultra-potassic igneous rocks) heralds incipient rifting. Mantle plumes
generate beneath the lithosphere, measure typically 2000 km in diameter and have
temperatures raised 200° C above normal (White and McKenzie, 1989). Mantle upwelling
causes an adiabatic rise of mantle rock, partial melting and the formation of large volumes of
magma of basaltic composition. These magmas may be emplaced at or near the base of the
continental crust (‘basaltic underplating’) and/or, extrude to the Earth’s surface, coeval with
continental break-up, as continental flood basalts (CFBs). The Deccan of India, the Paraná of
South America and the Karoo of southern Africa are well-known examples. Basaltic
underplating generally causes partial melting of the lower crust and the generation of melts of
granitoid composition. Together they may form bi-modal igneous suites, characterised by
interbeds of rhyolite or tuff in the sedimentary pile (see below) in combination with sills or
dykes of basaltic composition. Plutonic equivalents include pre- to early-kinematic granites
and granodiorites and layered (ultra-)mafic suites. The granitoids have generally a
peraluminous S-type geochemical signature. Differentiation of basaltic magma may result in
A-type alkali granites as described, for example, by Tack et al. (1994), in association with
late-kinematic (ultra-)mafic layered bodies, in the northern Kibaran of Burundi and
northwestern Tanzania.
Crustal extension leads to rifting by listric faulting. The net result will be crustal
thinning and the formation of depositional basins that will be filled with sediments including
evaporites, terrigenous sediments and igneous material at or near the surface. The latter is co-
magmatic with pre- to syn-kinematic basalts and granitoids at depth. Rifting and crustal
thinning may cease without formation of oceanic crust: an aborted or failed rift. Continued
rifting will eventually result in continental break-up with passive margins and the formation
of a young oceanic basin. Passive margin basins are often characterised by shallow marine
environments and the deposition of carbonates. Carbonates have rather restrictive
occurrences, constituting only ~ 2% of the rocks of the Earth’s crust (Wyllie, 1971).
Consequently, carbonates, or their metamorphic equivalents, are useful in defining palaeo-
continental margins.
Ophiolites and eclogites, or their metamorphic equivalents, are also useful indicators
of continental margins. Ophiolites are fragments of hot oceanic crust obducted onto – instead
of subducted below – the continental margin. They are often intermingled with sedimentary

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rocks, forming so-called ‘mélanges’. Retrograde metamorphism, hydration and metasomatism

may result in the genesis of whiteschists, characterised by, e.g., talc-kyanite assemblages.
Eclogites in metamorphic belts originate from deeply buried (~ > 10 kb; Newton, 1986) ocean
floor basalt in subduction settings, exhumed during subsequent plate margin collisional
orogenies. Their preservation is ascribed to rapid exhumation as mantled relics, preventing
complete re-equilibration. Eclogite fragments may also be carried to the surface as xenoliths
by deep intracratonic volcanic vents. The distribution of supracrustal rocks, including
carbonates, ophiolites and eclogites in Mozambique has been summarised by Grantham et al.
(2002) and is based on data by Vrana et al. (1975), Andreoli and Hart (1985), Mosley (1993),
Groenewald (1995), Möller et al. (1995) and Dirks (1997).
Posterior reassembly of continental fragments, ultimately resulting in the formation of
the next Supercontinent, will generate compressional forces. Compressional forces affecting
failed rifts may give rise to back-thrusting of the listric fault blocks and folding and
metamorphism of the basinal sedimentary pile: an intracratonic fold belt. Crustal thickening
may cause anatexis of the lower crust. Consumption of oceanic basins and subduction of wet
oceanic crust will result in the creation of island or Andean-type continental magmatic arcs
and eventually in collision and amalgamation of lithospheric fragments. Passive margin
sediments will be tectonised and metamorphosed in the process.
Igneous rocks in magmatic arcs typically have calc-alkaline signatures. They include
volcanic piles dominated by andesites and dacites with subordinate basalts and rhyolites or as
their plutonic equivalents in the form of tonalities, trondjhemites and granodiorites (TTG
suites) with relatively low 87Sr/86Sr ratios. High heat flow generally associated with magmatic
arcs cause HT/LP metamorphic conditions manifested by mineral assemblages characteristic
of upper amphibolite to granulite facies, generally accompanied by extensive migmatisation.
The most recent Supercontinent assemblies pertinent to southern and eastern Africa
include Rodinia and Gondwana/Pangea. Rodinia assembled largely between 1200 and 1000
Ma during the Grenvillian Orogeny (Hoffman, 1991; Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al.
1997, Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001; Condie, 2002a), represented regionally by
the Kibaran, Irumide and Namaqua-Natal fold belts. Rodinia rifting commenced around 1000
Ma and included extension in eastern and southern Africa as manifested by, for example, the
Richtersveld igneous suite, South Africa (Frimmel et al. 2001) and, within western
Mozambique, by the emplacement of 850 – 870 Ma bi-modal igneous rocks contained in the
Masoso and Guro Suites (Vinyu et al. 1999; GTK Consortium, 2006b) and the Rushinga
Basal Intrusive Suite dated at 805±11 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999).
Although most fragmentation took place between 900 and 700 Ma, the opening of the
Iapetus Ocean began around ~ 600 Ma with the separation of Baltica-Laurentia-Amazonia.
Gondwana assembled chiefly between 600 and 500 Ma (Condie, 2002a) although earlier (850
– 750 Ma) collisions have been reported in the Arabian-Nubian Shield (Hanson et al. 1994;
Stein and Goldstein, 1996). The assembly of Gondwana thus followed immediately the break-
up of Rodinia with some overlap in timing between 700 and 600 Ma. Baltica-Laurentia-
Siberia briefly collided with Gondwana to form the short-lived Supercontinent Pannotia
between 580 and 540 Ma (Dalziel, 1997).
Pangea began to form about 450 Ma with the collision of the Pre-Cordillera-Rio de la
Plata, Amazonia-Laurentia and Laurentia-Baltica collisions and amalgamations (Li and
Powell, 2001). Further growth was caused by collision between Baltica and Siberia as
manifested by the Ural orogeny (Scotese and McKerrow, 1990). Rifting of Pangea started

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around 180 Ma with the development of the Indian and South Atlantic oceanic basins and, on
the African continent, numerous Karoo preservation troughs.

5.4.2. Superplumes

Based on the distribution of ages in continental crust, Condie (1998, 2000) proposed episodic
growth of continents with each maximum in continental growth manifesting a superplume
event. Superplumes are supposedly triggered by catastrophic slab avalanching at the 660-km
mantle discontinuity (Maruyama, 1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, many mantle plumes
are generated that bombard the base of the lithosphere in a short period of time (≤ 50 Ma).
When plotted in time, superplumes represented by culminations in juvenile crust
production, can be correlated with the formation of Supercontinents. Only two major
superplume events can be established in the Precambrian at 2.7 and 1.9 Ga, respectively.
Phanerozoic superplumes include a small peak in crustal growth in the Late Cretaceous at
~110 Ma and a Late Palaeozoic peak at ~ 300 Ma. The Grenvillian orogeny and the formation
of Rodinia cannot be correlated with a superplume event. Rogers (1996) has suggested that
during the 1.9 supercontinent/ superplume event (in Africa to be correlated with the Ubendian
orogeny, see Fig. 5.1) actually two Supercontinents formed. Lack of a Grenvillian superplume
event may be due to either subsequent failure of the two Supercontinents to break-up or to
inadequate lithospheric shielding of two instead of a single Supercontinent for the production
of mantle upwellings large enough to break the continental lithosphere (Lowman and Jarvis,
1996). Condie (2001) suggests that during the Supercontinent break-up at 1.6 – 1.4 Ga only a
small proportion of the Supercontinent (or Supercontinents) was fragmented. The resulting
increase in subduction rates was not sufficient to initiate slab collapse at the 660-km seismic
discontinuity, which would normally lead to a superplume event (Larson, 1991; Maruyama,
1994; Condie, 1998). Consequently, worldwide Grenvillian juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9 Ma) is
limited to only 7 to 13%. Of this, only a minor proportion was created in Africa with
estimates ranging from 0.9 to 1.6% and located in the Namaqua-Natal orogen in southern
Africa, the Lurio belt in Mozambique, northeastern Tanzania and Burundi/northwestern
Tanzania (Condie, 2001; see also Figure 5.2).

5.5. GEOCHRONOLOGY, WITH EMPHASIS ON NEW DATA

5.5.1. Phanerozoic Cover

The Phanerozoic cover comprises sedimentary strata and associated igneous rocks belonging
to the East Africa Rift and Karoo Supergroups, deposited during the East Africa Rift and
Karoo Events, respectively.
Traditionally, the age of sedimentary rocks belonging to the East Africa Rift Super-
group is based on marine and fresh water fossils and palynology. Geochronological data are
available from alkaline volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group, yielding an Early-Middle
Cretaceous (K-Ar) age of 131±10 Ma (Gough et al. 1964; Flores, 1964; Vail, 1963, 1964,
1965) within the succession.
The Karoo Supergroup in the Main Karoo Basin in South Africa ranges in age from
Late Carboniferous to Early Jurassic. Dating and lithostratigraphic classification of
sedimentary units is mainly based on non-marine vertebrate and plant fossils. For example,

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the Beaufort Group in the Main Karoo basin in South Africa has been successfully subdivided
into eight fossil assemblage zones. A palynological biozonation has proved feasible for the
Permian strata in some Karoo basins. Basalts and acid lavas of the Drakensberg Group that
top the Karoo Supergroup yield K-Ar and Rb-Sr ages of ~ 180 Ma. A similar age for this late
Karoo igneous event has been found in e.g. Antarctica and elsewhere.
Rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup in Mozambique are also dated by their
fossil content, or by analogy with Karoo successions in neighbouring countries. Recently,
septarian carbonate concretions in siltstones incorporated into the Beaufort Group (K5 and
K6) of the Metangula rift (Niassa Province) have been dated using the ‘U-Pb on carbonates’
method. Preliminary results (pers. comm. R.A. Smith) manifest that:
• The ‘U-Pb on carbonate method’ yields an isochron Late Permian age (258±10
Ma) that falls within the Mid-Permian to Mid-Triassic time brackets (275 – 225
Ma) for the Beaufort Group, based on palaeontology and palaeobotany.
• The Ecca-Beaufort boundary in the Metangula Rift is diachronous.

5.5.2. Crystalline Basement

Kennedy (1964) introduced the term Pan-African orogeny. He preferred, however, the term
‘Pan-African thermo-tectonic episode’ manifesting the fact that evidence for this orogeny was
initially mainly derived from conventional whole rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar geochronology
yielding ages of about ~ 650 to 490 Ma for presumably older rocks (Cahen and Snelling,
1966). As can be expected in polyphase terrains, the above data display large to excessive
error margins, reflecting either incomplete resetting of the isotopic system, material losses
through circulation of metamorphic fluids or diffusion. Modern geochronological methods
such as Ar/Ar, conventional U-Pb, U-Pb SHRIMP, Sm-Nd and Nd model ages (TDM) have
greatly improved the reliability and accuracy of rock metamorphic and igneous emplacement
ages.
Grantham et al. (2002) has summarised geochronological data in eastern Africa.
Metamorphic ages and Nd model (TDM) ages are relatively scarce in Mozambique. TDM ages
of < 1.5 Ga in the Tete area and northern Mozambique and 1.5 to >2.0 Ga in central
Mozambique near the Zimbabwe craton confirm that the metamorphic ages, ranging from 450
to 750 Ma, reflect indeed overprinting on older crystallisation ages. Igneous crystallisation
temperatures can be divided into four groups: (1) 1100 – 1400 Ma, (2) 900 – 1100 Ma, (3)
700 – 900 Ma and (4) 450 – 700 Ma. It is postulated that the first group (1100 – 1400 Ma)
corresponds to the post-Ubendian break-up including the formation of oceanic crust (e.g.
Chewore Inlier; Zimbabwe); the second group (900 – 1100 Ma) with the Kibaran/Grenvillian
orogeny and the formation of the Rodinia Supercontinent, the third group (700 – 900 Ma)
with post-Rodinia break-up and the formation of oceanic basins including the Mozambique
Ocean and, finally, the fourth group (450 – 700 Ma) with the Pan-African collision and the
formation of Pangea (for details see Chapter 8).
Different tectonic regimes at different locations at the same time complicate, however,
this regional picture. For example, an ~ 800 Ma igneous event in the Zambezi belt is
interpreted as extensional by Dirks et al. (1998). U-Pb zircon and baddeleyite ages of between
804 and 776 Ma from Tanzania and Madagascar are related to a 450 km long continental
magmatic arc at the time of, or slightly preceding the break-up of Rodinia.

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Meert (2002) recognises three broad age groups related to tectonic phases. These
include (1) the initial oceanic arc/ophiolite genesis in the East African orogeny (EAO)
between ~ 710 and 800 Ma. This was followed by (2) the EAO between ~ 690 and 580 Ma in
a N-S belt stretching from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique and (3) the
Kuunga orogeny from ~ 580 to 460 Ma in ~ E-W and N-S zones along the northern and
eastern margins of the Kalahari craton.
The GTK Consortium has carried out 36 age determinations of which 19 fall within
the area covered by this Map Explanation. Employed methods include conventional U-Pb,
SHRIMP and Sm-Nd dating. The methods are discussed in section 2.5.2., and the results
presented in App. 2.

5.6. TERRANES IN MOZAMBIQUE

Lithostratigraphic units that underlie the territory of Mozambique can be conveniently divided
between the crystalline basement of Archaean-Cambrian age and Phanerozoic cover. The
crystalline basement comprises a heterogeneous assemblage metamorphosed supracrustal
paragneisses, granulites and migmatites, orthogneisses and igneous rocks. The Phanerozoic
cover mainly comprises lithologies deposited during the Karoo and East African Rift Events.
They will be assembled into the Karoo Supergroup and East African Rift, respectively.
From a geodynamic point of view it is generally accepted that the crystalline basement
of Mozambique is composed of three different terranes11 that have been collided and
amalgamated during subsequent orogenic phases. Prior to amalgamation, each terrane was
characterised by an individual and specific geodynamic development. The geodynamic
evolution and boundaries – the sutures – of these terranes will be discussed in Chapter 8.
Provisionally, these terranes are called the East Gondwana, West Gondwana and South
Gondwana terranes (Table 5.3).

9
The term ‘terrane’ is used to indicate a tectonic unit of variable size, i.e., a lithospheric plate, a plate fragment
or sliver or a tectonic mass such as a ‘nappe’. ‘Terrain’, on the other hand, is a generic term, broadly similar to
‘area’.

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Being located close to a triple junction between the Irumide, Zambezi (~850 – 450
Ma) and Mozambique belts, the basement geology of the Tete province (including the
northern part of the Manica Province) is extraordinarily complex with the above three terranes
all being present.
South Gondwana – Comprises the Zimbabwe craton and a number of tectono- or
lithostratigraphic units that have been thrusted or deposited on top of the northern and eastern
margin of the craton. It is separated from the other terranes by the Zambezi and Lupata
Troughs.
West Gondwana – In Tanzania the west-verging thrust front of the Mozambique belt
marks the boundary between the West and East Gondwana terranes. Further southwards this
suture is less well defined but in the Tete area this suture is believed to correspond with the
contact with the NW-SE trending Furancungo Suite (Desaranhama Granite) and Angónia
Group.
The Tete-Chipata Block is part of the West Gondwana terrane. It is a triangular crustal
block bounded by the E-W trending Sânangoè Shear Zone (or Mágoè-Estima Fault Zone
sensu Hunting, 1984) in the south and the Mwembeshi dislocation in the north. The Tete-
Chipata block is characterised by generally WSW-ENE trends.
East Gondwana – In Tanzania this comprises the crystalline basement east of the Pan-
African suture. Further southwards it comprises most rocks in Malawi and northern
Mozambique
The crystalline basement in the area covered by this Map Explanation (Volume 2)
belongs almost entirely to the South Gondwana Terrane and the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite
Suite (TGAS). The South Gondwana terrane comprises the Archaean Zimbabwe Craton –
being part of the larger Kalahari craton – and a number of overthrusted units in Proterozoic
fold belts that will be discussed in Chapters 6 and 7, respectively. The Tete Suite is
considered an allochthonous thrust mass, now largely located south of the Sânangoè Shear
Zone but most likely originating from the West Gondwana Terrane, to the north thereof.

Table 5.3. Basement terranes in Mozambique.

Cover East African Rift Supergroup

Karoo Supergroup
Basement South Gondwana terrane West Gondwana terrane East Gondwana terrane
Mavuradonha Metamorphic Matunda Suite Unango Group
Complex Mualádzi Group Lúrio Supergroup
Báruè Complex Fíngoè Supergroup Nampula Supergroup
Umkondo Group Zâmbuè Supergroup Mecubúri Group
Rushinga Metamorphic Cazula Group Muaguide Group
Complex Chidzolomondo Group Chiúre Supergroup
Gairezi Group Meponda Group
Zimbabwe Craton Angónia Group
Tete Suite

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CHAPTER 6

SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – KALAHARI CRATON

6.1. INTRODUCTION
The Kalahari Craton (~ 1.5 million km²) comprises the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons,
together with the intervening Limpopo mobile belt. The Kaapvaal Craton and the Limpopo
Belt do not extend into the area covered by this Map Explanation. The Zimbabwe Craton
underlies most of Zimbabwe as well as parts of northeastern Botswana and western
Mozambique (Fig. 6.1). The craton is largely composed of a so-called granite-greenstone
terrane comprising mainly granite-gneiss-migmatite complexes of tonalitic to trondhjemitic to
granitic (TTG) composition and subordinate (~20 % of the surface area) greenstone belts. The
greenstone belts of the Zimbabwe Craton are in 26 individual linear or arcuate infolded belts,
up to several tens of km long, of which two extend into Mozambique (i.e., the Mutare-Manica
and Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belts, respectively). The greenstone belts are composed of
generally low-grade meta-sediments, including banded iron formations (BIF), and volcanic
rocks.

Fig. 6.1. Simplified map of the Zimbabwe Craton showing the major litho-tectonic units (after Hofmann et al.
2002). Key: 1 = Mutare-Manica greenstone belt; 2 = Makaha greenstone belt; 3 = Bindura-Shamva greenstone
belt. The northern Archaean gneiss terrain comprises the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT).

The oldest rocks of the Zimbabwe Craton are TTG gneisses have been dated between
3.55 and 3.35 Ga (e.g., Horstwood et al. 1999). Infolded are remnants of greenstones that are
collectively grouped into the Sebakwean Group. Subsequent accretion added greenstones of
the ~ 2.9 to 2.8 Ga Belingwean and Lower Bulawayan Groups. A major phase of rock

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formation took place between ~ 2.7 and ~ 2.64 Ga and resulted in the deposition of the
widespread volcanic succession of the Upper Bulawayan Supergroup and and the
metasedimentary Shamvaian Supergroup which overlies the Upper Bulawayan in several
greenstone belts (Wilson et al. 1995). Deposition of the supracrustal greenstone belt
sequences was accompanied by emplacement of granitoids of tonalitic to granodioritic
composition of the ~2.9 to 2.8 Ga Chingezi, ~ 2.7 Ga Sesombi, ~ 2.65 Wedza and ~2.6 Ga
Chilimanzi Suites (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996). A simplified lithostratigraphy of
the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002) is shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1. Simplified lithostratigraphy of the Zimbabwe Craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002).

Central Zimbabwe N and E Zimbabwe, Mozambique

Great Dyke (2575 Ma)
~ 2.6 Ga Chilimani ~ 2.64 Ga Mavonde
Suite Shamvaian Complex M’Beza/Vengo

Manica
Group
Granite-Green-stone

Supergroup Formation*

~ 2.65 Wedza ~ 2.70 Ga Upper Bulawayan Macequece

Terrain

Ga Suite Supergroup Formatiom

~ 2.7 Ga Chingezi 2.9 – 2.8 Belingwean-Lower
Suite Ga Bulawayan ~3.0 Ga Migmatic Gneiss Terrain
Supergroup
~ 3.5 Ga > 2.95 Ga Sebakwean Pfungwe Mudzi Suite
Supergroup Suite
Basement Complex (> 3.5 Ga)

The presence of Archaean rocks in small round to oval-shaped windows below

Proterozoic units close to the Zimbabwe-Mozambique border has been known for some time.
Mapping by the GTK Consortium has evidenced the predominance of Archaean rocks in
Mozambique in a N-S belt, 20 to 50 km wide, along the international border.
For a long time geologists have speculated on the sub-surface northern and eastern
extension of the Zimbabwe Craton. There is strong evidence that the Archaean lithosphere
extends sub-surface up to the Cahora Bassa Lake (i.e., the Sanangoè Shear Zone) in the north
and – at least – the the western margin of the Lupata trough in the east, possibly even
including the Lupata trough itself. This hypothesis is strongly supported by the distribution of
Karoo volcanics in, e.g., the Lebombo Monocline, Limpopo Belt-Nhamatanda and Canxixe.
Basaltic underplating apparently concentrated at or near the break of the lithospheric upper
mantle, i.e., from thick Archaean upper mantle to younger upper mantle of normal thickness.
This means that all Proterozoic metamorphic units of the South Gondwana Terrane – with the
exception of the undeformed/non-metamorphic Umkondo Group – have been thrusted on top
of the northern and eastern margins of the Zimbabwe Craton.

6.1.1. Migmatic gneiss terrane

Archaean gneiss-migmatite terranes bound the central granite-greenstone terrain of the

Zimbabwe Craton along its southern and northern border. The northern allochthonous terrane
is known as Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (Barton et al. 1991) and extends into Mozambique. It
consists of a complex sequence of amphibolite-facies para- and orthogneisses with local relics
of granulite-facies paragenesis. Stratigraphically, the MiGT can be divided into the (1)

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Pfungwe Metamorphic Suite (in the north) and (2) Mudzi Metamorphic Suite12
(northeastern and eastern margin). The first is composed of approximately equal proportions
of sedimentary and igneous protoliths. The Mudzi Metamorphic Suite, which extends into
Mozambique, is similar, though there are far greater proportions of granitoid gneisses.

6.1.2. Granite-Greenstone Terrane

Towards the south, the northern Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT) grades into the granite-
greenstone terrain of central Zimbabwe through a 5 to 10 km wide zone showing a
progressive decrease in grade of metamorphism and deformation (Barton et al. 1991; Jelsma
et al. 2002). In the Manica area and further southwards the granite-greenstone terrain of the
Zimbabwe Craton is represented by the Mutare-Manica and Cronley-Munhinga greenstone
belts, located some 50 km apart, by ‘Older Granites’ and by granitoids assembled in the
Mavonde Complex. In Mozambique, the greenstone sequence of the Mutare-Manica
greenstone belt is assembled as the Manica Group and divided into the metavolcano-
sedimentary Macequece* (bottom) and metasedimentary Vengo (top) Formations*. The
metavolcanic rocks of the Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belt are attributed to the Munhinga
Group. The greenstones and metasediments can be correlated with the Upper Bulawayan and
Shamvaian Supergroups in Zimbabwe, respectively (Table 6.1).

Mutare-Manica greenstone belt

This belt is the only major greenstone belt that extends from Zimbabwe into Mozambique. It
crosses the border just north of the city of Mutare in Zimbabwe (formerly Umtali) and is
known as Mutare greenstone belt (Zimbabwe) or Manica greenstone belt (Mozambique).
The older names of Odzi Gold Belt and Umtali Gold Belt refer to distinct gold-bearing
segments of the greenstone belt. The Mutare belt is part of a string of elongate greenstone
belts, which lie along a regional curvilinear feature termed the Sandawana-Masvingo-
Mutare line (Coward et al. 1976; Vearncombe et al. 1988) (Fig. 6.1.). East of Manica this
belt bends sharply towards the north and terminates soon after. Isolated bodies of greenstone
rocks, surrounded by ‘grey gneisses’ and belonging to the greenstone belt, still occur towards
the north. South of the belt, a narrow 1 – 2 km wide strip of mainly ultramafic metavolcanics
is separated from the main belt by granitoids. Greenstones in the Manica area were the centre of
mining activity in Mozambique in the first half of 20th century and contain substantial known
resources of gold, copper, bauxite and asbestos.
The Mutare-Manica greenstone belt can be subdivided into a NE-SW trending part in
the west, referred to as the Odzi segment, and an E-W trending part in the east, the Mutare
segment. The Odzi segment stretches from Nyashanu in the SW to Odzi in the NE over a
distance of 70 – 75 km and its overall width is less than 5 km. The Odzi segment will not be
further discussed.

12
This should not be confused with the Mudzi Formation, a massive to pillowed metabasalt unit constituting the
eastern part of the Makaha greenstone belt (Johnson, 1968; Stocklmayer, 1980).

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Mutare Segment
The Mutare segment extends over a distance of some 60 km, from Odzi to east of Manica in
Mozambique. Its width varies between 10 and 15 km. A narrow (1 – 2 km) strip of ultramafic
rocks, surrounded by granitoids, stretches E-W over ~ 20 km, south of Mutare but stops near
the Mozambique border. From a structural point of view, the Mutare segment is a
synclinorium, 5 to 15 km wide that is markedly asymmetric with a subvertical, to slightly
overturned, southern limb and a shallow-dipping northern limb comprising a syncline-
anticline-syncline succession. The axial trace of the anticline separating the two major
synclines follows the BIF unit that forms the high ground between the Mbeza and Penhalonga
valleys. The southern Mbeza syncline continues approximately 5 km into Mozambique,
where the plunge becomes westerly. The eastward-plunging northern Penhalonga syncline
becomes the major greenstone belt fold structure in Mozambique.
A strong indication manifesting a sinistral transpression regime is the left-stepping, en-
échelon configuration of the major E-W trending folds in relation to the overall ENE-WSW
strike of the belt. The foliation is subvertical and strikes parallel to the lithological contacts.
The mineral stretching and elongation lineations plunge shallowly to the east and are near-
coaxial with the fold-plunge direction. The sheared unconformity between Upper Bulawayan
talcose serpentinites and Shamvaian Supergroup metasediments on the northern side of the
Mbeza syncline is well exposed in a road cut in the Mbeza River valley, south of the Redwing
gold mine. Near-concordant zones of patchy silicification and carbonatisation characterise the
ultramafic rocks. A dominantly reverse component of shear is suggested in places.
Folds in the Shamvaian Supergroup metasediments of the Mbeza syncline are open
and plunge ENE-WSW, with development of a slaty, locally phyllitic, cleavage in the finer-
grained argillite and tuff units. The S1 fabric is subject to localised kink folding along NNW-
SSE axes. Bedding-cleavage relationships suggest that the southern margin of the
metasedimentary unit is also a locus for reverse-dominated shear. On the southern flank of the
synclinorium, the main flattening fabric in the ultramafic-dominated greenstone sequence
consistently dips southward at a moderate to steep angle. Elongation lineations plunge
shallowly to the WSW.

Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belt

The larger part of the Cronley schist/greenstone belt13 or Munhinga-Bande belt14 is situated
in Mozambique. The belt occurs south of Lago Chicambo Real on the Revuè River, about 50
– 55 km south of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt. It is visible in the aerial photographs
and satellite images as a narrow (max. 2 km), curvilinear range of low hills that stretches ENE
from beneath Umkondo Group sediments (see Section 6.5.) in the west to Gairezi/Fronteira
Group sediments (see Section 7.6.) in the east. The length of the combined mapped
occurrence in Zimbabwe and Mozambique is of the order of 35 – 40 km. In Zimbabwe, the
belt consists of quartz-sericite-schist and greenstones with lenses of serpentinite and an
isolated domain of quartz-rich BIF, all attributed to the Upper Bulawayan Supergroup.

13
Cronley belt: this name is used in Hunting (1984) with a (non-detailed) reference to Watson (1969). No
information has been found concerning the origin of the term. In fact, no locality with that name is referenced
in present-day Zimbabwe.
14
Rio Munhinga and Rio Bande drain the areas respectively south and north of the belt in Mozambique.

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Similar lithologies and stratigraphic position are presented in the 1987 1:1 000 000 geological
map (Pinna et al. 1987) of Mozambique.

Granitoids
Granitoids – a mixture of gneisses, variably deformed granites and granodiorites and
migmatites – constitute the bulk of granite-greenstone terrains. In Zimbabwe the oldest
granitoids are attributed to the > 3.5 Ga ‘Basement Complex’ and granitoids associated with
the > 2.95 Ga Sebakwean. Younger greenstone belts are associated with the ~ 2.7 Ga
Chingezi, the ~ 2.65 Ga Wedza and the ~ 2.6 Ga Chilimani Suites, respectively (Table 6.1.).
The boundaries between the different generations of granitoids are complex and difficult to
establish. It would require detailed mapping, supported by extensive lithogeochemistry,
petrography and geochronology. This not being the case, the felsic rocks of the granite-
greenstone terrain of the Zimbabwe Craton in Mozambique have been divided into granitoids
broadly coeval or younger than the greenstone belt sequences contained in the Manica Group
and ‘older granitoids’. The first have been grouped into the Mavonde Complex. ‘Older
Granitoids’ in Mozambique have not been mapped as individual polygons but were identified
in geochronological samples.

6.1.3. Archaean Rocks in Mozambique

Archaean rocks are exposed in the map sheets Mucumbura/Chioco (1631/1632), Tete (1633,
(SW corner only), Guro (1732/1733), Manica/Catandica (1832/1833) and Rotanda/Chimoio
(1932/1933) in all of them representing the eastern margin of the Archaean Zimbabwe craton
in the Mozambican side.
Rocks along the northern part of the eastern Craton margin are attributed to the Mudzi
Metamorphic Complex (Section 6.2.), part of the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane
(Barton et al. 1991). These rocks are mainly exposed in Map Sheet Guro (SDS 1732/1733)
and the northern part of Manica/Catandica (SDS 1832/1833).
Further southwards, the Craton’s eastern margin in Mozambique constitutes a
continuation of the Zimbabwe granite-greenstone terrain. The lithologies of the greenstone
belts are attributed to the Manica Group, which has been sub-divided into (from bottom to
top) Macequece and Vengo Formations* of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt. Rocks of the
Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belt are attributed to the Munhinga Group.
It would be logic to divide the felsic rocks of the granite-greenstone terrain in, at least,
felsic rocks older and younger than the supracrustal rocks in the greenstone belts. The present
state of mapping and, in particular, insufficient geochronological knowledge, does not allow
this. Consequently, all felsic rocks (with minor ultramafic intercalations) have been attributed
to the Mavonde Complex. Felsic rocks of the Mavonde Complex are exposed in the middle
and southern part of the Manica/Catandica (SDS 1832/1833) and Rotanda/Chimoio (SDS
1932/1933).

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6.2. MUDZI METAMORPHIC COMPLEX (A3M)

6.2.1. Introduction

In Zimbabwe seven mappable units have been distinguished in the Mudzi Suite (from old to
young:
• Mapingisa Xenolithic Tonalite.
• Granulite (and retrograde equivalents).
• Mesocratic Orthogneiss.
• Leucocratic Orthogneiss.
• Garnet-Kyanite Gneiss.
• Porphyroblastic Granite Gneiss.
• Augen Granite Gneiss.

Rocks in Mozambique equivalent to Mudzi Suite in Zimbabwe are assembled into the
‘Mudzi Metamorphic Complex’. Archaean rocks belonging to the Mudzi Complex are
found ~ 50 km west of Changara (SDS 1632-1633) in several small and generally shallow
outcrops, including road cuts at Cuchamano village (SDS 1632), close to the international
border with Zimbabwe, and along local village roads to the north and south from there.
Similar Archaean gneiss-migmatite rocks are exposed in the northern part of a small dome
that extends to the extreme southeastern corner of the Chioco map sheet (SDS 1632), to the
adjacent southwestern corner of the Tete map sheet (SDS 1633) and further southwards into
the Guro map sheet (SDS 1732/1733). In the latter map sheet Mudzi lithologies are also in a
number of dome-like and lensoid structures in the Massanga area (dated at ~ 2630 Ma), in the
border areas of the Donga and Caueresi Rivers, the Senga-Senga area and elsewhere. A small
dome of Archean gneisses outside any road on the boundary of SDS 1633 and DS 1733, has
been dated (~ 2710 Ma), is well shown on satellite and geophysical maps and has been
mapped at the scale 1:50 000. The area covered by Archaean rocks is larger than previously
known but particularly the easternmost boundaries await more observation points for their
improved definition.
Commonly, these Archaean Mudzi dome structures are (tectonically?) overlain by
metasediments of the Proterozoic Rushinga Group (in the north) or Gairezi Formation* (in the
south). For example, excellent outcrops with easy access are situated in the village of
Cuchamano, near the international border post to Zimbabwe, and upstream the Múdze River
when entering there from the village of Múdze Chizimwe (Fig. 6.2).
Prominent quartzite ridges of the Rushinga Group border Archaean outcrops east of
Cuchamano. When approaching the Archaean domain from the east (along the Changara-
Cuchamano road), a few kilometres before the international border, after crossing the rocky
Rushinga ridges, the Archaean gneisses have given rise to an open, flat landscape at a lower
topographic level. Before going down, one can see at distance, far within the Zimbabwean
territory, a few scattered inselbergs within the otherwise flat Archaean terrain. The difference
in geomorphological signature between Archaean and Proterozoic rocks is also evident on
satellite imagery. Along the slope of Senga-Senga Mountain thin-skinned Mudzi banded
gneisses and intercalated metagabbros with a shallow dip to the south are underlain and

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overlain by Gairezi schists and quartzites. Parts of the same slab are exposed further east, at
the Macossa road junction. The existing, rather detailed geological map on the Zimbabwean
side and correlation of these data across the international border makes the Archaean-
Proterozoic boundary as drawn on the Mozambican maps well reliable.

Fig. 6.2. Profile across the Zimbabwe craton margin, drawn along the Múdze river channel, south of the
Cuchamano village, lat. 17°02´. The banded gneisses, granites and mafic intercalates of the Archaean Mudzi
Complex (grey) are overlain by supracrustal rocks of the Rushinga Group. The basement is well exposed
upstream the river, west of the Múdze Chizimwe village, as is also the sheared basement/cover junction. The
early recumbent tectonic structure of the cover is affected, together with the basement, by later upright
structure, well exposed in the vertical walls in the gorge across a quartzite ridge in the middle of the profile.

6.2.2. Lithology

The rocks of the Mudzi Complex extend from the Zimbabwean side uninterruptedly to
Mozambique in the Cuchamano area, at the NE corner of the Archaean Zimbabwe Craton
(Map Sheet Chioco, SDS 1631/1632) and in Gairezi village area, ~ 60 km south of
Cuchamano (Map Sheet Guro, SDS 1732/1733). Other exposures are within several separate
domes and tectonic wedges in the area from Cuchamano to the northwestern part of the
Manica/Catandica Map Sheet.
Excellent outcrops with easy access are situated in and near the village of Cuchamano,
at the international border post to Zimbabwe, and upstream the Múdze River when entering
the village of Múdze Chizimwe (SDS 1633, Fig. 6.2, profile). Other subareas are accessible
with more trouble except when a dome or a tectonic wedge coincides with a road. A poor
village road that starts at the Macossa road junction and continues in a northwestern direction
until the Zimbabwe border, intersects felsic rocks of the Mudzi Complex. Just south of this
small road in the slope of the circular Senga Senga Mountain, to observe a thin skin stacked
sequence of Archaean banded gneisses with tectonically intercalated Archaean metagabbros
with shallow dip to the south, underlain and overlain by the Gairezi schists and quartzites.

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Several mappable felsic to intermediate units of ortho-derivation, generally comprising

TTG assemblages, have been identified:
• quartz monzonite and quartz monzodiorite (A3Mqm);
• foliated granitoid, porphyritic in places (A3Mgr);
• TTG gneiss, foliated granitoid, magmatic U-Pb ages of 2600 – 2710 Ma (A3Mgn).

Units with a mafic igneous component include:

• granodiorite gneiss containing amphibolite bands (A3Mgd);
• metagabbro (A3Mgb);
• amphibolite, garnet amphibolite (A3Mam).

Rocks with a sedimentary protolith include:

• garnet gneisses (A3Mgg)

The mutual stratigraphic relationships between these mappable units remain unknown.
The succession in which these lithologic units will be discussed below and are portrayed in
the legend has therefore no time-stratigraphic meaning.

Quartz monzonite and quartz monzodiorite (A3Mqm)

The rocks are relative massive compared to other Archaean rocks nearby. They are coarse
grained, often texturally porphyritic and usually weakly deformed. Plagioclase phenocrysts
are more common that those of K-feldspar. Fresh surface is dark and may have a brownish
shade. The main minerals usually are plagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende and pyroxene.
K-feldspar seems to be a subordinary mineral. In terms of the modal mineral composition, the
most common rock type is tonalite and quartz diorite. Quartz monzodiorites and quartz
monzonites are rare.
In thin section the rock is often characterized by decomposition of hornblende and
biotite, and the growth of retrogressive garnet.
Chemical composition of clinopyroxene and amphibole in tonalitic rocke is shown in
Table 2 (rock 1) of App. 4. The clinopyroxene has rather high Al2O3-content (1.9 wt%)
compared to the intermediate composition of host rock. Moreover, FeOt/MgO is < 1. These
values suggest, that the rock has undergone intense metamorphism, because pyroxenes in
‘postorogenic’, more or less unmetamorphosed charnockites in extensional environment have
low Al2O3 contents (<1 wt%) and FeOt/MgO is >1. Also biotite and amphibole have relative
low FeO/MgO. High TiO2 content (4.9 wt%) characterizes biotite.

Foliated granite (A3Mgr)

Foliated granites, partly just weakly orientated but in part also grey gneisses are met with the
easternmost tectonic lenses, at Catandica and to the northeast, and as small bodies elsewhere,
including Cuchamano. A cone-shaped hill 3 km north of Catandica, the ‘landmark’ of
Catandica, belongs to this family. There is an aggregate rock quarry at the root of the hill. The
rock of the quarry is rather fine grained, weakly banded and nonporphyritic. Porphyritic
varieties are occasional in this assemblage.

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Unexplained remained why there are scattered, several cm wide quartz-muscovite-

sillimanite nodules in the rock in one observed case, northeast of Catandica (Obs. 1514-04,
0526431/8024020). They occur in a narrow zone along the gneiss.

TTG gneiss and foliated granitoids (A3Mgn)

Foliated, often banded granitoids are distributed in the map sheets of Chioco and Guro, east of
the Zimbabwe border. The banding comes from multiple felsic igneous additions to the
assemblage, all now gneisses, but also Archaean pegmatitic bands occur. Metagabbroic or
amphibolitic bodies or bands occur, in which case the lithology could as well be located to
A3Mgd. Upstream the River Múdze, starting from the village of Múdze Chizimwe there are
excellent water-washed large outcrops with easy accessibility, showing several different felsic
and mafic components as well as complex Archaean fold structures. At the road cuts of
Cuchamano the banded gneiss also shows various igneous components. Parallel to the
banding there are several narrow shears in these road cuts, most likely being expressions of
Proterozoic overprinting tectonic activity.

Granodioritic gneiss (A3Mgd)

Pale grey, banded granodioritic gneisses with mafic sills are not uncommon in the region but
are particularly exposed southwest and south of Guro (Map Sheets Guro and Catandica, SDS
1733 and SDS 1833). They can be seen along the main road from Guro to Catandica at the
Macossa road junction and northwards, and in excellent exposures in the slope of the Senga
Senga Mountain region NW of this junction.
The banding is formed by a gneissose mineral differentiation and, in part, due to
quartzofeldspathic veining. On a macroscopic scale frequent thick mafic bands, up to several
metres in thickness, occur. Along Senga Senga Mountain slopes the mafic intercalations
appear as continuous black bands, well seen from distance, amongst the pale grey gneiss (Fig.
6.3 and 6.4). In the Senga Senga region one can see that the thickest black bands in part swell
into big rounded bodies. The biggest bodies are mappable and have been marked on the map
(A3Mgb).

Fig. 6.3. Mountainside of shallow-

dipping Archaean granite gneiss-
migmatite, intercalated by mafic,
metagabbroic bands. At the root of
the mountainside in the bush zone
there is underlying Gairezi mica
schist. The uppermost crest and
the slope behind are in turn
capped by Gairezi quartzite – see
Fig. 6.4. The site is visible from
the local village road, running in
the southern side of the Senga
Senga ring structure, 25 km west
of Guro (0510825/ 8059716).

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Fig. 6.4. Gairezi quartzite

continuing along the crest of the
mountain seen in the previous
picture (0510290/ 8059716). The
allochthonous tectonic position of
the Archaean slab shown in Fig.
6.3 is illustrated in Fig. 10.1,
where the highest ridge in the left
hand part of the profile is the same
as the ridge in Figs. 6.3 and 6.4.

Metagabbro (A3Mgb) and garnet amphibolite (A3Mam)

Exposures of mafic rocks are found in places, notably in road cuts. The mode of occurrence
suggests the presence of minor mafic intrusive bodies, at the most a few hundreds of meters in
size, intercalated in the granitoids and gneisses. One of them can be inspected in the village of
Cuchamano and a little east of the village, close to the main road and even in road cuts. The
rock is blackish and rather homogeneous apart from some variation imparted by local
deformation. A gabbroic protoliths is commonly assumed.
There are abundant metagabbroic bodies amongst the Archaean gneiss. None of them
have been found large, as shown by the map. Often they seem to resist erosion better than
gneiss and form small, or sometimes high hills.
In particular, some 40 km west of the town of Guro, occur several gabbro dominated
individual hills, which are more or less rounded in form (Fig. 6.5). However, the amount of
gabbro in the hills notably varies. For example, one third of the hill can be composed of
gabbro, and the rest of Archaen gneisses. The gabbro is medium-grained, contains cracks and
is metamorphosed. Modal composition of hornblende and pyroxene in the rock is about 50 %
in total. Some of these metagabbroic bodies may represent, in fact, intermediate sills in origin.

Garnet gneiss (A3Mgg)

Within the Archaean gneisses occur about 20 – 70 meters wide horizons of garnet-rich
gneisses, broadly tonalite to granodiorite in composition (Fig. 6.6). Reddish garnet occurs as
broken, aggregatic porphyroblasts several millimetres in diameter. Its modal composition may
in the gneiss range from 10 to 30 %. These horizons or layers have gradual contacts to the
grey colored TTG gneisses. Locally the garnet gneisses comprise also sillimanite and biotite
as main minerals. The origin of the layers is unclear, however, they may represent ancient
weathering horizons or recrystallised blastomylonites.

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Fig. 6.5. A hill of Archaean

metagabbro and gneiss (0503448/
8068699).

Fig. 6.6. Margin of a garnet-rich

layer in Archaean gneiss. SE of the
Massanga village (0510867/
8092125). Scale bar is 10 cm.

6.2.3. Geochemistry

Seven rock samples have been analysed from rocks of Mudzi Complex. The analyses are
presented in App. 3 (Table 1, anal 1 – 7) and they have been plotted on discrimination
diagrams in Fig. 6.34. The analyses are treated and the results are discussed together with the
chemistry of the Mavonde Complex in paragraph 6.3.7.

6.2.4. Age

Imprecise geochronological data from Zimbabwe suggest that the rocks of the Mudzi Suite
were subject to granulite facies metamorphism during mid-Archaean times (~ 3 Ga),
reworked and rehydrated under amphibolite facies conditions at late Archaean times (~ 2.6

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Ga; Barton et al. 1991; Vinyu et al. 2001) and recrystallised during the Pan-African at ~ 500
Ma (Barton et al. 1991; Dirks et al. 1998; Vinyu et al. 1999). The Mapingsa Xenolitic
Tonalite (see Section 6.2.1.) has been dated and yielded a poorly constrained whole rock
Rb/Sr age of 3247±627 Ma. Samples from Mesocratic Orthogneiss collected close toe the
international border produced Rb/Sr ages of 2494±194 and 2937±178 Ma. The latter data are,
broadly speaking, in line with the limited geochronology results collected by the GTK
Consortium.
SHRIMP analyses of zoned zircons of a sample (Mos-7/1284-03) of TTG Gneiss/
Foliated Granitoid (A3Mgn), exposed in an Archaean domal structure (0503824/ 8119250),
overlain by Rushinga Group metasediments, yielded three different ages:
• Zoned zircons constitute the oldest sub-set with an age of 2713±22 Ma.
• These zircons suffered a metamorphic event at ~ 2.54 Ga indicated by zircon
neoblasthesis and metamorphic overgrowths. This may represent the phase of
reworking and re-hydration under amphibolite-facies conditions for equivalent
rocks in Zimbabwe referred to by Barton et al. (1991) and Vinyu et al. (2001).
• A young metamorphic overprint – the Pan-African Orogeny – at 520±16 Ma is
indicated by wider rim overgrowths on older zircons as well as by a highly
discordant age from one, most probably metamict zircon grain.

Convential zircon U-Pb dating of similar gneisses (Mos-6/1170-03), sampled some 20

km further to the south (0513666/ 8099303), yields comparable results. The concordia plot of
three zircon fractions gives an upper intercept age of 2632±3 Ma. As above, a lower intercept
at 554±33 Ma reflects Pan-African overprinting.

6.3. MAVONDE COMPLEX

6.3.1. Introduction

Unlike the granitoids of the Mudzi Metamorphic Complex that supposedly suffered Mid
Archaean granulite facies metamorphism (Barton et al. 1991), the granitoids (including minor
inclusions of mafic and ultramafic plutonic rocks) of the Mavonde Complex have generally a
Neoarchaean age (2.8 – 2.5 Ga) without traces of granulite facies metamorphism. Insufficient
mapping and geochronological data cannot, however, exclude the presence of older
granitoids, in places. They mainly comprise TTG granitoids related to the emplacement of
Belingwean-Lower Bulawayan and younger greenstone belts and form a rather uniform and
wide domain, extending eastwards halfway between the towns of Manica and Chimoio, in N-
S direction along the Zimbabwe border for ~. 200 km, in map sheets Manica/Catandica (SDS
1832/1833) and Rotanda/Chimoio (SDS 1932/1933).
In the eastern part of the Archaean Mavonde domain the landscape is smooth and
undulating with rare and minor inselbergs. Northerly trending narrow ridges are formed by
synclines of Gairezi quartzites. The topographically rises and turns rougher in the western part
of the Mavonde domain, close to the Zimbabwe border. The boundary between the lower and
higher ground is fault-bounded, as manifested by a prominent east-dipping fault slope at the
western side of the town of Catandica, and supposed to originate from the evolution of the
East African Rift System.

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6.3.2. Older granitoids

Tonalitic gneiss (A2gt)

‘Older granitoids’ are evidenced by a tonalitic gneiss sample (Mos-23/13625-04) collected
along the Manica-Chimoio road, 5 km east of Manica (0491095/7904309), in the NE corner
of the Vumba Mountain area. The tonalitic rock is partly gneissic with patchy to banded
colour variation owing to slight variation in mineral composition. SHRIMP U-Pb dating by
the GTK Consortium yields a magmatic Concordia age of 2907±16 Ma. Altered, metamict
cores indicate older zircon ages for inherited components. The polygon (A2gt) does not
represent the physical boundaries of the ‘Older granitoids’ body but serves to highlight its
presence in the map sheet (SDS Manica/Catandica, 1832/1833). The age suggests a
correlation with the Sebakwean in Zimbabwe.
The width of the rock type in the area is not known but following a few observations it
is estimated to be rather limited. Just because of the age of the occurrence its shape on the
map has been artificially drawn as a xenolith or an in situ remnant between wall rock bodies
of later Archaean granitoids. The occurrence belongs to the western part of the Mavonde
Complex where any post-Archaean thermal effects are negligible.

Paragneiss with quartzitic intercalations (A3Mpgn)

This lithologic unit, exposed over an area measuring 25 x 25 km east of Rotanda (SDS
Rotanda/Chimoio, SDS 1932/1933), is also attributed to ‘Older Granitoids’. The unit
underlies sediments and metasediments of the Umkondo and Gairezi Groups, respectively.
Contact relationships with granitoids of the Mavonde Complex are not clear.
Medium to coarsegrained biotite-quartz-feldspar gneiss has typically a heterogenic
grain size. Gneiss is in places typified with larger (~1cm) K-feldspar crystals. Minor
amphibole and muscovite are found locally. Foliation and lineation e.g. K-feldspar augens are
common in addition to small-scale folding. Felsic veins are common as well as biotite rich
bands. Boudinaged fragments of amphibolite that probably represent remnants of mafic dykes
are found along with mica schists and quartzites.

6.3.3. Manica Group

Introduction
The Mutare Segment of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt is an easterly plunging
synclinorium that contains a volcano-sedimentary sequence attributed to the Manica Group.
The lowermost, volcanic dominated sequence is referred to as the Macequece Formation*
(Hunting, 1984). The greenstone lithostratigraphy is not well constrained. Wilson (1979)
assigned the volcanic dominated sequence to the ‘Upper Greenstones’ of the Upper
Bulawayan Supergroup and the Mbeza metasedimentary series to the Shamvaian
Supergroup. However, in some later publications, the Bulawayan Group was interpreted as
corresponding to the ‘Lower Greenstones’ (Foster and Wilson, 1984). The preponderance of
komatiites with intercalated units of BIF, quartzite, marble, conglomerate, argillite and mafic
tuffs is comparable to ‘Lower Greenstone’ sequences elsewhere in the craton (Mberengwa,
Filabusi, Buhwa, etc.). The Upper Greenstones may, however, be represented by the thick

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sequences of mafic metavolcanics that flank the central tract of Mbeza metasediments (Vengo
Formation* in this Map Explanation) in the eastern half of the belt.
The northern and southern margins of the Mutare segment are embayed by intrusive
granitoids. In the northern limb of the synclinorium, quartz-diorite stocks at Penhalonga and
at the Old Mutare Mission intrude the greenstones. The Penhalonga quartz-diorite-tonalite-
granodiorite pluton, dated at 2741±3 Ma (Chenjerai et al. 1993), is the oldest intrusion into
the greenstone belt. A broad, ENE-trending zone of gneissic granite, rich in schist inclusions
and with km-scale enclaves of mafic and ultramafic rocks, occurs on the north side of the belt.
This zone may represent a partly assimilated, north-easterly continuation to the supracrustal
sequence. In Zimbabwe, dolerite sills of the Umkondo Igneous Province (see Section 6.6.)
are mapped intruding the northern margin of the belt, close to and across the Mozambique
border.

Macequece Formation*
The Macequece sequence is principally constituted of ultramafic and mafic metavolcanic
rocks with intercalations of banded ironstone and metachert. Serpentinites are frequently
associated with the ultramafic metavolcanics and are often accompanied by
talc±chlorite±tremolite schists. The contact between these two rock types is often vague and,
from a chemical point of view, gradational.
Andesitic, dacitic and rhyodacitic metavolcanic rocks, mostly pyroclastic in origin, are
met in the southern slope of the Serra Penhalonga down to the Penhalonga valley, where they
underlie metagreywackes of Vengo Formation* (M’Beza Series in Zimbabwe). Their contact
relation is unknown due to lack of exposure. To the north, well below the top of Serra
Penhalonga, these volcanics terminate against an extensive body of polymict conglomerate.
The latter contains poorly sorted clasts of ultramafic and mafic metavolcanic rocks, BIF,
chert, jasper and felsic crystal tuff, rock types that all occupy areas north of the conglomerate
in the Serra Penhalonga. Lithologies occurring in the southern, downhill side of the con-
glomerate, comprise andesitic, dacitic and rhyodacitic metavolcanics and are not encountered
amongst the clasts of the conglomerate. Hence, it can be concluded that the intermediate/felsic
volcanics south of the conglomerate are younger and overly the ultramafic/mafic rocks. It can
be emphasized, that within the Manica greenstone belt the andesitic and rhyodacitic
pyroclastic rocks are restricted to the Penhalonga area only, west of the NNE-trending fault
zone traversing through the belt passing the eastern end of the Serra Penhalonga and the
western end of the Serra Vengo. This prominent fault(zone) divides the Manica greenstone
belt into two blocks, the eastern and the western ones, with NNE directed displacement of the
eastern block.

Talc-chlorite schist, talc schist, chlorite-amphibole schist (A3MMtc)

Ultramafic metavolcanic schists make up the most widespread unit within the Manica
Greenstone Belt. Rock exposures are rarely fresh and commonly altered to near soil. Even in
fresh outcrops, schistose and sheared structures have destroyed the primary features of the
variably altered rocks. Spinifex-textured olivine intergrowths are met in rare occasions (Fig.
6.7). Other rarely preserved primary structures include pillow lavas (Fig. 6.8) and fragmentary
textures suggesting pyroclastic origin.

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Fig. 6.7. Spinifex textured

ultramafic komatiite of the Mace-
quece Formation*. (0477781/
7914693). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Fig. 6.8. Pillow resembling

structure in ultramafic metavol-
canic rock of the Macequece
Formation*. (0481904/7914425).
Scale bar is 8 cm.

Ultramafic volcanics are fine grained, soft, light green to green and greyish green
rocks with a smooth surface due to the presence of talc and chlorite. Colours in soft,
weathered rock vary commonly from yellowish red to brownish but also whitish colours
occur. Chlorite, serpentine and talc form the main mineral constituents evidencing an
advanced stage of alteration and metasomatism. Sometimes chlorite seems to be the only
mineral in the rock. Tremolite-achtinolite amphiboles are met in more preserved varieties.
Opaque minerals are common accessories together with secondary carbonate.
Chemistry of these rocks is described in chapter geochemistry below.

Serpentinite and serpentine-rich metavolcanic rock (A3MMse)

Serpentinites and serpentine-dominant ultramafic rocks form elongated belts and lenses
within ultramafic schists. The most prominent belt, approximately 20 km in length and up to a
few hundred metres in width, forms a disrupted unit that extends from the southern side of

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Serra Vengo towards Serra Mancota in SSE. After passing Monte Massumba, the belt turns to
the north. Locally, mostly altered components of basaltic derivation are met within the
serpentinites. Peridotitic rocks have not been encountered, but their presence as relicts in
totally serpentinised bodies cannot be excluded, however.
Serpentinites vary from dark green, tough, hard and massive serpentinites (Fig. 6.9) to
rather soft, deformed rocks. Fibrous asbestos, in veins up to a few millimetres thick, is not
uncommon (Fig. 6.10). Relicts of olivine and pyroxene are still occasionally recognisable
minerals in the serpentine rock. Secondary magnetite and carbonate are common accessories.
The chemical characteristics of the serpentinites are described in chapter geochemistry
below.

Fig. 6.9. Serpentinite of the

Macequece Formation. Serra
Mancota (0491879/7912561).

Fig. 6.10. An unusually dense set

of thin veins of asbestos in serpent-
tinite of the Macequece Formation.
A fresh cut of the same rock in
bottom right. Western end of Serra
Isitaca (0469161/7906104). Scale
bar is 8 cm.

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Quartz-sericite schist (A3MMqss)

Quartz-sericite schist occurs as horizons ranging in thickness from some metres to a few
hundred metres and with along-strike lengths of up to several kilometres. The most prominent
unit is in the eastern part of the greenstone belt, where the belt swings from east-west
direction into the north. Further northwards, the rock grades progressively into quartzite,
whereas southwards quartzite forms only thin, cm-thick interbeds. Common bedding
structures of the quartz-sericite schist refer to a sedimentary or pyroclastic protolith.
Quartz-sericite schist is interbedded and associated with different lithologies and does
not occupy a specific stratigraphic level of deposition. Ultramafic metavolcanic rocks and
serpentinites mostly enclose quartz-sericite schist. A stratigraphically higher level in the
sequence is observed in the area between Serra Vengo and Serra Penhalonga, where quartz-
sericite schist is deposited directly above a conglomerate in the bottom part of Vengo
Formation*.
Quartz-sericite schist is a fine-grained rock with colours varying from generally light
grey to grey. Brownish red and light yellowish brown colours are not uncommon either (Fig.
6.11). Quartz is the main mineral component, together with sericite, muscovite and epidote in
places. Opaque minerals and iron hydroxides are accessory constituents. A thin, 1 – 2 mm
thick bedding is generally visible in addition to more homogeneous schist. A transverse
schistosity is often visible. In thin section it can be seen that the schistosity cuts an older
schistosity parallel to bedding.

Fig. 6.11. Quartz-sericite schist of the

Macequece Formation* (0499777/
7913381).

Metachert (A3MMch) and Banded ironstone (A3MMbaf)

Narrow discontinuous horizons of metachert are common counterparts within the ultramafic
and mafic metavolcanic rocks in the Manica greenstone belt. Metacherts are closely
associated with Banded ironstone (A3MMbaf) and lithic breccias (A3MMbr) (see below).

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Most of the mapped metachert units occur in the central part of the greenstone belt,
many along the northern, east-west running slope of Serra Penhalonga and some along the
southern slope of the Serra Vengo. Observations of scattered metachert are numerous within
the greenstone belt, but due to map scale, could not have been shown on map. The same
applies to the distribution of banded ironstone.
Metachert is generally visibly bedded, white and bluish grey beds and laminae on mm-
and cm-scale (Figs. 6.12A and 6.12B). Occasionally metachert is associated with fine, grey
and buff-coloured silty interbeds. Banded ironstones show similar bedding features (Fig.
6.12C) as metachert; dark purple and dark grey iron bearing beds and laminae alternate with
grey, greenish grey and buff-coloured silica beds. Thicker, light coloured horizons of
metachert occur frequently as intercalations in banded ironstone.

A B

Fig. 6.12. (A) Bedded metachert of Macequece

Formation*. W of Serra Mancota (0487641/7912903),
(B) Detailed photo of bedding in metachert
(0493823/7915570), (C) Thinly bedded iron form-
ation of the Macequece Formation*. SE of Serra
Penhalonga (0483914/7910010). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Lithic breccia (A3MMbr) and diamictite (A3MMdi)

The central part of the Manica greenstone belt contains a few elongated, narrow zones of
fragmented rocks, comprising various greenstone belt lithologies. On map, these fragmented
zones are classified as lithic breccias and diamictite. Lithic breccia is composed entirely of
angular metachert fragments, occasionally together with fragments of banded ironstone.
Diamictite, on the other hand, is polymict with a predominance of metachert fragments and
subordinate quantities of volcanic fragments of different compositions (Fig. 6.13). The
fragments are mostly angular but also rounded to some extent, manifesting a minor

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transportation, even still proximal to its source. These rocks may have deposited in talus
slopes or alluvial fans at the base of slopes.
There are two separate and distinct zones of diamictite in different stratigraphic
position. One, which is following the crest of the Serra Penhalonga, is deposited between
underlying ultramafic and mafic rocks in the north and overlying intermediate and felsic
metavolcanic rocks in the south. The other and presumably older talus zone marks the contact
of mafic (north) and ultramafic (south) metavolcanic rocks in the area south of Serra Vengo.

Fig. 6.13. (A) Diamictite with

angular to subrounded blocks of
banded ironstone, metachert and
minor amount of metavolcanic
rocks. Serra Penhalonga
(0477114/7912164), (B) Chaotic
deposition of diamictite. South of
Serra Vengo (0486042/7912942).
Scale bar is 8 cm.

Metabasalt and mafic schist (A3MMba)

Mafic metavolcanic rocks occupy areas in the central and inner parts of the greenstone belt.
Though widespread, they are less abundant than the ultramafic schists with which they are
generally associated. When comparatively well preserved, most of the mafic metavolcanics
are massive, non-schistose greyish rocks to bluish grey in fresh cut. Pillows or pillow-like
structures are recognised in places (Fig. 6.14) indicating emplacement as sub-aqueous lava
flows. The metabasalts are commonly weathered and altered rocks with light greenish or light
pinkish colours. Occasional bedding and fragmentary structures indicate pyroclastic origin.
Bedding is, for example, seen in a road cut on the southern side of the extensive phyllite unit
of the Vengo Formation*, where hard, well preserved tuffite occurs as m-thick units in soft
weathered mafic schist (Fig. 6.15).

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Petrographic studies reveal, that the major constituents of the mafic metavolcanic
rocks are hornblende and plagioclase. Sphene, epidote, chlorite and opaque minerals
constitute common minor or accessory minerals. The texture of the studied medium-, fine-
and very fine-grained rocks is found to blasto-subophitic and also banded or bedded.
Geochemically the mafic volcanic rocks are basalts (Fig. 6.21 and Table 2, anal.
12,17,18 in App. 3).

Fig. 6.14. Basaltic pillow lava of

the Macequece Formation*. Fresh
cut of the same rock in bottom
right. (0486694/7914559). Scale bar
is 8 cm.

Fig. 6.15. Well preserved tuffite in

weathered mafic schist, Macequece
Formation* (493553/ 7915854).
Detailed photo of the rock in upper
left corner. Scale bar is 8 cm.

Felsic crystal tuff (A3MMff) and quartz-feldspar porphyry (A3MMqp)

In the western part and well inside the Manica greenstone belt felsic, light grey to whitish
crystal tuff and quartz-feldspar porphyry occurs in association with mafic and intermediate
metavolcanic rocks. The two rock types have been separated on the basis of their mutual age
relation and somewhat different composition.

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Crystal tuffs are dark grey or greenish grey when fresh. Often the rocks are weathered
to white. The texture is cryptocrystalline with dispersed angular fragments of quartz, 1 – 2
mm in size, and smaller, more rare feldspar crystals or fragments (Fig. 6.16B). A soft,
completely weathered and kaolinised crystal tuff is exposed on the crest of Serra Penhalonga
(Fig. 6.16C). Only relicts of angular quartz have remained and indicate the origin of the rock.
The fabric of the crystal tuff varies from homogeneous and massive to weakly banded (Fig.
6.16A). Planar structures may indicate primary features. Crystal tuff has been found as small
enclaves in quartz-feldspar porphyry (Fig. 6.16D), indicating some age difference with the
rock. Geochemically, the crystal tuffs classify as subalkaline rhyolite (Fig. 6.21 and Table 2,
anal. 19 – 20 in App.3).

Fig. 6.16. (A) Felsic crystal tuff on southern slope of Serra Penhalonga, (B) Close-up photo from the same
rock (0476402/7912066), (C) Felsic crystal tuff altered to kaolin (0476116/7912273), (D) Small enclaves of
felsic crystal tuff in amphibole bearing quartz-feldspar porphyry (0476525/7915035).

Quartz-feldspar porphyries are exposed in an east-west trending valley north of Serra

Penhalonga. The rock is slightly darker in colour than the crystal tuff described above, being
light greyish and composed of quartz and feldspar phenocrysts and also mafic minerals, such
as needle-shaped amphibole and sphene, in a microcrystalline matrix. The phenocrysts are
corroded, occasionally fragmentary to some extent and comprise quartz and saussuritised
feldspar. Plagioclase appears to be more common than it is in crystal tuff. The mutual age
relation of these two rock types, already referred to above, is seen in Fig. 6.16D. Chemical
analyse indicate dacitic composition (Fig. 6.21a and Table 2, anal. 21 in App.3).

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Volcanic conglomerate (A3MMvc)

Volcanogenic conglomerates belonging to the Macequece Formation* are found around Serra
Penhalonga, principally along its southern slope, where they occur as elongated rock masses,
several metres in thickness. Lithologies south of the conglomerates comprise principally
intermediate and felsic metavolcanics. Ultramafic and mafic metavolcanic rocks as well as
crystal tuffs and chemically precipitated sediments occupy the area north of the
conglomerates. As the conglomerates are composed of cobbles and pebbles similar to the rock
types exposed in its northern side and the lithologies in its southern side are lacking, way-up
direction towards south can be established.
The conglomerate is polymict and poorly sorted (Fig. 6.17A). The size of the angular
to subrounded cobbles and pebbles vary from a few centimetres to several tens of cm. The
matrix is mainly composed of mafic to ultramafic material. The immaturity and significant
thickness of the conglomerate deposits manifest a fairly proximal source in a tectonically
active basin with a considerably steep topography. Some clasts, however, have a weathering
crust around them and indicate an extensive period of weathering before re-deposition (Fig.
6.17C).
The conglomerates are strongly foliated and pebbles and cobbles have usually been
flattened and elongated. Jasper-bearing metachert and felsic crystal tuff show planar features
oblique to the direction of general foliation in the conglomerate. From this, one can conclude
that these planar fabrics predate deformation of the conglomerate and are probably primary.

A B

Fig. 6.17. (A) Polymict volcanic conglomerate of the

Macequece Formation*. Large light coloured cobbles
are felsic crystal tuff, (B) A proper cut indicate
foliation, (C) Primary bedding in felsic crystal tuff
and jasper-bedded metachert. Note also weathering
crust in mafic pebbles of Fig. C. Serra Penhalonga
(0476234/7911904). Scale bar is 8 cm.

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Intermediate metavolcanic rock (A3MMiv) and tuff breccia (A3MMtb)

The southern slope of the Serra Penhalonga is composed principally of intermediate
metavolcanic rocks. These rocks are bounded to volcanic conglomerates and ultramafic
metavolcanic rocks in the north and to felsic metavolcanics in the south. A narrow unit of
volcanic conglomerate with limited along-strike length is also encountered between the
intermediate and felsic metavolcanic units.
The exposed intermediate metavolcanics are generally weathered to soft, whitish rock
(Fig. 6.18). Lumps of relatively fresh rock are still found amongst the altered material. Fresh
rock is light grey to light bluish grey in colour and shows still structures referring to the rock
origin (Fig. 6.19B).
Geochemical analyses classify the intermediate metavolcanic rocks as andesites and
dacites with SiO2 content 61.64 % and 69.70 % (Table 2, anal 15 and 16 in App. 3).

Fig. 6.18. Altered and weathered

intermediate metavolcanic rock of
the Macequece Formation*
(0474508/ 7910608).

A B

Fig. 6.19. (A.) Tuff breccia of Macequece Formation*, (B) Fresh cut is from the rock in Fig. A
(0475851/7910573). Scale bar is 10 cm.

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Felsic metavolcanic rock (A3MMfv) and volcanic breccia (A3MMvb)

Felsic metavolcanic rocks of the Macequece Formation* are exposed in the Penhalonga
Valley between Serra Penhalonga to the north and Serra Isitaca to the south. Outcrops of
generally soft, strongly weathered rock, mainly in road cuts, are whitish and similar in colour
as in the neighbouring altered intermediate metavolcanics. Discernable quartz crystals have
been used to separate the felsic rocks from the intermediate ones. Primary features are seldom
recognised, with the exception of a volcanic breccia with whitish, 5 – 15 cm large angular to
subangular fragments, set in a light grey, slightly finer grained tuffaceous matrix (Fig. 6.20).

Fig. 6.20. Rhyolitic volcanic

breccia, of the Macequece Form-
ation*. Penhalonga Valley
(0477799/ 7910096). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

Geochemistry
Metavolcanic rocks of the Macequece Formation* and the Umkondo Igneous Province (see
Section 6.6) have been analysed and plotted on a number of geochemical classification
diagrams according to Irvine and Baragar (1971), Jensen (1976), Winchester and Floyd
(1977) and Le Bas et al. (1986) (Fig. 6.21). The chemical analyses have been plotted in Table
2 (App. 3). The Macequece metavolcanic rocks show in the Winchester and Floyd diagram a
wide range of compositions with the most acid crystal tuff in the ‘rhyolite field’, the feldspar
porphyry in the rhyodacite to dacite field and the mafic and intermediate volcanics in the
andesite and sub-alkaline field. In the Irvine and Baragar's (1971) and Jensen's (1976)
diagrams (d and e, respectively) the volcanic rocks of komatiitic affinity are also shown (i.e.,
serpentinites and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks). In the Jensen diagram (e) komatiitic affinity
of the serpentinites and ultramafic volcanic rocks is shown.

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Fig. 6.21. Chemical classification diagrams of metavolcanic rocks from the Manica greenstone belt and ca. 1.8
Ga old dolerites intruding the Manica greenstone belt. For comparison, plotted is an outlined area of ca. 1.1 Ga
old dolerites from Lot 3 area and two analyses of ca. 1.0 Ga old metadolerites.

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The ultramafic volcanics have high MgO values from 22.36 to 32.05%. They plot in
the field of ultramafic and basaltic komatiites on the Jensen (1976) diagramme (Fig. 6.21e)
and are Al-undepleted (Nesbitt et al. 1979), with Al2O3/TiO2> 15 (Fig. 6.21f) and CaO/Al2O3
= 0.85 – 1.43 (Table 2 in App.3). The extremely low Ca/Al in some analyses (~0.1) must be
regarded as a result of metasomatism, probably related to incipient serpentinisation. The Fe
content of komatiites is low, from 0.20 to 0.28, but is somewhat higher than the values of the
serpentinites (0.14 – 0.17, Table 2 in App.3). As expected, high Cr and Ni also characterise
the ultramafic volcanics of Manica greenstone belt.
Serpentinites are characterised by MgO contents ranging from 34.80 % to 43.70 %
(Table 2, anal. 1 – 4 in App.3). The high content of volatiles follow in amount just after silica
and iron oxides. The Al2O3 content is low, generally below 1.5% and TiO2 is less than 0.1%
(Fig. 6.21f). Highest CaO content is 0.28%. As expected, the Cr and Ni contents are high and
amount to 1398 – 3855 ppm and 2088 – 3561 ppm, respectively. In the Jensen (1976)
diagramme the serpentinites plot in the peridotitic komatiite field with a characteristic, high
Fe# (Fe2O3t/(Fe2O3t+MgO)) (Fig. 6.21d).
Three samples of mafic metavolcanic rocks have been analysed (App. 3, table 2, anal.
12, 17, 18). In chemical diagrams the rocks classify as subalkaline tholeiitic basalts (Fig. 6.21
a-c) and plot both in the high-Mg and high-Fe fields in the Jensen (1976) diagram (Fig.
6.21e).
Two chemical analyses of intermediate volcanic rocks plot in the andesitic and
dacitic/rhyodacitic fields and are classified as subalkaline rocks with calcalkaline affinity
(Figs. 6.21 a-c). The chemical analyses are shown in the Table 2 of App. 2 (analyses 15 and
16).

Mineral chemistry
One felsic metavolcanic rock sample (Obs. 25401) comprising albite was expected to be
alkaline in composition. However, microprobe analyses show that the ferro-magnesian
silicates of the rock are mainly amphiboles without elevated alkali contents (App. 4).

6.3.4. Vengo Formation* (A3MV)

The late Archaean Shamvaian sediments in Zimbabwe rest unconformably or with tectonic
contacts on the metavolcanic greenstones and contain coarse clastic material derived from the
granitoid-greenstone terrains. The Mbeza Series of Zimbabwe, which occupy the core of the
Mutare-Manica greenstone belt synform, are attributed in Mozambique to the Mbeza
(alternative spelling M’Beza) Formation*. Wilson (1979) assigned Mbeza metasedimentary
series to the Shamvaian Supergroup. The Vengo Formation* is considered a lateral
equivalent.
The Shamvaian Group metasediments of the Mbeza Series comprise a well-developed
basal conglomerate, overlain by phyllites and metasiltstones, followed by a generally
coarsening-upward sequence of metagreywacke with meta-arkose and grit. The conglomerate
is composed of angular to subrounded clasts of actinolite-schist, serpentinite, metabasalt, BIF
and vein quartz within a metagreywacke matrix. The Vengo Formation* in Mozambique
consists of a band of conglomerate, overlain by sericite-chlorite-schists and phyllites,
including black schist with minor bands of marble and conglomerate (Hunting, 1984). The

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term Vengo Formation* will be used in this Map Explanation to cover also the rocks of
M’Besa Series in Mozambique.
Rocks of the Vengo Formation* have three major areas of occurrence, the most
extensive being a 1 – 1.5 km wide E-W trending synformal belt starting from Serra Vengo
and heading eastwards along strike for ~ 15 km. Major lithologies comprise graphitic
phyllites and thin interbeds of quartzite with grey marble, BIF and ferruginous lithic quartzite
in the eastern part of the belt. Approximately 5 km SW from Serra Vengo, in the area between
the Revué and Chua Rivers, similar lithologies are found with phyllite, marble and
conglomerate (as boulders). This area may be the missing western "head" of the Serra Vengo
synformal belt, which has probably shifted along the fault zone towards SE. The third
occurrence of the Vengo Formation* is in the Penhalonga Valley, along the northern foot of
the Serra Isitaca. This unit is a continuation of the Mbeza Series from Zimbabwe (Wilson,
1979) and contains different lithologies when compared to the rocks in Serra Vengo belt. The
only recognised rock type is metagreywacke. Phyllites are lacking in this unit. Presumably
there is a facies change towards deeper parts of the depositional basin within the Vengo
Formation* from south to north.

Volcanic conglomerate (A3MVco) and polymict conglomerate (A3MVclo)

Near the base of the northern slope of the Serra Isitaca, talc-bearing schists of the Macequece
Formation* are in direct contact with both metagreywacke and, in places, volcanogenic
conglomerate of the Vengo Formation*. The nature of the contact between talc schist and
metagreywacke, when conglomerate is missing, is unknown but can be tectonic.
The conglomerate is nearly monomict, consisting of rounded to subangular pebbles
and cobbles, 5 – 15 cm in size, of mafic metavolcanic rocks (Fig. 6.22). A very minor amount
of clasts is composed of metachert. As the conglomerate is deposited on ultramafic and mafic
metavolcanic rocks, a concordant contact with or without a hiatus can be expected and,
consequently, the unit can be classified as basal conglomerate.

Fig. 6.22. A nearly monomictic

volcanic conglomerate at the
lower contact of Vengo Form-
ation*. Northern slope of Serra
Isitaca. (0474777/7908663).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

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Another horizon of basal conglomerate between Macequece Formation and Vengo

Formation* follows the northern and southern, E-W running slopes of Serra Vengo, where
phyllites of Vengo Formation* overlie in synformal structure the conglomerates. The base to
the conglomerate is composed principally of ultramafic metavolcanic rocks of Macequece
Formation*. About 5 km SW of Serra Vengo, another body of basal conglomerate separates
marble and phyllite of Vengo Formation* from metavolcanic rocks of Macequece
Formation*. Contrary to the nearly monomict conglomerate of Serra Isitaca, these
conglomerates are polymict and are composed of angular to rounded clasts of vein quartz,
metachert and minor amounts of metavolcanic rocks, commonly less that 5 cm but
occasionally up to 40 cm in size (Fig. 6.23). The conglomerates are crushed and sheared and
contain interbeds of metasandstone and quartzite in places.

Fig. 6.23. Basal conglomerates of

the Vengo Formation*. (A) Poly-
mict conglomerate between
Archaean granite and phyllite of
Vengo Formation*. Contact to
granite is not exposed, but is
presumable tectonic (0493843/-
7917753), (B) Conglomerate
between metabasalt of the Mace-
quece Formation* and marble of
the Vengo Formation* (0479785/
7915525), (C) Sheared conglo-
merate between mafic metavol-
canic rock of the Macequece
Formation* and phyllite of the
Vengo Formation* (0493374/-
7916039). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Metagreywacke (A3MVgy), Quartzite (A3MVqz), Arkosic quartzite (A3MVar), Mica schist

with aluminous and quartzitic layers (A3MVmc)
The most extensive clastic quartzose metasediments of the Vengo Formation* are located in
the southern flank of the Manica greenstone belt synclinorium, where an extensive unit of
metagreywacke is exposed along the strike in east-west direction eastwards from
Zimbabwean border.

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Metagreywacke is a grey coloured, fine grained and bedded rock. Thickness of the
sandy beds can exceed 10 cm, whereas phyllitic beds are less than one cm thick (Fig. 6.24).
The grain size of the rock seldom exceeds one mm in the sandy beds with finer material in the
thinner, darker coloured phyllitic beds. Quartz and feldspar-bearing fragments are angular to
rounded and form the main component in metagreywacke. Chlorite and opaque minerals are
found as frequent minor mineral components.
Intercalations of quartzite and metasandstone, up to hundreds of metres wide, occur
where the Manica greenstone belt turns from the prevailing E-W direction into N-S direction.
This unit can be followed along strike for several kilometres.

Fig. 6.24. Small-grained meta-

greywacke in the northern slope of
Serra Isitaca, M’Beza/Vengo
Formation*. Close-up photos of the
same rock below. (0475200/
7909150). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Quartzites and arkosic quartzites (metasandstones) are interbedded with phyllite, mica
schist and banded ironstone in the Serra Vengo range (Fig. 6.25). The quartzites are white,
fine to medium grained and mostly massive. In places, cross and parallel bedding has been
observed. Often the quartzites form continuous layers seen as ridges in the landscape.
Interbedded phyllite is commonly graphite bearing, fine-grained, well-foliated and dark gray
in colour (see next chapter). Mica schists are commonly garnet and sillimanite bearing.

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Phyllite, graphite schist (A3MVps), Iron-rich lithic metasandstone/quartzite (A3MVss),

Marble (A3MVma)
Phyllites constitute the principal lithology in a 1.5 km wide and 15 km long synformal belt
including the mountain range of Serra Vengo. Iron-rich lithic metasandstones and quartzites
are common associate lithologies in the peripheral, border areas of this synformal belt,
indicating a low stratigraphic level of these rocks within the Vengo Formation*. Marble is
often associated with iron-rich lithic quartzites in the eastern part of the Serra Vengo
Mountain range. Another marble horizon is located in the area between Rio Revué and Rio
Chua, ~ 5 km SW of Serra Vengo, where it occurs below the phyllites, near the base of the
Vengo Formation*.

Fig. 6.25. A. Openly folded,

interbedded phyllite and
quartzite of Vengo Form-
ation* (0493105/ 7916543).
Close-up photos: (A) Phyl-
lite, (0492870/7916747),
and (B) Quartzite (0493328/
7916369). Scale bar is 10
cm.

A B

Phyllites are well exposed in road cuts between Manica and Serra Vengo and further
on where the road descends the northern slope of the Serra Vengo. Medium to dark grey
phyllites show bedding, demonstrated by small differences in grain size and colour shades
(Fig. 6.25A and B). They are often graphite bearing and, in places, contain centimetre-thick
interbeds of quartzite.
Iron-rich lithic metasandstone and quartzite have stained and oxidised iron-rich bands
and patches with dark violet colours (Fig. 6.26A). Metasandstone is typically fragmented
containing clasts from a few millimetres up to one cm and principally composed of felsic
lithologies (vein quartz, quartzite, metachert) and some darker coloured clasts (Fig. 6.26B).
The sandy matrix is light to violet in colour. Quartzite and iron-rich rocks are intimate
associates composing of thin intercalating beds (Fig. 6.26C). Quartzite is white in colour and
typically disintegrates to powder, when hit.
Grey marble occurs as a metre thick interbed in an iron-rich lithic metasandstone in the
eastern part of the Serra Vengo range. A thicker unit of marble is exposed in the disrupted
western end of the Serra Vengo belt, between the Revué and Chua Rivers (Fig. 6.27). In the
latter location marble is brown (sideritic) and interbedded with chert.

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A B C

Fig. 6.26. Iron-rich lithic metasandstone and quartzite of Vengo Formation* (0497101/7916391). (A) quartzite
and remobilised magnetite (0497101/7916391), (B) a detailed photo from the bed in central part of the main
photo, (C) thinly bedded low-grade iron formation (0497108/7916188). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Fig. 6.27. Marble outcrop of the

Vengo Formation* in the area
between Rio Revué and Rio Chua
(0479789/ 7915474). Scale bar is 10
cm.

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6.3.5. Munhinga Group (A3MH)

The Cronley-Munhinga greenstone belt crosses the Zimbabwe - Mozambique border some 50
km south of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt. Like the latter belt, it continues into
Mozambique for some 25 km in an ~ E-W direction, then curves into a northern direction and
pinches out. Unlike the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt, the narrow Cronley-Munhinga
sequence (5 km to less than one km) is only incompletely developed and comprises only
mafic to ultramafic metavolcanics and their metasomatic derivates and quartzite.
In Mozambique only two lithologies of Munhinga Group are exposed in the Cronley-
Munhinga greenstone belt.
No geochronological data are available but the lithologies of the Munhinga-Cronley
belt are assumed to have the same age as equivalent lithologies in the Mutare-Manica
greenstone belt.

Ultramafic metavolcanic rock and talc-chlorite schist/BIF (A3MHuv)

This assemblage can be correlated with the basal rock types encountered in the Macequece
Formation*. They comprise a variety of metamorphosed komatiitic lavas and their
metasomatic derivatives. For a more detailed description the reader is referred to the
Macequece Formation*.
These rocks show wide range of variation from serpentinites to talc schists with
asbestos. However, dominant type is medium to coarse-grained talc-amphibole-chlorite-schist
or rock depending on the degree of deformation and foliation. It is typically even-grained.
Other common type is very fine or fine-grained, homogeneous serpentinite that can contain
locally small brownish carbonate crystals. Closely spatially associated with these rocks are
banded ironstone with chert interbeds (Fig. 6.28). The actual relationship between banded
ironstones and ultramafic rocks remains obscure in terms of lithostratigraphy. Furthermore,
the ultramafic rocks are cut by mafic dykes and quartz veins from which the latter ones are
reported to be gold bearing in places.

Fig. 6.28. Banded ironstone, close to

the small village of Parafina, 23 km
SW from the Chicamba dam
(0506495/7861279). Scale bar is 10
cm.

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Quartzite (A3MHqz)
Coarse grained quartzite with milky quartz. These rocks can be correlated either with the
Quartz-sericite schists and quartzites (A3MMqss) of the Macequece Formation* or with
Quartzite (A3MVqz) of the Vengo Formation*.

6.3.6. Neoarchaean granitoids and mafic plutonic rocks

The granitoids with minor mafic plutonic rocks of the Mavonde Complex form a rather
uniform and wide domain around the Manica Greenstone Belt, extending eastwards halfway
between the cities of Manica and Chimoio, and in N-S direction expanding ca. 200 km close
to the Zimbabwe border in the map sheets Manica/Catandica (SDS 1832/1833) and
Rotanda/Chimoio (SDS 1932/1933).
In the eastern part of the domain the Archaean landscape is smoothly undulating with
rare minor inselbergs. This topography is conspicuously interrupted by several northerly
trending narrow ridges hosting synclinal Gairezi quartzites – a useful key to the mapping of
the quartzites in the area. In western part of the domain, next to the Zimbabwe border,
including the vicinity of the city of Manica, the topography turns rougher. The boundary
between the lower land in the east and the elevated mountain land in the west may be related
to the same effect that at the western side of the city of Catandica causes a prominent east-
dipping fault slope, and which at Catandica is supposed to be originated from the East African
Rift evolution. The northern tip of the Mavonde Complex lay in the elevated area southwest
of Catandica, occupying deep valleys cut across the overlying Gairezi schists.
The chronostratigraphy between different granitoid rock types has not been resolved.
The lithological description below follows the order written in the database.

Porphyritic granite and granodiorite (A3Vpgd)

Porphyritic coarse-grained granite and granodiorite occurs as a large body south of the
Manica – Chimoio road (Fig. 6.29). The rock contains commonly K-feldspar crystals 2 – 4 cm
in size. Observed mafic minerals are biotite and amphibole from which the former dominates.
Accessory minerals are muscovite, apatite and zircon. Compositional variation is related
mainly to the changes in abundance of K-feldspar. However, minor fine-medium grained type
that is compositionally close to diorite, which is found commonly as fragments that can
contain also some K-feldspar crystals. They may represent more mafic autoliths but observed
structures also resemble those of magma mingling and/or mixing. Rock shows variable
degrees of deformation ranging from unfoliated types with randomly oriented K-feldspars to
mylonite-like strongly sheared banded types with K-feldspar augens. In addition to
subalkaline tholeiitic dykes, this rock is cut by quartz veins, felsic veins and pegmatite. The
pegmatoidal patches and streaks can contain also K-feldspar crystals that are rimmed with
plagioclase. In general this rock is uniform in appearance and changes are usually related to
shearing that produces banding. Deformation is typically concentrated in a net of shear zones
that enclose areas that are well preserved and thus uniform. Related to shearing is observed
also small-scale folding that is typically dextral and NE-SW trending. The zircon analyses of
this rock yielded somewhat discordant data implying age of ~2.5 Ga.

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A B

Fig. 6.29. (A) Deformation related shear banding of

porphyritic granite-granodiorite close to Rio Revué. N
of the Chicamba Real dam (0506572/7896051), (B)
U-Pb dated, porphyritic and coarse-grained granite-
granodiorite in a quarry along the Manica – Chimoio
road, north of the Chicamba Real dam (0509201/
7898987), (C) K-feldspar bearing, fine to medium-
grained granodioritic-dioritic fragments within
porphyritic granite-granodiorite SE-Vumbarimira,
East of Mte Vumbamira (0504278/ 7886156). Scale
bar is 10 cm.

Massive granite (A3Vmgr)

This rock seems to form plutons of considerable size in certain areas at the Zimbabwean
border. The rock is a medium-grained and even-grained granite that locally can be classified
as granodiorite (Fig. 6.30). In general, it has a isotropic appearance without a marked
foliation, although locally an incipient banding, due to deformation, may be developed.

Fig. 6.30. Medium-grained

granodiorite SW of the Chicamba
Real dam (0492233/7873881). Scale
bar is 10 cm.

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Foliated granite, porphyritic in places (A3Vpg)

The lithology, characterised by a broadly granitic to tonalitic composition, is variably foliated
and, in places, grades into a porphyritic rock. It has been mapped as the most common
granitoid component in almost all parts of the Mavonde Complex (Fig. 6.31). The rock is well
exposed in an aggregate rock quarry along the main road east of Manica, where the rock is
grey and rather massive with weakly developed foliation fabric (this is also sample location
for geochronology sample Mos-30). The area is located in the eastern part of the Mavonde
Complex, affected by late Pan-African overprinting (see Chapters 10 and 11). The same pale
grey, rather fine- to medium-grained, in this case non-porphyritic rock is well exposed in the
garden of the Manica lodge, Manica town. The foliation fabric is just very modest and the
rock is supposed not to have been affected by late Pan-African shearing.

Fig. 6.31. Weakly foliated,

porphyritic granite of the Mavonde
Complex, NW of the Chicamba
Real dam (0500996/7894157).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Main mineral constituents are K-feldspar, quartz and biotite, with minor amphibole in
places. Foliation-related banding is typical and shows gradual changes to less foliated or
homogeneous parts without banding. In places this rock contains dark granodioritic-dioritic
and amphibolitic enclaves from which the former may contain infrequent K-feldspar crystals.
Small-scale isoclinal folding occurs locally in addition to lineation and gneissic to migmatitic
(e.g. nebulitic) -structures. These granites are cut by coarse-grained felsic and medium-
grained aplitic dykes in addition to pegmatoidal patches, epidote and chlorite bearing narrow
shears and quartz veins. Some of the latter ones can be classified as dykes based on their size
especially in the southern Manica area.

TTG- gneiss (A3Vgn) and banded TTG gneiss (A3Vbgn)

Felsic, variably banded gneisses have been mapped in various parts of the area. Mutual
relations with other granitoids are not known. Their scattered occurrence amongst the
regionally dominant less foliated granitoids indicates an earlier history with relation to the
latter.

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These gneisses are dominated by medium to coarse-grained banded tonalites with

heterogeneous grain sizes. Other minor types are coarse-grained granodiorite and granite
gneisses that are in places only weakly heterogeneous. Tonalites have granular texture and
they contain biotite, plagioclase and quartz and minor garnet, apatite, magnetite and zircon.
Coarse-grained granodiorites and granites have also granular texture and they contain K-
feldspar, amphibolite and muscovite in addition to minerals described in tonalites but they
lack garnets. In places all these rocks can be partly migmatitic showing e.g. nebulitic
structures. Small-scale ptygmatic folding is common along with foliation and lineation
structures (Fig. 6.32A). Moreover, the common trend (NNE-SSW) observed in the rocks is
often, in fact, overprinting an older banding.
The gneisses are cut by felsic veins and dykes in addition to subalkaline tholeiitic
dykes that are typically boudinaged (Fig. 6.32B). Amphibolitic and medium grained
intermediate inclusions are found locally, the former ones may represent fragments of
observed mafic dykes.

A B

Fig. 6.32. (A) Small-scale folding of banded tonalitic gneiss, close to Rio Munhinga, West of Serra
Gurrambira (0514709/7857585), (B) Boudin of mafic dyke that cuts the banded gneiss. Rio Revué, 7 km East
of the Chicamba Real dam (0520038/7877034). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Migmatite (A3Vmig)
Medium- to coarse-grained migmatites show both breccia migmatite and nebulitic structures
(Fig. 6.33A). Major minerals are plagioclase, biotite, quartz and K-feldspar, whereas the
accessory minerals include amphibole, muscovite and zircon. Heterogenous grain size and
granular texture are typical as well as small-scale myrmekitic intergrowths of quartz and
plagioclase. In general, the composition is close to granite, although intermediate fragments
are common. Ptygmatic folding is common in addition to felsic veins and dykes.

Metagabbro (A3Vgb)
In general, these rocks are medium- and even-grained, hypidiomorphic granular or sub-
ophitic gabbroic rocks with plagioclase and pyroxene as major minerals, whereas olivine is
observed only locally (Fig. 6.33B). Minor coarse-grained and poikilitic types are found in
addition to diorites and quartz diorites. The latter ones can contain pegmatitic parts. Due to
strong shearing and development of a strong schistosity, gabbros are locally altered to chlorite

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schists. There is no age data from these gabbros and the only dated mafic rock, located in the
Manica area, cuts the Archaean gneisses and shows a Palaeoproterozoic age (section 6.4.).

A B

Fig. 6.33. (A) Felsic neosomes and intermediate paleosomes in migmatite exposed near Rio Nhamangutena,
south of the Chicamba Real dam (0508399/7871923), (B) Typical medium and even-grained gabbroic rock
with brown weathering surface. Rio Munhinga, north of the Rotanda village (0487702/7850629). Scale bar is
10 cm.

Quartz dyke (A3Vqd), pegmatite (A3Vpm), aplite granite (A3Vagr) and granite (A3Vgr)
These lithologies are only minor occurrences in the area underlain by Archaean rocks. They
are marked in the map near and N of Manica, with crosscutting relations with respect to the
country rocks. In view of the lack of evidence for later, post Archaean regional rejuvenation,
all these minor lithologies have been attributes to Archaean.

Medium-grained foliated tonalite and granodiorite (A3Vto)

The rock is represented on the map N of Manica against the Zimbabwe border as a single 10
km wide polygon. The rock is composed of quartz, feldspars and biotite with hornblende
frequently present. Potassium feldspar occurs as scattered to abundant porphyroblasts or as
porphyritic grains. The size of the individual crystals is variable, from small up to several
centimetres. In a few outcrops garnet has been observed. The rocks show an isotropic to
incipiently foliated fabric. A few bodies composed of mafic to ultramafic rock have been
observed.

Mafic to intermediate orthogneiss (A3Vogn)

Gneisses of variable colour are distributed in a complex manner amongst supposedly late
Archaean granitoids in a wide area of the northern exposures of the Mavonde Complex. The
composition is variable from outcrop to outcrop and even within a single outcrop. The colour
is pale whitish to grey, reflecting granitic, granodioritic and tonalitic compositions. Frequently
there are biotitic-hornblendic enclaves and bands. Garnet is met with in places. An incipient
to variable developed gneissose foliation can be observed. Not infrequently, the rock may also
be highly foliated or sheared.

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6.3.7. Geochemistry

Seven samples have been chemically analysed from Mudzi Complex and 15 samples from
Mavonde Complex. Most analysed samples from Mudzi Complex are mafic rocks, gabbros
and diabases, only two are granitoids. Mavonde Complex is represented by three mafic rocks,
the rest, 12 samples being granitoids. The chemistry is presented in Table 1 of App. 3 and the
analyses have been plotted on the diagrams a-e in Fig. 6.34.
Based on major element geochemistry, most granitoids classify to granites, a few are
granodiorites and two analyses plot on tonalite field as one is quartz monzodiorite (Fig.
6.34a). The granitoids are transitional in met- and peraluminous fields, with peraluminous
emphasis (Fig. 6.34b). Rb-Sr-Ba ratio gives wide, but rather typical spread for granitoids (Fig.
6.34c). In TAS diagram (Fig. 6.34d), the mafic components are tholeiitic and the felsic
components are transitional calc-alkalic and tholeiitic. In diagram 6.34e, the analyses avoid
orogenic fields and indicate predominantly within plate and volcanic arc granite nature,
implying A-type granite origin to some of the granitoids. No distinct difference can be seen
between the granitoids and gabbros of the two Archaean granitoid complexes.

Fig. 6.34. Chemical classification

diagrams of Archaean granitoids and
gabbros/dolerites.

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6.3.8. Age

A synthesis of available age data of lithologies in or near the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt
is provided by Manuel (1992; nos. 5 – 7), Chenjerai et al. (1993), and Schmidt Mumm et al.
(1994; nos. 1 – 4) and reproduced in Table 6.2. below:

Table 6.2. Synthesis of geochronological data, Mutare-Manica greenstone belt.

Rock type Method Age (Ma)

1 Penhalonga granodiorite/tonalite U-Pb 2741±3
(Redwing gold mineralization host rock) single-zircon 2742±3
2 St. Augustine granite (sheared and foliated), north of WH Rb-Sr 2522±36
Mutare segment

4 Muscovite from sheared Redwing rhyolite K-Ar 1115±25

747±16
5 Granitoids N of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt WH Rb-Sr 3385±255
6 Granitoids S of the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt WH Rb-Sr 2527±632
7 Metavolcanics from the Mutare-Manica greenstone WH Rb-Sr 2801±42
belt

The above ages are difficult to reconcile:

• The Mutare-Manica greenstone belt is not simply enclosed by country rock
composed of ‘Younger Granites’ belonging to the ~ 2.60 Ga Chilimani and/or ~
2.65 Wedza Suites (see Table 6.1). WH Rb-Sr ages of granitoids N and S of the
belt show strongly different ages.
• Hunting (1984) assumed that the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt is of Upper
Bulawayan age. A single zircon U-Pb age of ~ 2.74 for the Penhalonga granitoid is
considered reliable. In case this granitoid is truly intrusive, the Manica-Mutare
greenstone belt must be older and rather of Lower Bulawayan/ Belingwean than of
Upper Bulawayan age.
• A Lower Bulawayan/ Belingwean age for the belt is supported by a WR Rb-Sr age
of ~ 2.80 Ga for metavolcanic rocks of the greenstone sequence.
• Assuming that the Penhalonga granitoid in not intrusive but that the contacts with
the greenstone belt are of a tectonic nature, the Pb/Pb model galena of 2650 Ma
presents the most reliable age for greenstone belt lithologies. The Upper
Bulawayan age may correspond with peak metamorphic conditions affecting the
greenstone belt sequence, which itself should be slightly older.
• Younger K-Ar ages, obtained on muscovite from sheared rhyolite in the Redwing
gold mine area, shows that younger tectonic events have locally affected the
Archaean rocks. This is also borne out by 838±10 Ma and 678±30 Ma lower
intercept U-Pb ages for the Penhalonga granodiorite samples. The 1115±25 Ma
may correspond with west verging thrusting of the Báruè Complex.

The above conclusions are supported by age determinations by the GTK Consortium
(for details see App. 2). SHRIMP U-Pb age results of Archaean tonalite (sample Mos-
23/13625-04) from the Manica area are unambiguous and therefore only 12 analyses were
made. Cathode luminescence images manifest clear magmatic zoning in most zircons. A few

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are totally altered or metamict (turbid whitish/yellowish) and altered inherited zircon nuclei
are thought to be quite common. On the concordia diagram, the ten concordant or nearly
concordant analyses on magmatically zoned zircons plot in a cluster at 2.9 Ga (MSWD=1.9;
n=10/2). The upper intercept age of 2907±16 Ma is considered the age for the tonalite. The
altered/metamict cores indicate even older zircon ages for inherited components.
Two of the data points are very discordant. These were measured from the structurally
quite homogeneous core and from the low Th/U zircon phase that replaces original magmatic
zoning. The inherited core clearly shows homogenisation and radiogenic lead loss.
Granodiorite (Mos-30/ 19140-04) from a quarry, ~ 20 km east of Manica (location
0509201/ 7898987), has been sampled for convential U-Pb dating. Although the zircon
population looks quite homogeneous and abundant, highly discordant results have been
obtained. The practically two-point reference line intercepts the concordia curve at ~ 2.47 and
0.56 Ga. It may be argued that the effect of at least the Pan-African metamorphism has
affected strongly the Archaean, high-U zircons. Therefore, the upper intercept age of the
highly discordant data can only be considered as a rough age estimate.
With respect to the metasedimentary sequence of the Vengo Formation* no data is
available from the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt. However, Hofmann et al. (2002) have
dated granitoid clasts in a metaconglomerate in the Makaha greenstone belt, located in
northeastern Zimbabwe, close to the border with Mozambique. The clasts are derived from
two different granitic sources with ages of ~ 2629 Ma and ~ 2613 Ma, respectively. A
xenolith-rich granodiorite gneiss with an age of ~ 2601 Ma intrudes the already deformed
metaconglomerate. This constrains the time of deposition and subsequent deformation of the
metaconglomerate protoliths in the Makaha greenstone belt to between ~2613 and ~ 2601.
Single Zircon evaporation dates of metaconglomerate in the Bindura-Shamva
greenstone belt yield a minimum age of ~ 2640 Ma for deposition of Shamvaian sediments
(Hofmann and Kröner, unpubl. data), a difference of some 30 Ma years. Deposition of the
Shamvaian may have been diachronous throughout the Craton.
Conclusion: The Pb/Pb model age of 2.65 Ga and the close association with 2.52 Ga
‘Younger Granites’ favour a correlation with the Upper Bulawayan Supergroup for the
greenstones of the Macequece Formation*. Deposition and deformation of conglomerates of
the Vengo Formation, to be correlated with the Shamvaian, took place between ~ 2.64 and
2.60 Ga.
TTG suites and other granitoids that host the greenstone belt sequences and which are
not part of the granitoids belonging to the allochtonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT with
the Mudzi Metamorphic Complex) are assembled as the Mavonde Complex. It includes
granitoid rocks of different ages that, on a regional scale, can be a ttributed to the ~ 2.7 Ga
Chingezi Suite, the ~ 2.65 Ga Wedza Suite and the ~ 2.60 Ga Chilimani Suite. It may even
contain older granitoids (> 2.95 Ga), related to the Sebakwean Supergroup. Far more
detailed mapping and geochronology can resolve this puzzle of successive generations of
TTG suites, whereby younger batholiths may be telescoped into older ones.

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6.4. PALAEOPROTEROZOIC MAGMATISM

Manica greenstone belt and the surrounding Archaean granitoids have been intruded by
dolerites with a NNW-SSE trend. Generally the dykes form extensive boulder fields and are
as such easy to recognize and map (Fig. 6.35). By Hunting (1984), these dykes have been
assigned as ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerites of ca. 1.1 Ga old and were correlated to mafic sills,
dolerites, gabbros and basalts of Umkondo Group (more about the age of Umkondo Group,
see chapter 6.5.3). To ascertain the age of the dolerites, a sample was collected from a
dimension stone quarry (Chainza) ca. 5 km NW of Manica town. As a result,
Palaeoproterozoic age of 1783±51 Ma was obtained using Sm-Nd method (Sample Mos-25,
App. 2). As several dolerites intruding various parts of Manica greenstone belt were found
chemically identical to the dated sample (Fig. 6.21), the whole set of NNW-SSE directed
dykes cutting Manica greenstone belt has been related to magmatism.

Fig. 6.35. Boulder field of Palaeoproterozoic dolerite in Machipanda area. Serra Isitaca in the background
(0474346/7903337).

The Palaeoproterozoic dolerites intruding Manica greenstone belt are from several
metres to tens of metres wide and can reach kilometres in length. The rocks are massive and
their colour is dark brown on weathered surface and dark grey to greyish blue on cut and fresh
surface. The texture of these medium- to coarse-grained rocks is ophitic and subophitic.

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Plagioclase and clinopyroxene form the main mineral constituents. Hornblende is met as a
minor component. Mineral chemistry of the dolerites is presented below in this chapter.
The chemical analyses of Palaeoproterozoic dolerites are shown in Table 2 of App. 3.
The data is plotted in Fig. 6.21 together with the analyses of Manica greenstone belt and, for
comparison, with younger, 1.1 Ga old ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerites (chapter 6.6) and with
dolerites of ca. 1.0 Ga old (chapter 6.6). Chemistry of the dolerites is discussed in the chapter
(6.6 Umkondo Igneous Province).
Chemical compositions of the minerals from three dolerite samples within the Manica
greenstone belt and near granitoids (observations 13671, 25610 and 25416) were studied
(App. 4, Table 2). The dykes contain plagioclase, clinopyroxene and amphibole.
Clinopyroxene is often iron-rich (FeOt/MgO is >1) and has slightly elevated titanium content
(TiO2 range 0.74 – 0.78 wt%). However, chemical composition of clinopyroxene varies; e.g.
the dyke 25416 comprises a slightly ferroan augite. Amphiboles of some dolerites have
elevated titanium contents, TiO2 ranges 1.2 – 1.5 wt%. Plagioclase is zoned and
compositionally intermediate between andesine and labradorite.

6.5. UMKONDO GROUP

6.5.1. Introduction

The Umkondo Group forms a volcano-sedimentary sequence, with an outcrop area measuring
170 km N-S by 100 km E-W, which rests unconformably on the lithologies of the Limpopo
Belt and the Zimbabwe Craton. It is exposed along the eastern border of Zimbabwe and
extends into Mozambique. Stocklmayer (1981) distinguished two different facies, i.e., the
autochthonous Inyanga facies in Zimbabwe and the Gairezi facies in Mozambique, thus
suggesting a coeval deposition of both sequences. In Zimbabwe, the Inyanga facies is
described as a flat-lying, non- to weakly deformed, mostly unmetamorphosed sequence of up
to 800 m in thickness composed of basal arkoses, stromatolitic limestone, chert, mudrock and
ortho-sandstone (Button, 1977; Stocklmayer, 1981; Mukwakwami, 2001). Thicknesses of
more than 3000 m are suggested for the western part of the sequence (Allsopp et al. 1989). In
the Save valley, Zimbabwe, amygdaloidal lavas appear in the uppermost part of the preserved
part of the sequence. These contain quartzitic intercalations, suggesting that these lavas are
virtually part of the Umkondo sequence (Swift, 1962).
The legend of the 1:250 000 Hunting (1984) maps in Mozambique describes a
sequence (from bottom to top) of (1) basal argillites (mudrock) and limestone, (2) ortho-
sandstones with mappable ‘quartzitic’ levels, (3) upper argillites and (4) agglomerates and
andesitic lavas. Deposition seems to have taken place in fluvial to shallow-water (lacustrine?)
environments. Button (1977), however, attributes deposition of this sequence to shallow
marine, supratidal sabkha, braided fan delta and meandering river floodplain environments.

6.5.2. Dacata Formation* (P2UD)

Field verification by the GTK Consortium has given rise to a re-arrangement of the different
lithologies in the area: the flat-lying, non-metamorphic units have been incorporated into the
Dacata Formation* of the Umkondo Group. The deformed and metamorphosed lithologies
have been incorporated into the Gairezi Group.

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No observation has been made of the Dacata Formation* within Lot 2 area. The Lower
Quartzite Member and the Siltstone Member of the Dacata Formation* have been extended
to Lot 2 area over the map margin from the map sheet DS 2032/2033 of Lot 3. More detailed
descriptions to these units are found in the Map Explanation Vol. 1.
Lower Quartzite Member (P2UDlq) - The type section of the Lower Quartzite Member
can be seen in the Búze River, where light greenish grey, laminated orthoquartzite forms a
prominent rock wall near the Búzi river bridge on the Dacata-Espungabera road.
Subhorizontal or gently westward dipping quartzite displays distinct layer-parallel lamination
and cross-bedding.
Siltstone Member (P2Uds )- The most conspicuous variety of the argillageous rock
succession is siltstone, which is well-exposed in quarries on both sides of Rio Búzi bridge.
The deep magenta-coloured rock has greenish grey, sericite-bearing interbeds, and gradually
siltstone turns into laminated sericite quartzite of the Lower Quartzite Member below.

6.5.3. Age

The age of the Dacata lithologies belonging to the Umkondo Group is problematic
(Munyanyiwa, 1999). In the past, both a Palaeo- and a Mesoproterozoic age have been
attributed to the Umkondo Group.
Correlation of the Umkondo sequence with the ~ 1130 Ma Ahlmannryggen Group of
East Antarctica would suggest a Mesoproterozoic age. The Ahlmannryggen Group of the
Ritscherflya Supergroup of West Dronning Maud Land overlies the Archaean Grunehogna
Craton (Groenewald et al. 1995; Moyes et al. 1995). The latter is believed to be part of the
Kalahari Craton and, consequently, the Umkondo and Ahlmannryggen Groups occur in the
same stratigraphic position. Dolerite of the Umkondo Igneous Province can be likewise
correlated with the Borgmassivet sills (up to 400 m thick). While still wet, the Ahlmann-
ryggen sediments have been invaded by the Borgmassivet sills.
Recently, Masters (2006) has described a similar situation from a road cut in the
Chimanimani Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe. The contact zone outside the sill (dated at ~
1100 Ma) is heavily contaminated, shows soft sediment deformation, including ductile folds,
as well as phreato-magmatic or peperitic brecciation. Hence, deposition of the Umkondo
sequence is ~ coeval with or slightly prior to intrusion of the Umkondo dolerite sills dated at
1100 Ma (Munyanyiwa, 1997 and Thomas, 1998).
The remarkable similarities in the style of intrusion into wet sediments of the
Umkondo and Ahlmannryggen sequences as well as similarities in geochemistry, age and
palaeomagnetism (Moye et al. 1995; Hanson et al. 1998; Jones et al. 2003) support the
palaeocontinental reconstruction showing that the Grunehogna Block was attached to the
Kalahari Craton prior to the Rodinia assembly and the Pan-African Orogeny (Groenewald et
al. 1995).

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6.6. UMKONDO IGNEOUS PROVINCE

6.6.1. Introduction

The volcano-sedimentary strata of the Umkondo Group has been intruded by numerous and
extensive dolerite NNW-SSE directed dykes and sills up to several hundreds of metres thick.
They can be distinguished from the lavas of the Umkondo sequence by their grain size, by
baked contacts and by the absence of amygdules in the later dykes and sills (Allsopp et al.
1989). These are collectively referred to as the Umkondo Dolerites (‘Post-Umkondo’
dolerites sensu Hunting, 1984) or Umkondo Lavas (Munyanyiwa, 1999) and assembled here
as Umkondo Igneous Province. The dolerite sills thus extend from the Archaean basement
into the rocks of the Umkondo Group and some sills have been emplaced along the basal
unconformity. Minor basalt flows (and mafic lapilli tuffs) that are interlayered with Umkondo
sediments are geochemically identical to the dolerite sills and dykes and provide indications
of broadly syn-sedimentary igneous activity (see Masters, 2006, below).

6.6.2. Lithology

Mashonaland ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerite and gabbro (P2ML)

In Lot 2 area, Mashonaland gabbroic dolerites occur next to the Zimbabwe border area in the
map sheet SDS 1932 as sub-horizontal sheets in quartzite. As observed in the Lot 3 area, the
mafic intrusives are parallel to sub-horizontal shears and foliation and accordingly they are
cited as sills. Based on the lack of primary bedding with the vertical foliation of the quartzite,
it remains biased whether these intrusives replicate any primary sedimentary structures.
Gabbroic rocks show variation from fine to medium grained types that commonly have
ophitic or subophitic texture (Fig. 6.36). Grain size is typically heterogeneous and main
minerals are plagioclase and pyroxene. Olivine bearing coarse-grained type is locally
observed. In general gabbroic rocks are compositionally and texturally quite uniform.
Variably thick dark brown weathering crust of the gabbros is common.

Fig. 6.36. Medium grained uniform gabbroic rock

representing characteristic type of Mashonaland mafic
rocks. Chimanimani area 25 km´s ENE from
Mt.Binga. (7832192/ 0492127).

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Metadolerite (P3db)
A swarm of metadolerite dykes is spread east of Manica in the area where the regional
structural trend is N-S. The strike of the dykes is as well N-S, i.e., parallel to the Archaean
craton margin. The easternmost dyke of the swarm was found within the mylonite zone
marking the boundary between the Archaean basement and the Báruè Complex (Chapter 10,
Fig. 10.3., lithology no. 10). Being easily weathered, it is in the mylonite zone found only as
small solid in situ spheroids within brown soil. The rock is rather rich in garnet, showing its
metamorphic character. Another garnet-bearing metadolerite dyke, also preserved only as in
situ spheroids, was mapped in detail in a road cut by the main road 40 km east of Manica,
where it crosscuts the schist of the Gairezi Group, which locally overlies the Archaean
basement (Figs. 6.37 – 6.39). The sample was studied in detail in the laboratory, including a
Sm-Nd dating. One of the mentioned dykes is just 1 m wide, the other 5 – 6m wide. The total
volume of the mapped and not observed potential dykes of this swarm may thus be quite
considerable in the region.
As dark main minerals the metadolerite from the road cut above contains slightly
magnesian clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene. There is some late-grown garnet as a signal of
regional post-dyke metamorphism in the domain. Garnet is abundant in the metadolerite in the
Archaean-Báruè junction referred to above. Chemical composition of minerals of the
metadolerite is shown in Table 2 (rock 6) of App. 4.

Fig. 6.37. A road cut 40 km east of Manica.

Gairezi schist with quartz veins, weathered
brownish red. (0515362/7896822).

Fig. 6.38. Gairezi schist, the same road cut as

above. The middle part of the figure shows a
metadolerite dyke, 5 – 6 m wide, weathered into
brown in situ soil, where the original metadolerite
has been preserved only as exfoliation spheroids.

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Fig. 6.39. A detail from above. The sample for a

Sm/Nd dating was taken from the spheroid at the
lower left hand part, a very hard in situ relict of
the original dyke.

The general N-S structural trend east of the Manica greenstone belt is interpreted to be
a result of overprinting post-Archaean tectonism. The isotopic evidence from the Archaean
granitoids around (Mos-30, App.2) clearly shows that the craton margin domain, where this
dyke swarm is distributed, has been reheated, latest during the Pan-African times, while in the
Manica town area the Archaean crust remained intact. It may be suggested that the dyke
swarm invaded the craton margin domain where the tectonometamorphic instability entered.

6.6.3. Geochemistry

Umkondo dolerites and gabbros (‘post-Umkondo dolerites by Hunting, 1984) have been
widely described in literature. According to Munyanyiwa (1999), the geochemical
composition of the Umkondo dolerites reveals a sub-alkaline, continental tholeiitic affinity.
Their chemical characteristics, large surface extent and consistent palaeo-magnetic signature
suggest that the Umkondo mafic suite defines a continental flood basalt province – the
Umkondo Igneous Province – resulting from the impact of a mantle plume on the eastern
margin of the Zimbabwe Craton (Hanson et al. 1998, 2004; Wingate, 2001; Mukwakwami,
2001). The fluvial to shallow-water depositional environment of the Umkondo Group
sediments provides support for the continental nature of the igneous activity.
In present study, the geochemistry of the Mashonaland ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerites is
based on four analyses from Lot 3 area (App. 3 in Map Explanation Vol. 1). Two samples
have been analysed from the metadolerite (ca. 1.0 Ga, next chapter) and five samples from the
Palaeoproterozoic dolerites of ca. 1.8 Ga (Table 2, anal. 22 – 28 in App. 3). The data is
plotted in Fig. 6.21 together with metavolcanics of the Manica greenstone belt. The dolerite
analyses fall clearly in two distinct groups in such a way, that the Palaeoproterozoic dolerites
and the metadolerites group together from which the ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerites clearly stand
out. The Palaeoproterozoic dolerites and the metadolerites are basalts with high titanium (2 –
3.5 % TiO2), phosphorus (0.2 – 0.9 % P2O5) and iron (Fe2O3 0.66 – 0.83) as the ‘post-
Umkondo’ dolerites classify as andesites with TiO2 < 1%, P2O5 < 0.1% and Fe2O3 0.54 –
0.62. Although all analyses plot in the field of tholeiites (Fig. 6.21c), other classification
diagrams clearly demonstrate the presence of two populations (especially Fig. 6.21d).

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6.6.4. Age

Dating of post-Umkondo dolerites yields ambiguous results and has a direct impact on the age
of the Umkondo Group. A Mesoproterozoic age is indicated by SHRIMP analyses of
baddeleyite from a coarse-grained gabbro near the upper contact of a thick Umkondo sill in
the Nyanga area15 that yielded a mean Pb/Pb age of 1098±10 Ma (Wingate, 2001). Zircon data
from the same sample were relatively discordant and gave a Pb/Pb age of 1103±32 Ma. The
best estimate of the age of crystallisation of the sill, based on combined baddeleyite and
zircon data, is 1099±9 Ma. A reinterpretation by the same author of discordant U/Pb data,
obtained previously on zircons from a similar dolerite sill in the Chimanimani area16, gave a
recalculated age of 1107±6 Ma.
GTK Consortium has dated from Lot 3 area a gabbroic dolerite, which intrudes schists
of Dacata Formation* of the Umkondo Group (sample Mos-32 in App. 2 of Map Explanation
Vol. 1). The obtained age, 1102±52 Ma (epsilon = -7.3) conforms well to the ages stated
above.
The above recent data contrast with older geochronological K-Ar data of 1785±80 Ma
(Vail and Dodson, 1969; Cahen et al. 1984) as the most likely age for the emplacement of the
Umkondo dolerites and older references in which the Umkondo Group was described as a
Palaeoproterozoic sequence. A Palaeoproterozoic age is also indicated by recent Sm-Nd
geochronology by the GTK Consortium of a gabbro/dolerite sample (Mos-25/ 25416-04) from
a quarry north of Manica (location: 0481495/7908113). Although Sm-Nd systematics did not
yield a decent isochron (MSWD=17), the age of 1783±51 Ma (epsilon = -2.2) derived from
the analyses on whole rock and pyroxene may be considered as the best estimate for the
magmatic crystallisation of this rock specimen. Geochemical differences between these
Palaeoproterozoic dolerites and the ~ 1.1 Ga old Umkondo dolerites refer to different source
and origin (chapter 6.6.3).
Third dated dolerite conducted by GTK Consortium was sampled from a metadolerite
cutting Archaean granitoids and quartzite of Gairezi Group (Mos-36, App. 2). Magmatic
crystallization age can be estimated at 973±73 Ma (epsilon = -1.3), using whole rock and
plagioclase for Sm-Nd studies. The age estimate from the garnet-whole rock pair is 503±7.5
Ma, which age is consistent with the Pan-African metamorphism.
Apparently there are three generations of mafic dykes intruding the Archaean terrane
in the southern part of the Lot 2 area. Despite the similar geochemistry (Fig. 6.21), the
obtained ages and initial epsilon values speak for different magma origin and source to the
Palaeoproterozoic dolerites in Manica area and to the metadolerites. Both geochemistry and
age/epsilon values separate the Mashonaland ‘post-Umkondo’ dolerites from the other two
dolerites.

15
Or Inyanga, 90 km north of the town of Mutare. Note that this is far outside the Umkondo Group type area.
With its 2593 m, Nyangani Mountain, the highest peak in the Nyanga area, is also the highest point of
Zimbabwe.
16
The Chimanimani Mountains form a N-S hill range along the Mozambique border, just north of the 20°S
parallel.

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CHAPTER 7

SOUTH GONDWANA BASEMENT – PROTEROZOIC FOLD BELTS

7.1. INTRODUCTION
The Kalahari Craton is surrounded by mobile belts of Proterozoic age. Of these, the fold belts
along the northern and eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton extend into Mozambique.
The northern margin is marked by the E-W trending polyphase Zambezi Belt. This
orogenic belt contains a mixture of thrust masses or ‘nappes’ that include Archaean (> 2.5
Ga), Mesoproterozoic/Kibaran (~ 1.0 – 1.4 Ga) and Neoproterozoic/Pan-African (0.8 – 0.5
Ga) components (Dirks et al. 2003). From a structural point of view, the southern Zambezi
Belt, along the northern Zimbabwe Craton margin, is largely composed of two nappes
(structurally from top to bottom and from N to S):
• Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane (ZAT) - In northern Zimbabwe this includes the
structurally uppermost and highest-grade (garnet-granulite facies) exposed units of
the Zambezi Mobile Belt. This terrane comprises (from top to bottom) the
Mavuradonha Metamorphic and Masoso Suites sensu Barton et al. (1985; 1991).
The first has been re-named Mavuradonha Complex in this Map Explanation.
• Marginal Gneiss Terrane (MaGT) - In Zimbabwe this tectonic unit has been
divided into the Chimanda Metamorphic Suite and the Rushinga Metamorphic
Suite. The Chimanda Metamorphic Suite is an assemblage of tectonically bounded
gneissic slivers that occur near the base of the central and western parts of the
terrane. The gneisses are quartzofeldspathic or biotite-rich in composition and
contain a mylonitic foliation that overprints complex earlier fabrics. Only the
Rushinga Metamorphic Suite, re-named Rushinga Group, extends into Mozam-
bique.

The structural masses of the above Marginal Gneiss Terrane (MaGT) tectonically
overlie the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT) of the Zimbabwe Craton (see
Section 6.1.1.). Neoproterozoic granitoids have apparently been emplaced along the thrust
plane between the MiGT and MaGT. These granitoids are incorporated by Barton et al.
(1991) into the Basal Rushinga Intrusive Complex (BRIC), re-named Basal Rushinga
Intrusive Suite (BRIS) in this Map Explanation.
The eastern margin of the Kalahari Craton is part of the N-S trending Mozambique
Belt. The southern part is considered to have formed by collisional accretion of mostly
juvenile crust onto the eastern (and southern) margins of the Kalahari Craton during the
amalgamation of the Rodinia Supercontinent at ~ 1000 – 1200 Ma (Jacobs et al. 1993;
Grantham et al. 1997, Wareham et al. 1998; Manhiça et al. 2001). Subsequent fragmentation
(~ 1000 – 850 Ma) and reassembly of fragments resulted in the amalgamation of the East,
West and South Gondwana Terranes (see Section 5.5.) and Pan-African overprinting of
Grenvillian and older lithologies roughly between 0.60 and 0.45 Ga (de Wit et al. 2001;
Manhiça et al. 2001).

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Proterozoic rocks along the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton include (from
west to east):
• Umkondo Group – Undeformed sediments, resting unconformably on the
Zimbabwe Craton and already discussed in Sections 6.4 and 6.5.
• Gairezi/Fronteira Group - The Gairezi/Fronteira Group is composed of strongly
deformed metasediments, infolded with Archaean gneisses and, for the most part,
resting unconformably on them in a belt along the Zimbabwe border. In addition to
these, east of the Rushinga Group and separate from the craton margin, certain
rocks have been bundled together whose position gives space to various inter-
pretations – Chapter 7.
• Báruè Complex – The bulk of Proterozoic rocks along the eastern margin of the
Zimbabwe Craton, south of the Mungári latitude to almost the Save River, is attri-
buted to the Báruè Complex. Typical lithologies comprise quartzose, feldspathic
and micaceous gneisses and migmatites with minor intercalations of quartzite,
marble and mafic rocks in places. The sedimentary protoliths of these lithologies
correspond most likely to monotonous turbidite sequences deposited on the passive
margin of the Zimbabwe Craton. In the past, the complex has been divided into
different sub-units. Based on new information, including geochronological data,
the Báruè Complex sensu Hunting (1984) is divided into:
o Chimoio Group – Quartzo-feldspathic and micaceous gneisses and migmatites
and siliciclastic metasediments.
o Macossa Group – Comprises substantial quantities of amphibole-bearing
gneisses, hornblendite, calc-silicate rock and marble.

The lithologies of these two groups of metasediments have been invaded by a number
of granitoids suites and mafic dykes with Mesoproterozoic ages around 1100 Ma. A signi-
ficantly younger bimodal igneous suite that was previously incorporated in the Báruè
Complex (sensu Hunting, 1984) has been identified as an independent unit. This ‘Guro Suite’
is thus no longer part of the Báruè Complex and will be discussed below.
• Guro Suite – A bimodal magmatic ~ 850 Ma suite comprising foliated aplitic
granite and migmatite alternating with metagabbro and mafic migmatite.

Rocks belonging to both the Gairezi/Fronteira Group and Báruè Complex the are
considered to represent remnants of thin-skinned fold-thrust belts tectonically overlying the
eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton (see Chapter 11).

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7.2. MAVURADONHA METAMORPHIC SUITE (P3MV)

7.2.1. Introduction

This unit is exposed in a narrow strip along the northern margin of the Zambezi
Allochthonous Terrane, named after the Mavuradonha Mountains located further to the west
(Barton et al. 1985) and extending westward as far as the Great Dyke. At the type-locality,
i.e., the Mavuradonha mission post in the Mavuradonha Mountains, the sequence comprises a
basal unit of scapolitised metagabbro, tectonically overlain, with a mylonitised contact, by
compositionally layered basic granulites. The latter contains the assemblage plagioclase-
garnet-clinopyroxene-quartz-scapolite-hornblende. To the north, it is bounded by normal
faults, marking the southern extent of the Mid-Zambezi rift basin, and covered by Karoo
sediments and volcanics and by Cretaceous deposits. The unit is floored by the Mavuradonha
Thrust, which is expressed as a sequence of mylonites. Regional outcrop patterns show that
the thrust truncates NW-SE trending ductile structures in the underlying Masoso Suite.

7.2.2. Lithology

In Zimbabwe the Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex is informally subdivided into (from

top to bottom):
• Gungwa Metagabbro.
• Kapfrugwa Carbonates.
• Nyamasoto Biotite Gneiss.

Nyamasoto Biotite Gneiss Formation*

This is a collective name for a 200 – 300 m thick sequence with heterogenous field
appearances: Pale grey, foliated or banded rocks with porphyroblasts or rolled augen locally
with rounded, centimetre-sized pods of pyroxene granulite. S1 is in microfold structures that
have been truncated by S2. Leucosomes occur as schlieren that were injected pre-S1 to post-S2.
Felsic members are mainly composed of plagioclase, perthitic orthoclase, biotite and quartz.
Mafic varieties contain carbonate (in biotite aggregates), hornblende, biotite, plagioclase and
quartz. Granulite relics contain clino- and orthopyroxene. Leucocratic layers are composed of
granoblastic microcline-plagioclase-quartz assemblages (Barton et al. 1991).

Kapfrugwa Carbonatite
This unit was first described by Arnett (1969)17 as a series of discontinuous elongate bodies.
Mapping by Barton et al. (1991) indicated the presence of a lensoid, deformed and
boudinaged body. Isoclinal fold structures are present in the southernmost exposure. Layers
enriched in apatite or magnetite and the association with scapolite-clinopyroxene granulite or
garnet-clinopyroxene granulite suggest a carbonatite protolith (Arnett, 1969) as further
evidenced by the high contents of rare earth elements and the presence of Sr in the carbonate
(M. Styles, pers. comm., 1986; in Barton et al. 1991).

17
Arnett (1969) named it the ‘Gungwa’ occurrence. Barton et al. (1991) re-named it after the Kapfrugwa River
to avoid confusion with the Gungwa Metagabbro, named after Gungwa Hill.

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Gungwa Metagabbro
This unit is ~ 400 m in thickness and rests with a tectonic contact on the Nyamasoto Biotite
Gneiss. It is named after a prominent ridge of Gungwa Hill that forms part of a sheet-like
basic igneous body. Similar lithologies extend westward for a distance of 40 km into the
Mavuradonha Mountains. Fluxional igneous textures can be observed in places. They are
believed to have developed as a result of late-stage compaction or shear of a crystal mush
(Barton et al. 1991). The magmatic textures are overprinted by a metamorphic foliation with
porphyroblastic textures, formed under amphibolite facies conditions. These textures grade
into mylonites near the base of this unit, near the contact with the underlying Nyamasoto
gneisses.

Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex in Mozambique (P3MV)

In Mozambique, the Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex is exposed as a sequence of mafic
and felsic gneisses that can be correlated with the Gungwa metagabbro and Nyamasoto
Formation*, identified in Zimbabwe. The surface area in Mozambique underlain by the
Mavuradonha Complex is very limited and access from the Mozambican side is difficult.
Therefore no efforts have been done to subdivide the complex into small mappable units.
A succession of strongly deformed mafic gneisses, tentatively assigned to the
Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex, is exposed along the Luia River close to the
Zimbabwean border on the map sheet SDS 1632. Smoothly (~20 – 50o) NNW to NNE
dipping, foliated and folded gneisses are distinctly compositionally banded, felsic and mafic
bands and stripes being in a greenish grey, fine-grained, dioritic (?) groundmass (Fig. 7.1A
and 7.1D). Rounded quartz-feldspar fragments and augens, up to 5 cm in diameter and
probably derived from deformed and boudinaged pegmatite dykes, are frequently met (Fig.
7.1C). Also dark green, 1 – 5 mm hornblende porphyroblast are common (Fig. 7.1D).
The origin of compositionally banded gneisses is somewhat obscure; although some of
mafic bands may represent strongly foliated gabbroic dykes, often diffuse contacts of bands
and stripes suggest pyroclastic or volcaniclastic origin for these rocks.

7.2.3. Geochemistry

The Gungwa Metagabbro is characterised by very low TiO2 and P2O5 abundances, low K2O
and total Fe and high alumina contents. The analyses show transitional high-alumina/tholeiitic
characteristics and plot towards the MgO apex on the AFM diagramme. It is suggested that
these metagabbros form part of a fractionated igneous complex that is geochemically, and
also in other respects, different to the mafic granulites in the Masoso Suite (see Section 7.3.
below).

7.2.4. Age

No data are available on the age of the Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex. Ductile fabrics
along the Mavuradonha Thrust have yielded an age of 820 Ma (Barton et al. 1991).

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A B

C D

Fig. 7.1. Textures in compositionally banded gneisses of the Mavuradonha Complex. (A) Smoothly north-east
dipping gneiss in the Luia River (0399501/8182166), (B) Tight chevron folds in the same rock, (C) Quartz-
feldspar fragments and augens, probably after boudinaged pegmatite dykes (0400138/8182503), (D)
Hornblende porphyroblasts in a banded gneiss. Rio Luia (0400475/8182534). Scale bar is 10 cm.

7.3. MASOSO METAMORPHIC SUITE (P3MO)

7.3.1. Introduction

Directly overlying the Marginal Gneiss Terrane (MaGT), the Masoso Metamorphic Suite
forms the basal structural unit of the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane. It is largely composed
of microcline-rich granitic or monzonitic leucomigmatites and an unusual bimodal association
that, according to Barton et al. (1991), comprises laterally extensive horizons of ‘Striped
Mafic Gneiss’ with minor proportions of Metaplutonic Inclusions and Pegmatite
Schlieren/Inclusions. In Zimbabwe the Masoso Metamortphic Suite has been mapped along
an E-W strike-length of 57 km and forms a belt of 12 km average width. Further south, the
unit reappears in the Marginal Gneiss Terrane in the Rusambo klippe. Thickness estimates
vary from 4 km in the extreme west to as much as 9 km further to the east. Tectonic
thickening counts in large part for the variation.
The northern contact (SDS 1632) is defined by a gently (~20º) NW-dipping normal (?)
fault (Fig. 7.2) against coarse clastic or conglomeratic rocks of the Matinde Formation* of the
Karoo Supergroup. Airborne magnetics suggest that the eastern contact with the Cretaceous
Mágoè Formation* is a steep normal fault. The southern contact with the Magasso

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metagabbro of the Guro Suite, although vaguely distinguishable on aerogeophysical maps, is

formed by a series of broadly E-W directed, north-vergent thrust planes.

Fig. 7.2. Roughly NW-

dipping fault surface
(dashed line) between (top)
clastic sediments of the
Matinde Formation*
(Lower Karoo) and
(bottom) Proterozoic
Masoso rocks. The hill in
background comprises
mylonitic rocks (see below)
of the Masoso Suite. 'Big
bend' of the Luia River
(044658/8185187).

7.3.2. Lithology

The Masoso Metamorphic Suite in Zimbabwe comprises the following principal components
(from old to young, adapted after Barton et al. 1991):
• Leucomigmatite
• Striped Mafic Gneiss
• Metaplutonic Inclusions
• Pegmatite Schlieren/Inclusions

Leucomigmatite
In Zimbabwe, leucomigmatite constitutes ~ 75% by volume of the Masoso Metamorphic
Suite and is a medium- to fine-grained, granoblastic heterogranular rock, predominantly
composed of alkali-rich granite that in places grades into quartz syenite and quartz monzonite.
Locally, biotite and hornblende account for 15 – 20% of the rock. Garnet-bearing leuco-
migmatite near Kapfrugwa River is composed of 50% microcline, rare orthoclase perthite,
20% quartz, 10% plagioclase and 20% mafic minerals. Skeletal or atoll-like garnet is either
embayed by, or is euhedral against surrounding felsic minerals. Other mafic minerals include
hornblende and biotite.
Barton et al. (1991) report some resemblance between leucomigmatite of the Masoso
Metamorphic Suite and massive feldspathic gneiss lithologies of the Rushinga Group or the
Basal Rushinga Intrusive Complex in terms of field appearance, composition and microscopic
texture. Relics of high-P-T assemblages in the Masoso Suite contrast strongly with the upper
amphibolite-facies metamorphism in much of the underlying Rushinga Group (sensu Barton
et al. 1991).

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Striped mafic gneiss

A mixed rock with variable proportions of mafic and felsic layers forms laterally persistent
horizons, interlayered with leucomigmatites. Spectacular outcrops are found in the Múdze
River, showing an alternation of mafic and felsic layers, ranging in thickness from less than a
millimetre to more than a metre, in micro- to mesoscopic refolded fold structures that are
disharmonic with respect to the planar margins of the rock units (Barton et al. 1991). Mafic
layers may show necking and, occasionally, boudins. Garnet porphyroblasts are common.
Rounded microcline porphyroblasts show evidence of rotation.
Diversity in metamorphic grade and fabric prompted Barton et al. (1991) to
distinguish three major lithological types within the Striped Mafic Gneiss unit:
• Mylonitic garnet granulite – Coarse-grained tectonic enclaves surrounded by
extremely fine-grained (0.05 – 0.50 mm) gneissic layers.
• Granulitic striped mafic gneiss – Banded rock with a more diffuse type of banding.
Garnet and clinopyroxene show prograde growth and occasionally occur as coarse-
grained aggregates.
• Amphibolitic striped mafic gneiss – This represents the lowest-grade metamorphic
assemblage. Clinopyroxene is absent and microcline, rather than orthoclase, is the
dominant K-feldspar.

In Mozambique, rocks of the Masoso Suite have not been subdivided into different
map units. Rocks exposed adjacent to the northern fault contact with Karoo rocks, within the
big, northern bend of Luia River (SDS 1632), are characterised by strong brecciation and
mylonitisation. Their combined brittle and ductile deformation has destroyed all the features
attesting the origin of the rocks (Figs. 7.3A and 7.3B). Here, the foliation dips gently (~25 –
35º) to the NNW, following the fault direction, while the outcrops more distant from the fault
zone, have developed a more steeply dipping (~35 – 55º NE) foliation. A strong lineation,
visible in most outcrops, dips everywhere gently (10 – 25º) NW, while the plunge of fold axes
in overturned to recumbent folds generally dip from sub-horizontal to gently (~10 – 30º) NW
or N.

A B

Fig. 7.3. (A) Brecciation of rocks due to brittle deformation at the northern fault zone of the Masoso Suite.
'Big bend' of the Luia River (0455554/8188053), (B) Blastomylonite with large feldspar augen near the
northern fault zone of the Masoso Suite. About 9 km west of the 'Big bend' of the Luia River
(0446310/8185019). Scale bar is 15 cm.

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The northern contact with the Karoo is now a normal fault. The breccia and mylonite
structures described above have not formed, however, during this phase of normal faulting but
were generated at far greater depth. This illustrates the longevity of many fault structures in
the area with repeated reactivation under different kinematic conditions.
The more distant rocks from the fault apparently escaped brittle shearing and have
preserved a distinct compositional banding defined by darker layers alternating with light
pinkish, more felsic quartzofeldspathic layers with plenty of small, pink feldspar
porphyroblasts (Fig. 7.4). Mafic amphibole-rich layers range from greenish laminae, 1 – 2
mm in width, to dark green, amphibolitic horizons, locally up to several metres in thickness.
Large segregations of hornblende porphyroblasts, up to 15 cm in size, as well as plentiful
small garnet porphyroblasts, 2 – 8 mm in diameter, occur in places.

A B

Fig. 7.4. (A) Striped mafic gneiss (metatuffite?) of the Masoso Suite, (B) Detailed photo of metatuffite (?)
with random feldspar porphyroclasts. Note that bands or laminae have sharper upper contacts, possibly
showing bifurcation and erosional features (micro-channelling?). 'Big bend' of the Luia River
(0456394/8186302). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Two generations of microcline pegmatites, the older being syn-tectonic (Fig. 7.5) and
the younger post-tectonic, have invaded the banded gneisses. The latter cut all fold structures
(Figs. 7.6A and 7.6B). Locally, large pegmatite dykes and plugs are so abundant that they
comprise 30 – 40 % of the rock by volume. Masoso rocks in the area are also intersected by
randomly trending late Karoo basaltic dykes of the Rukore Suite and by a NE-trending swarm
of narrow, fluorite-bearing chalcedony veins.

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Fig. 7.5. Banded metatuffite (?)

with coarse feldspar-rich boudins
of microcline pegmatite dykes.
Masoso Suite. 'Big bend' of the
Luia River (0446460/ 8183671).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

Fig. 7.6. Striped gneiss of the

Masoso Suite with plenty of
quartzofeldspathic segregations.
Note intruding pegmatite dykes
of two generations. Rio Luia
(0466641/8179565). Scale bar is
10 cm.

Closely similar lithologies of the Masoso Suite were found in the Luia River further
southeast, where polyphase deformed mafic and felsic gneisses are exposed along the river
and it's southern tributary (Fig. 7.6). In this area, the general strike of the foliation varies from
~20 to 45º NNE, roughly paralleling the foliation trend measured in the area more to the NW.
The general lineation and plunge of the fold axes dip gently (5 – 22º) ESE (Fig. 7.7A), but
also complex interference patterns with subhorizontal fold axis exist (Fig. 7.7B). Mafic rocks
in the area generally have a distinct banding that often resembles primary bedding (Fig. 7.7C).
Thin, leucocratic bands and lenses in felsic gneisses are quartzofeldspathic segregations and
indicate syn- to post-tectonic partial melting.
Garnet-bearing mafic xenoliths, from a few centimetres up to 2 – 3 m in size, and
resembling eclogites, are found within the Masoso striped gneisses along Rio Luia (Fig.
7.8A). Microtexturally they are characterized by garnet crystals, generally few mm in
diameter, which are surrounded by coarse-grained (locally up to 4 – 5 cm in size),

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'poikiloblastic' hornblende crystals (Figs. 7.8B and 7.9). It is obvious that garnet is
transformed to amphibole by dehydration during the crustal cooling. Other minerals are
quartz and plagioclase with some opaque, biotite, sphene and apatite.

A B

Fig. 7.7. (A) Recumbent folding in felsic gneiss of

the Masoso Suite in Rio Luia (0459874/8182853),
(B) Box fold with a subhorizontal fold axis in
metatuffite (?) of the Masoso Suite. Rio Luia
(0471273/8178107), (C) Mafic gneiss of the Masoso
Suite showing compositional banding and tight
refolded isoclinal folds. Note cross-cutting pegmatite
‘schlieren’ in top of block. Southern tributary of the
Luia River (0465295/8176701). Hammer is 65 cm
long, scale bar is 15 cm.

A B

Fig. 7.8. (A) Garnet-rich xenolith in striped mafic gneiss of the Masoso Suite, (B) Detailed photo of the
xenolith. Rio Luia (0449677/8183970). Scale bar is 10 cm, diameter of coin is 3 cm.

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Microprobe analysis made from the xenolith sample shows that garnets are slightly
zoned, the core having an average MgO content of 4.6 wt% and rims 3.9 wt% (App 4, Table
1, rock8). Moreover, rims are richer in manganese compared to the core. Amphibole is
hornblende in composition, and biotite does not have, e.g., high TiO2 content or Mg/FeO.
Generally the minerals do not have any notable elevations in their chemical element
concentrations.

Fig. 7.9. Microphotograph of

mafic xenolith in striped mafic
gneiss of the Masoso Suite (G -
garnet, H - hornblende). Rio
Luia (0449677/8183970). Width
of photo is 25 mm.

7.3.3. Metamorphism

Unlike Leucomigmatite, the Striped Mafic Gneiss in Zimbabwe contains in places relics
manifesting granulite facies P-T-conditions. This is evidenced by (1) pods of coarse-grained
garnet-granulite in the mafic component and (2) by the ubiquitous presence of orthoclase
perthite in granitic layers of the Striped Mafic Gneiss (while microcline is the common K-
feldspar in Leucomigmatite). Metamorphic grade appears to decrease eastwards, where
amphibolite-facies assemblages dominate. Observed fabrics indicate intense ductile
mylonitisation, reflecting the shear deformation within the nappe footwall of the Zambezi
Allochtonous Terrane. Retrograde metamorphism linked to this mylonitisation may explain
the eastward decrease in metamorphic grade. Barton et al. (1991) report that the interfaces
between Striped Mafic Gneiss and Leucomigmatite are always sharp and of planar geometry.
Structures within the Striped Mafic Gneiss in the vicinity of contacts are straightened into a
parallel fabric. In adjacent Leuco-migmatites, zones of mylonitic refoliation are found in
which sheath folds have been developed.
Preliminary microprobe studies suggest peak metamorphic conditions of 725 – 800° C
and 8 – 11 kb within the Zimbabwean part of the Masoso Metamorphic Suite (P. Treloar,
1986; in Barton et al. 1991). This was followed by a retrograde phase of metamorphism –
with extensive rehydration – at far lower pressures of 5 – 8 kb and somewhat lower
temperatures of 625 – 700° C as manifested by the development of corona textures in
metagabbros. Retrograde metamorphism progresses in an eastward direction. It is likely that
retrogradation was coeval with mylonitisation and the introduction of granitic material.

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7.3.4. Age

Barton et al. (1991) reports imprecise whole rock Rb/Sr ages of 823±57 Ma and 786±91 Ma
for Leucogranite. A clinopyroxene-bearing variety has yielded an age of 605±253 Ma.
Mylonitic garnet granulite from the Striped Mafic Gneiss gave an age of 823±54 Ma. A
corona-textured metagabbro yielded an age of 663±109 Ma that was thought to reflect
metamorphic re-equilibration of the primary igneous phase.
The above data are superceded by more precise recent data. Mariga et al. (1998)
reported a U/Pb zircon crystallisation age of 849±2 Ma for one of the small metagabbro
bodies that truncate so-called DZM1 tectonic fabric in the Masoso Metamorphic Suite. The
‘DZM1’ deformation is marked by isoclinal folding and a variably developed mylonitic
foliation and fabric. The dating result indicates that the DZM1 phase and the accompanying
high-pressure granulite-facies metamorphism are older than ~ 850 Ma18.
Additional U/Pb ages from the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrain are presented in Vinyu
et al. (1999). A sample of a Leucomigmatite from the Masoso Metamorphic Suite contains
two zircon populations: a major one of inclusion-free, euhedral crystals, and a subordinate
one with cloudy, metamict crystals. Although linear regression through both populations does
not provide statistically significant results, their upper intercepts coincide at ~ 875 Ma. The
best estimate for zircon crystallization is considered to be the 869.5±1.0 Ma 207Pb/206Pb age of
the most concordant zircon. This may represent either the age of the Leuco-migmatite
protolith or the time of high-grade DZM1 migmatisation.
Zircons from a Striped Mafic Gneiss sample fall into two populations. A subordinate
set of metamict zircons returned discordant results with Mesoproterozoic to Palaeoproterozoic
207
Pb/206Pb ages, indicating significant inheritance. A major set of clear, euhedral zircons
returned Pan-African ages of 562.5 – 549.5 Ma with two concordant crystals at 536 and 532
Ma. Two discordant titanite crystals gave 207Pb/206Pb ages of 587 and 564 Ma, thought to
reflect incomplete resetting of older titanite during metamorphism (Vinyu et al. 1999).
The range of the Pan-African ages from the Striped Mafic Gneiss is mirrored by Ar-Ar
dating on hornblende from the same sample, which yielded a 524.5±3.2 Ma plateau age. It is
uncertain whether this result represents a cooling age (cooling through the 500°C isotherm) or
whether it reflects crystal growth during the retrograde amphibolite-facies metamorphic event.
Hornblende from two widely spaced amphibolite samples in the Archaean Migmatitic Gneiss
Terrain produced Ar-Ar plateau ages of 507.9±2.5 Ma and 491.3±2.1 Ma.
The above results confirm that two tectono-metamorphic events at least have affected
the northern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton and that the protoliths of the Proterozoic units
must be older than 850 Ma. The older ages probably reflect just one event (tectonic nappe
emplacement) of a far more complex orogeny that affected the northern margin of the craton
and the accreted terrains to the north over a period stretching from the late Mesoproterozoic to
the early Neoproterozoic. The younger tectonic event, taking place between 600 and 500 Ma,
can be referred to as ‘Pan-African sensu stricto’ and reflects the collision between South and
West Gondwana. The modern geochronological data of the Masoso Suite resemble to a large
extent similar data from the Guro Suite (Section 7.9.).

18
That is, if the structural relationships in the area have been fully understood.

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7.4. RUSHINGA GROUP (P1R)

7.4.1. Introduction

The Rushinga Metamorphic Complex (RMC) sensu Barton et al. (1991) is in Zimbabwe the
principal component of the Marginal Gneiss Terrane (MaGT). It forms a belt of hilly ground,
20 km wide in average, located between flatter areas underlain by, on one hand, gneisses of
the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane and, on the other hand, Archaean migmatites and
gneisses of the Mudzi Metamorphic Complex of the allochthonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane
(MiGT) of the Zimbabwe Craton. The grain of this belt curves from a W-E trend in the
Zambezi Belt into a N-S trending belt when crossing the boundary between Zimbabwe and
Mozambique.
Tectonically, rocks of the RMC have been buried below granulite or garnet granulite
facies allochthonous thrust masses of the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane, comprising the
Mavuradonha Metamorphic Complex (Section 7.2.) and Masoso Metamorphic Suite (Section
7.3.). In Zimbabwe, the basal surface of the Rushinga Group is in large part underlain by
tabular-shaped granitic batholiths of the ~ 830 Ma Basal Rushinga Intrusive Complex (BRIC),
emplaced along a thrust plane between the Rushinga Group and rocks incorporated in the
Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT). Before reaching Mozambique, the BRIC peters out and the
Rushinga sequence rests directly, with a tectonic contact, on the MiGT.

7.4.2. Rushinga Lithologies in Zimbabwe

The Rushinga Metamorphic Complex sensu Barton et al. (1991) consists of a sequence of
metamorphosed supracrustals, paragneisses and migmatites and gneisses of doubtful
derivation with polyphase structural and metamorphic fabrics. In eastern Zimbabwe
supracrustal rocks comprise a basal quartzite with sparse intraformational conglomerate
horizons that is is overlain by a marble and calc-silicate horizon. The remainder of the
Rushinga succession consists of various layered quartzose, micaceous, aluminous and
feldspathic gneisses and migmatites, together with isolated bodies of mafic granulite and
meta-anorthosite (Table 7.1). Thickness estimates for the RMC are of the order of 1500 –
3000 m, taking into account structural repetition of the lithostratigraphic units. In Zimbabwe,
regional disposition of the lithologic units, supported by sparse structural facing evidence,
indicates that quartzite overlain by marble form the basal units in the eastern succession.
Together with pelitic intercalations the Rushinga sequence is interpreted as part of an original
shallow-water or shelf sequence (Barton et al. 1991). The following informally defined units
are generally distinguished (from old to young):
• Metaquartzite.
• Marble and Calc-Silicate Rock.
• Micaschist.
• Micaceous Gneiss.
• Massive Feldspathic Gneiss.
• Layered and Migmatic Gneiss.

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7.4.3. Rushinga Lithologies in Mozambique

Based on new geochronologic data by the GTK Consortium (see Section 7.4.6.) it appears
that the Rushinga Metamorphic Complex sensu Barton et al. (1991) is diachronous,
essentially composed of an older, most likely Palaeoproterozoic sequence of supracrustal
rocks and a younger, Neoproterozoic succession of quartzofeldspathic and migmatic gneisses.
Although both may belong to the same structural unit, it was decided to separate the two in a
lithostratigraphic sense. The Neoproterozoic rocks have been incorporated in the newly
established Guro Suite. The supposedly Palaeoproterozoic supracrustal lower sequence has
been assembled into the Rushinga Group.
A key stratigraphic section is located east of the village of Cuchamano, in the SE
corner of the Chioco map sheet, and includes a section exposed in a hill, provisionally called
Mount Python/Monte Pitão, measuring 3000 m in length, 1600 m in width and about 200 m
high that forms a gently dipping bowl-like structure. The section, portrayed in Fig. 7.10, is
considered to represent a true stratigraphic succession (although structural complications
cannot be ruled out). Based on this section, the Rushinga Group in Mozambique has been
divided into the quartzo-feldspatic to pelitic Rio Embuca Formation* and the variegated
marble- and calc-silicate-bearing Monte Pitão Formation*. The succession differs strongly
from the stratigraphic column established by Barton et al. (1991) in Zimbabwe as shown in
Table 7.1.

Table 7.1. Comparative stratigraphic sub-division of the Rushinga sequence

Rushinga Metamorphic Complex Rushinga Metamorphic Group and Guro Suite

(Barton et al. 1991) (GTK Consortium, 2006)

Serra Banguatere aplitic gneiss-migmatite

Neoproterozoic

Layered and Migmatic MG

Guro Suite

Gneiss Monte Calinga Muci felsic-mafic

Amphibolite
Ampibolite

Leucocratic gneiss-migmatite
Striped

Striped
Massive Feldspathic Gneiss Magasso Metagabbro
M-A M-A
Orthoquartzite
Upper Marble
Monte Pitão

Micaceous Gneiss Biotite Gneiss with Quartz-Sillimanite

Palaeoproterozoic

Rushinga Group

Micaschist nodules
Lower Marble
Marble and Calc-silicate Rock Calc-silicate Gneiss
Banded Amphibolite
Metaquartzite Biotite-garnet-sillimanite schist
Embuca

MCgl Arkose and Arkosic Quartzite

Rio

Arkose
Quartzite Mcgl

Key: MG= Mafic Granulite; M-A=Meta-Anorthosite; MCgl= Metaconglomerate; M-Ar=Meta-Arkose.

In the area covered by this Map Explanation, rocks of the Rushinga Group occur
around the village of Cuchamano at the Zimbabwean border. Due to the NE protruding shape
of the international border in this region, field verification of Rushinga beds north of the
Mázoè River could not be continued along strike south of the river. It is therefore convenient
to describe the two sub-areas separately.

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Due to difficult access, use was made of helicopter transport for field verification in
the area north of the Mazoe River. The Rushinga supracrustals rest here directly on Archaean
granitoids. Further northwards, the hanging wall contact is formed by the south-vergent
overthrusted Proterozoic Masoso Suite. When compared with the southern Rushinga area, the
abundance of late Karoo mafic and felsic dykes or plutons (Rukore Intrusive Suite; see
section 9.1.3.) in the north and their scarcity in the southern domain is striking. South of the
Mazoe River, field verification took place in the southeastern corner of the Chioco map sheet
(SDS 1632) and the neighbouring southwestern corner of the Tete map sheet (SDS 1633).
Access is almost everywhere relatively easy. The easternmost exposures of Rushinga beds
have been encountered some 25 km east of the international border.

Fig. 7.10. Detail map from

Monte Pitão area.

7.4.4. Rio Embuca Formation*

The Rio Embuca Formation* includes (from bottom to top) Lower Quartzite, Quartzo-
Feldspathic Gneiss, Meta-Arkose/Arkosic Quartzite and Biotite-Garnet-Sillimanite Schist.

Lower quartzite (P1REqz)

The Lower Quartzite is exposed mainly along a number of subdued ridges. It is the lowermost
unit of the Lower Rushinga Group and rests directly on Archaean basement gneisses along an
arcuate contact east and north of Cuchamano. The contact sensu stricto has not been observed
and, consequently, remains obscure although, in places, a tectonic nature may be suggested.

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The generally pinkish medium-grained quartzite varies from feldspathic to

orthoquartzitic in composition. Orthoquartzite is commonly coarse, whereas the feldspathic
varieties are finer grained. In most exposures these basal quartzites show sub-horizontal to
moderate dips (Fig. 7.11A). The contact with overlying arkosic units is gradational. Some
horizontal quartzite layers lying just on the Archaean tectonic windows are rich in garnet
(modal composition >75%). Metaconglomerate, with deformed vein quartz pebbles (Fig.
7.11B), has been mapped in several small outcrops in a creek north of the Changara-
Cuchamano road.

A B

Fig. 7.11. (A) Sub-horizontal beds of feldspathic Lower Quartzite along the bank of the Rio Embuca
(0496514/ 8123294), (B) Vein quartz pebble metaconglomerate of the Lower Quartzite. Rio Embuca
Formation* of the Rushinga Group. East of the Cuchamano village (0491956/8126197). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Massive quartzofeldspathic gneisses form laterally continuous horizons in the area N

of the Mazoe River. They often occur as prominent ridges (Fig. 7.12) but also as negative
landscape features between more resistant rock units. They are equigranular, massive to
variously foliated, light brown to pink, leucocratic gneisses, composed of quartz, microcline
and plagioclase, generally lacking mafic minerals except magnetite porphyroblasts, a feature
that often evokes the rock unit to appear as positive anomalies on aeromagnetic maps.
The presence of various Rushinga metasediments suggests a migmatised paragneissic
origin. Talbot (1973) and Leitner and Phaup (1974) suggested migmatisation and meta-
morphism of psammitic or arkosic precursors for massive feldspathic gneiss. However, the
fairly homogeneous texture and the 'granitic' modal composition also connect the massive
quartzofeldspathic gneiss to felsic varieties of the Guro Bimodal Complex or BRIC (see also
Barton et al. 1991).

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Fig. 7.12. Massive but weakly

foliated quartzofeldspathic
gneiss, forming a ridge around
a granitic intrusion. Rio
Embuca Formation*. Pico
Cocodeze (0492186/8154974).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Meta-arkose / Arkosic quartzite (P1REa)

Light yellowish to pinkish brown, medium-grained, thinly banded quartzofeldspathic rocks
form N-S trending ridges across the Mazoe River, east of Zimbabwean border (Fig. 7.13A).
The rock is generally associated with banded amphibolites and is allegedly derived from an
arkosic protolith. North of the river, meta-arkose ridges have been found north and NW of the
Serra Inhadendje dome, as well as north and east of Monte Txera.
Ridges of similar rocks are also exposed extensively in the area south of the Mázoè
River, where a general similarity with some felsic varieties of the Guro Suite can be observed
that locally hampers the separation of these two rock units. The metamorphic banding due to
polyphase deformation and ensued partial melting, rather common in all quartzofeldspathic
rocks of the combined map-sheet area, often complicates the distinction of felsic rocks of
different origin and rock units in the field.
Except regular compositional banding and thin, laminar bedding, visible locally in
quartzitic varieties of the rock (Fig. 7.13B), no sedimentary textures have been encountered.
Thin amphibole-bearing stripes and bands, grading occasionally into banded amphibolites are
rather common. In places meta-arkoses have oriented sillimanite porphyroblasts or nodules,
and transition into sillimanite gneiss has also been observed.

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A B

Fig. 7.13. (A) Steeply east dipping arkosic quartzite interlayer in banded amphibolite of the Rio Embuca
Formation*. Rio Mázoè (0498959/8154014), (B) Laminar parallel bedding in arkosic quartzite of the Rio
Embuca Formation*. Rio Mázoè (0498959/8154014). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Biotite-garnet-sillimanite schist (P1REch)

Aluminuous schists and gneisses of the Rio Embuca Formation* generally form thin but
continuous horizons throughout the Rushinga supracrustals. In Mozambique, these schists are
generally associated with quartzites and meta-arkoses (Fig. 7.14A) and transitional varieties
from sillimanite-bearing quartzites into feldspathic gneisses with sillimanite nodules are
common.
Prominent aluminium-silicate-bearing schists are exposed along the north bank of
Mázoè River, SW of Pico Cocodeze, where an over 50 m thick, distinctly bedded garnet-
sillimanite schist layer can be followed along the river along strike for over two km. In the
western part of the outcrop area aluminous schist has variously thick quartzite interbeds,
and gradually schist turns into glassy, recrystallized orthoquartzite.
Texturally and compositionally, the rocks of this unit vary from distinctly bedded
and foliated aluminous schist (analysed maximum Al2O3 content 24%; Table 3, anal 1 in
App.3) into massive gneiss, which locally comprise solely garnet and fibrolitic sillimanite
porphyroblasts (Fig. 7.14B). A common variety is also massive but foliated quartzo-
feldspathic gneiss with plenty of elongated quartz-sillimanite±garnet nodules up to 10 –
15 cm in diameter (Fig. 7.15).

Mineralogy
The chemical composition of garnet in the slightly BIF-type rocks of Rio Embuca is
determined by electron microprobe (App. 4, Table 1, rock 1). Garnet is iron-bearing
spessartine, comprising 22 wt% of MnO and 11 wt% of FeOt. Electron microprobe analyses
made from aluminous gneisses of the Rio Embuca Formation* reveal that garnet is weakly
zoned, MgO-content in the core of the mineral being 6.4 wt% and in the rim 6.1 wt% (App. 4,

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Table 1, rock 3). Moreover, manganese has a bit higher concentration (2.1 wt% MnO) in the
rim compared to the core of the mineral. Garnet is almandine in terms of chemical
composition. Biotite has TiO2 content of 2.6 wt%. Some grains of tourmaline are also
identified. Chemical compositions of garnet and biotite (also observed reddish pleochroism)
refer to metamorphic grade that of (upper?) amphibolite facies, but stability and occurrence of
tourmaline at these P-T conditions are unsual.

A B

Fig. 7.14. (A) Distinct bedding in mica schist with vein quartz lenses (sweat-outs?) arranged parallel to palaeo-
bedding. A thick orthoquartzite interbed is exposed on the right. Rio Embuca Formation*. Rio Mazoe
(0492410/8153865), (B) Detailed photo of massive garnet-sillimanite gneiss in Rio Mazoe
(0498006/8127875). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Fig. 7.15. Weathered

surface with quartz-
sillimanite nodules in
quartzofeldspathic gneiss of
the Rio Embuca
Formation*. South of the
Mazoe River (0498975/
8144425). Scale bar is 15
cm.

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7.4.5. Monte Pitão Formation*

The lithology of the Monte Pitão Formation* comprises (from bottom to top) banded
amphibolite, calc-silicate gneiss, Lower marble, biotite-sillimanite gneiss, Upper marble and
Upper quartzite.

Banded amphibolite (P1RPa)

Banded amphibolites and associated hornblende-bearing gneisses form sub-continuous
horizons, following the general trend of Rushinga sequence. Due to its lower weathering
resistance compared to associated more felsic lithologies, amphibolites are, in general, only
sporadically exposed. A completely exposed section, over two kilometres in width and
located about 2 km E of Zimbabwean border, was found in the Mazoe River, however. There
the rock sequence is mainly composed of banded amphibolites and quartzofeldspathic
gneisses.
The most conspicuous feature of the medium-grained, variously folded and
migmatised amphibolites is the distinct banding, with dark green, medium-grained
amphibolitic layers alternating with light brown or pinkish, mm to dm scale quartzo-
feldspathic bands or layers (Figs. 7.16A and 7.16B). The contact between mafic and felsic
bands varies from knife-sharp to diffuse.

A B

Fig. 7.16. (A) Transition zone between banded

amphibolite and pinkish laminar arkosic quartzite (on
the left). Monte Pitão Formation*. Rio Mazoe
(0484557/8154515), (B) Banded amphibolite (green)
with pegmatites (pinkish). Note pegmatitic dykes are
both parallel and oblique to banding. Note also
angular amphibolite boudins in pegmatite. Monte
Pitão Formation* in Rio Mazoe (0499557/8154165),
(C) Detailed photo of compositional banding. Scale
bar is 15 cm.

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Both supracrustal rocks and banded amphibolites of the Rushinga Group were subject
to polyphase deformation. Generally the rocks are affected by large-scale, steeply east
plunging isoclinal F2-folds, but locally superimposed folding has also generated eye-shaped
sheath-fold patterns. In the Mázoè River area, amphibolites have regular array of quartz-
feldspathic leucosome-filled gashes, generally oblique to the banding (Fig. 7.17). These
probably represent tension cracks opened during latest folding phase.
The modal composition of banded amphibolites varies from true amphibolites (> 75%
Amph+Plg) into greenish gray hornblende gneisses. More coarse-grained, skarnoid layers are
not uncommon, and locally amphibolites turn into calc-silicate gneisses with 10 – 20 cm thick
marble interbeds. In places amphibolites also have narrow bands or laminae composed of
plentiful pink, almandine-rich garnet porphyroblast, 2 – 10 mm in size. As mentioned, the
contact between the amphibolitic rocks and laminar arkosic quartzites is gradational and takes
place through a progressive increase in thickness and abundance of quartz-feldspathic layers
in the banded amphibolites (Fig. 7.16C).
The affects of high-grade metamorphism and polyphase deformation have obscured
the origin of the banded amphibolites and associated lithologies. Similar banding is common
within the Striped Mafic Gneiss of the Masoso Metamorphic Suite (Barton et al. 1991). The
overall composition and textural features of the rocks of the Rushinga Group, however, are
more typical for supracrustal rocks. Noticing the well-preserved layering, in associated calc-
silicate rocks, a volcanic rather than a gabbroic origin is preferred. Thus the banded
amphibolites are believed to represent mafic volcanic interbeds in psammitic to pelitic
sediments.

Fig. 7.17. Banded

amphibolite with regular
arrays of leucosome or
quartz-filled tension gashes,
oblique to banding. Note
that gashes are confined to
specific, slightly darker
(less ductile?) layers.
Monte Pitão Formation*.
Rio Mázoè
(0501282/8154634). Scale
bar is 15 cm.

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Calc-silicate gneiss (P1RPcc)

Calc-silicate rocks are usually associated with marbles, pelitic gneisses and amphibolites of
the Monte Pitão Formation* and occur as variously thick, elongated units in the area north of
the Changara-Nyamapanda road. Generally, these rocks are exposed as small outcrops in
valleys or topographic depressions, but along-strike continuous calc-silicate ridges have also
been encountered (Fig. 7.18A). Calc-silicate rocks stand out by their negative radiometric
signature. In remote areas, north of the Mazoe River, radiometric anomalies were used to
extrapolate assumedly gently dipping or subhorizontal calc-silicate rock layers.
Calc-silicate rocks are medium-grained, variously foliated and generally have a
distinct compositional banding. Weathered surfaces are greyish green, while fresh surfaces
often disclose bright green colours due to amphibole bands or disseminations. Weathering of
narrow marble bands often leaves deep solution cavities on weathered surfaces (Fig. 7.18B).
Representative samples of similar rocks in Zimbabwe are composed of diopside, hornblende,
scapolite, carbonate, microcline, apatite and sphene.

A B

Fig. 7.18. (A) In situ blocks on top of calc-silicate rock ridge. Monte Pitão Formation*. (0499220/8144361),
(B) Narrow solution cavities formed after dissolution of carbonatic bands on the weathering surface of calc-
silicate rock of the Monte Pitão Formation*. South of Mte Metungurué (0492812/8127621). Scale bar is 8 cm.

In a well-exposed section across the Mazoe River, the thickness of a steeply

dipping (090/65E) calc-silicate gneiss horizon is over 100 m in thickness. The texture of
the rock varies from rather massive (though foliated) into banded gneiss with abundant
ellipsoidal, epidote-bearing 'concretions', which are believed to represent pseudomorphs
after thin, boudinaged marble interbeds (Fig. 7.19). The contact of the calc-silicate gneiss
with the feldspathic quartzite in the east is gradational. The western contact is not
exposed. It comprises a garnet-rich horizon, with large (~ 2─20 mm) garnet
porphyroblasts, constituting 20─30 % of the rock mode.

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Fig. 7.19. Ellipsoidal epido-

te-bearing 'concretions',
possibly after boudinaged
marble layers in calc-silicate
rock of the Monte Pitão
Formation*. (0498805/
8153867). Scale bar is 12
cm.

Lower marble (P1RPml)

The Lower marble is a widespread, well-exposed unit and occurs in the SE corner of the
Chioco map sheet (SDS 1632) and in the SW corner of the Tete map sheet (SDS 1633). At the
Monte Pitão type-locality (SE Chioco map sheet/ DS 1632), the Lower Marble has a
measured thickness of over 50 m. Nearly similar thicknesses have been observed in the NNE
trending marble horizons that cross the main road from Changara to Cuchamano in the Tete
map sheet (SDS 1633) and just south of the Chioco map sheet along the Múdze River (SDS
1733). The Lower Marbles are medium- to coarse- and very coarse-grained and essentially
dolomitic in composition. Grain size and colour are often correlated to bedding (Fig. 7.20).

Fig. 7.20. Distinct banding

in Lower marble of the
Monte Pitão Formation* in
Rio Múdze (0493465/
8117732). Scale bar is 10
cm.

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Biotite gneiss (P1RPgn)

Biotite-sillimanite gneisses are exposed along the elongated arcuate ridge surrounding
Archaean gneisses around the Cuchamano village and in the upper flank of the Monte Pitão
section, where it forms a several tens of metres thick unit between the Lower and Upper
Marbles of the Monte Pitão Formation*. Biotite gneiss is a dark grey, medium grained, often
garnet-bearing gneissose rock, which especially in the upper part of the unit does contain
quartz-sillimanite nodules (Fig. 7.21). The size of flattened nodules is up to 5 cm in diameter.

Fig. 7.21. Fresh outcrop of

flattened quartz(-garnet)-
sillimanite nodules in the
biotite-garnet-sillimanite
schist of Monte Pitão
Formation*. Mte Pitão
(0497671/8123740). Scale
bar is 8 cm.

Upper marble (P1RPma)

The Upper marble unit of the Monte Pitão Formation* is exposed along the long ridge
surrounding Archean basement north of Cuchamano in map sheet Chioco (SDS 1632) and in
Python Hill, where it forms an approximately 10 m thick near horizontal bed between
conformably underlying nodule-bearing quartz-sillimanite-biotite gneiss and the overlying
coarse crystalline quartzite.
Marble is commonly coarse-grained and white in colour, but also pinkish varieties
occur. The Upper Marble member is similar to the white marble variety of the Lower marble,
but in general it shows a much lesser thickness, with less variety in colour and misses the
general absence of silicate beds typical for the Lower marble.

Upper quartzite (P1RPq)

Upper quartzite is especially well represented in outcrops because of its volume and
resistance against erosion. They characteristically form rather continuous outstanding ridges
parallel to their erosional sections. These ridges border the northeastern corner of the
Archaean Zimbabwe craton, and curve from Zimbabwe to the eastern side of the village of
Cuchamano and further southwards (map sheets Chioco, Tete and Guro).

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While leaving the relatively smooth Archaean lowland at Cuchamano, one enters the
first N-S oriented major quartzitic ridges 10 km east of Cuchamano. Here the quartzites form
cores of narrow synclines with horizontal fold axis, as shown by the internal attitudes of
bedding in the hillsides and the top (Fig. 7.22). A base of a local open east vergent synclinal
quartzite section is seen south of Cuchamano (Fig. 7.23), where the River Múdze runs
through a narrow deep channel crossing a high ridge. While driving the main road further
east, towards Changara, one sees numerous but much narrower quartzite bands in shallower
ridges, likely repeated by thrust tectonics, mixed with other lithologies including schists and
marbles of the Rushinga Formation.

Fig. 7.22. Eastwards

overturned open fold of
the Upper Quartzite. The
deep gorge of the Múdze
River, across the high
quartzite ridge 2 km east
of the Múdze Chizimwe
village. Note the two
persons for realizing the
scale (0494231/8117398).

Fig. 7.23. Base of the

Upper Quartzite in the
synclinal structure
illustrated by Fig. 6.2,
middle part of the profile.
Close to the previous
figure in Rio Múdze
(0494231/ 8117398).

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Upper quartzite is generally, almost always a very coarse-grained rock, white to

greyish in colour. It is composed close to 100 % of highly recrystallised quartz, obviously
after a finer grained original material (Fig. 7.24A). The biggest individual quartz grains may
exceed 10 mm in size, are often transparent, and the rock is composed of a coarse ‘sugary’
mass. Under the microscope little sillimanite and muscovite is found.

A B

Fig. 7.24. (A) Very coarse-grained Upper quartzite on top of a ridge, east of Cuchamano (0491735/8124162),
(B) Pressure solution bands in Upper quartzite. Múdze River (0494231/8117398). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Quartzite seems to be practically nondeformed parallel to the bedding and is weakly

foliated. The expression of bedding is obscure, there is just a small colour change while
crossing a supposed bed boundary. It is not clear, how thick may be the individual beds. The
thicknesses of the whole quartzite masses must be at least many tens of meters in order to
suffice to form ridges such as here, even if the compression into local fold accumulations is
considered. East of Cuchamano, by the main road, there is a small outcrop which shows on
the surface a kind of wavy feature, which could be interpreted as ripple marks, on the other
hand, other similar observations were not made. A few sets of pressure solution bands are
seen in the quartzitic walls in the narrow river channel across a ridge, referred to above (Fig.
7.24B). Locally it is not known what is or has been above the quartzite, because the ridges
with quartzites or the hillcaps themselves represent the uppermost local lithology, or the
quartzites further east have been mixed with other lithologies obscuring the concepts of
stratigraphy. It is also noted that what is immediately below, may vary, as implied from the
tectonically sheared lower contact of a major quartzite mass in the Múdze River.
Noteworthy is that this quartzite is similar to the coarse-grained quartzite of the
Gairezi Group, also following the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe craton running through the
Guro, Catandica and Manica map sheets, where it also forms prominent, N-S oriented ridges
popping up from otherwise rather smooth topography.

7.4.6. Metamorphism

Metamorphic conditions of the Rushinga Group in Zimbabwe peaked at granulite facies

conditions as manifested by clinopyroxene in quartzite and some mafic lithologies.
Aluminous lithologies in the Rushinga sequence in the western part of the Zambezi Belt
contain kyanite, whilst east of ~ 32° 30' E sillimanite is the sole aluminosilicate. Sillimanite
replaces or is pseudomorphic after kyanite. Sillimanite blastesis is believed to reflect a rise in

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temperature in association with rehydration, retrogradation and migmatisation of the

Rushinga sequence under amphibolite-facies conditions. Preliminary estimates of peak
metamorphic conditions, recorded by garnet-biotite pairs within the Rushinga Group, range
from 570 to 680° C (Barton et al. 1991).

7.4.7. Age

Rb-Sr dating of rocks of the Rushinga Metamorphic Suite (garnet-kyanite-bearing Mica

Schist and Massive Feldspathic Gneiss) in Zimbabwe has yielded imprecise Neoproterozoic
ages (829±78 Ma; 662±300 Ma; 669±44 Ma; 676±76 Ma) as can be expected in polyphase
metamorphic terrains (Barton et al. 1991). The data display large to excessively large error
margins, reflecting either incomplete resetting of the isotopic system or material losses
through the circulation of metamorphic fluids. K-Ar and Rb-Sr muscovite and biotite cooling
yield rather well constrained ages of 481±30 and 468±35 Ma, respectively, and may reflect
post-Pan-African denudation and cooling.
The GTK Consortium has dated one sample from the Biotite-Garnet-Sillimanite
Schist Member of the Rio Embuca Formation*. SHRIMP analyses of zircons from the
sillimanite gneiss (sample Mos-20/2943-04; location 0491312/ 8124697) define four separate
zircon groups (for details see App. 2):
• Five concordant or slightly discordant, low Th/U zircon domains have a concordia
age of 518±6 Ma (n=3/5).
• Four discordant data points from nuclei and main domains of the zircons fall on the
same discordia line. Calculating these data solely or combined with the ~ 500 Ma
data, the upper intercept age will be ~ 2.0 Ga. Another zicon has produced an
intercept of the concordia curve at ~ 2.04 Ga.
• Five discordant older data from cores have an upper intercept age of ~ 2.54 when
calculated with or without the youngest ~ 500 Ma data.
• From one zircon grain with clear magmatic zoning, an age of 2.8 Ga can be
derived.

SHRIMP analyses have been carried out on a second sample (Mos-19/2638-04;

location 0497126/ 8124947) that has been loosely described as aplogranite or meta-arkose.
The sample produced a small and heterogenous zircon fraction of which 21 zircon domains
have been dated. On the Concordia diagram two age groups can be distinguished. From this
the following ages can be deduced (for details see Map Explanation - Volume 4, App. 2):
• Magmatic zircons with a weighted average of the 207Pb/206Pb ages from zoned
zircons (n=11) of 867±15 Ma.
• Metamorphic zircon domains with an age of 850 – 830 Ma.
• Metamorphic zircon domains with an age of 512±4 Ma.

The new geochronological data demonstrate a maximum age of ~ 2.0 Ga. This is
considered as the timing of the development of the Rushinga basin and deposition of the
sedimentary sequence. Older zircons, with SHRIMP ages of 2.54 and 2.8 Ga, respectively, are
believed to represent detritic grains derived from the Zimbabwe Craton. The Palaeo-
proterozoic supracrustal sequence is assembled as Lower Rushinga Group.

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Palaeoproterozoic sedimentation age for the Rushinga Group is also demonstrated by

isotopic analyses of carbonate rocks. Samples 14683, 12667, 12669, 13034 and 2625 (Fig.
7.25) show elevated δ13C values (Table 7.2) falling clearly above the normal marine values of
0 ‰. These high values cannot be explained by secondary alteration, and they most probably
represent time periods of marine positive δ13C excursions, characteristic to the
Neoproterozoic and Paleoproterozoic time. The implied age of deposition could be 600 –
1000 Ma or 2040 – 2300 Ma. The younger age for deposition is unlikely, already due to the
lack of detrital zircons younger than ~2.0 Ga in the dated metasediment (see above).

Fig. 7.25. Location of carbonate rock samples for

C-isoptope analyses, Rushinga Group. Marble is
shown as orange colour on map.

Table 7.2. Showing δ13C and δ18O values for carbonate rocks from Rushinga Group. Also given are
proportions of dolomite in the carbonate fraction:

δ C δ O
13 18
Sample Dolomite Lab id
% VPDB VPDB
12667 87 C-675 4.12 -6.28
12669 11 C-676 7.48 -8.65
14683 66 C-677 4.3 -13.01
13034 89 C-682 4.21 -6.28
2625 98 C-684 1.85 -7.19

Lithologies in Mozambique equivalent to Massive Feldspathic Gneiss and Layered and

Migmatic Gneiss (see Section 7.4.2) attributed to the upper part of the Rushinga Metamorphic
Complex as defined in Zimbabwe by Barton et al. (1991) yield ages of ~ 870 Ma. This means
the Rushinga Metamorphic Complex sensu Barton et al. (1991) is diachronous and composed

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of a lower sequence of Palaeoproterozoic (~ 2.0 Ga) supracrustals and an upper sequence of

Neoproterozoic (~ 870 Ma) quartzofeldspathic or leucocratic gneisses and migmatites with a
granitoid composition. The latter do not contain Archaean or Palaeoproterozoic detrital
zircons.

7.4.8. Origin

The Palaeoproterozoic Rushinga Group is composed of a basal fining-upwards sequence –

conglomerates, sandstones (± arkose) and pelite and an upper sequence with important
carbonate and pelitic components. Quartz+sillimanite±garnet nodules in biotite-garnet-
sillimanite schist may reflect weathering and soil formation (mottling and saprolitisation)
prior to burial and metamorphism of pelitic rocks.

Mukota meta-anorthosite (P2MHan)

A meta-anorthosite body, intrusive into the Rushinga Metamorphic Complex, is found in the
Mazoe River, west of the Serra Inhocaca. The intrusion occupies an area of ~ 3 km² in
Zimbabwe and extends into Mozambique covering a surface of ~ 5 km².
The Mukota meta-anorthosite is very light bluish grey, medium to coarse-grained,
weakly deformed ultrabasic rock that contains small amphibole grains (approximately 2 – 3
mm in diameter), clustered together to form 5 – 20 cm 'spots' within the plagioclase
groundmass. (Fig.7.26). Locally the body contains thin, regular amphibole-bearing bands,
which may represent primary magmatic layering, The meta-anorthosite body is intruded by
various basaltic dykes belonging to the Rukore Suite. In the western part foliated metagabbro
probably forms the structural base to the ultrabasic body.

Fig. 7.26. Coarse-grained,

'spotted' meta-anorthosite in
the Mazoe River (0483702/
8153290). Scale bar is 8 cm.

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7.5. BASAL RUSHINGA INTRUSIVE SUITE (P3GR)

7.5.1. Introduction

The Basal Rusginga Intrusive Complex (BRIC) in Zimbabwe has been emplaced along the
thrust plane between Archaean allochtonous Migmatic Gneiss Terrane (MiGT) of the
Zimbabwe Craton and the Proterozoic Marginal Gneiss Terrane (MaGT). Although
conventially mapped as a number of plutons, the BRIC is a folded sheet-like body with an
average thickness of 500 m and a folded strike-length in excess of 120 km. Sheet thickness
increases towards the east from less than 100 m or less in central northern Zimbabwe to over
one km in the Mukosa ‘pluton’. Further eastwards the sheet peters out again. These dimension
estimates suggest a minimum 2000 km³ intrusive volume. The outcrop configuration with a
number of NE-SW trending lobes do not represent elongated ‘plutons’ but represent domal
culminations. A number of small sheets or sills of generally monzonitic composition have
been emplaced into the Chimanda and Rushinga sequences. The rock has a variably
developed gneissic (blastomylonitic?) fabric with a shallowly NE- or SW-plunging mineral
lineation. In Mozambique the BRIC has been re-named as Basal Rushinga Intrusive Suite
(BRIS) is limited to a few relatively small domal structures, composed of granite and
subordinate pegmatite, exposed below the northern part of the Rushinga Group (Barton et al.
1991).

7.5.2. Lithology

The BRIS is alkali-rich granitoid with relatively low quartz contents and an average modal
composition ranging from quartz monzonite to quartz monzodiorite and minor granite and
quartz syenite. Dominant mafic phases are represented by relatively high sodium amphibole
(hastingsitic or edenitic hornblende) and clinopyroxene (hedenbergite or aegirine-augite). In
addition to the predominant massive to foliated monzonitic facies, two-mica augen-bearing
granite is present along the eastern upper structural surface of the Migmatic Gneiss Terrane
(e.g., the Nyahuku Triangle dome). Barton et al. (1991) report an average mode, based on
visual estimates: plagioclase (oligoclase to andesine) 48%, K-feldspar 26%, quartz 14% and
mafic minerals 12% (n = 45). Relatively abundant accessory phases include zircon, apatite,
spene and an allanite-like mineral. In places, biotite-hornblende schists, locally containing
pale green-coloured clinopyroxene, form narrow but laterally persistent horizons.
The rock has an inequigranular granoblastic fabric with average grain sizes of ~ 2 mm
(range 0.1 – 8.0 mm). Igneous textures have not been observed (Barton et al. 1991). Mortar
textures in which large plagioclase crystals are rimmed by fine-grained plagioclase-microcline
aggregates, without developing a directional fabric, are relatively widespread.

7.5.3. Geochemistry

The relatively high potassium content suggests a mantle derivation. The relatively high
strontium initial ratios manifest a significant contribution from crustal isotopic sources. The
Sr ratio of ~ 0.707 is transitional between mantle-derived I-type and crustal-derived S-type
granitoids (Hill et al. 1981). The particular position of the BRIS at and in the footwall of the
Marginal Gneiss (MaGT) nappe may suggest an alternative genesis by crystallisation from
anatectic melts, formed by frictional shear heating as the nappe slid over the Archaean

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basement. The crystallisation age (see below) of the suite would then provide a direct estimate
of the age of emplacement of the nappe. Folding of the nappe footwall and of the intrusive
suite was either related to the emplacement mechanisms or reflects a later deformation phase.

7.5.4. Age

Imprecise Rb-Sr dating has produced the following apparent ages: 627±248, 955±216,
806±111, 877±145 and 829±78 Ma (Barton et al. 1991). These ages correspond with a similar
range of WR Rb-Sr ages from the Masoso Metamorphic Suite (MMS). By combining the
BRIS and MMS data Barton et al. (1991) derived a weighted mean of 830±30 Ma. Zircons
and titanite from a sample of the westernmost BRIS, produce a linear regression curve with
upper and lower intercepts of 805±11 Ma and 571±71 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999).

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7.6. GAIREZI GROUP (P1Z)

7.6.1. Introduction

Rocks traditionally attributed to the Gairezi and Fronteira Groups straddle the border
between Zimbabwe and Mozambique (Manica Province). In Zimbabwe they are mainly
exposed along the Rio Gairezi (between 17°30'S and 18°15'S) and in the Chimanimani
Mountains (between 19°40'S and 20°00'S). In Mozambique, they are found in an elongated
belt from the Monte Senga Senga area in the north to almost the Save River in the south.
Early workers (references in Hunting, 1984) had already noticed strong differences
between the rocks in the above units and the strata belonging to the Umkondo Group (see
Section 6.6.). The latter consist of flat-lying and weakly or non-deformed sediments that rest
on the Zimbabwe Craton. Further eastward they recognised very contrasting strata, which
they named at the time: Fronteira System and Gairezi Series, consisting of strongly deformed
and recrystallised metasediments, infolded with Proterozoic and Archaean gneisses and, in
major part, resting unconformably on them in the east.
During the 1960’s, workers from Leeds University (references in Hunting, 1984)
challenged this view. Based on the fact that some stratigraphic elements were common to
both successions, they argued that the ‘Gairezi Series’ was the stratigraphic equivalent of the
lower part of the Umkondo System. Bulk lithological differences were explained by facies
changes between both units. This point of view was formalised at the First Congress of the
South African Geological Society. It was decided that both sequences would be grouped
under the name Umkondo System. The western and eastern exposures could be distinguished
by the use of the terms Rhodesian or Inhanga facies and Mozambique, Fronteira or Gairezi
facies, respectively. DNG gave some support for this subdivision by their adoption of the term
`Umkondo System´ for all of the rocks, and the grouping of the western and eastern exposures
as Umkondo Formation and Fronteira Formation, respectively. One finds an indirect reference
to the “facies changes” model in Barton et al. (1991), who comment on interpreted
stratigraphic similarities between the Rushinga Metamorphic Complex and the deformed
“Umkondo Group sequences in the Gairezi region”.
Lithologies of the Gairezi Group can be easily distinguished from the underlying
Archaean granitoids and lithologies of the Báruè Complex, both on aerial photographs
(Hunting, 1984) and Landsat images. They form mountainous highlands with long ridges
standing out clearly from the plateau. Hunting (1984) attributed the rocks that form the
Gairezi-Báruè Highlands in northern Manica Province to the Gairezi Group. The lithologies
forming the Serra Sitatonga and Chimanimani Mountains in the south, they included in the
Fronteira Group. Inspection of Landsat and radiometric imagery now manifest that the
lithologies belonging to the Gairezi and Fronteira Groups are erosional remnants of the same
metasedimentary sequence. Consequently, one lithostratigraphic name should be applied to
both and it is suggested to take both groups together as Gairezi Group.

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7.6.2. Lithologies

The Gairezi Group consists predominantly of pelitic schists and white to greyish
orthoquartzites and quartzites. In the Gairezi highlands of Zimbabwe, Stocklmayer (1980)19
established a succession that could not be extrapolated to Mozambique, largely because the
Zimbabwe marker beds peter out to the east. Aerial photograph interpretation led Hunting
(1984) to distinguish five main lithologic units (Table 7.3). These units are shown on the
1:250 000 Hunting maps in the vicinity of the Lucite Fault and have been extended with
rather less confidence as far north as Bandula (SDS 1933/34). A different subdivision, which
can only be in part correlated with the Hunting (1984) subdivision, is proposed by the
Consortium (Table 7.3). From the proposed seven subdivisions the Arenaceous mica schist
(P1Zas) and the Mica schist (P1Zms) are exposed only in the Lot 3 area, but have been
extended over the southern margin to the Lot 2 area on the map SDS 1932/1933.

Table 7.3. Subdivision of the Gairezi / Fronteira Group according to Hunting (1984) and Consortium (2006)

Quartzite and polymictic conglomerate (P1Zq, P1Zc)

A well over 100 km long chain of N-S directed mountain ridges running in the eastern side of
the Chicomba Real Dam within the Archaean terrane are composed of quartzites of the
Gairezi Group. Polymictic conglomerates form lenses and beds at the bottom part of the
quartzites in the Chicamba Real region. Based on abundancy of quartzite rocks in
conglomerate it is considered, that the conglomerate must be related to an event that occurred
after the consolidation of the first quartzites and thus it does not represent the basal
conglomerate.
The quartzites are medium to coarse grained and even grained, that typically contains
muscovite-rich bands. Accessory minerals include biotite, amphibole, garnet,
kyanite/sillimanite and greenish mica (fuchsite). Locally deformed bedding is observed.
Quartz-veins cut the bedding and small-scale isoclinal folding. Besides quartzites,
metasandstones, conglomerates and mica-schist interbeds are found in Chicamba Real region
close to the tectonic boundaries against the surrounding Archaean gneisses. Typically the

19
Reference unknown.

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lowest exposures are conglomerates that contain dominantly quartzites but other supracrustal
rocks such as schists are found in addition to some granitic and granodioritic gneisses (Fig.
7.27C). The matrix of the conglomerate consits mainly feldspar and quartz and locally the
cement can be hematite instead of quartz. In a typical section the conglomerate is overlain by
mica-schist that is interfingered with muscovite-banded quartzite that grades upwards in the
sequence into rather pure quartzite. Close to the tectonic boundary of the Archaean and
Proterozoic the quartzites contain minor metasandstone layers that are interfingered with
boudinaged quartzite beds.

Marble (P1Zmb)
Thin interlayers of whitish grey to salmon red, medium-grained marble have randomly
exposed in the northern part of the Gairezi supracrustal sequence. The thickest marble
horizons have been found in the area to the west of Monte Metambisse and Monte Senga-
Senga, where they alternate with orthoquartzites and aluminous schists (Fig. 7.28). In the
outcrops the observed thickness of pure marble layers is less than one metre, and the
maximum thickness of marble horizons is probably 10-20 metres.

Saccharoidal quartzite and orthoquartzite (P1Zqs)

In the southern part of the area covered by this Map Explanation (SDS 1932-1933), the most
prominent mountain ranges comprise white, saccharoidal quartzites of the Gairezi Group. The
rock unit can be followed along strike for over fifty kilometres forming the Serra Sitatonga
Range and the rugged, remote and thus rather poorly known Chimanimani Mountains,
separated by the conspicuous Lucite Fault (Fig. 7.27A). In the north these quartzites occur as
thin but continuous ridges west of Catandica village and form a peculiar orthoquartzite rim of
Monte Senga-Senga around an Archaean gneiss dome (Vail, J.R. 196X).
The texture of Gairezi quartzites varies from fine-grained, sugary and often foliated varieties,
generally met in the Sitatonga and Chimanimani mountains into coarse-grained, recrystallized
orthoquartzites towards the Monte Senga-Senga area in the north. Strong deformation and
recrystallization have regularly obliterated sedimentary structures, and primary features like
planar or cross-bedding are only rarely visible (Fig. 7.27B).

Muscovite-biotite schist (P1Zss)

The aluminous schists of the Gairezi Group are poorly exposed compared to the quartzites,
forming only minor exposures in the area south of the Lucite Fault. There they are composed
predominantly of quartz, muscovite and chlorite with minor magnetite, zircon and tourmaline.
Staurolite and kyanite occur at some localities within strongly deformed mica schists and
gneisses to the east of the Sitatonga mountain range (see Map Explanation -Volume 1,
Chapter xx), and chloritoid has been observed once or twice in the southern Chimanimani
Mountains (Hunting, 1984).
Pelitic and semi-pelitic schist alternate with orthoquartzites in the high-rise, N-S trending
mountain ridges to the north and east of the Chicamba reservoir, where garnet and sillimanite
porphyroblasts are common in the muscovite-dominated rocks. The most noticeable area of
aluminous schist is the highland region along the Zimbabwean border east of Catandica,
however, where muscovite-biotite and chlorite schists predominate. There the older,

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subhorizontal or gently dipping foliation is overprinted by the steeply east dipping younger
planar fabric, resulting in variously strong crenulation of the older one. Where the older
penetrative tectonic fabric dominates, the landscape is a flat "altiplano" with rare outcrops,
and the crenulation exhibit only as microfolding on the foliation surfaces of the rocks (Fig.
7.29). Instead, in well-exposed mountain ridges, where the younger foliation prevails, it often
produces very sharp 'knife blade' outcrops (Fig. 7.30).

A B

Fig. 7.27. (A) Highly foliated quartzite of the Gairezi Group near the Zimbabwean border, NW of Mte Binga
(0495667/7819717), (B) Small scale, tangential cross-bedding in saccharoidal quartzite of the Gairezi Group.
Mte Songuiero (0516476/7983378), (C) Polymictic conglomerate of the Gairezi Group. Mte Chicamba Real
(0519336/7884309). Scale bar is 8 cm.

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Fig. 7.28. Salmon-red

marble of Gairezi Group
with obscure bedding.
West of Monte
Metambisse (0504009/
8042246). Scale bar is 10
cm.

Fig. 7.29. Crenulation

microfolding on the
foliation surface of the
garnet staurolite mica schist
of the Gairezi Group. W of
Serra Metambisse
(0503171/ 8042632). Scale
bar is 10 cm.

7.6.3. Metamorphism

Limited amount of observations obtained from the distribution of metamorphic index

minerals mostly prevents the defining of any systematic variations in rate and degree of
metamorphism in the study area. However, supposed andalusite pseudomorphs, up to 3 cm in
size and commonly retrogressed to muscovite, are met only in the area to the north of Monte
Metambisse. Also the amount of kyanite prisms, locally up to 5 cm in length, increase in
pelitic beds of the Gairezi metasediments around Monte Senga-Senga (Fig. 7.31A), indicating

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the increasing degree of metamorphism towards north and/or locally elevated alumium
content in the pelitic rocks.

7.6.4. Mineralogy

Chemical compositions of minerals in two mica gneisses from the extensive Gairezi Group
are studied by electron microprobe (App. 4, Table 1, rocks 5 and 6). The first sample is
garnet-staurolite-muscovite-biotite gneiss from the NE part of the Group (Fig.7.31B). The
second sample is taken from the garnet-sillimanite-biotite gneiss in the middle part of the
Group (Fig. 7.30C), which resembles higher metamorphic P-T conditions than the
aforementioned rock.

Fig. 7.30. Knife-blade

outcrops produced by the
subvertical foliation in the
muscovite-biotite schists of
the Gairezi Group. SE of
Mte Tiguire (0509959/
8043535).

MgO-content in the core of garnet in sample from Figure 7.31B is 3.1 wt% and in rim 1.6
wt%. In the sample of Fig. 7.31C these are a bit higher, 3.6 wt% and 3.0 wt%, as expected.
The garnet in the staurolite-bearing sample has also elevated CaO concentrations compared to
the sillimanite-bearing rock. Garnets are almandines in terms of chemical composition.

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Titanium concentrations in biotite of the first sample is 1.8 wt% TiO2, and in the later 3.4
wt%. Staurolite does not have elevated Mg/Fe.
The chemical composition of minerals in gneisses well agrees with the metamorphic
grade of the local bedrock; the sample from Figure 7.31B representing lower-medium
amphibole fasies metamorphism, where muscovite is still stabily, and the sample from Figure
7.31C to medium-to high grade amphibolite facies conditions (e.g. Spear, 1993).

A B

Fig. 7.31. (A) Kyanite prisms in a garnet-kyanite mica

schist of the Gairezi Group. W of Mte Senga-Senga
(0507755/8063987), (B) Staurolite and garnet
porphyroblasts in a muscovite-biotite schist layer of
the Gairezi Group. North of Mte Metambisse
(0509035/8064117), (C) Garnet-sillimanite-biotite
gneiss of the Gairezi Group. Mte Nhanareze
(0524774/7970755). Scale bar is 10 cm.

7.6.5. Age

Vail (1965), using the K-Ar method, reported an age of 465±20 Ma in muscovite from the
Chicamba quartzite of the erstwhile ‘Fronteira Formation’. This is interpreted as a Pan-
African cooling age.
Using SHRIMP analyses, 17 zircon zones have been dated by the GTK Consortium
from P1Zss garnet-kyanite schists of the Gairezi Group (sample Mos-26/ 1011-02; location
0512045/ 8008144; for details see Map Explanation - Appendix 2). On the concordia
diagram, the majority of the U-Pb data plot on a same regression line intercepting the
concordia curve at 2.06 Ga. These are mostly magmatic zircons. The lower intercept age is
quite high (~ 860 Ma) and can therefore indicate some real metamorphic event. As it is
determined, however, only by a few discordant data points the age is only poorly constrained.
If well determined, the lower intercept age may have an important role in estimating the

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minimum age for the sedimentation. The mean age of concordant 207Pb/206Pb data yield a
maximum age of 2041±15 Ma for the sedimentation of the metapelites of the Gairezi Group.
This is remarkably similar to the maximum age found for the metasediments of the Rushinga
Group (Section 7.4.7.).
In addition to ~ 2.04 Ga zircons, SHRIMP data indicate also Archaean provenances
for detrital zircons in Gairezi sediments. Archaean zircons with 207Pb/206Pb ages of 3.06 Ga,
2.7 Ga and ~ 2.6 Ga, respectively, have been encountered.

7.7. PALAEO/MESOPROTEROZOIC ROCKS EAST OF THE

RUSHINGA GROUP
7.7.1. Introduction

In the previous maps the Báruè Complex extended from the Tete latitude southwards to the
Beira latitude. In the current map the Báruè Complex (Chapter 7.8.) has been areally reduced,
and now extends only from the Mungári latitude to the Beira latitude in the south.
What remains in the northern area, currently comprises the marble-dominated
sedimentary rocks of the Chíduè Formation, the Nhamessolo Formation, the Chacocoma
granite and its tectonic derivatives, the Mungári garnet granite-migmatite and migmatitic
garnet gneiss.
The assemblage quoted under the heading is not coherent. On the other hand, it gives
space to combine the rocks there with any of the remaining neighbouring domains. The
heading may be somewhat artificial, and therefore it may give way to new concepts in the
future when more research is done.
The suggested setting has certain advantages. The former ‘Chacocoma gneiss’ of the
Mazoe and Chacocoma domes is now a part of the widespread Mesoproterozoic Chacocoma
granite. The Mungári garnet gneiss migmatite, in the former map part of the Báruè Complex
seems to be restricted only to the north of an arcuate tectonic zone, which in the new map is
the northern thrust boundary of the current Báruè Complex. The same boundary restricts the
distribution of the newly defined Neoproterozoic Guro Bimodal Suite (Chapter 7.9.) to its
northern side, an implication of a late origin of the mentioned thrust.

Table 7.4. δ13C and δ18O values for carbonate rocks of Nhamessolo and Chídue Formations.

Sample Formation* Lab id δ C

13
δ O
18

VPDB VPDB
12895-04 Nhamessolo C-691 2.18 -10.96
12920-04 Nhamessolo C-693 2.28 -13.67
1652-05 Chidue C-777 4.07 -14.36
9204.1-04 Chidue C-694 2.47 -12.02
9204.2-04 Chidue C--695 2.02 -12.82

More problematic is the position of the Chíduè and the Nhamessolo Formations.
Unlike the marbles of the Rushinga Group, which lie next to the Archaean basement, the
marble-dominated Chiduè and the Nhamessolo Formations are far from there, and are not
easily seen as lateral equivalents of the former. The carbon isotope studies from the carbonate

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rocks of Chíduè and Nhamessolo Formations give similar anomalous C δ13 values, as do the
carbonate rocks of the Rushinga Group (Tables 7.4 and 7.2). On the map legend the
Nhamessolo Formation, although described here together with its geographic neighbours, is
located together with the Rushinga Group.

7.7.2. Lithology

The assemblage described below comprises the Nhamessolo and Chíduè Formations*, the
Mungári Garnet Granite / Migmatite and the Chacocoma Porphyritic Biotite Granite. The first
has been sub-divided into: Quartzite, Calc-Silicate Rock and Marble. The Chíduè Formation*
comprises Mica Gneiss, Marble and Quartz Feldspar Gneiss.

Nhamessolo Formation*
The Nhamessolo Formation*, named after a village by the Mungári–Búzua road, comprises
(from bottom to top) a sequence of garnetiferous quartzites, calc-silicate rocks and marbles on
the Guro (SDS 1733) and Chemba (SDS 1734) map sheets.

Garnetiferous quartzite (P1RNq)

Light brownish to greenish grey, medium-grained quartzite forms a prominent NW-SE
trending ridge in the northern side of Rio Pompue, near the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic contact
zone. Interlayers of similar quartzite have also been found within the calc-silicate rocks in Rio
Ludezilicura. In the foliated and folded rock, regular bands of small garnet porphyroblasts
probably represent original pelitic layers (Fig. 7.32). The accurate stratigraphic position of
quartzite within the Formation* is unknown, but its location under marbles and calc-silicate
rocks is most plausible.

Fig. 7.32. Garnet-rich bands

in quartzite of the
Nhamessolo Formation*. N
of Rio Pompue (0619058/
8090728). Scale bar is 15
cm.

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Calc-silicate gneiss (P1RNc)

Along the Ludezilicura River is exposed a heterogeneous sequence of calcareous
metasediments, comprising mainly of dark green calc-silicate rocks and gneisses with
variably thick marble and quartzite interbeds (Fig. 7.33). When forming thick and coherent
horizons, calc-silicate rocks are medium-grained and variably banded, amphibole, plagioclase
and scapolite being major minerals. Also coarse, pegmatitic varieties are rather common, and
by increasing quartz and feldspar content the rocks turn into massive, calcareous gneisses.
Probably underlying pure marbles of the formation, calc-silicate rocks are frequently intruded
by pyroxene and garnet-bearing, foliated granitoids of the Guro Suite.

A B

Fig. 7.33. (A) Alternating layers of calc-silicate rock, marble and quartzite of the Nhamessolo Formation*.
Rio Ludezilicura (0614312/8087833), (B) Banded calc-silicate rock of the Nhamessolo Formation*. Rio
Ludezilicura (0611999/8088225). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Marble (P1RNm )
Pure, coarse-grained marble is widely exposed along the Mungári–Búzua road in the
surroundings of the Nhamessolo village. Similar massive, megacrystic marble forms over 20
km long ridge at the contact of the Báruè Complex to the west of Monte Bongururo, and the
same marble horizon probably crops out as a high ridge to the east of the Pungue River.
Outcrops of pure marble have also been found more to the west, in the upper course of Rio
Mazurgo, but its areal extent is largely unknown. In the Nhamessolo area the large outcrop of
the marble horizon is probably caused by it's sub-horizontal attitude in open, undulating fold
structures. The true thickness is portrayed in the prominent marble ridges, where the thickness
of the steeply (45 – 65o) south dipping unit is in the order of several hundreds of metres.
Marbles of the Nhamessolo Formation are whitish grey, coarse to very coarse-grained,
massive rocks, where the size of idiomorphic calcite crystals can be several centimetres (Fig.
7.34). The most coarse-grained varieties are often composed solely of calcite, the only
accessory mineral being graphite, which regularly exist as a dissemination of small flakes. By

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increasing the amount of bands and interbeds of calc-silicates and clastic deposits, marbles
gradually turn into calc-silicate rocks with random marble layers.

Fig. 7.34. Megacrystic

marble of the Nhamessolo
Formation*. Marble ridge
to the west of Mte
Bongururo
(0592524/8085674). Scale
bar is 15 cm.

Chíduè Formation
Hunting (1984) attributed a heterogeneous succession of high-grade metasediments found
widely in the footwall and margins of the Tete Suite to the Chíduè Formation*. Previously,
Real (1966) and Afonso (1976) had allocated these rocks to the Fíngoè Group, but the
lithological differencies between these two sequences prevented Hunting (1984) to accept this
correlation.
The dominant lithologies of the Chíduè Formation* are marbles and psammitic schists.
The Chíduè Group sensu Hunting (1984) also comprised apatite-phlogopite marbles calc-
silicate rocks, amphibolites and quartzo-feldspathic veins (Hunting 1984, Real 1966, Afonso
1976). Based on the new observations these have been identified as carbonatites, post-
emplacement siliceous rocks and reaction products between these siliceous fluids and
carbonatite. As a consequence, Chíduè marbles are reduced to only those marbles with a
sedimentary protolith. Except some occurrences of calc-silicate rocks within the gneiss
domes, the only coherent area comprising Chíduè metasediments is around the Chibagadigo
village in the northwestern contact of the Tete Suite - see Volume 4. In that area, the rock
succession comprises variously deformed mica gneisses, marbles and quartz-feldspar gneisses
with a steep, southeastern dip. Gneisses do not belong to the Chíduè Formation in the Volume
2 area but all occurrences are marble-dominated.
The contacts of the Chíduè Formation are tectonically modified by layer-parallel
deformation below the allochthonous Tete Suite.

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Lithology
In this Map Explanation area, there are only two areas where rocks of the Chíduè Formation*
potentially occur. They are the southwestern part of the Mazoe dome20 and a local cluster of
small hills by the Zóbuè road. The contact zones of the Mazoe dome in its SW part are poorly
mapped, nevertheless, they are potential sites of minor occurrences representing the Chíduè
Formation*.

Marble (P1CHm) and ‘quartz rock’

A lonely occurrence of marble is situated almost 40 km north-east of Tete, far from the
aforementioned domes by the main road to Zóbué. The lowland in front of this 200 m high
hill is covered by marble blocks, which implies that the 1.5 kilometres wide marble
occurrence has an oval shape, bounded by the arcuate rows of hills in the background as seen
from the main road. At the very top of the arcuate ridge there is a zone of very fine-grained
quartz rock, and this extremely hard, non-weathered zone well explains the presence of the
sharp-hinged, high and narrow ridge in the northern contact of the local marble occurrence.
Under the microscope the quartz rock is virtually monomineralic. The rock at the crest has
been fractured into a heap of major in situ blocks, and there is a national geodetic reference
point marked by the pole no. GC44 1981 standing on top of the uppermost block
(0595421/8226899). No planar structure implying bedding is visible. The rock is grey to
white. It is suggested that this marble-quartz rock occurrence is a window of Chídué
Formation from below the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite.
West of the main road to Songo, there is a local set of silicified faults on the map,
running E-W and crosscutting the western extension of the Tete Suite on the map sheet 1633.
There is a a few tens of meters wide band of extremely fine-grained quartz rock (e.g. in the
observation point 0521210/8221719), which forms the highest, resistant crest of the E-W
running, narrow ridge (easily seen from the main road). While bounding along its southern
contact by mylonite after gabbro, the ‘quartz rock’ may also be a fault-thrown piece of cherty
quartzite associated with the Chíduè Formation. This view lends support from the occurrence
of very coarse-grained (5 – 20 cm) mass of pure carbonate mobilisate bounding the quartz
rock along its northern side (0521287/82211779).

Mungári garnet granite-migmatite (P2MG)

This lithology is widely distributed particularly in the eastern areas north of the Báruè
Complex. These are dominantly K-feldspar-rich, usually garnetiferous, rather coarse but
conspicuously unequigranular, rarely porphyritic, granitic rocks. Their texture is rather
massive or roughly banded, grading frequently into granite mixed with red pegmatite or
migmatitic gneisses. The rock frequently contains finer grained, greyish bands that are
continuous along strike or disrupted and that without much doubt represent psammitic
metasedimentary intercalations (Fig. 7.35A). In many cases these intercalations have fused
almost completely into the granitic-pegmatitic material, thereby greatly obscuring their
original character. Palaeosomes contain occasionally concretion-shaped lumps, most likely
real concretions of metamorphic rock within the granite-gneiss association.

20
Named after the small Mazoe river, which flows into Zambezi from the north.

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A B

Fig. 7.35. Garnet-bearing migmatites and gneisses. (A) Ghostly remnants of psammitic palaeosome in garnet-
bearing Mungári leucomigmatite. Rio Ludezilicura (0601526/8080343), (B) Migmatitic garnet (biotite) gneiss,
which comprises fragments of psammitic beds. SE of the Guro village (0551420/8054080). Scale bar is 10 cm

Garnet (biotite) gneiss (P1ppg)

Gneisses occupy three separated areas east of the Guro village, in the map sheet 1732/1733. It
seems that they locally have gradual contacts to the Mungári gneiss - granites nearby. These
rocks form a group of gneisses, which are difficult to link with neighbouring rock types. On
geophysical maps, some of the gneisses coincide with a distinctly rounded anomaly.
Usually, these rocks are heterogeneous gneisses. Although being here and there
relatively homogeneous in appearance and resembling plutonites, gneisses locally comprise
relicts of psammitic beds (Fig. 7.35B). The gneisses often contain small garnet
porphyroblasts, which occurs both in the neosomic and palaeosomic parts. Biotite is not a
typical mineral in the gneisses; its modal composition is some 15 %. A few calc-silicate
interbeds are also observed.
Granitic veins and patches indicate that the gneisses have undergone intense
metamorphism. In fact, most of the biotite has obviously dehydrated to form garnet and
feldspar.

Chacocoma porphyritic biotite granite (P2Cgr)

The unit comprises coarse-porphyritic grey to reddish granitoids with abundant porphyritic
potassium feldspar grains, characteristically with reddish, but frequently also violet-bluish
tinge (Fig. 7.36). The porphyritic igneous texture has been preserved only in a few cases.
Most commonly, however, the rock has been deformed into mylonitic augen gneiss.
The rock unit underlies large areas south of the allochthonous Tête Suite and occurs
also in two windows below the Tête Suite footwall. The southern part of the Mázoè dome,
one of the windows, extends to the area of the present Map Explanation. Numerous augen-
gneiss and mylonite outcrops have been encountered in the area around the Tete-Songo road,
where the rock immediately below the Tete Suite footwall assumes a mylonitic fabric with the
development of flaser gneiss. Close to the southward rising floor of the Tete Suite, penetrative
uniform flattening and shearing of the granitoids has given rise to a metamorphic flattening
fabric of the rock and, ultimately, to a mylonitic schistosity. With the increase in deformation,
the identity of the original porphyritic rock gradually becomes obscure while a thoroughly
penetrative schistose fabric replaces the augengneiss structure (Fig. 7.37A). Similar tectonic

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features, for common reasons, have been mapped in the Mussata granites immediately
underlying the Tete Suite (Map Explanation, Volume 4).

Fig. 7.36. Deformed K-

feldspar phenocrysts in the
Chacocoma granite. NE of
the Mazoe village (0548786/
8178067).

Ultimately, an end product is formed with thin feldspathic streaks composed of

feldspar aggregates formed through thorough grain size reduction of the original porphyritic
grains. From the fact that these features are not restricted to the granitoid windows inside the
Tête Suite but also occur south of the southern Tête Suite margin it can concluded that the
Tete body once extended further southwards than shown by its present outcrop pattern. This
may indicate that the southern parts of the Tête Suite, once existed further southward above
the present erosion surface and have been eroded away, possibly due to Cretaceous uplift of
the basement horst in between the Luia and Tête Rivers graben. Alternatively, these mylonites
reflect a northward movement (back-thrusting?) of the allochthonous Tête Suite. Much
southward continuation of the Tête Suite, below Karoo lithologies, is not shown in the
geophysical data. Further southwards, the Chacocoma granitoids have not suffered from the
tectonic movements of the Tete Suite and are ordinary porphyritic igneous rocks and augen
gneisses.
Locally, minor amounts of gabbroic rocks occur together with Chacocoma granitoids.
The mafic material seems in many instances to fuse (magmatically or metasomatically) with
the felsic material, thereby leading to neoformation of hybrid rocks. Excellent outcrops are
situated in a hill south of Tete. A sample from a quarry at the foot of the hill, along the main
road from Tete southwards, has been dated at ~ 1000 Ma (Dirks; unpublished data).
The porphyritic granitoid of this hill has indeed been deformed mostly into highly
schistose stuff, with obscured relics of the original porphyritic structure. The gabbroic parts
have generally lost their coherence, have become flattened associated with rupturing and
invaded by nearby available felsic mobile material giving rise to a black-and-white breccia
mosaic. Many gabbro units have further been deformed until boudins, with abundant felsic
quartzofeldspathic material in pressure-lows.

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A B

Fig. 7.37. (A) Strongly mylonitized Chacocoma granodiorite. Main road SE of Mte Caroeira (0560146/
8203686), (B) Ruptured mafic band in Chacocoma gneiss, tension cracks filled with quartofeldspathic
material. A hill south of Mte Caroeira (0560391/8203461). Scale bar is 10 cm.

All this complex structural assemblage and complex igneous assemblage has later
been crossfolded by upright fold generations in this example outcrop, corresponding to
similar features elsewhere in the distribution area of this rock. Many of the folds are upright
chevron folds with northerly trending subhorizontal axis. The folds have been ruptured, and
the created brittle spaces have been filled with white pegmatite (Fig. 7.37B).
Pegmatite dykes have no more been folded but are just slightly flattened, which is
shown by shape softening of sharp corners. This generation of mobile quartzofeldspathic,
pegmatitic material has nothing to do with the early, prefold quartzofeldspathic mobile
material referred to above, but represents the late phase of pegmatite screening of the crust in
this region, towards the termination of all Precambrian deformation. These late (Pan-African)
pegmatites abound as dykes and screens south and southwest of Tete (Fig. 7.38A), and
contain enclaves of highly deformed Chacocoma gneisses (Fig. 7.38B).

A B

Fig. 7.38. (A) Slightly deformed (Pan-African) pegmatite dykes cut strongly deformed Chacocoma granite. A
hill south of Mte Caroeira (0560391/8203461), (B) Large xenolith of the highly deformed Chacocoma granite
in Pan-African pegmatite. A road cut south of Monte Caroeira (0558051/8200388). Scale bar is 10 cm.

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The lithological and structural relations referred to above shed some light to the timing
of the allochthonisation of the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite. Supposing that the flaser
mylonites and the schistose mylonites after the ca. 1000 Ma old Chacocoma granitoids do
represent the allochthonisation time, the upright folding and the late Pan-African pegmatites
intruding the folds must be later. It is noted also that a zoned pegmatite dyke was observed to
discordantly cut across the mylonitic anorthosite close to the floor of the Tete Suite. Tectonic
instability immediately below the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite along a thin mechanically
weak floor zone (?) may still have continued afterwards (cf. the considerations of the
carbonatitic material below the Tete Suite).

7.8. BÁRUÈ COMPLEX

7.8.1. Introduction

In the 1:1 000 000 map (Pinna et al. 1987), a number of lithostratigraphic units within
the Báruè Complex are defined, including the Nhamatanda, Madzuire, Changara, Canxixe and
Matambo Groups. None of these groups can actually be recognized and/or identified as
separate entities in the radiometric and aeromagnetic images. Even the mapped fold patterns
are not very consistent with those in the geophysical imagery. As a consequence, these group
names have not been maintained.
For reasons referred to in Chapter 7.7., the supracrustal rocks of northern part of the
former Báruè Complex, between ca. S16° - S17°30', were separated and relocated under the
specific heading (7.7.). Thereby the area of the Complex, as it used to be, has been reduced in
the current map. The redefined Báruè Complex continues from the southern side of Mungári
to the latitude of Beira in the south.
In the present study, the Báruè Complex has been subdivided into the Macossa and
Chimoio Groups, both intruded by plutonic rock of various composition. Lithologically and
structurally these Groups have much in common, but the subdivision was nevertheless done,
mainly to express that in the Macossa Group the lithology is clearly supracrustal as in case of
the Chimoio Group uncertainties in origin may arise.
The eastern margin of the Báruè Complex is bounded by a set of rift faults against
Karoo and younger formations and partly remains covered by recent sediments. The western
margin is a major sinistral shear along the Archaean cratonic margin (Chapter 10.). In the
north the Complex is thought to terminate into a northward-directed thrust, while in the south
the rocks of the Complex become covered by Phanerozoic beds.
The eastern part of the Báruè Complex is cut by a NNE-trending21, 240 km-long and
up to 20 km-wide fault/dyke ‘corridor’ that envelops the Gorongosa intrusive complex (an
oval-shaped intrusive complex of Jurassic age, measuring 30x25 km). Block faulting of the
metamorphic units throughout this corridor has resulted in an even more complex structural
puzzle, which is not easily solved, even with the help of the geophysical data. The fact that
this block fault pattern is not well expressed in the topography explains why past photo-
geological interpretation and field mapping have been so little successful.

21
I.e. parallel to the rift border fault delimiting the ‘Karoo’ basalt area in the south.

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The Báruè Complex is not distinguished by any intrinsic characteristic properties but
rather by the lack of them. The rocks of the Complex form a series of plateaus rising from the
coastal lowlands towards the Báruè highlands and the Chimanimani Mountains. It is typically
a weakly dissected undulating country with inselbergs formed mostly from intrusive rocks.
On aerial photographs and airborne magnetic maps the Complex is characterized by swirling
foliation trends that appear to define a series of approximately circular to oval-shaped domes
with intervening structural basins manifesting complex interference fold patterns (see Figs.
2.9. and 2.10.). The irregularity of the fold pattern, combined with the high-grade
metamorphism, suggests that a significant proportion of the structures reflect ductile flow at
mid- (to lower?) crustal levels (‘diapiric’ folding?).

7.8.2. Lithology

The Báruè Complex is composed of a variety of medium- to high-grade gneisses, migmatites

and granitoids, with subordinate intercalations of mafic rocks, quartzites, marbles and
associated calc-silicate rocks. The sedimentary protoliths of these lithologies correspond most
likely to monotonous turbiditic sequences deposited on the passive continental margin of the
Zimbabwe Craton. In the present Map Explanation the Báruè Complex has been sub-divided
into two supracrustal groups each with several lithologic informal units into which some
seven different varieties of igneous rocks have been emplaced. The present state of
understanding does not allow grouping of these units according to their position in the
lithostratigraphic column.

Chimoio Group (P2BC)

The supracrustal rock units of the Chimoio Group comprise predominantly of variously
migmatized, psammitic paragneisses and pelitic metasediments, pure siliciclastic rocks
and amphibolites constituting only a minor portion in the supracrustal sequence. Rare
intrusive rocks observed in the southern part of the Báruè Complex are granitoids,
commonly deformed into garnetiferous orthogneisses.

Siliciclastic metasediment (P2BCss)

A heterogeneous sequence of siliciclastic metasediments is exposed in the central part of the
Báruè Complex, where these mostly quartzitic rocks form low hills and elongated ridges
within migmatized paragneisses of the Chimoio Group. Random quartzitic interlayers of
metapelites, existing east of the Inchope village, have also been assigned into this rock unit.
Likewise, a poorly and selectively exposed area, occurring north and west of Monte Xiluvo, is
tentatively assigned to the siliciclastic rocks.
In general, majority of siliciclastic metasediments are rather pure quartzites (Fig.
7.39A), which may contain thin interbeds of feldspathic or micaceous material, however (Fig.
7.39B). Accessory minerals found are amphibole, garnet, sillimanite, and Fe-oxides.
Texturally, these rocks are often markedly foliated, stretched or mylonitized; only random
saccharoidal varieties have been observed. Due to the strong deformation, the sedimentary
origin of these rocks is not invariably confirmed, however. Similarly, the age and stratigraphic
position of the assumed quartzite horizons is not defined.

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A B

Fig. 7.39. (A) Pure, fine-grained quartzite in Rio Meassangaze (0561608/7867454), (B) Recrystallized
quartzite with (eroded) pelitic interbeds. Scale bar is 10 cm.

Monte Chissui gneiss, felsic biotite gneiss and metagranite (P2BCfg)

A large area SE of Serra da Gorongosa is composed of felsic gneisses and metagranites,
named after Monte Chissui, located some kilometres southwest of the Chimoio town. Small,
separate domains of similar gneisses are also exposed in the area between Chimoio and the
Inchope village.
The type-area of these variously deformed and migmatised paragneisses is exposed
along Pungué River, west of the highway bridge. The major rock type is grayish brown,
semipelitic gneiss with plenty of large (0.5 – 5 cm), deformed K-feldspar porphyroblasts.
With increased deformation the gneisses turn into breccia migmatites and augen gneisses.
Pinkish brow equigranular quartzofeldspathic interbeds, up to several metres in thickness, are
found in places and are probably derived from more psammitic protoliths (Fig. 7.40). The
Monte Chissui gneisses are intruded by coarse-grained microcline pegmatite dykes and
basaltic Karoo dyke up to ~ 15 m thick.

Fig. 7.40. Porphyroblastic

semipelitic paragneiss with
quartzofeldspathic
interbeds. Chimoio Group,
west of the Pungué River
bridge (0614093/7900199).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

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Migmatitic paragneiss (P2BCmi)

Variously migmatized paragneisses of the Chimoio Group form the major lithology in the
central and southern part of the Báruè Complex. Similar paragneisses of psammitic to
semipelitic composition, exposed within domal structures around Monte Bangontauro and in
the Rio Pompue area in the north (SDS 1734), are also assigned to the Chimoio Group.
Locally, significant amounts of mafic minerals suggest a contribution of calcareous or
volcanoclastic material. Due to primary compositional variation of these rocks, magnetic and
radiometric signatures of gneisses are generally rather weak when compared with
surrrounding rock units. Although placed in the legend at the base of the Chimoio Group, the
lithostratigraphical position of these rocks remains doubtful.
Along the Pungué River, southwest of the Gorongosa Mountain, the dominant rock
type is light grey, fine-grained, strongly foliated psammitic gneiss with a distinct banding that
probably represents bedding with primary compositional variation (Fig. 7.41A). Interbeds of
greenish grey, medium-grained, banded hornblende gneiss, up to several tens of metres thick,
are encountered in this migmatised, leucocratic gneiss. To the west of the Pungué River,
psammitic gneiss turns into yellowish or reddish brown, medium-grained arkosic gneiss with,
again, thin laminar banding possibly denoting primary sedimentary bedding (Fig. 7.41B).
In the Pompue River area, there exist large outcrops of light grey schlieren migmatite,
comprising stripes and bands of micaceous paleosome and calc-silicate xenoliths, often
surrounded by a garnet-rich rim, in a garnetiferous leucogranitic neosome (Fig. 7.41C). In
places, plenty of large K-feldspar porphyroblasts exist in a semipelitic paleosome. In the core
of the Monte Bangontauro dome, brownish to light grey, felsic gneisses are strongly
migmatized and stromatic structures are only locally preserved in small paleosome xenoliths
(Fig. 7.41D). In the latter location migmatites may represent a mobilised basement for
overlying Macossa Group metasediments.
NE of Serra da Gorongosa, near the contact zone with the Phanerozoic cover,
variously migmatized paragneisses have in places preserved primary sedimentary features.
This includes a semipelitic to quartzose gneiss, probably of a metagreywacke origin, that has
dark brown biotite-rich and light brown quartzitic interbeds (Fig. 7.42A). Thin calc-silicate
horizons are locally observed within this gneiss sequence. Turbiditic or ‘flysch’ like origin is
assumed for the rock.
Along the Lucite River in the south, random river bank outcrops found comprise light
brownish grey, moderately migmatized, psammitic paragneiss, where an obscure bedding is
still locally visible (Fig. 7.42B).

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A B

C D

Fig. 7.41. Migmatitic paragneisses of the Chimoio Group. (A) Banded psammitic gneiss with plenty of
segregated leucosome lenses and veins in the Pungué River (0597116/7917271), (B) Strongly migmatised,
garnetiferous paragneiss northeast of Mte Chimoio (0549203/7901742), (C) Migmatitic paragneiss with garnet-
rich melanosome rafts. Rio Pompue (0614699/8085107), (D) Stromatic structures in migmatitic paragneiss
northwest of Mte Bangontauro (0620099/8054653). Scale bar is 10 cm.

A B

Fig. 7.42. Sedimentary structures in paragneisses of the Chimoio Group. (A) Paragneiss with well-preserved
bedding, composed of alternating micaceous (dark brown) and quartzitic (light greyish brown) layers. Road
cut northwest of Mte Cùncuè (0636968/7984106), (B) Obscure bedding in psammitic paragneiss. Rio Lucite
(0545833/7789400). Scale bar is 10 cm, compass is 12 cm.

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In the area to the west of Chimoio town, rocks are generally mesocratic, garnet
bearing, strongly migmatized gneisses with a strong foliation defined by the preferred
orientation of biotite flakes. Locally, the large proportion of leucosome (up to 40 – 50 % by
volume) turns gneisses into schlieren-type migmatites or metatexites, with the majority of
leucosomes being parallel to the pre-migmatization structures. Leucosomes are discontinuous,
show pinch-and-swell textures and are often in rootless isoclinal to tight microfolds.
Anastomosing larger leucosomes occur in places. Due to intense metamorphism, primary
sedimentary features are often completely obliterated, and the intermediate varieties of the
rocks are homogeneous, tonalitic to granodioritic orthogneisses in appearance (Fig. 7.43). On
outcrops, the slightly weathered (brownish) plagioclase may resemble K-feldspar. Here and
there occur some granitic patches. The major minerals of these rocks are plagioclase, quartz,
clinopyroxene and biotite, K-feldspar occuring only as an accessory constituent. Amphibole is
also rare in these gneisses, because this mineral has dehydrated to form pyroxene.

Fig. 7.43. Texturally rather

massive, foliated tonalitic gneiss,
which comprises clinopyroxene.
Rio Sangadeze (0627142/
8052904/). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Mineralogy
The chemical composition of some minerals in one of the afore-mentioned tonalitic gneiss
(see Fig. 7.43) is shown in Table 1 (rock 9) of App. 4. Clinopyroxene has high A2O3 content
(1.2 wt%), and biotite has high TiO2 content (5.7 wt%), both being typical for high-grade
metamorphic conditions. Plagioclase is andesitic in composition.

Garnet-bearing metagranite and paragneiss (P2BCmg)

Garnet-bearing metagranites and associated paragneisses occur in the western part of the
Báruè Complex, often forming elongated hills and ridges, locally several kilometers in length
(Fig. 7.44). On geophysical maps the rock unit is characterised by a weak radiometric and a
rather clear negative magnetic signature.

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Fig. 7.44. Typical metagranitic sugarloaf mountain of Monte Chimoio (0543610/7899353).

Metagranite is coarse-grained, inequigranular, leuco- to mesocratic granite-looking

gneiss, consisting of K-feldspar, quartz, plagioclase, muscovite and biotite. Deformed K-
feldspar xenoblasts occur in a foliated groundmass, giving the rock an augen gneiss or
glandular gneiss appearance. In xenoblastic varieties, large (up to 10 – 15 mm) garnet
porphyroblasts are common. In places, the metagranitoid contains micaceous inclusions that
are interpreted as restites of the pelitic or semipelitic protolith. Larger quartzitic and skarn
enclaves are also found within the rock. This would suggest that metagranite is derived from
an in situ melt and migmatite of paragneissic origin.

Hornblende gneiss and amphibolite (P2BChg)

In the western part of the Báruè Complex there exist sporadic outcrop areas of hornblende
gneisses and amphibolites, which differ in their slightly lower signatures on the radiometric
maps from surrounding calc-silicate gneisses and Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneisses.
Assigned to the Chimoio Group, these dark greyish green, medium-grained rocks are strongly
foliated and banded, and most probably are supracrustal rocks in origin.

Mica schist and mica gneiss (P2BCch)

A northeast trending belt of pelitic metasediments, several kilometres wide and tens of
kilometres in length, occur in the southeastern part of the Báruè Complex (SDS 1933-1934).
This rather homogeneous rock unit is best exposed along the Inchope - Gorongosa road, but

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random outcrops of strongly foliated mica schists and gneisses have also been found in the
area southeast of the Inchope village. In the west, the lithological boundary between felsic
ortho and paragneisses and metapelites can be distinguished by the relatively low radiometric
singnature of the latter. Instead, the eastern boundary of metapelitic unit is not well-defined,
and random outcrops of mica gneisses have also been found within the area largely assigned
to Inchope gneisses.
The grain-size and fabric of metapelites varies from rather massive, medium-grained
mica gneisses into very fine-grained, phyllitic mica schists with grenulation cleavage often
visible (Fig. 7.45). In the western contact zone metapelitic rocks are often strongly
mylonitized, and in places they turn there into garnet-bearing chlorite schists. Thin interbeds
of sugary sericite quartzite have also been found within these metapelitic rocks along the
eastern contact zone.

Fig. 7.45. Phyllitic schist with crenulation

cleavage. NE of the Inchope village (0605515/
7877969). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Macossa Group(P2BM)
The supracrustal rocks assigned to the Macossa Group comprise a succession of lithologies
with most likely sedimentary precursors, originally deposited in a shallow marine
environment. Although the definitive character and position of all units observed within the
rock succession are not fully solved, the overall lithostratigraphy of the palaeobasin have been
reduced from several geological sections made in the area.
The lowermost rock units of the inferred palaeobasin include garnetiferous leucocratic
gneisses, quartz-feldspar gneisses, meta-arkoses and arkosic quartzites. These psammitic
metasediments are overlain by more pelitic rocks (metagreywackes, garnet and sillimanite
bearing mica schist and mica gneisses) with thin calc-silicate gneiss and marble interbeds.

Leucocratic gneiss (P2BMlc)

Strongly granitised, garnetiferous leucocratic or leptynitic gneiss constitutes the major rock
type in the northern and northwestern part of the Macossa Group. The rock has a relatively
weak radiometric signature and forms generally distinct negative anomalies on the
aeromagnetic map, thereby differing from the lithologically rather similar Tomoda leucogratic
gneiss. The most characteristic feature of the foliated, medium-grained gneiss is the
development of garnet-rich leucosomes, which are found in the host rock as veins, lenses or

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patches sub-parallel to the foliation (Fig. 7.46A). Although commonly existing as a network
of thin lit-par-lit veins, the thickness of individual leucosome varies from mm-scale to dykes
and sheets several tens of centimetres in thickness. In places, thick leucocratic dykes cut the
general foliation, forming leucogranitic pegmatite streaks.
A common feature is a 10 to 20 mm thick, garnet-rich reaction rim around these rafts,
which probably represent calc-silicate interbeds in the psammitic to semipelitic protolith. Also
melanosome bands or stripes up to 10 cm in thickness, comprising solely small garnet
porphyroblasts, are common.
The vast paragneiss area NW of Serra da Gorongosa comprises a heterogeneous
sequence of variably migmatitic rocks ranging from brownish grey, garnetiferous quartz-
feldspar gneiss to hornblende-bearing gneiss and to dark brown mica gneiss. The leucosome
component of these gneisses occurs as thin, discontinuous flame-like segregations and,
locally, also as thicker, garnetiferous leucogranitic dykes or streaks that intrude the gneiss. A
peculiar feature, found within some semipelitic paragneisses, are large (up to 10 cm in
diameter) roundish enclaves composed of garnet-quartz intergrowths (Fig. 7.46B).

A B

Fig. 7.46. (A) Garnet-rich leucosome lenses in quartzofeldspathic gneiss of the Macossa Group. Rio Pompué
(0615987/8085822), (B) Large enclaves of garnet-quartz intergrowths in semipelitic paragneiss of the Macossa
Group. Rio Nhandugue (0599392/7998519). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Quartz-feldspar gneiss (P2BMqf)

Light brown, medium-grained quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with abundant leucosomes is
exposed in the Nhandugue River, SE of Monte Nhacuma (Fig. 7.47). Similar leucocratic
gneiss is exposed in the Cassa River, near the western contact of the Báruè Complex. These
are rather monotonous gneissose rocks with gradational contacts with some well-preserved
meta-arkosic lithologies or, occasionally, quartzitic horizons or amphibole-rich bands. This
manifests that the gneiss is derived from a strongly granitised, monotonous variety of arkosic
metasediment as found in surrounding areas.

Meta-arkose (P2BMar)
Light reddish to greyish brown, fine- to medium-grained, foliated and variously granitised
arkosic gneisses constitute the western part of the Báruè Complex. A fine, weakly developed
banding, often visible on weathered surfaces, probably represents the primary compositional
bedding. Locally, a concordant banding is due to accumulation of mafic minerals (amphibole

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and garnet porphyroblasts), generally a few centimetres in thickness that may grade into up to
one metre thick amphibolitic layers (Fig. 7.48). Lateral continuity, as well as consistency in
thickness of the banding suggests a volcanogenic origin. A narrow marble horizon, however,
found within meta-arkose SE of the Monte Bangontauro migmatite dome, may indicate that
some of the amphibole-bearing layers have a calcareous origin. The regularly observed
upwards thickening of the amphibolitic layers, may reflect progressive deepening of the
sedimentation basin.

Fig. 7.47. Quartz-feldspr

gneiss of the Macossa
Group with leucosome
segregations. Rio
Nhandugue (0588802/
8014904). Scale bar is 15
cm.

Fig. 7.48. Meta-arkose with

thin, amphibolitic bands.
Chimoio Group. South of
Mte Senge (0575910/
8068060). Scale bar is 15
cm.

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Feldspathic quartzite (P2BMfq)

Quartzitic rocks belonging to the metasedimentary Macossa Group are exposed as extensive
and continuous units constituting the northern and central parts of the map sheet 1733 and
1734. Due to the general shallow dip of the strata, the same stratigraphic level is exposed over
wide areas. Consequently, variations in the thickness of various units, as well as gradational
contacts between different rock units of the sequence and their lithological boundaries are
difficult to establish. A high degree of granitisation of the quarzofeldspathic metasediments
also hampers field mapping and the proper drawing of lithologic boundaries. Similarities
between garnetiferous feldspathic quartzite and Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss may
implicate that the latter represent a more granitised variety of the garnetiferous quartzite.
Most exposures of feldspathic and garnetiferous quartzites are found in an area north
and NW of the Gorongosa Mountain, where gradational transitions from garnetiferous
feldspathic quartzite upwards into metagreywacke and micaceous gneiss have been observed
in the streambeds of the Mudicapinda and Nhandugue Rivers. Although, thin bedding-
concordant leucosomes and leucogranitic dykes and streaks are common, thin parallel
bedding is still locally visible (Fig. 7.49). In addition to abundant garnet porphyroblasts,
quartz, K-feldspar and plagioclase, in various proportions, form the main constituents of the
feldspathic garnetiferous quartzite. Accessory minerals include biotite and very fine
sillimanite needles.

Fig. 7.49. Thinly bedded

garnet-bearing feldspathic
quartzite of the Macossa
Group. Rio Mudicapinda
(059592/7605199). Scale
bar is 15 cm.

Garnet-sillimanite gneiss, mica gneiss and metagreywacke (P2BMsi)

In the metasedimentary sequence of the Báruè Complex, pelitic to semipelitic varieties also
comprise garnet-sillimanite gneisses, mica gneisses and metagreywackes, which mostly exist
in the areas north and south of Serra da Gorongosa. A massive, strongly granitised variety of
mica gneiss has been found SE of the Monte Bangontauro migmatite dome.

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Light brownish grey, medium-grained metagreywackes composed of quartz, feldspar

and biotite, with small garnet porphyroblasts, often in streaks and patches, are exposed in the
streambed of the Nhandugue River. Although strong deformation and migmatitisation have
generally obliterated all sedimentary features, primary sedimentary bedding is locally visible
(Fig. 7.50A). In the area north of Gorongosa, K-feldspar porphyroclasts, in augen up to 2 – 3
cm in diameter, manifest strong mylonitisation. In the same area, a swarm of basaltic and
rhyolitic Karoo dykes (Rukore Suite, Section 9.1.3), up to fifty metres in width and tens of
kilometres in length, invade the supracrustal sequence of paragneisses.
A dark brownish grey, massive variety of micaceous rock, forming large negative
aeromagnetic anomalies, is exposed SE of the Monte Bangontauro migmatite dome as well as
SW of Gorongosa. Locally preserved metasedimentary features, as well as the mineralogy,
comprising quart + K-feldspar + biotite + garnet ± cordierite ± sillimanite, support a
supracrustal origin for the gneiss (Fig. 7.50B). In places, well-developed preferred orientation
of euhedral K-feldspar porphyroblasts results in a gneiss resembling a deformed plutonic rock
(Fig. 7.50C).

Fig. 7.50. (A) Primary sedimentary bedding in

metagreywacke of the Chimoio Group. Rio
Nhandugue (0621907/7980956), (B) Garnetiferous
semipelitic gneiss of the Chimoio Group. Nhandugue
River (0595823/8003075), (C) Massive micaceous
gneiss of the Chimoio Group with plenty of oriented
potassium feldspar porphyroblasts. North of the
Gorongosa village (0613173/7937710). Scale bar is
15 cm.

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Marble (P2BMma)
White to light greyish, intensely folded, medium- to very coarse-grained calcitic marble beds
are generally intercalated within the calc-silicate horizons of the metasedimentary sequence.
The apparent maximum thickness of pure marble layers is less than five metres. Compared to
the thick, continuous marble horizons of the lower part of the Rushinga Group (Section 7.4),
the observed calc-silicate and marble interlayers of the Báruè Complex are subordinate, both
in volume and extent.

Calc-silicate gneiss (P2BMcc)

Calc-silicate rocks occur as thick bands and interbeds within the psammitic and pelitic
paragneisses of the Macossa Group. They are exposed occasionally in the river beds or road
cuts in the central part of the Báruè Complex (Fig. 7.51A).
Due to incompetence of the calcareous layers during deformation, calc-silicate
gneisses and local minor skarn and marble interlayers are often highly folded and boudinaged
when compared to the more competent psammitic metasediments within the sequence (Fig.
7.51B). On weathered surfaces they usually show a very distinctive ribbled surface, caused by
alternating pale green, resistant diopside-bearing laminae and weathered marble or
metasediment layers.
The maximum observed thickness of coherent calc-silicate layers in the Nhandugue
River streambed is some tens of metres. Complex folding and selective weathering, as well as
various thick paragneissic interlayers, generally prevent, however, more precise measure-
ments of the thickness of calc-silicate horizons.

A B

Fig. 7.51. (A) Banded calc-silicate gneiss with thin, psammitic interbeds in the Nhaluiro River
(608958/8057192), (B) Strongly folded and contorted calc-silicate rock of the Macossa Group with weathered-
out marble interbeds. Rio Nhandugue (0598897/7999904). Scale bar is 15 cm.

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7.8.3. Intrusive rocks

Metasediments of the Báruè Complex are intruded by variously deformed bodies of mafic and
felsic rocks, including hornblendites, gabbros and diorites, and various orthogneisses of
granitic to tonalitic affinity.

Hornblendite (P2BUhb)
Several dark green, medium-grained and massive concordant ultramafic sills have intruded
shallow-dipping beds of feldspathic quartzites of the Chimoio Group in the area north of the
Serra da Gorongosa. Although several kilometers in length and often visible in satellite
imagery, the erosional sections of these hornblendite sills are generally less than 200 metres,
indicating that their maximum thickness is only some tens of metres. Except hornblende and
small amounts of plagioclase, these sills have also plenty of small garnet porphyroblasts as a
major constituent.

Pyroxene diorite (P2BUpd)

Some lens-shaped bodies of dark greenish brown, medium-grained and massive pyroxene-
bearing diorite intrude the leucocratic paragneisses of the Chimoio Group NE of the Chimoio
town.

Gabbro and gabbroic rock (P2GUgb)

Several small, roundish to elongated mafic intrusive bodies of gabbroic composition have
been emplaced into leucocratic paragneiss or migmatite in the central part of the Báruè
Complex. The rock is medium- to coarse-grained and generally massive, although also mildly
deformed varieties occur (Fig. 7.52).

Fig. 7.52. Exfoliated outcrop

of massive, coarse-grained
gabbro, located south of Mte
Chimoio (05437927/-
898098).

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Monte Hombe tonalite and granodiorite (P2BMdg)

Monte Hombe granitoids are named after an impressive Hombe Mountain, which is a holy
place for the local people. Variously foliated, gneissic or migmatitic tonalites and
granodiorites intrude the Macossa Group metasediments about 75 km NE of the Manica town.
These intrusives have irregular forms, their size varying from 10 km2 to 130 km2, and they
comprise the same structural trend as the host metasedimentary rocks. A broad generalization
can be made; granodiorites(-granites) dominate in the northern part of the suite, but
migmatitic tonalites are more common in the south. These migmatitic varieties contain some
supracrustal inclusions, which are too small to be marked in the geological maps, however.
Although Mesoproterozoic in age, these granitoids have undergone younger Pan-African
tectono-metamorphic overprint, and often resemble supracrustal paragneisses. On geophysical
maps the granitoids can be only fairly outlined, and the best tool to define their distribution is
a combined interpretation of petrographical outcrop data and satellite images.
Heterogeneous tonalitic rocks, usually gneissic and migmatitic in appearance dominate
the bedrock at and near Monte Urderi Mountain (Fig. 7.53). Within the coarse-grained
intrusive, there are inclusions of mafic metavolcanites, now gneissic in appearance.

Fig. 7.53. Monte Urderi, located 30 km north of the Chimoio town. The mountain has a broadly rounded form,
which indicates that it is composed of gneissose granitoids

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In the north, 15 km east of the Honde village, granitoids are usually weakly foliated,
equigranular and medium-grained granodiorites, intruded by granitic veins and pegmatite
dykes (Fig.7.54A). In places the rocks are intensively sheared and resemble schists. The mafic
mineral in the rock is mainly biotite, which modal composition with hornblende is c. 20 % in
total. General trend of these intrusions parallels to the neighbouring supracrustal rocks.
About 15 km northwest from the Monte Hombe peak, granitoids are coarse-grained
granodioritic to granitic gneisses, characterized by light colours on fresh surfaces but having
dark grey weathered surfaces (Fig. 7.54B). These rocks are intruded by granitic veins, which
partly have gradual contacts. Biotite dominates over hornblende in these granitoids, and mafic
inclusions are rare.
The largest area composed of Monte Hombe granitoids is situated about 60 km NE-E
from the Manica town, near the main road between the Tete and Chimoio towns. Here these
rocks are gneissose, locally even banded granitoids, which often comprise tonalitic-
(granodioritic) and amphibolitic bands (Fig. 7.54C). Segregations of granitic patches are also
common, and rare garnet porphyroblasts are observed. In the southern part of the area,
granitoids comprise inclusions of metavolcanic rocks. Locally these rocks are rather mafic
and resemble migmatitic hornblende quartz diorites or even diorites.

A B

Fig. 7.54. Monte Hombe granitoids. (A) Weakly

foliated, even-grained granodiorite in Rio Nhazonia
(0536820/7971501), (B) Granodioritic gneiss with
light fresh surface. 15 km east of Mte Hombe
(0533822/7951895), (C) Tonalitic hornblende gneiss,
which comprises amphibolitic bands and granitic
segregations. 10 km south of Mte Hombe
(0544686/7934094). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Amphibole-bearing granitic gneiss (P2BUgg)

In the western part of the Báruè Complex there occur granitic gneisses, which differ from the
surrounding metagranites and migmatitic paragneisses by having amphibole as a major mafic
mineral, and by slightly lower signatures on aeroradiometric maps.

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Typically, these granitic gneisses are light greyish, medium to coarse-grained

orthogneisses, where the amount of mafic minerals varies (Figs. 7.55A and 7.55B).

A B

Fig. 7.55. (A) Amphibole-bearing granite gneiss with

garnet-bearing leucosome segregations. E of the
Vanduzi village (0533071/7904133), (B) Detailed
photo of the same rock, (C) Porphyric texture
preserved in amphibole-bearing granite gneiss. W of
Mte Nhambira (0544811/7976702). Scale bar is 10/15
cm.

Foz do Rio Banhale quartz diorite (P2BUdi)

A roundish mafic intrusion is exposed in the core of a dome-like structure in the northern part
of the Báruè Complex, surrounded by migmatic paragneisses, and named after a small
tributary of the Pompue River. The light (greenish) grey, medium-grained, massive to weakly
foliated rock is of quartz dioritic composition, but also more mafic varieties have been
observed. Plagioclase, K-feldspar, clinopyroxene and biotite are major constituents. Quartz,
scapolite, apatite and opaque minerals form frequent accessories. Quartz diorite contains
randomly oriented schist xenoliths and is cut by several generations of narrow leucogranitic
or pegmatitic dykes and veins.

Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss (P2BUlg)

Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss constitutes a major lithology, emplaced into the Macossa
Group, in the northern part of the Báruè Complex. Due to the generally low-angle to
subhorizontal foliation, these gneiss sheets form large, coherent areas, characterised by
negative magnetic anomalies and a strong radiometric signature. The open to gentle fold
structures in the area often cause the Monte Tomonda gneisses to crop out as elongated, lens-
shaped outcrop areas within the host paragneiss sequence.

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Leucocratic gneisses are light greyish, fine to medium-grained rocks, composed of

feldspar, quartz and small amount of micas. Garnet porphyroblast of various sizes are
common, forming often dark-coloured streaks parallel to the foliation. Incepient banding-
formation of these rocks is mostly generated by metamorphic differentiation, but in rare well-
preserved varieties also primary compositional bedding is preserved, implying a sedimentary
protolith.
Because of lithological similarities, the contact relations between the Monte Tomonda
Leucocratic gneiss and other supracrustal rock units of the Báruè Complex are not clear and
distinction between these often strongly granitised paragneisses of the Complex is not always
possible. Only the occurrence of biotite locally separates the leucogratic gneiss from
garnetiferous feldspathic quartzite, while the general absence of garnet porphyroblasts puts
the migmatitic paragneiss into a separate lithological unit. Anatectic melting of leucocratic
gneiss is generally manifested by the occurrence of garnet-bearing leucogranitic neosome
(Fig. 7.56A) and, consequently, the contacts with garnetiferous leucogranites are also often
gradational.
However, in the most NE corner of the extensive Monte Tomonda gneiss area there
are two-pyroxene, compositionally intermediate gneisses indicating that the bedrock has
undergone granulite-grade metamorphism (Fig. 7.46B). These gneisses are ghostly banded
and have granoblastic microtexture. Surface of outcrops is characterically slightly weathered,
and fresh surface is dark with a greenish shade. Mineral composition of the gneisses
comprises plagioclase, quartz, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene and biotite. Hornblende is rare,
obviously because the mineral has almost totally dehydrated to form pyroxenes.

A B

Fig. 7.56. (A) Monte Tomonda leucocratic gneiss with garnet-rich leucosomes. South of the Macossa village
(0597896/801894), (B) Compositionally intermediate variety of Tomonda leucocratic gneiss, comprising
orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene (0627886/8073037). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Mineralogy
Chemical composition of orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, biotite and plagioclase in a two-
pyroxene gneiss is shown in App. 4. Al2O3 content in orthopyroxene is 0.8 wt% and in
clinopyroxene 1.5 wt%; both values are typical for granulitic rocks noticing, in fact, that rocks
are not pelitic but intermediate in composition. High TiO2 content, some 5.5 wt%,
characterizes biotite. Plagioclase is andesitic in composition.

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Inchope orthogneiss (P2BUig)

The 1079 Ma old Inchope orthogneiss comprises a group of variously deformed and
migmatised orthogneisses in the central part of the Báruè Complex. Named after Inchope
village (SDS 1934), the composition of gneisses varies from granodioritic to tonalitic (Fig.
7.57A). In type area, around the Inchope village, gneiss is light grey, medium-grained and
only slightly foliated granodioritic gneiss with random potassium feldspar phenocrysts (Fig.
7.57B).

A B

Fig. 7.57. (A) Granodioritic orthogneiss east of the Inchope village (0599337/7875146), (B) Strongly
migmatised gneiss west of Monte Chigove (0529339/7893701). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Monte Panda granodiorite (P2Ugd)

The Monte Panda granodiorite comprises a strongly deformed, leucocratic rock unit in the
western part of the Báruè Complex. Apart from the prominent Monte Panda inselberg, the
rock generally underlies flat low ground with few outcrops and its areal extent is based
largely on interpretation of satellite imagery and airborne geophysical data. The light greyish,
medium-grained rock is composed of plagioclase, quartz and biotite as major mineral
constituents. A millimetre-scale banding, defined primarily by highly altered hornblende, is
visible in places.

Monte Senge granite (P2Ugr)

The Monte Senge granite comprises elongated plutons and lenses generally emplaced
parallel to the foliation of the host gneisses and migmatites in the northern part of the Báruè
Complex, where they form prominent mountains or hill ranges. The rock is a pinkish to
pinkish grey, medium- to coarse-grained, weakly deformed leucogranite and is composed of
quartz, pinkish potassium feldspar, and biotite (Fig. 7.58). The homogeneous, granitic texture
and total lack of palaeosome rafts or bands support an I-type origin for this granite.

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Fig. 7.58. Medium-grained, deformed Monte

Senge granite. NE of Mte Senge (0593237/
8082809). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Lithogeochemistry
The analysed samples of Báruè Complex are collected from both plutonic and
metasedimentary rocks (App. 3; Table 4). The plutonic rocks classify to granites, quartz
diorites, monzodiorites and diorites/gabbros (Fig. 7.59a). Intermediate varieties, granodiorites,
tonalities and quartz-monzodiorites are lacking, which matter is consistent with the field
observations. Only a small area of deformed granodiorites, the Monte Panda granodiorites in
the northwest part of the Báruè Complex has been mapped, but no chemical analyses was
made, however. The five analysed metasedimentary rocks are meta-arkoses and
metagreywackes of Chimoio Group (App. 3; Table 4, anal. 27 – 31).
The mafic, gabbroic rocks (SiO2 < 55 %, anal. 1 – 8) are heterogeneous in
composition. In AFM diagram (Fig. 7.59d) the analyses plot on tholeiitic field with wide
scatter, three analyses falling together closer to MgO apex. These three analyses (anal. 1 – 3)
with low Fe# (0.41 – 0.47), relatively low TiO2 (0.47 – 0.97) and high MgO (21.40 – 9.54
stand out from the rest of analysed gabbros, which are higher in Fe# (0.63 – 0.74), in TiO2
(3.05 – 1.28) and lower in MgO (< 5.92). The three samples alike represent gabbroic plutons
and dykes from northern, central and southern parts of the Báruè Complex area. Widespread
to such a large area, these analyses do not warrant conclusions about common origin,
however.
All granitoids fall in granite field on Q vs. Anor diagram (Fig. 7.59a). They are
peraluminous (Fig. 7.59b) and plot on AFM-diagram (Fig. 7.59d) near Na2O+K2O – FeOt
borderline indicating high Fe/Mg values, verified in table 4, App. 3 (Fe# 0.76 – 0.96). High
barium relative to strontium and rubidium (Fig. 7.59c) is characteristic to the granitoids, as
well as relatively high zirconium (maximum 814 ppm Zr, anal. no 11). On discrimination
diagrams of the Fig. 7.59 all five analyses of the metasedimentary rocks of Chimoio Group
behave in a very similar way. This behaviour together with peraluminous character, relatively
low Na/K (App. 3; Table 4) and high and anomalous (to granitoids) Fe# values speak for S-
type granites, which may have derived by remelting of the surrounding metasedimentary
rocks.
The granitoids of the Báruè Complex do not clearly fall in any of the fields describing
geotectonic setting, when Rb and Y+Nb have been used as discriminating elements (Fig.
7.59e). This is naturally expected when dealing with S-type granites.

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Fig. 7.59. Chemical classification diagrammes for rocks of the Báruè Complex.

Age
Manhiça et al. (2001) reported SHRIMP analyses of zircon samples, conventional WR Rb-Sr
isotope analyses and Ar/Ar step heating of mica samples. Gneisses located some 15 km west
of Chimoio (Nhansipfe Gneiss sensu Manhiça et al. 2001) yielded a weighted mean
207
Pb/206Pb crystallisation age of 1112±18 Ma. The lack of precision is is believed to be due to

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some real scatter of the data due to Pb-loss. A single analysis of a core gave an Archaean age
of 2685±11 Ma. Granodioritic gneisses, ocated 6 km NE of Chimoio (in Chimoio
Granodioritic Gneiss sensu Manhiça et al. 2001), ielded a weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb
crystallisation age of 1108±12 Ma and a higher apparent 206Pb/U238 age of 1139±7 Ma. For
both calculations three discordant points were excluded.
Biotite from a granodioritic gneiss sample (Chimoio Granodioritic Gneiss sensu
Manhiça et al. 2001) provided a well-defined plateau age of 556±7 Ma, similar to the age for
biotite from the Mavonde Complex (Section 6.5.) (Messica Granite Gneiss sensu Manhiça et
al. 2001).
The GTK Consortium has confirmed the above data by dating three samples of
gneissic rocks belonging to the Báruè Complex. This includes sample Mos-28 (19313-04) of
metagranitic rocks emplaced into siliciclastic metasediments (P2BCsi) of the Chimoio Group
(location 0594485/ 7857368), sample Mos-29 (19290 – 04) of the Inchope Gneiss, an
orthogneiss of granodioritic to tonalitic composition, emplaced into paragneisses of the
Chimoio Group (0599269/ 7875446) and sample Mos-31 (6845-04) of the metatonalite of
Monte Chissui (0547097/ 7882707). Mos-28 yields a Concordia SHRIMP magmatic age of
1119±21 Ma. Three discordant data from zones zircons are considered to be coeval with the
1.1 Ga zircons. Inherited zircons have ages of ~ 1.83 Ga, 2.03 Ga and 2.50 Ga. The inherited
zircons means that the granite masy have a sedimentary precursor or, alternatively, inherited
the zircons from the neighbouring quartzites (P2BCsi).
Sample Mos-29 of a metagranodiorite has been dated using both convential and
SHRIMP methods. Monazite yielded slightly reversely concordant age data of ~ 530 – 510
Ma. This may be due to excess of 206Pb from 230Th of a high Th-mineral (Shärer, 1984).
SHRIMP dating, using 17 different zircon domains, yielded an age of ~ 1100 Ma.
Seven concordant analyses define an age of 1079±7 Ma. The discordia age formed by the U-
Pb data from 12 zoned zircon domains is the same as the concordia age. Three analyses were
carried out on high-U CL-dark rims but rejected because of high common lead contents.
They are believed to reflect Pan-African reworking as demonstrated by the monazite age.
Irrespective the extremely bright, gem-like appearance of the zircon grains in sample
Mos-31, TIMS dating of four zircon fractions yielded discordant age data. Apparent
concordia intercept ages are ~ 1300 Ma and 600 Ma. The quite high lower intercept age most
probably indicates the effect of Pan-African metamorphism. The upper intercept age of 1.30
Ga is relatively high and odd in the population of Mozambican rock ages. It is believed that
Pan-African reworking has caused a shift of the zircon Pb/U ratios to the left from the original
lead loss trend. Therefore, it is suggested that this 1.3 Ga age is considered merely as a
maximum age for the tonalite. The highest 207Pb/206Pb ages of ~ 1150 Ma would then be the
minimum age for the rock.

7.9. GURO SUITE

7.9.1. Introduction

The bimodal Guro Suite has been named after a spectacular mountain forming the
background of Guro town centre, as seen from the main road. The Guro Suite is introduced in
this Map Explanation as a new lithological unit. Dated now at ~ 850 Ma in three places, such
age group was not previously reported here. The age is within the common range with the

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Basal Rushinga Intrusive Complex/Suite (BRIC/S) and the Masoso Suite, as known in
Zimbabwe just over the border and in Mozambique (Sections 7.5. and 7.3.). The area
underlain by rocks of the Guro Suite (and intercalated liothologies) between Tete and Guro-
Mungári was previously incorporated in the Baruè Complex sensu Hunting (1984).
The rocks of the Guro Suite have been emplaced on an older gneissose basement: the
Matambo Complex. Together with these older glandular orthogneisses, paragneissic and
migmatitic intercalations and also younger intrusive bodies, the Guro Suite is spread over an
area of 100 x 100 km north of the newly defined Báruè Complex, east of the Archaean craton
margin, separated from it by the Palaeoproterozoic epicrustal rocks of the Rushinga Group
and south of the Tête Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite.
The Guro Suite is bimodal, composed of felsic and mafic members. The felsic member
is called Serra Banguatere aplitic granite gneiss-migmatite (P3Oag) according to a village
south of Changara, where practically all outcrops as seen by the main road are composed of
this member. This same rock is seen also in an aggregate rock quarry east of Cuchamano, by
the tarred road, and as felsic bands in the felsic-mafic assemblage below the Luenha bridge,
south of Changara, both dated. The mafic member is called Magasso metagabbro and mafic
gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogb) according to a village south of Tete, where the width of a boudin-
like body of metagabbro is kilometre-wide. Most commonly these two members occur
together in a banded arrangement, where the felsic member dominates, and this assemblage is
called Monte Calinga Muci granite gneiss-migmatite with mafic gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogm)
after a spectacular tower-like mountain representing this assemblage by the road north of
Guro, at the Mungári road junction (the cover picture of this Volume).

7.9.2 Lithology

Serra Banguatere aplitic granite gneiss-migmatite (P3Oag)

This rock type represents the pure felsic component of the bimodal suite. The component
alternates with the mafic component. On outcrops the thickness of each felsic layer may be
anything between centimeters to more than a hundred meters. Those with sufficient thickness
are shown on the map as elongate bodies, representing their true tabular shapes. Some of them
are exaggerated on map in order to improve the reality of their frequency. In smallest scales
the felsic and mafic members could be drawn all separately. Hence, just for the scale the
assemblage containing the thinner but the same aplitic granite bands vividly alternating with
the mafic bands has been artificially put under a separate name (see P3ROgm).
The width of a felsic band in the type area west of Serra Banguatere is several
kilometres on the map, although the true thickness may be just 100 – 150 m. The erosional
width is explained by the local horizontal attitude of foliation in a wide monocline. Owing to
tilting, the common erosional sections are narrower. In areas where the tabular sheets have
been tilted steep to subvertical, they form narrow ridges, implying better resistance to erosion
compared to the assemblage with the mafic bands (Fig. 7.60). The feature is a good guide to
their distribution and orientation. Their orientation is a also good guide to the regional
structural trend since the sheets themselves with their conformable fabric represent the
dominant foliation structure of the area.

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Fig. 7.60. Ridge-forming vertical sheet of felsic component of the bimodal Guro Suite. Monte Nhadimba.

The major mineral components of the rock are quartz, potassium feldspar and
plagioclase, or in the order starting with potassium feldspar, all commonly less or about one
mm in diameter. Dark minerals are commonly scarce, including hornblende or hornblende
and biotite. The dark green hornblende appears on the reddish outcrop surface as mm-size
black dots. Other black dots belong to scarce disseminations of magnetite, which is met with
in all cases. Garnet may occur as tiny grains – in the eastern areas at the Mungari region
garnet is more abundant, particularly in the mafic bands amongst. The grain size variation is
pretty narrow.
The visual fabric of the aplite granite is a clear thinly spaced streaky fabric, best
expressed on weathered surface (Fig. 7.61A). Under the microscope it is less clear because of
the scarcity of platy minerals. Quite frequently the fabric has proceeded into some degree of
segregation, whereby the rock may be called gneiss, even migmatite, although the last
mentioned degree is not common. A type of migmatite occurs, where discrete pegmatite veins
have been introduced discordantly and between foliae, but these veins are associated with a
separate, Pan-African event.
The streaky tectonic fabric has been developed parallel to each intrusion sheet,
obviously during a continued deformation while the magma gradually and simultaneously
crystallised, and repeatedly into axial planes of very tight isoclinal folds of each earlier
fabrics. Any newly emplaced sheet, usually conformable-subconformable to the earlier sheets
in this multi-injectional system has got its own fabric parallel to the sheet. Also, where the
emplacement with relation to earlier sheets or older wall rocks is clearly discordant, the fabric

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within the new sheet develops parallel to the sheet (Fig. 7.61B). The continued crystallisation-
deformation process means that the earlier intrusive units become more deformed than the
later additions, since the latest intrusion phases depict only the last remaining amount of the
sum deformation before the termination of the process, and they also are more often
discordant than the early ones.
One may call the assemblage an injection complex, an assemblage feeded continu-
ously from the source reservoir under continuous tectonic deformation in metamorphic levels.

A B

Fig. 7.61. (A) Streaky fabric in aplitic granite of the Guro Suite. Old quarry E of the Cuchamano village
(0494400/ 8126625), (B) Wall-parallel fabric developed witin a discordant felsic dyke of the Guro Suite.
Magassa village (0562800/8195751). Scale bar is 8 cm.

Magasso metagabbro and mafic gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogb)

Magasso metagabbros and mafic migmatites form the mafic component of the Guro bimodal
intrusive suite. This is the other component of the felsic-mafic injection complex, inferior to
the felsic one, and it occurs in large outcrops without the felsic companion only occasionally.
For the scale, only a few rounded bodies have been drawn on the map, some of them quite
large, however. Similarly to the felsic component, there is more than one pulse of mafic
igneous intrusion, the later ones being less foliated with discordant contact relations with the
fabric of the early ones. The felsic and mafic members are coeval as shown by variable
contact relations, where possible to observe. In most cases this is outmost difficult, owing to
the thorough tectonic flattening and stretching of the two-component assemblage.
The mafic member is less ductile under the deformation. Analogously to the felsic
component, it seems that all of the mafic intrusion sheets have suffered extensive layer-
parallel deformation with associated thinning. Random gabbroic fabric has been preserved
only inside larger bodies and mesoscopic boudins, while the tails of usually highly separated
boudins are effectively to strongly thinned and foliated.
The Magasso metagabbro is, analogously to its felsic companion, a rather fine grained
rock type, composed of hornblende, pyroxene and plagioclase.

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Monte Calinga Muci granite gneiss-migmatite and mafic gneiss-migmatite (P3Ogm)

In most of the area of the Guro suite, the felsic and mafic components occur intimately side
by side on outcrops, parallel to each other. The felsic component dominates over the mafic
component in most cases. With the relative increase of one of them, it is a subjective choice,
when to separate them into their own boxes on the map. So intimate is the association that
most of the area of the Suite on the map has been designated for this two-component rock.
The Monte Calinga Muci, north of the Guro village, is by foot reachable until its root
part, below vertical walls (cf. the cover picture of this Volume). Much easier to reach is the
excellent water-washed big outcrop of this composite rock type below the Changara bridge, at
the channel of the Luenha River. Here the vividly banded assemblage is not only a banded
combination of two contrasting intrusive intrusions, but together highly flattened and
stretched combination of the two (Fig. 7.62 and 7.63A). The gabbro has been preserved only
in isolated boudins while the rest of the mafic bands represent extremely thinned tails of
boudins with foliation parallel to each band. The river channel conditions have prepared the
visual quality of this big outcrop extraordinarily nice. What is seen there is not geologically
unique, or an exception, however. Visually much poorer quality outcrops largely elsewhere in
the bush area fully correspond to the assemblage and its characters as seen here.

Fig. 7.62. Flattened and stretched mafic and felsic association of the Guro Suite. Rio Luenha bridge
(0527931/8134434).

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Visual differences in the rest of the area are seen where the flattening is less intense,
where the gabbroic sheets show their primary igneous fabric in frequent boudins, and where
the less or more deformed assemblage has been intensely cross-folded into complex
interference patterns (Fig. 7.63).
In addition to above, P3Oag, P3Ogb and P3Ogm, respectively, there are a couple of
small polygons on the map labelled as P3Olg, leucocratic gneiss-migmatite, combined to the
Guro Suite without specialisation. Intercalates of the Guro Bimodal Suite, the Mussata
granitoids and the Mungari garnet granite-migmatites are extensive parts on the map and
dominate in the north eastern and eastern domains of the Precambrian area north of the Báruè
Complex.

A B

Fig. 7.63. (A) Detailed photo of mafic and felsic components in Fig. 7.62, (B) Intrafolial isoclinal folds and a
gabbroic boudin of the mafic component of the Guro Suite, hosted by the felsic component. NW of Monte
Nhadimba (0551345/ 8192806). Scale bar is 15 / 8 cm.

7.9.3. Lithogeochemistry

The bimodal nature of the Guro Bimodal Suite is clearly seen and verified in the 24 chemical
analyses, from which 17 analyses represent felsic component, granites, and seven analyses are
made from mafic rocks, gabbros and amphibolites (App. 3; Table 7.4, anal. 4 – 27). SiO2
content of the felsic component ranges between 68.10 – 77.60 wt% as the mafic component
has SiO2 values 44.70 – 50.60 wt%. No intermediate composition is among the analyses,
which agrees well with field observations. In the Q vs. ANOR diagram the felsic analyses fall
all in the granite field, a few approach granodioritic composition (Fig. 7.72a). Very low to
zero quartz normative values plot the mafic components as gabbros to the bottom line of the
diagram.
The granites plot to a limited area being both met- and peraluminous (Fig. 7.64b),
approaching the peralkaline field, but not reaching it (Fig. 7.64b). Total alkalies of the
granites average 8% (App.3; Table 4a, anal. 11 – 27) and refer to a mild alkalinity. The
gabbros have total alkali content of ~4% and are of a weak alkalic nature. Potassium-sodium
ratio is always > 1 in the felsic component as the < 1 ratio in the mafic component is expected
(see Table 4a, App.3).

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Fig. 7.64. Chemical classification diagrammes for rocks of the bi-modal Guro Suite.

High Fe/Fe+Mg characterizes the felsic components of the Guro Bimodal Suite. The
Fe# values are from 0.83 to 0.98 (App.3; Table 4a, anal. 11 – 27), the average being well
above 0.9. The same characteristic is seen in the AFM-diagram (Fig. 7.64d), where all
analyses of the felsic component plot along the FeOt-(Na2O+K2O) line in the tholeiitic field.

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High Fe# characterizes also the mafic components of the Guro Bimodal Suite as seen in their
Fe# values of 0.62 – 0.82 (App.3; Table 4a, anal. 4 – 10) and their placement in the AFM-
diagram near FeOt-apex in the tholeiitic field.
High barium (average 815 ppm Ba, counted from anal. 11 – 27 in Table 4a, App.3),
moderate rubidium (average 181 ppm Rb) and strontium (average 96 ppm Sr) plot the
analyses near the Ba corner and along the Ba-Rb line in the Rb-Sr-Ba diagram (Fig. 7.64c).
The contents around and over 1000 ppm Ba are characteristic to those felsic components with
SiO2 below 73 % (App.3; Table 4a, anal. 11 – 19). High zirconium values also characterize
the felsic components (average 666 ppm Zr).
The above chemical characteristics, bimodality, high values of Fe#, high contents of
Ba, Rb and Zr and mild alkalinity are all features familiar to unorogenic, A-type granites (e.g.
Clemens et al. 1986). The unorogenic tectonic setting is seen also in Fig. 7.64e, where
analyses of the felsic components plot well within the field of Within Plate Granites.

7.9.4. Age

A sample (Mos-5/1097-03) of pre-Guro basement represented by what was provisionally

named a ‘granodioritic schist’ and now ascribed to Chacocoma granite has been collected
from the small village of Salinhanga, south of the road from Tête to Songo (0541792/
8202565). The sample represents the felsic part of strongly deformed mixed metagranitic and
metagabbroic rocks (described above).
A total of 15 zircon domains have been dated using SHRIMP methodology. Nine of
these represent magmatically zoned crystal domains with or without thin metamorphic(?)
rims. In addition, three rim domains have been dated. The age data of the magmatic zircon
domains scatter mainly between 960 and 1080 Ma on the concordia diagramme. The weighted
average of the quite concordant but scattering 207Pb/206Pb data gives a relatively reliable age
estimate of 1046±20 Ma for the rock, therby rejecting the apparently highest 207Pb/206Pb age
from the mean age. One zoned zircon gives an apparently higher 207Pb/206Pb age of ~ 1.2 Ga.
Errors are, however, large and overlap partly with other data (App. 2).
The age data from two low U and Th rims and corresponding zoned core domains plot
at the lower end of the data cluster. Therefore, it could be argued that they form a meaningful
younger age group at ~ 0.98 Ga. However, in that case the U-Pb system of the core domains
(preserved zoning) should have reset to correspond the age of the crystallisation of the rim
phase. Furthermore, their imprecise higher 207Pb/206Pb ages and the fact that a few other Pb/U
analyses from zoned crystals without rim phases plot in the same cluster do not strongly
favour this idea.
Three samples of Guro Suite rocks have been collected and dated. These comprise a
sample of aplogranite (Mos-03/1024-02) from Changara, from the streambed below the
Luenha bridge (0528044/813443), another aplogranite gneiss (Mos-04/1072-02) from a
quarry along the Changara-Cuchamano road, close to Cuchamano and close to the margin of
the Archean Zimbabwe Craton (0434400 / 8126625) and a sample of aplitic leucogranite rock
(Mos-19/ 2638-04), collected near Monte Pitão (0497126/ 8124947).
Of sample Mos-03 15 magmatic zircon domains have been dated using SHRIMP
methodology. The concordant or near-concordant data deviate on the concordia diagramme
between 760 and 920 Ma. An upper intercept age of 852±13 Ma can be calculated. Because
the deviation from the discordia line, a weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages of 852±15 Ma is

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supposed to give the best age approximation for the rock. Later metamorphism is indicated by
thin zircon rims around the magmatically zoned crystals but all rims were too thin to be dated.
TIMS analyses of four zircon fractions of sample Mos-04 plot well on the same
discordia line with concordia intercept ages at 867±9 Ma and 389±61 Ma (MSWD=1; n=4).
A total of 21 zircon domains were dated from sample Mos-19 using SHRIMP
methodology. One analysis was rejected because of a high common lead content. On the
concordia diagramme the data divide into two main age groups. The older data split into two
sub-clusters that plot roughly between 850 Ma and 800 Ma. These may represent true age
groups but because the Pb/Pb ages of all data are approximately the same, the data are
considered as a single age group. The ~ 850 – 800 Ma age group includes data from both
zoned (n=11) and homogeneous zircon domains (n=4). The weighted average of the
207
Pb/206Pb ages from zoned zircon domains (n=11) is 867±15 Ma. This is considered the age
for the magmatic zircons.
In addition to magmatic zircons, the older group includes four analyses from
structurally homogeneous zircon domains. The younger data plot around 520 Ma. Of these,
three have a concordia age of 512 ±4 Ma and two show slightly older ages. These were
measured mainly from the rim phases possibly indicating metamorphism at that time. All
these show exceptionally low Th/U. One zircon has a ~ 850 Ma rim domain around a ~ 510
Ma core domain with low Th/U. This means that the older core recrystallised during the Pan-
African metamorphic event. The two, apparently slightly older data do not indicate any
primary age.
In summary three ages can be recognised: (1) 867 ± 15 Ma magmatic zircons, (2) 850
– 830 Ma metamorphic zircon domains and (3) 512 ± 4 Ma metamorphism. Age (1) can be
attributed to the magmatic emplacement of the rocks of the Guro Suite. Age (2) can be related
to extensional detachment faulting (cf. Dirks et al. 1998) and age (3) to Pan-African
metamorphic overprinting.

7.10. PAN-AFRICAN GRANITES

Monte Cáverie granite and pegmatite (P3CV)
Phanerozoic (Pan-African) felsic intrusive bodies are generally restricted to Lake Cahora
Bassa and to the north, to the area described in the Volume 4. In the Volume 2 area one such
occurrence as three small bodies is met with 30 km west of Tete, close to where the Tete-
Matambo-Songo main road crosses the Precambrian/Karoo boundary. Several outcrops have
been mapped, but the distribution is based also on granitic boulder fields, where no true
outcrops were met.
The granite of this unit is a fine- to medium grained, reddish to pale rock. Within the
bodies also reddish to pale pegmatitic varieties occur, otherwise the rock is internally
homogeneous (Fig. 7.65A). In the peripheries of the bodies, the rock also occurs as dykes,
sharply crosscutting all structures of the wall rocks (Fig. 7.65B).

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A B

Fig. 7.65. (A) Pegmatitic variety of Monte Caverie granite. SE of Mte Nhambalati (0520308/8204740), (B)
Medium-grained dyke of Monte Caverie granite intrudes foliated Chacocoma granite. NE of Mte Caconde
(0530317/8211588). Scale bar is 10 cm.

While not isotopically dated, the late Pan-African age of this rock is based on indirect
considerations only. Firstly, the highly deformed rocks of the ca. 850 Ma old Guro Suite are
crosscut by screens of pegmatite, which are slightly deformed, mainly just flattened
associated with rounding of sharp intrusive corners. The Monte Cáverie type granite sharply
crosscuts the deformed pegmatite screens without itself being deformed any more. Secondly,
there is ca. 500 Ma late metamorphic growth rim on zircons in some older rocks, which is
linked with late thermal peak and thereby may be linked with the mentioned pegmatite
screens or/and with also the still later felsic intrusion bodies in the area, perhaps also with the
Monte Cáverie granite.
Considering the timing of the mylonite, augen gneiss and flaser gneiss formation,
flooring the allochthonous sheet of the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite, it must be noted that
the Monte Cáverie granite sharply crosscuts these structures, while itself remaining
structurally intact.

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CHAPTER 8

WEST GONDWANA BASEMENT – TÊTE SUITE

8.1. INTRODUCTION
In the area of the present Map Explanation the only representative of the West Gondwana
basement is the Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite. The Suite is thought to have originated within
the West Gondwana block but then transported to its present allochthonous position, partly as
far south as over the margin of the South Gondwana Block, including the northern parts of
the Tete (1633) and Tambara (1634) map sheets.
The major part of the exposure of the Tete Suite is spread north of the latitude 16º, and
correspondingly it is extensively described in Volume 4, Chapter 6. The description in
Volume 4 may be taken sufficient for characterisation of the Suite also in the area Volume 2.
To avoid extensive repetition, with minimum citing, only particular local features are
addressed in more detail.
The Tete Suite is underlain by carbonatic rocks with intercalates. Of them, the Chíduè
Formation is described above in Chapter 7. A few carbonatite occurrences emplaced into the
mylonite zone below the Suite are described in Chapter 9.

8.2. TETE GABBRO-ANORTHOSITE INTRUSIVE SUITE22

8.2.1. Introduction

The Tete Suite is characterised by low Th-U-K radiometric signatures, resulting in

dark colours in the ternary image that contrast strongly with the higher count rates in both the
surrounding crystalline basement and the Karoo cover (Fig. 8.1a). High to very high, Th(-U)-
and U-dominated radiometric signatures, both in the basement windows and within the
complex, correspond in the field to areas of hydrothermal alteration and associated
mineralisation at the base of the suite.
The Tete Suite is further characterised by strong aeromagnetic anomalies (Fig. 8.1b).
This provides a useful additional mapping tool and shows that the igneous suite does not
extend at depth beyond its present outcrop area. Thickness estimates have been made in the
past on the basis of the aeromagnetic data, but these are severely hampered by strong short-
wavelength anomalies. The 10 – 20 km estimate, reported by Hunting (1984), is irreconcilable
with considerations from different sources (topography, structure, field observations), which
indicate that the igneous suite forms a lopolith with a thickness that probably does not exceed
2 – 3 km in its thickest sections.

22
For layered igneous intrusives where the layers are in some way related to one another the term ‘Suite’ is
preferred over ‘Complex’.

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Fig. 8.1. Geophysical signatures of the Tête Suite. (A) Th-U-K ternary radiometry, coregistered with Landsat
TM Band 5, showing the low to very low radiometric signature of the gabbro-anorthosite suite, (B)
Aeromagnetics – Total magnetic intensity image of the suite. Note NE-SW directed sinistral faults cutting the
suite.

8.2.2. Lithology

The Tete Suite is composed predominantly of gabbro, leucogabbro and norite, with sub-
ordinate anorthosite and minor but widespread ultramafic rock types, mostly pyroxenite, and
rocks mainly composed of iron-titanium oxides. Rock fabrics are generally massive and
medium- to very coarse-grained or even pegmatitic. Widespread replacement of the original
minerals and the imposition of planar fabrics occur in various places throughout the suite but
are most common along the contact with the crystalline basement. These contact zones are
characterised by ubiquitous and intense brittle and ductile shearing.

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Pyroxenite (P2Tpx)
Ultramafic rocks constitute minor but widely scattered constituents of the Tete Suite. They
commonly form bands within the gabbro-anorthosite sequence. On the basis of Landsat
interpretation and mapping, a larger lump is distributed adjacent to the SW corner of the
Mázoè granitoid dome, map sheet 1633. The rock is black, structurally homogeneous and fine
grained. It comprises e.g. orthopyroxene and amphibole, which chemical compositions are
shown in Table 2 of App. 4.

Anorthosite (P2Tan)
Grey or white anorthosite forms a subsidiary but substantial portion of the Tete Suite. It is
composed mainly of andesine or sodic labradorite with minor pyroxene and opaque minerals.
The texture is granular with a tendency towards a bimodal size distribution, with larger grains
of plagioclase being enclosed in a mosaic of smaller grains. Northeast of Tete, there are
gabbro-anorthosites with coarse orthocumulate texture (Fig. 8.2). The rock grades into
anorthosite and to gabbro.

Fig. 8.2. Orthocumulate

texture in coarse-grained
gabbro-anorthosite of the
Tete Suite. An outcrop by
the Tete-Songo road. The
dark minerals are ortho-
pyroxene (reddish brown
and magnetite (black).
(0595846/8225674).
Width of the number
plate is 5 cm.

According to the description in Volume 4, along the main road to Zambia north of
Tete, the majority of anorthosite outcrops occur at or near the base of the Tete Suite where
they bear evidence of intense mylonitisation and cataclasis. Northeast of Tete, along the main
road to Malawi, there are frequent occurrences of highly mylonitised gabbro and anorthosite.
This implies that the underlying granitoid floor is not far below the erosion surface. A
window of the underlying granitoid basement is seen further northeast (sheet 1534, north of
the latitude 16º). On the other hand, not all of the shearing is related only to the underlying
thrust plane, but a multitude of later discordant fractures and shears have broken the rock into
a mass of semiloose material. Such examples can be seen northeast of Moatize. The thickness
of the gabbro-anorthosite sheet is along the southern margin of the Tete Suite probably small
between the basement and the overlying Karoo sediments, so being sensitive to brecciating
factors (see profile in the lower part of the sheet 1633, Tete).

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A small aggregate rock quarry southwest of Moatize is at the lower part of a local hill,
working on foliated anorthosite with gabbroic patches and bands.

Fe-Ti-oxide rocks
The Tete Suite is rich in opaque minerals that locally grade into Fe-Ti-oxide rocks forming
layers parallel to the general magmatic layering. Two outcrops (0595679/8225964 and
0595789/8225721, respectively) close to the main road to Malawi are composed of sole
magnetite(-ilmenite) ore, next to the outcrop of Fig. 8.2. They are supposed to be very close to
the contact of the nearby exposed, underlying Chíduè Formation, or at the contact.

Fig. 8.3. Hypothetical reconstruction of the original position of the Tête Suite prior to SE-directed tectonic
transport over a distance of ~ 40  45 km (length of arrow). The Chipera massif could represent the western
autochthonous extremity of the Tête Suite. The Chimadzi possibly qualifies as a feeder. Background image is
Th-U-K ternary radiometry, co-registered with Landsat TM Band 5 (after Tahon, 2003).

8.2.3. Origin

There is evidence for that the present position of the Tete Suite results from tectonic transport
over an unknown distance most likely from NW to SE (Fig. 8.3); details in Volume 4,
Chapter 6. This solves the longstanding dispute concerning the tectonic emplacement or in-
situ intrusive nature of the suite. Even so, it poses an additional problem with respect to the
source area.
The association of the Tete Suite gabbros with anorthosite cumulates (and transitions
from one to the other) and the association of the latter with Fe-Ti-oxide mineralisation leaves
no doubt about the intrusive origin of the suite. This is confirmed by Ashwal (1993) who
included the Tete Suite in a group of some 30 massif-type anorthosites in Gondwana.

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CHAPTER 9

PHANEROZOIC COVER

The Phanerozoic cover in Mozambique comprises all lithologies deposited after the Pan-
African Orogeny. These are generally (sub-)horizontal terrestrial sediments and associated
(sub-)volcanic rocks that have not been affected by penetrative deformation but may show
extensive brittle tectonic deformation structures.
The Phanerozoic cover is conveniently divided into (from old to young) the Karoo
Supergroup and East Africa Rift sequences. The first, which has been deposited during the
Karoo Event, i.e., the break-up of Gondwana, has been divided into (1) Lower Karoo and (2)
Upper Karoo Groups. The East Africa Rift sequences comprise a loose assemblage of
terrestrial sediments and associated (sub-)volcanic rocks that can, in part, be related to the
development of the East Africa Rift System (EARS). The East Africa Rift sequences have
been divided (from old to young) into (1) Lupata Group, and lithologic units deposited during
the (2) Cretaceous, (3) Tertiary and (4) Quaternary, respectively.

9.1. KAROO SUPERGROUP

9.1.1. Introduction

Karoo rocks in Mozambique are deposited in a number of graben-type rift structures. These
include (from north to south) in the Metangula graben (Niassa Province), the Rovama basin
(Cabo Delgado Province), the Moatize-Luia Graben (Tete Province). Further southwards,
basic and acid lavas (including ignimbrites and tuffs) of the Lebombo rift make up the bulk of
the Karoo sequence occupying a narrow belt of Karoo rocks along the border of Mozambique
with South Africa and Zimbabwe. These strata dip eastwards, forming a monoclinal flexure,
and underlie a thick cover of Cretaceous and younger sediments of the Mozambique basin.
Superposition of several phases of extensional brittle tectonics may produce complex
rift structures. The NW-SE trending Moatize-Luia basin apparently formed by superposition
of NE-SW directed Cretaceous extensional tectonics superposed on the older E-W trending
Mana Pools/Cahora Bassa or Middle Zambezi Graben in the Zambezi valley (northern
Zimbabwe, southern Zambia and Tete province). The crystalline basement block in between
constitutes a horst. Subsequently, during the Tertiary, E-W directed extensional forces give
rise to N-S directed rift structures (e.g., the Lake Malawi trend).
The Karoo Supergroup of the Moatize-Luia Graben (Tete province) consists of a thick
sequence of sandstones and argillites with coal seams near the base. Bimodal lava flows do
not occur in the top of the succession, as in the Main Karoo basin, but in the middle part of
the Karoo sequence. Bimodal magmatism at the end of the Karoo Event is, however,
expressed by the Rukore (Bimodal) Suite of which the felsic component is represented by the
Rukore microgranite and related felsic dykes and the mafic component by dolerite dykes and
small microgabbro intrusive bodies. The latter are separated with a para-unconformity (and
hiatus?) from the Cretaceous Lupata Group, also composed of coarse clastics and an alkaline
bi-modal volcanic suite.

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9.1.2. Lower Karoo Group

The depositional history of the Lower Karoo Group starts with a period of glaciation of
Dwyka age (latest Carboniferous) and ends with the deposition of mixed, coarse- to fine-
grained clastic deposits during the Permian.

Vúzi Formation* (CbV)

In the area of the present Map Explanation, the Vúzi Formation* is only exposed in a few
locations in the Tambara map sheet (SDS 1634). Its original extension was apparently
restricted since they only filled the lowest depressions in the pre-Karoo landscape. According
to former field studies, tillites occur as small and scattered outcrops some 11 kilometres west
of Chicoa village (north of the Explanation area). This includes the Vúzi type locality near the
coal-bearing Chicoa-Mecúcoè Basin (see Map Explanation - Volume 4; GTK Consortium,
2006d). Within the area covered by this Map Explanation Vúzi exposures are found in the
Moatize Basin (SDS 1634). The Formation* comprises fluvio-glacial and fluvial conglo-
merates, feldspathic sandstones, carbonaceous claystones, siltstones and coal-bearing seams.
Polished surfaces, but rarely with striae, are observed on larger blocks. In the Moatize area,
these deposits are overlying Precambrian kaolinized granites (Hunting, 1984).
The Vúzi Formation* at the base of the Karoo Supergroup has an Upper Carboniferous
age, equivalent to the Dwyka Group of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa.

Moatize Formation*(PeM)
Exposures of the Moatize Formation* are encountered along the northern bank of the
Zambezi River in three coal basins, i.e., Chicôa-Mecúcoè, Sânangoè-Mefidéze and Moatize-
Minjova Basins. Only tle last one is described in this Explanation, however, the others being
discussed in Volume 4 of this series of Map Explanations (GTK Consortium, 2006d).
In the Moatize-Minjova Basin, the Moatize Formation* is well exposed in the Moatize
river valley (SDS 1633), where it reaches a thickness of 340 m. It consists mainly of
carbonaceous sandstones, with six different coal seams. Koch (1961), cited by Real (1966),
reported that the bottom of the Formation is here attributed to the Cambéua Sandstone unit
(not shown on the map at scale 1: 250000) with quartzitic sandstones and conglomerates, with
a maximum thickness of 16 m.
The main coal-bearing seams in the Moatize-Minjova Basin with their respective
thickness are (from bottom to top):
• Sousa Pinto Seam (14 m).
• Chipanga Seam (36 m).
• Bananeiras Seam (27 m).
• Intermediate Seam (22 m).
• Grande Falésia Seam (12 m).
• André Seam (1 m).

The footwall contact of the Moatize Formation* is either with the Vúzi Formation* or
covers unconformably the crystalline basement. The unit mainly comprises white to grey
arkosic, occasionally pebbly sandstones, fine-grained clayey or micaceous sandstones (with
fossil flora) and subordinate black argillites with coal seams (Fig. 9.1). The latter frequently

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contain pyrite or limonite nodules or disseminations. The top of the Formation* is

characterised by sandstones and argillites.

Fig. 9.1. Coal seam in

cross-bedded
sandstone of the
Moatize Formation*.
Road cut east of the
Moatize town
(0581066/8218213).

Within the Moatize-Minjova Coal Basin several species of plant fossils occur. They
have been studied since 1912 by Gothan. According to Daber (1984) and other authors, the
following species have been found: Asterotheca sp., Gangamopteris, Glossopteris ampla
(Dana, 1849), Glossopteris angustifolia (Brongniart, 1828), Glossopteris brancai (Gothan,
1914), Glossopteris browniana (Brongniart), Glossopteris damudica (Feistm, 1881),
Glossopteris indica (Srivastava, 1956), Glossopteris pseudocommunis (Kovacs, 1976),
Glossopteris taeniopteroides (Feistm, 1879), Psygmophyllum kidstoni (?), Samaropsis
zambezicum (Hoeg and Bose, 1960), Schizoneura africana (Fristmantel), Sigillaria sp.,
Sphenopteris af. alata (Brongniart), Sphenophyllum oblongifolium (Germar and Kaulfuss),
Sphenophyllum speciocum (Royle), Sphenophyllum thonnii (Mahr), and Vertebraria indica
(Royle).
The presumed age of the Moatize Formation* is Early Permian, equivalent to the Late
Dwyka to Early Ecca Groups of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa.

Matinde Formation* (PeT, PeTc)

Overlying the coal-bearing Moatize Formation*, the Matinde Formation* comprises a thick
succession of alternating, fine-grained to gritty, very coarse-grained sandstones in the
northern part of the Explanation area (SDS 1632-1634). Conglomeratic layers, 2 – 5 metres
thick, with well-rounded vein quartz pebbles up to 5 cm in size, are very common, quartz
gravel in riverbeds and surface rubble being generally derived from these conglomerates.
Cross-stratification is nearly always present and varies from cross-bedded layers being a few
centimetres thick to 1 – 2 metres in thickness
The grey-coloured sandstones are fine- to coarse-grained, arkosic or micaceous in
composition, with carbonate cement. Iron impregnations, which give the rock a reddish
colour, are observed in places. Sometimes, layers of greenish grey clay are found. In places,

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these sandstones present fossilised trees of Dadoxylon nicoli Seward, up to 2 m in diameter

(Seward, 1917; Silva and Carvalho, 1967).
Sediments of the Matinde Formation* in the Birira region (SDS 1633) are
predominantly composed of sandstones and subordinate creamy coloured clay and
conglomerate that alternate with rhyolites and basalts of overlying Upper Karoo formations.
Compact to soft, weathered sandstone with narrow cream coloured mudstone laminae,
trending 150o/14oSW, are exposed in a tributary of the Mavúzi River (Fig. 9.2). Coarse to
very coarse-grained sandstone with some conglomeratic layers and fine calcite veinlets occur
at the same location. The conglomerate may contain clasts up to 3 cm in diameter. Figure 9.3
shows the gradation of the clasts size and cross-stratification. Fine to medium-grained
sandstones with yellowish-light brown colours, trending 310 – 340o/12oSW, are also common
in this area. A huge, whale back-shaped outcrop in the area northeast of the Birira village
(0523196/8189443) is composed of arkosic sandstones, trending 340o/10oSW and cut by
subvertical microgabbro dykes trending 305o.

Fig. 9.2. Well-bedded

sandstones with interlayered
clay laminae. The Matinde
Formation* in Rio Mavúzi
(0527823/8191363). Hammer
is 65 cm long.

Yellowish-grey, coarse-grained arkosic sandstones with conglomeratic horizons,

containing occasionally isolated clasts of vein quartz up to 3 centimetres in diameter are
observed during an itinerary along the Nhanfiti River, the left tributary of the Sorodeze River
(SDS 1633).
Coarse-clastic deposits of the Matinde Formation* are widely exposed to the north the
tectonic contact between Phanerozoic and Proterozoic terranes on the Chioco map sheet (SDS
1632), where the size of polymictic clasts in cross-bedded sandstones locally exceeds 20 cm.
Similar coarse-grained or pebbly pebbly sandstones crop also out beneath basaltic lava flows
in the core of the Serra Mevunge volcanic dome.
An Early to Middle Permian age is assumed for the Matinde Formation*, equivalent to
the Middle/Upper Ecca of the Main Karoo Basin, South Africa.

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Fig. 9.3. Pebbly sandstones

with intraformational
conglomerate horizons. The
Matinde Formation*. Rio
Mavúzi (0527823/ 8191363).
Hammer is 65 cm long.

9.1.3. Upper Karoo Group

The Upper Karoo Group comprises a number of informally defined formations together with
interstratified volcanic rocks of Early Triassic to Early Jurassic age. The epoch is concluded
with the emplacement of the Rukore Suite, a bimodal igneous suite, now reliably dated at 180
– 190 Ma. The latter is coeval with and possibly related to the Gorongosa Suite and the
volcanic rocks of Sabi and Lebombo Monoclines further to the south. Field obdervations are
mainly from Massangano, Birira and Lupata trough areas (Tete map sheet, DS 1633) and
from the Serra Mevunge dome (Mecumbura and Chioco map sheets, DS 1631-1632).

Cádzi Formation* (PeC)

Surrounding the northern end of the Lupata trough (SDS 1633-1634) as an arch-like belt,
deposits of the Cádzi Formation (former Tete Sandstone Formation*) comprise reddish
brown, arkosic sandstones with cross stratification (Fig. 9.4), limestones, and carbonated
sandstones. Subhorizontal beds of similar mineralogically immature sandstone crop also out
more south, along the tectonic contact with the adjacent Proterozoic terrane (Fig. 9.5A).
In the Gádzi sandstones the grains are moderately sorted and subangular to moderately
rounded. Quartz grains slightly dominate over feldspar grains (Fig. 9.5B), and there are also
some mica grains. Matrix occupies 10 – 15 % of the rock, and it is mainly composed of
carbonate. The rock can be called as a medium- to coarse-grained arkosic sandstone.

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Fig. 9.4. Large scale cross-bedding in coarse-

grained sandstone of the Cádzi Formation*.
North of Mte Nhambanda (0710658/
8126999). Scale bar is 10 cm.

A B

Fig. 9.5. Sandstones of the Cádzi Formation*. (A) Thick beds of mineralogically immature sandstone. Road
cut east of Rio Muche bridge (0640385/7984758), (B) Microphotograph of mineralogically immature arkosic
sandstone, which composes about equal amount of quartz and feldspar grains (0589536/8179007). Scale bar is
10 cm, width of photo is 11 mm.

In places, thin conglomeratic horizons with clast material varying from sharp-edged
microcline fagments to well-rounded quartz pebbles occur within these sandstones (Fig. 9.6).
Fossilised trees of Rhexoxylon africanum, Rhexoxylon cf. priestheyi and Dadoxylon sp. have
been encountered in Doa region within the sandstones of this Formation*.

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Fig. 9.6. Highly immature,

conglomeratic sandstone of the Cádzi
Formation*. Road cut east of Rio
Muche bridge (06414355/ 7985068).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Immature deposits of the Gádzi Formation* conformably overlie the clastic sediments
of the Matinde Formation, and are overlain by basalts of the Chueza and Rio Nhavúdezi
Formations*. The Cádzi Formation* can be correlated with the Tchaca Formation, identified
by previous workers (Afonso, 1975).
A Late Permian to Early Triassic age is generally accepted. As such it straddles the
boundary between Lower and Upper Karoo. It is separated from the overlying Uçúpè
(Sandstone) Formation* with a hiatus

Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* (JrRN)

Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* comprises a succession of amygdaloidal basalts, found randomly
around the Lupata trough, but forming a major lithological unit south of Nhamatanda village
(SDS 1934) and continuing from there as a 5 – 20 km wide belt over 250 km southwest to the
Zimbabwean border (SDS 2032, south of the Explanation area). On the aeromagnetic and
radiometric maps the homogeneous lava succession stand out as distinct positive and negative
anomalies, respectively. The lower contact of the Formation* is exposed in the tributary of
Rio Mebahata (SDS 1734), where flow-brecciated basalt lava overlies a conglomeratic variety
of the Chueza Formation* (Fig. 9.7). The upper contact with the rhyolitic rocks of the Serra
Bombuè Formation* is gradual, thin rhyolitic interbeds existing between basaltic flows in the
upper part of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation in the Mebahata River (Fig. 9.8), but unexposed
contacts of the basalt succession south of Nhamatanda village are probably tectonic.

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Fig. 9.7. Exposed contact

between basaltic lava of the Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation* (top)
and underlying conglomerate of
the Cádzi Formation*. A
tributary of Rio Mebahata
(0635136/ 8017203). Scale bar
is 8 cm.

Fig. 9.8. Rhyolitic interflows in

the upper part of the Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation* in Rio
Mebahata (0636470/8016042).
Hammer is 65 cm long.

Macroscopically, dark greyish or brownish green, fine-grained basalts are generally

aphyric, but also porphyritic varieties with plagioclase phenocrysts have randomly been
found. Rare medium-grained varieties encountered within basalt probably represent the
massive cores of flows, but their origin as dykes or sills is not excluded. No pyroclastic or
sedimentary interbeds have been found within basaltic succession. Zoned amygdules with
chalcedony and zeolite filling are common in upper part of subhorizontal to steeply (up to
50o) east dipping lava flows, and irregular megavesicles up to 30 – 40 cm in size exist in
basalts of Rio Mebahata. There is also a well-developed columnar jointing visible in some
basaltic flows (Fig. 9.9).

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Fig. 9.9. Columnar jointing in

amygdaloidal basalt of the Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation*. Rio
Mebahata (0636409/8016210).
Scale bar is 8 cm.

Texturally, fine-grained basalts are subophitic rocks with plagioclase and clino-
pyroxene and olivine as major minerals, secondary biotite and chlorite being most common
accessories. Chemically, basaltic lavas of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* are subalkaline
tholeiites (App. 3, Table 5, anal. 8 – 11; Fig. 9.26).

Serra Bombuè Formation* (JrSb)

Rhyolitic rocks of the Serra Bombuè Formation* form a north trending ridge on the western
side of the Lupata trough, northeast of Gorongosa Mountain (SDS 1734). Less than 4 km in
width but over 30 km long, gently (12 – 20o) east tilting rhyolite formation is emplaced
between basaltic lavas of the Rio Nhavúdezi and the Chueza Formations*, clearly differing
from surrounding lithologies with it's high positive aeromagnetic and radiometric anomalies.
A well-exposed traverse along Rio Mebahata reveals the gradual contact with
underlying basalts of the Rio Nhavúdezi Formation*, thin felsic lava flows alternating with
basaltic flows in the upper part of the Rio Nhavúdezi succession (Fig. 9.10). In hand
specimen, rhyolite is chocolate brown and fine-grained, exhibiting locally a well-developed
flow banding. A low breccia with spherulitic texture in sharp-edged fragments occurs in the
basal part of the rhyolite succession, but otherwise the rock is rather massive, indicating rather
thick cooling units.

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Fig. 9.10. Contact between

rhyolitic lava flow of the Serra
Bombuè Formation* (top) and
brecciated basalt flow of the Rio
Nhavúdezi Formation*. Rio
Mebahata (0636470/ 8016042).
Hammer is 65 cm long.

Rio Mazoe Formation* (JrIa and JrIb)

Although rather restricted in areal extent, Rio Mazoe Formation* is well developed on the
Chioco (SDS 1632) and Tete (SDS 1633) map sheets, where basaltic and andesitic lavas of
the Formation* overlie sandstones of the Matinde Formation* and are overlain by rhyolites
of the Bangomatete Formation*. The most extensive outcrop areas of of the unit exist to
the west of Rio Mazoe bridge and in central parts of the Serra Mevunge dome structure.
Due to different intensity of weathering, the colour of basaltic lavas varies from dark
greyish green to chocolate brown or dark reddish brown, often hampering identification of
the actual rock composition. Consequently, radiometric data were generally used to
separate basalts from more felsic varieties of the volcanic sequence, basalts exhibiting
poor K/Th signature on airborne radiometric maps.
On the river banks to the west of the Rio Mazoe bridge, fine-grained basalts form a
pile of gently (12 – 20o) SWW-dipping lava flows (Fig. 9.11). The estimated thickness of
flows, based on vesicle-rich flow contacts, varies from 2 – 3 m up to 10 – 15 m in the lower
part of the formation. Also many features distinctive for flood basalts have been observed:
existence of basal pipe-vesicle zones, vertical vesicle cylinders and columnar jointing in the
flow cores, and ropy lava (pahoehoe) structures on the surfaces of flows (Fig. 9.12). On the
highly vesicular flow tops, calcite and zeolite-filled vesicles and vugs, up to 20 – 30 cm in
size, have often bright, blue-green chrysocolla linings.
Since no intervening layers of sedimentary or pyroclastic material between lava flows
has been observed, the intensity and rate of eruption has probably been rather high, a feature
also typical for continental flood basalt provinces.

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Fig. 9.11. A pile of thin, vesicle-

rich basaltic lava flows of the
Rio Mazoe Formation*. W of
the Rio Mazoe bridge
(0540215/8170865).

Fig. 9.12. Ropy lava (pahoehoe)

structure in basaltic lava flow.
Rio Mazoe Formation*. West of
the Rio Mazoe bridge (0539576/
8170743). Scale bar is 15 cm.

In the Serra Mevunge dome area, basaltic and andesitic lava flows, identical to those
described from the Rio Mazoe area, are exposed between coarse-clastic Lower Karoo
sandstones and rhyolite flows of the Bangomatete Formation*. Ropy lava structures and pipe
vesicles are common, the size of zeolite and calcite-filled vugs in the uppermost flow-top
zone locally exceeding 30 – 40 cm (Fig. 9.13). Compared to the Rio Mazoe area, the
thickness of flows is generally inferior. Based on the occurrence of pipe vesicles in the basal
zones of flows, several individual flows of less than one metre in thickness have been
observed.
Dark green, in places very fractured and, when weathered, chocolate-brown basaltic
lavas are exposed in an area 3 km east of the Changara village, forming a mountainous region
extending over 10 km by 10 km. Amygdaloidal and porphyritic textures, with altered
plagioclase phenocrysts, are observed in places. In some areas concentrations of quartz

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geodes are found in the upper parts of basaltic flows. White agate pebbles are common in the
area, probably derived from agate-filled vesicles.

Fig. 9.13. Large, zeolite-filled

vugs (gas cavities) in the upper
zone of basaltic lava flow of the
Rio Mazoe Formation*. Serra
Mevunge dome (0420090/
8227068). Scale bar is 15 cm.

In the Birira area (SDS 1633), the basalts are dark grey in colour and sometimes
amygdaloidal. These basalt flows may alternate with rhyolite flows (Fig. 9.14). South of
Birira, rhyolite flows constitute prominent hills and are interbedded with basalts flows.
Frequently, the rocks are very fractured. Ignimbritic enclaves with common calcite veins
occur in places. Approximately two km SW of Birira, a 30 cm thick calcite vein, trending
330o/vertical, can be followed over a considerable distance. Its direction corresponds with a
NW-SE fault system that was interpreted from the satellite imagery.
The old K-Ar age of 166±10 Ma (Flores, 1964) has been invalidated in view of more
recent geochronological results. A Middle Jurassic age (180 – 190 Ma) is more likely for the
basalts of the Rio Mazoe Formation*.

Fig. 9.14. Exposure showing contact

between vesicular Bangomatete rhyolite
(light grey; top) and Mazoe basalt (dark
grey; bottom) near the Birira village
(0519978/8181483). Scale bar is 8 cm.

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Bangomatete Formation* (JrBr, JrBb)

Extensive and thick rhyolite flows cap basaltic lavas of the Rio Mazoe Formation* in the
Serra Mevunge dome structure in the NW corner of the Chioco map sheet (SDS 1632) and
in the area east of the Rio Luia and Rio Mazoe confluence (SDS 1633), extending there from
the mesa-like Bangomatete Mountain over 80 km northwest.
In the Rio Mazoe area, rocks of the Bangomatete Formation* comprise a gently (10 –
o
35 ) southwest tilting pile of rhyolitic flows. Geological observations made along Rio Mázoè
and Rio Luia reveal the prevailing pyroclastic nature of these volcanics. In proximity of Mt.
Inhamangombe a heterogeneous sequence of rhyolitic rocks shows features typical for
variously welded ash-flow tuffs or ignimbrites: volcanic breccias with lithic and/or pumice
fragments, lapilli tuffs, fiammes, lithophysae and glomeroporphyric textures suggesting
vapour-phase crystallisation (Figs. 9.15A-D). Light yellowish to dark red (weathered),
generally poorly sorted and massive lapilli tuffs and pyroclastic breccias comprise sharp-
edged lithic (welded tuff) fragments (Fig. 9.15A) or vesicular pumice fragments in various
degrees of welding (Fig. 9.15B). Also flow banding (Fig. 9.15C) and associated quartz and
zeolite-filled lihophysae (Fig. 9.15D), visible in several outcrops around the mountain
manifest the welding of pyroclastic deposits. Fine-grained, massive or laminated tuffs are
locally encountered in areas more distal to Inhamangombe Mountain; possibly they represent
a non-welded facies of ash-flow tuffs or rhyolitic ash fall deposits.
A well-preserved rhyolitic lava lobe or tongue was found in a completely exposed
gorge of Rio Mazoe, about 10 km E of Monte Inhamangombe. Occurring on top of basaltic
lavas of the Rio Mazoe Formation*, this chocolate to pinkish brown, fine-grained flow has
plenty of small, flow-deformed vesicles, oriented (trachytic) feldspar phenocrysts and distinct
flow banding. Several large (up to 4 x 8 m in size) apertures within the flow possible
represent a row of volcanic vents (Fig. 9.16).
With a prominent escarpment to the north, northeast and southeast, Inhamangombe
Mountain forms a circular structure, about six kilometers in diameter, near the confluence of
Mazoe and Luia rivers. Originally thought to be a Karoo or post-Karoo intrusion by Vail
(1963), Hunting (1984) considered it to denote a variety of rhyolitic ash flow tuff.
However, features characteristic of lava flows, for example rubble layers between
individual flow units, were also observed by Hunting team. The general form of the
mountain, probably controlled by ring faults, and the presence of rhyolitic lavas, ash-flow
tuffs, and ignimbrites, suggest Inhamangombe Mountain to represent a former caldera
(Hunting 1984).

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A B

C D

Fig. 9.15. Volcanic structures in rhyolitic flows of the Bangomatete Formation*. (A) Volcanic breccia with
fragment of welded (ash flow) tuff, having fiammes and glomeroporphyric aggregates of alkali feldspar,
probably due to vapor-phase crystallisation, (B) Pumice fragments with roundish or tubular vesicles in non-
welded upper part of tuff. NW of Monte Inhamangombe (0521321/8174795), (C) Flow-banding in the core
of the flow. Rio Luia and Rio Mazoe confluence (0523887/8168344), (D) Quartz and zeolite-filled lithophysae
in the basal zone of rhyolitic flow. Scale bar is 15 cm.

Fig. 9.16. Rhyolitic lava flow

with small eruptive vent in
background. The Bangomatete
Formation. Rio Mazoe
(0532910/ 8170633).

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Observations made around and inside the volcanic structure indicate the rhyolitic rocks
of the area to comprise mainly various types of pyroclastic deposits: pumice breccias,
agglomerates and variously welded ash-flow tuffs with plenty of quartz-filled lithophysae
(Fig. 9.17). The caldera origin of the Monte Inhamangombe was supported by field
verification by the Consortium, manifesting the presence of a coarse, chaotic breccia,
comprising large (up to 2 m in diameter), angular to subrounded lava and tuff fragments, in
the SSE rim of the volcanic structure (Fig. 9.18). This breccia, which appears to be tens of
metres in total thickness, probably represents a talus breccia of a synvolcanic ring fault
system surrounding a magma reservoir (caldera).

Fig. 9.17. Quartz-filled

lithophysae in welded ash-
flow tuff of the
Bangomatete Formation*.
Mte Inhamangombe
(0523787/8169299).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

Fig. 9.18. A chaotic breccia,

comprising of large, angular
basaltic and rhyolitic frag-
ments, probably repre-
senting a talus breccia
around the caldera.
Bangomatete Formation*.
North bank of the Rio
Mazoe (0524862/
8168927). Scale bar is 15
cm

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Interpretation of satellite imagery and potassium radiometrics manifests the presence

of rhyolitic rocks of the Bangomatete Formation* in the Serra Mevunge dome area (SDS
1632). In the northern part of the dome, the volcanic succession shows dips 10 – 12o to NE
due to local faulting. In the northern and northwestern part of the dome, rhyolitic flows form
regular, terrace-like pile of flows. Although no distinct evidence of pyroclastic origin of flows
was obtained during present field verification, their large extent and tabular-like shape infers
to single cooling units of ash-flow tuffs. In the area about 7 km SEE of Monte Chimandau, in
river beds and on a weathered top soil of a highly vesicular, frothy-lava like rhyolite (Fig.
9.19) occur plenty of spherical agates. These layered chalcedony nodules, commonly known
as thunder eggs, and originally developed as gas cavities (lithophysae) in a welded tuff (see
Ross and Smith 1961) also refer to the pyroclastic nature of rhyolitic rocks.

Fig. 9.19. Highly vesicular

rhyolite of the Bangomatete
Formation*. East of Mte
Chimandau (0615085/7989540).
Diameter of coin is 2.5 cm.

In the central part of the Serra Mevunge dome, however, obvious lava structures in
rhyolites indicate that also extrusion of lava flows has taken place. About five kms NE of
Monte Balati, a hill top outcrop comprises dark pinkish brown, dense rhyolitic flows with
zeolite-filled vesicles, showing flow banding and surface folding typical of viscous lava (Fig.
9.20). In the same area rhyolitic lava has small (< 5 cm) graphite fragments, probably derived
from coal-bearing Karoo sediments below. Locally felsic lavas are also porphyric, having
small (< 5 mm) quartz and fleldspar phenocrysts in a fine-grained groundmass. Local, steep to
vertical dips of flow banding in lava flows suggest close proximity to volcanic vents.
In the southernmost part of the Luia Dome area, reddish brown, massive felsic
volcanite has plenty of undeformed, quartz-chalcedony-zeolite-filled amygdules and vugs up
to 5 – 6 cm in diameter. The porphyric rock has plenty of anhedral feldspar crystals up to 10
mm in size, and locally exist also small (<10 cm), dark, dense fragments of basaltic lava.
An obsidian flow, over 3 m in thickness, is exposed over some hundreds of metres on
top of a low hill, about 10 km to the west of Monte Sluxia. The weathered surface of the
massive rock is dull grey, while fresh, conchoidal fractures show a shiny black glassy lustre
(Fig. 9.21). The chemical analyse of the rock is identical with a rhyolitic lava flow from the

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Fig. 9.20. Surface folding of

viscous rhyolite lava flow
belonging to the Bangomatete
Formation*. NE of Mte Balati
(0402690/8203478). Scale bar
is 15 cm.

Fig. 9.21. Massive obsidian

flow within the rhyolites of the
Bangomatete Formation*. Note
the conchoidal fracture in the
sample on the right in the
picture. Location ~ 10 km W of
Mte Sluxia (0405729/ 8207966).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

Rio Mazoe area (App. 3, Table 5, anal. no 18). A volcanic breccia, comprising angular
fragments of felsic tuff in a fine-grained tuff matrix, possibly representing a flow-top breccia
of an ignimbritic flow, is exposed below the obsidian flow.
Fine-grained, pink to reddish amygdaloidal rhyolite flows occur 7 km north of Birira
village (SDS 1633) forming an elongated mountain with a NW-SE orientation, dipping to the
SW. The amygdales are generally filled with calcite and, at places, with zeolite. Rhyolitic
agglomerates are also present. Grey chalcedony and ignimbrite horizons occur elsewhere. The
latter show a well-preserved banding, dipping 15 – 20o SW. Distinct flows have been
recognised, ignimbritic horizons usually forming the top of the hills. Calcite veins, up to 10
cm in thickness, intersect these volcanic rocks.

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Also outcrops of weathered amygdaloidal basalts, trending 320o/10 – 12oNE occur in

places in the Birira area. The rocks are intensively fractured, with a fracture density of a few
to 10 – 12 centimetres, being the attitude of a main fracture system trending 330 – 340o/80 –
90oSW. The contact zone between Bangomatete rhyolites and underlying Rio Mazoe basalts
is located near the observation point 10328-03 (0519978/8181483). The contact is
concordant, striking 310°. A subvertical, nort-west trending rhyolite feeder with large gas
cavities was found intruding basalts near the contact (Fig. 9.22).

Fig. 9.22. Rhyolite feeder, showing strong

weathering of the Bangomatete
Formation*. Birira area (0521570/
8180637). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Traditionally, a Middle Jurassic age is attributed to the Bangomatete Formation*,

equivalent to the Lower-Middle Stormberg of South Africa. In view of recent geochrono-
logical data, an Early Jurassic age is more likely.

Chueza Formation* (JrC)

Basaltic flows of the Chueza Formation* constitute an uninterrupted exposure between the
Sinjal and Chueza settlements in the northeastern side of the Lupata trough (SDS 1634) (Fig.
9.23). Here, the upper basalts of the Chueza Formation* are in direct contact with the lower
basalts of the Rio Mazoe Formation*. Similar basalts are also found in the Massangano region
(SDS 1633), and at Monte Cinzeiros geodes, reaching 30 centimetres in diameter with fine
crystals of calcite up to 10 centimetres long, have been observed.

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Fig. 9.23. Exposure of basalt

flows of the Chueza Formation*
in the Chueza area
(0657706/8174088). Scale bar 10
cm.

Similar basalts are also exposed along the Monte Linhanga escarpment, and at Monte
Cuadezo grey, fine- to medium-grained basalts, some with amygdaloidal structures, form
small, scattered elevations. There basalt flows have an orientation 330o/34oNE with vertical
fractures. Sometimes, basalt flows form small kopjes (in direct contact with the sandstones) or
their presence is indicated by basalt boulders. In places the dark grey-green rocks are
porphyritic with plagioclase phenocrysts. Vertical, NE-trending basalt feeders are exposed in
the Chueza area.
In the western side of the Lupata trough, an excellent section of Chueza basalts can be
found in the Búzua village (SDS 1734), where a pile of subhorizontal compound lava flows is
fully exposed in a Pompue River gorge. There the thickness of single flows varies from 1 – 2
m into massive, over five metres thick flow with a regular cooling joint pattern. The upper
part of flows have often plenty of small, roundish amygdules, while elongated and bended,
calcite and zeolite-filled pipe amygdules up to 15 cm in length at the flow bases demonstrate
the northwestern direction of flows (Figs. 9.24A and 9.24B).
Locally within the basaltic flows occur roundish, bun-like structures, which probably
represent vertical cross sections of lava toes (Fig. 9.24C), and also a small, collapsed lava
tunnel, about one metre in diameter, was found in the river gorge.
A tectonic contact between Chueza basalts and Mesoproterozoic gneisses is exposed in
the southern bank of the Pompue River, about five kilometres west of the Búzue village.
There the steeply (60o) east dipping contact is rather sharp although mylonitized (Fig. 9.25).
Traditionally, the age of basalts of the Chueza Formation* have been compared with
the Drakenberg flood basalts (~ 180 Ma). In view of the new geochronological data a slightly
older age must be assumed.

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A B

Fig. 9.24. (A) Basaltic lava flows with elongated and

bended pipe amygdules, showing the flow direction
from southeast, (B) Detailed photo of lava flow
contact with fork-like pipe amygdules at the base of
the upper flow, (C) A vertical cross section of lava
lobes in a thin, basaltic lava flow. The Pompue River
gorge in the Búzue village (0624901/8092174). Scale
bar is 15 cm.

Fig. 9.25. Tectonic contact

between basalts of the Chueza
Formation* (on the left) and
Mesoproterozoic gneisses. South
bank of the Pompue River
(0620158/8090549). Scale bar is
15 cm.

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9.1.4. Geochemistry

A total of 22 volcanic rock samples of Upper Karoo Group have been analysed (App. 3, Table
5, anal. 1 – 22). The chemistry of Rio Mazoe Formation* is characterised by seven analyses,
Rio Nhavúdezi Formation* by four analyses, Serra Bombuè Formation by one analyse,
Bangomateta Formation by six analyses and Chueza Formation by four analyses, the
formations listed in stratigraphic order starting from the oldest formation. The two oldest
formations and the youngest formation are composed of mafic volcanic rocks as the rest of
the formations do represent silicic volcanism. The stratigraphy indicates, that the mafic and
silicic volcanism was quite coincident.
The mafic rocks plot similarly in all diagrams (a-f) of the Fig. 9.26, and classify to
subalkaline tholeiitic basalts and andesites. Without two exceptions, their K2O/Na2O ratio is
always < 1. Moderately high Fe/Mg (Fe# 0.60 – 0.78, Table 5 in App. 3) characterizes the
rocks, also seen in the AFM diagram in Fig. 9.30d. An exception is the high MgO value of
20.20 wt% (anal. 1, Table 5 in App. 3) from a mafic volcanic rock of the Rio Mazoe
Formation*. The features above do not contradict to the chemical characteristics of
continental basalts they classify in the diagrams discriminating geotectonic settings (Fig.
9.26e, f).
The silicic volcanic rocks of the Upper Karoo Group (Bangomatete and Serra Bombuè
Formations*) are rhyolitic in composition, although some analyses have lower SiO2 contents,
being classified as dacites. A weak alkalinity is seen in some analyses, whose Zr/TiO2 plot
them transitional to trachytic fields in diagram a). High Fe/Mg is characteristic and keep
silicic volcanics outside of calc-alkaline affinity.

9.2. RUKORE SUITE

9.2.1. Introduction

The name has been adapted from neighbouring Zimbabwe, where the Rukore Intrusive Suite
(Barton et al. 1991) forms the Rukore range, topographically continuous with the
mountainous Rukore granite area in Mozambique. The close spatial relation of Rukore granite
and microgranite and dolerite dykes, the compositional and textural similarities of
microgranite dykes and Rukore granite and variable intrusive relations of the dolerite dykes
and microgranite (i.e., the Rukore granite is intruded by dolerite dykes, Fig. 9.27), indicate a
broadly coeval; emplacement of the mafic and felsic igneous products. It is therefore justified
to assemble these rocks in the ‘Rukore Bimodal Suite’.

9.2.2. Lithology

These rocks are widespread in the Precambrian basement and in the Karoo volcano-
sedimentary terrains and were forcibly intruded or emplaced along Mesozoic weakness zones.
Barton et al. (1991) report that the larger intrusions have marginal zones of brecciation and
that dykes have chilled margins.

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Fig. 9.26. Chemical classification diagrammes for Karoo volcanic rocks in the LOT2 area.

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Felsic intrusives (JrR, JrRg, JrRf)

Felsic intrusives of the Rukore Suite comprise microgranite (e.g. the Rukore granite),
porphyry (e.g. the Bungue porphyry), rhyolite, felsic tuff and volcanic plugs. The latter may
have a dacitic composition. Rare felsic components have a nepheline syenitic or phonolitic
composition. The Rukore granite occupies a distinctly elevated area, ~ 20 km2 in size, close to
the Zimbabwean border in the southwestern part of map sheet 1632 (Chioco).

Fig. 9.27. Exposure of Rukore

granite and dolerite dyke. The
Rukore Suite. Mte Rukore
(0472208/8158403). Scale bar 8
cm.

Due to area's poor accessibility (even a possible landing site for a helicopter is difficult
to find), geological information on the Rukore granite has remained limited. During map
compilation, the extension of the Rukore granite has been outlined by interpretation of
satellite imagery and extrapolation of the geological map (1:100 000, Crow and Chimango
1990) covering the neighbouring Nyamapanda district in Zimbabwe.
The Rukore granite is a porphyritic, massive, non-deformed microgranite, generally
pinkish in colour. Feldspar is found as phenocrysts of various shapes from euhedral to round
or corroded and fragmented. The phenocrysts are 1 – 2 cm in size, commonly with a 1 – 2
mm thick whitish rim. Quartz is up to 5 mm in size and is both rounded and fragmented.
Green amphibole forms aggregates up to 10 mm. Magmatic mafic enclaves with feldspar
xenocrysts are not uncommon (Fig. 9.28).
In thin section a granophyric texture is commonly observed around the strongly
sericitised plagioclase phenocrysts. Some quartz phenocrysts show euhedral shapes and some
are mantled by amphibole. The matrix is composed of widespread micrographic quartz and
sericitised plagioclase. Plagioclase strongly predominates over potash feldspar. Apart from
sericitisation, plagioclase is also affected by carbonate and epidote alteration. Epidote
alteration also commonly affects amphibole. The frequent micrographic and granophyric
textures of the Rukore granite rule out an unambiguous plutonic origin and manifest a semi-
deep, sub-volcanic origin.
Although information is based on very limited observation data, common graphic and
granophyric textures of the Rukore granite rule out plutonic origin and hypabyssal,
subvolcanic origin is favoured.

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Fig. 9.28. Granite of the Rukore

Suite. Note felsic and mafic
enclaves, the latter with feldspar
phenocrysts in a microcrystal-
line matrix. Texture of felsic
enclave is subvolcanic. Mte
Rukore (0472208/8158403).
Scale bar is 8 cm.

Several quartz-feldspar porphyry dykes of the Rukore Suite form prominent, blocky
ridges in the Rio Mazoe area, where they are invariably associated with, and occasionally cut
by thinner dolerite dykes. The generally NW-trending quartz-feldspar dykes, called
microgranites by Barton et al. (1991) in the adjacent Nyamapanda area, occur as dyke swarms
in zones measuring up to 30 – 50 m wide and several kilometers in length, often rising several
tens of meters above surrounding landscape.
These massive, brick-red dykes are generally distinctly porphyritic with small (< 4
mm), roundish quartz phenocrysts and euhedral, often zoned feldspar phenocrysts up to 30 –
40 mm in size ‘floating’ in microcrystalline quartzofeldspathic matrix (Fig. 9.29). Olivine and
pyroxene phenocrysts as well as magnetite grains and basaltic enclaves are occasionally
present.

Fig. 9.29. Quartz-feldspar

porphyry dyke with zoned
feldspar phenocrysts and small,
basaltic enclaves. North of Rio
Mazoe (0459259/8191348).
Scale bar is 15 cm.

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Mafic intrusives (JrRmd)

Mafic intrusives belonging to the late Karoo Rukore Bimodal Suite include dykes of micro-
gabbroic to basaltic composition. Barton et al. (1991) report rare picritic compositions from
Zimbabwe. Where they occur abundantly, e.g. as swarms of dolerite dykes or as small stocks
of microgabbro, a structural control by Karoo tectonic accidents appears evident. At places
where they invade coal seams, these dolerite dykes may cause cokefication.
In the Massangano area, on the right bank of the Zambezi River, fine- to medium-
grained (micro-)gabbro stocks have been emplaced into Karoo sandstones. They stand out as
small but prominent hills or, when weathered, betray their presence by chocolate-brown soils.
In places, microgabbro dykes exhibit a preferred orientation. Various directions have been
measured: 140o to N-S to 320o/subvertical. Elsewhere, other directions have been measured.
A strong tectonic control is evident (Hunting, 1984).

9.2.3. Age

Barton et al. (1991) postulated a young, post-Karoo age of ~ 130 – 110 Ma for the Rukore
Bimodal Suite and suggested a correlation with the Chilwa Alkaline Province in southern
Malawi (Cahen et al. 1984). Field evidence, however, indicates a pre-Cretaceous, late Karoo
age as manifested by the fact that Rukore mafic and other dykes intrude repeatedly Karoo
Supergroup lithologies and are also widespread in the underlying crystalline basement, but
not present in the overlying Cretaceous rocks.
The Consortium has dated a sample of Rukore microgranite (Mos-22/ 2893-04;
location: 0472187/8158379), using convential U-Pb geochronology (for details see App. 2).
Three zircon fractions were dated. Two of them give concordant Lower Jurassic ages. As the
Pb/U results from the two individual, very young and low-U fractions are not exactly the
same, the results may indicate some uncertainty within Pb and U fractionation during the
mass spectrometry. One data point is discordant and may indicate involvement of some older
lead. Therefore it is suggested that an age of ~ 195 – 180 Ma is used for the granite (Mänttäri,
2005b)
The Moeza dyke is a north-trending mafic dyke that can be followed along strike over
several tens of kilometres and attributed to the Rukore Bimodal Suite. One sample (Mos-
27/14410-03; location: 0503375/ 8325779), containing abundant pyroxene and plagioclase,
has been collected for whole-rock Sm-Nd isochron dating. The REE-level is high and the
pattern is clearly LREE enriched. The initial epsilon is –0.3, and clearly low compared to
coeval MORB or results from most primitive Karoo magmas. The Sm-Nd analyses on
minerals and whole rock yield an age of 180±43 Ma. Although poorly constrained, the results
support the idea of a coeval bimodal suite and in line with Ar/Ar and SHRIMP ages from
basalts (including picrites) and felsic vocanics (mainly rhyolites and ignimbrites, also
nephelinites) from the Lebombo Monocline. These yield ages between 183 Ma (bottom) and
178 Ma (top) and also indicate coeval emplacement of mafic and felsic volcanic rocks
(Duncan et al. 1997; Riley et al. 2004).

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9.3. GORONGOSA INTRUSIVE SUITE

9.3.1. Introduction

The Serra da Gorongosa is situated at the boundary between DS 1833 and 1834. The highest
point is the 1862 m-high Gogogo peak that dominates the surrounding plateau, underlain by
lithologies of the Báruè Complex, by some 1200 metres. The mountainous zone corresponds
to an oval-shaped intrusive complex, measuring 30 km N-S by 25 km E-W.

9.3.2. Lithology

According to Hunting (1984), the complex consists of a felsic core surrounded by mafic
igneous rocks. Core lithologies comprise micropegmatite-granite with albite, orthoclase,
quartz, clinopyroxene, hornblende, chlorite and biotite. The felsic body has intruded an older
mafic intrusion, which is composed of tholeiitic gabbro with labradorite and clinopyroxene,
and some norite and olivine-gabbro. Quartzose hornfelses and pyroxene-amphibole-
hornfelses have developed in the Báruè Complex host rocks at the contact with intrusive
granitic and gabbroic rocks, respectively.
The felsic and mafic intrusive bodies are readily distinguished in the ternary
radiometric images, where they appear respectively as a lighter coloured core, dominated by
‘spotty’ low to medium K- and Th-signatures, surrounded by a dark, very low-KTU ‘aureole’.
The latter is lacking along the eastern side of the complex, confirming the mapped geology.
Two triangular extensions of mafic signature occur on the north side of the Suite. These are
considered artefacts, resulting from the flight line orientation, since their existence is not
confirmed by the aeromagnetic data, by Landsat TM data23, or by field verification. The
aeromagnetic data clearly define the outline of the Suite and show that it is laterally restricted
to the outcrop area.
A small satellite granite body is mapped 15 km southeast of the Gorongosa Suite in the
1:1 000 000 geological map (Pinna et al. 1987). This is highly doubtful, since none of the
available datasets provide any evidence for its existence. In contrast, two small erosional
remnants of Cretaceous trachytes, just E of the allegedly mapped intrusion, are easily
identified on the basis of their K-(Th)-dominated radiometric signature.
Aerial photograph interpretation by Hunting revealed a detailed emplacement scenario
from the study of the magmatic layering in the gabbros and flow fracturing in the granites.
The gabbros were intruded first along a sub-horizontal contact between the basement and a
cover rock sequence (now eroded), probably in the shape of a lopolith. This was later intruded
by a granitic diapir, which deformed the gabbros’ layering, producing a partial rim syncline.
Finally, a narrow sub-vertical sheet of gabbroic rocks intruded into the central granitic core.

23
The Gorongosa Suite is furthermore situated just east of the boundary between two stitched geophysical
datasets, in casu the 1980s Hunting set, which covers most of the complex, and the new higher-resolution
Fugro set, which covers the area to the west.

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Gabbro (JrGb)
Dark green, fine to medium-grained gabbro of the Gorongosa Intrusive Suite intrudes
micaceous gneisses and calc-silicate gneisses of the Báruè Complex in the NE contact of the
Suite, southwest of the Muera village. Medium-grained, massive gabbro is exposed on the
southwestern slope of Gorongosa Mountain (Fig. 9.30).

Fig. 9.30. Medium-grained,

massive gabbro of the
Gorongosa Intrusive Suite. NW
slope of Gorongosa Mountain
(0608226/ 7952881). Scale bar
is 10 cm.

Granite (JrGg)
Pinkish, medium-grained, massive granite forms the core of Serra Gorongosa Mountain (Fig.
9.31), intruding gabbroic rocks of the Suite. The major mineralogy of syenite granite
comprise albite, orthoclase, quartz, clinopyroxene, and hornblende.

A B

Fig. 9.31. Syenite granite of the Gorongosa Intrusive Suite, sampled for age determination. E slope of
Gorongosa Mountain (624079/ 7964478). Scale bar is 10 cm.

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9.3.3. Age

Traditionally, intrusions like the Gorongosa Suite (SDS 1834/1834) and Serra Morrombala
Suite (SDS 1735/1736) have been related to the Cretaceous alkaline ring complexes (Afonso,
1978). The Consortium has dated a syenite sample (Mos-24/15273-04) from the Gorongosa
Suite (location: 624079/ 7964478), using the convential TIMS method. Two analysed zircon
fractions do not yield a Cretaceous age, as expected, but give concordant and identical Lower
Jurassic ages of 181±2 Ma. Emplacement was, in other words, coeval with the Rukore
Bimodal Suite (Section 8.3.3).

Gorongosa fault/fracture corridor and dyke swarm

The Gorongosa Suite is associated with a large swarm of – mostly NNE-SSW trending –
felsic and mafic dykes that radiate north and south of the Suite over distances of up to 50 km.
They stand out in relief as narrow, sharp ridges. The intrusive material fills a set of subvertical
fault and fracture planes that appear to pre-date the emplacement of the main Gorongosa
intrusive bodies. Notwithstanding their length, the majority of these fractures reveal very little
apparent lateral displacement. A few major fault zones, however, extend from 70 km south of
the Gorongosa Suite to 50 km north of it and are associated with apparent lateral
displacements of close to 10 km. This indicates (1) that extensive block faulting with
significant vertical movement has taken place on some of the faults and (2) that the facies
interfaces in the Báruè Complex are overall weakly dipping (otherwise vertical movement in
the Gorongosa fault corridor would have to be of the order of a few kilometres at least).

9.4. EAST AFRICA RIFT SEQUENCES

9.4.1. Introduction

The East Africa Rift Sequences comprise a loose assemblage of lithostratigraphic units
composed of terrestrial sedimentary strata and associated (sub-)volcanic rocks deposited
posterior to the Karoo event. Their deposition or emplacement is coeval with the development
of the East Africa Rift System (EARS, see also Section 4.2). The grouping does not suggest a
direct genetic relationship with the EARS event in all cases. For example, Pleistocene
deposits are mainly controlled by sea level fluctuations, due to the alternation of glacial and
interglacial periods, rather than by epeirogenesis coeval with the EARS.
The East Africa Rift Sequences thus comprise (from old to young): (1) the volcano-
sedimentary Lupata Group, (2) the Cretaceous carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks of
the Chilwa Alkaline Province, (3) the variegated Cretaceous Sena, Mágoè, Grudja Sandstone
Formations*, (4) the Tertiary Cheringoma, Inhaminga and Mazamba Formations*, (5) the
Neogene volcanic vents and (6) the palaeo-terrace, colluvial and alluvial deposits of the
Quaternary.

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9.4.2. Lupata Group

Introduction
Teale and Wilson (1915) and Dixey and Campbell Smith (1929) were the first to describe this
volcano-sedimentary sequence in the Lupata Gorge of the Zambezi River. Mennel (1929)
coined the names ‘Upper Lupata Sandstones’ and ‘Lower Lupata Sandstones’ for the
sandstones occurring above and below rhyolite rocks. Araújo et al. (1968) referred to this
mixed clastic-volcanic sequence as ‘Lupata Series’, making references to the ‘Upper Lupata
Sandstones’ on top of rhyolites and tuffs. Based on observations in the Doa and Lupata
regions, Afonso (1975) introduced the term ‘Lupata Group’, divided into the Upper and
Lower Lupata Formations. The Lower Lupata Formation is a volcano-sedimentary sequence
with basal feldspathic sandstones, topped by rhyolite flows with fluidal breccias and tuffs.
These members were formerly known as Feldspathic Sandstones and Acid Lavas,
respectively. The Upper Lupata Formation comprises (from bottom to top) conglomeratic
sandstones, sandstone with tuffaceous intercalations, trachytic agglomerate and trachyte and
basalt. The volcanic rocks have alkaline affinities, are enriched in potassium, undersaturated
and are generally attributed to the Chilwa Alkaline Province defined by Bloomfield (1968)
and named after a carbonatite complex in Lake Chilwa (Lago Chiuta) at the border between
Malawi and Mozambique.
The thickness of the Lupata Group varies from place to place. According to Flores
(1964) cited by Afonso (1975), the upper unit is about 150 m thick near the Lupata Trough to
increase to about 200 metres north of Monte Dómuè. In this region, the ‘Lupata Upper
Formation’ rests unconformably on the top of the Uçúpè (Sandstone) Formation*. In the right
bank of the Lupata River and close to the Chueza railway station ruins, the unit tops with a
paraconformity basalts of the Chueza (Basalt) Formation*.
Based on field observations and map analysis, the Consortium (this Map Explanation)
has re-defined the Lupata Group and proposes – in line with international nomenclature – the
informal formation and member names as presented in Table 9.1.

Table 9.1. Lithostratigraphic units in the Lupata Group.

Group Sub- Formation* Member Age

Group (Ma)
Trachytic agglomerate
Monte Linhanga Phonolite Member
Formation
Upper

Sandstone-Tuff
Lupata

Member
Monte Mazambulo Conglo-
meratic Sandstone
Lower

Monte Formation
Palamuli Rhyolite
131±10
Formation
Tchazica Basal Sandstone Fm.

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Tchazica Formation* (JrLT)

The rocks of the Tchazica Formation* are exposed along the western margin of the Lupata
Trough and are constituted by thick-bedded, light brown, feldspathic sandstone layers with
interbedded conglomerate horizons (Fig. 9.32). Pebbles comprise basalt, gneiss and other rock
types derived from the underlying basement, all cemented by a clayey matrix. The unit
presents a maximum thickness of 105 metres.
The light brown, fine-bedded sandstones generally trend ~ 330o/sub-horizontal-05oNE
(e.g., in the Massangano area, between the settlements of Maruca and Tchazica). In places the
sub-horizontal bedding attitude may be disturbed due to the emplacement of nearby small
intrusions of microgabbros and to rejuvenation of fault structures. The sandstones show
locally intense fracturing with many fractures having an orientation 310o/vertical. In the same
region, whitish-greyish medium- to coarse-grained sandstones with some local narrow reddish
horizons, some 4 – 5 centimetres in thickness, occur (Fig. 9.33).
These sedimentary rocks were dated as Lias (Early Jurassic) by Real (1966).

Fig. 9.32. Sandstone of the Tchazica

Formation* showing subvertical jointing in
the Massangano area (0597759/ 8168051).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Fig. 9.33. Bedding in reddish

sandstone of the Tchazica
Formation* (0598465/
8167699). Marker pen is 14 cm
long.

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Monte Palamuli Formation* (JrLP)

The Monte Palamuli Formation* is named after Monte Palamuli (524 m), located north of the
Zambezi River in the Doa area, approximately in the centre of the crescent-shaped polygon
corresponding with the Lupata Group. The rhyolitic volcanics of the unit also occur further to
the SE where they form a mountain range, 50 km in length, parallel to the Malawi border,
between Monte Mfpumba and Monte Chombamuani, some six kilometres north of the Sinjal
settlement.
The rhyolites generally have a thickness of 60 to 120 m, although locally, e.g., in the
area west of Niamaridze, close to Doa and Tumbu, they reach a thickness of about 180 m. The
hanging wall contact is generally with the covering Monte Linhanga Formation*. Elsewhere,
however, they are separated from one another by coarse-clastic sediments of the Monte
Mazambulo Formation*. The footwall contact is also variable. In some locations the rhyolites
are underlain by the Tchazica Formation*. Elsewhere, however, the rhyolites overlie
conformably volcanic or sedimentary rocks belonging to the Karoo Supergroup.
The unit comprises mainly red-coloured rhyolites that form small hills, a few metres
above the surrounding plain. Close to the Lupata Gorge the relief becomes more accentuated
forming a high flat plateau (Figs. 9.34).

Fig. 9.34. Lower part of the Lupata Group on the left bank of the Zambezi River. Behind one of the authors
rhyolites of the Monte Palamuli Formation* form the top of the plateau, overlying sandstones of the Tchazica
Formation*.

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In the Chueza area, rhyolite is massif, amygdaloidal, vesicular and porphyritic,

showing large whitish sanidine phenocrysts contrasting with the dark pink colours of the
microcrystalline to glassy groundmass. They are exposed from close to the Chueza settlement,
extending towards the SE along the road to Doa. Elsewhere, along the road to Chueza,
massive pink-red rhyolite is exposed. Some rocks are amygdaloidal, others brecciated or
tuffaceous. They trend 070o to E-W and dipping 15 – 25o towards south and southeast.
Frequently, they are cut by different, always sub-vertical fracture systems trending 030 – 040o
(dominant), 080o and 270 – 315o. Rhyolite rock also occurs as feeders, trending 290o/sub-
vertical. Agates, up to 10 cm in diameter, are found in the area in association with the
rhyolites.
Near the dam across the Sorodeze River in the Chueza area, a massive flow of red-
coloured, fine- to medium-grained rhyolitic lavas is exposed (Figs. 9.35. and 9.36.). In places,
horizons of rhyolitic tuff, up to 30 cm thick, are interstratified within the main lava flows.
Weathered tuffites have also been found on a hill close to the Nhamajaca settlement, on the
way to Chiguma. Phonolites (to be confirmed with thin section interpretation) occur as in situ
boulders on a hill slope that borders the road going to the Chiguma settlement.

Fig. 9.35. Monte Palamuli

rhyolites (Lupata Group)
outcropping at the Chueza dam
on the Sorodeze River
(0658433/8174691).

Fig. 9.36. Massive rhyolite lava

flows of the Monte Palamuli
Formation* at the Sorodeze
River dam, in the Chueza area
(0658433/8174691) Scale bar is
10 cm.

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Monte Mazambulo Formation* (JrLM)

Monte Mazambulo Formation* comprises an upward-fining sequence of clastic sediments on
top of Monte Palamuli rhyolites. Reddish brown, medium to coarse-grained or pebbly
sandstones with distinct laminar bedding and thin horizons of polymictic conglomerates turn
upwards into silty sandstones. Conglomeratic horizons with subrounded to rounded clasts up
to 10 – 15 cm in size are common, and locally a high-angle cross bedding has been
encountered in sandstones (Fig. 9.37A and 9.37C).

A B

Fig. 9.37. (A) Tabular cross-bedding in coarse-

grained sandstone of the Monte Mazambulo
Formation*, (B) Fossil root in fine-grained sandstone
of the Monte Mazambulo Formation*. Southeast of
the Mte Nhamalongo (0603484/8157829), (C)
Tangential cross-bedding and conglomeratic interbeds
in coarse-grained sandstone of the Monte Mazambulo
Formation*. Southeast of the Mte Nhamalongo
(0602534/8157764). Scale bar is 15 cm.

In the area southeast of Monte Nhamalongo tile-red, fine-grained sandstone or

siltstone with fossil roots (Fig. 9.37B) is exposed below a thin (10 – 20 m) layer of felsic lava
flow. These amygdaloidal rhyolitic lavas probably belong into the Monte Palamuli
Formation*, suggesting coeval deposition of these two Formations*. Also the highest hilltops
of the surrounding platoo are probably covered with rhyolite flows.

Monte Linhanga Formation*

Alkaline lavas of the Monte Linhanga Formation* are exposed on both sides of the Zambezi
River as a crescent-shaped polygon with the concave side directed to the SE. The convex part
of the polygon forms an escarpment that, at some locations, reaches about 400 metres above
the surrounding areas. The Lupata Trough apparently forms a centre of Cretaceous alkaline
volcanism in the same manner that the Luia Trough is a nucleus of Karoo volcanism. The
Cretaceous trachytes and subordinate alkali basalts continue east- and southwards and are

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interbedded with the overlying Sena Conglomeratic Sandstone Fm. The unit is named after a
prominent hill (577 m) along the northeastern margin of the crescent-shaped polygon.

Alkaline lavas (CrLM)

The alkaline lavas can be separated into four different flows that are visible as pronounced
steps, visible when approaching the Zambezi River. A trachytic-porphyritic texture is
characteristic for these alkaline lavas with aligned potassium feldspar and analcime
phenocrysts (Fig. 9.38). Lithologies include trachyte with subordinate to minor tuff, basalt
and analcime phonolite. Their thickness is of approximately 300 m as can be deduced from
drill data obtained by the Gulf Oil Company (Flores, 1964). Geophysically, the trachytes are
difficult to distinguish from the underlying Karoo volcanics but overall, they have a more
uniform magnetic and radiometric signature. More detailed study concerning the mineralogy
and petrology, as well geochemical properties of analcime-phyric phonolites of the Lupata
gorge is conducted by Woolley and Symes (1976).

Fig. 9.38. Detailed photo of

trachytic texture in phonolitic
lava of the Monte Linhanga
Formation*. SW of Mte
Palamuli (0617605/8162505).
Scale bar is 10 cm.

Agglomerates (CrLMa)
Trachytic agglomerates occur in places as mappable units and are considered a separate
facies. They are constituted by cemented ejecta: analcime crystals, lapilli and volcanic bombs
(Fig. 9.39B).

Sandstone and tuffitic sandstone (CrLMs)

Very small outcrops of sandstone, tuffaceous sandstone and tuff have been encountered on
top of rhyolite along the northern margin of the Lupata polygon. From their stratigraphic
position it can be concluded that these mixed sedimentary-epiclastic rocks belong to the basal
part of the Monte Linhanga (Phonolite) Formation*.
The sandstones are, in fact, feldspathic greywackes with about 25 % of fine-grained
matrix. Quartz grains are subangular, texturally moderately sorted, and slightly dominate over
feldspar grains. Their size range 0.25 – 0.50 mm.

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A B

Fig. 9.39. (A) Trachytic Agglomerate Member of the Monte Linhanga Formation* forming the northeast
escarpment of Monte Cuadezo in the Chueza area (0657474/8173990), (B) Detailed photo of trachytic
agglomerate with roundish ejecta. The Monte Linhanga Formation*. SW of Monte Palamuli (0617017/
8162544). Scale bar is 15 cm.

9.4.3. Geochemistry

Seven chemical analyses from volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group point to alkalic
composition. The SiO2 values range from 49.30 to 56.80 wt% (App. 3, Table 5, anal. 33 – 39)
and together with Zr/TiO2 they classify the rocks as phonolites (Fig. 9.40a). High total alkali
content is seen in TAS diagram (Fig. 9.40b), being over 10 %. High Fe/Mg (0.79 – 0.99,
Table 5 in App. 3) keeps the analyses in the tholeiitic field (Fig. 9.40d). Extensional regime
for the origin of the Lupata volcanic rocks is expressed in Fig. 9.40d, where the analyses plot
as spreading center island basalts. Mineral analyses are shown in Table 1 of App.4.

9.4.4. Age

Initially, the volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group have been correlated with the Upper Karoo.
No modern geochronological data are available. Older 40K-40Ar data yield ages of ~ 106 to ~
130 Ma (Barremian-Albian; Upper Early Cretacous; Table 9.2.).

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Fig. 9.40. Chemical classification diagrams for volcanic rocks of the Lupata Group. The rocks clearly plot in
the field of phonolite (a) or phonolite-trachyte (b and c). The alkaline trend is obvious (d) as well as the high
Fe/Mg ratio (e).

Table 9.2. Age determinations volcanic rocks of Lupata Group

Location Rock type Mineral/ Rock Method Age (Ma) Source

dated
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 106±7 Gough et al.
(1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Anorthoclase K-Ar 110±5 Gough et al.
(1964)
Lupata Gorge Kenyte* Whole Rock K-Ar 115±10 Flores (1964)

Lupata Gorge ‘Basalt’ Feldspar K-Ar 131±10 Vail (1963,

1964, 1965)

* Kenyte is phonolitic lava studded with one inch anorthoclase crystals and named after Mt Kenya.

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9.4.5. Cretaceous terrestrial sediments

Sedimentary rocks assigned to the Cretaceous overlie the Karoo Supergroup and Lupata
Group or overstep them onto the crystalline basement in places. These rocks occupy large
tracts of country, notably in the Lupata Trough. The Cretaceous sands and gravels form a flat
featureless countryside. On airborne magnetic maps these rocks show a very low magnetic
susceptibility. Their natural radioactivity is moderate but distinct zoning can be observed in
the Sena Formation* in the region between the Pompue and Nhamapasa rivers (SDS 1733/34
and Ds 1833/34) and appears to be related to the proportion of sandy versus clayey material.
The Consortium has distinguished the following units in the area covered by this Map
Explanation (from bottom to top): Sena, Mágoè, Grudja and Incomanini Formations*.
Undifferentiated rocks of Cretaceous age are marked on the map as ‘Cr’.

Sena Formation* (CrS)

The Sena Formation* comprises the former Grès de Sena and the lithostratigraphically
equivalent Grès de Tete. The unit is mainly composed of barely cemented conglomeratic
sandstones with pebbles of volcanic origin. The lower part of this unit comprises impure
limestone layers with remnants of fossil flora and calcareous claystones with fragments of
fish scales, arthropods and fossil flora. The Consortium distinguishes three mappable units,
with the status of Member, within the Sena Formation* (from bottom to top): (1) Thorium
Sandstone, (2) Basal conglomerate, (3) Upper conglomerate-sandstone Member.

Thorium sandstone Member (CrSt)

Arkosic sandstones with a high thorium signature form a 10 – 25 km wide, north-trending
zone along the Precambrian-Phanerozoic boundary between the Súdeza and Panda Mountains
on the map sheets 1634-1834. Mostly covering volcanic rocks of the Karoo Supergroup, and
being partly covered by Quaternary deposits, the distinct sandstone unit continues southwards
on the map sheet 1934, south of the Nhamatanda village. The provenance for radiogenic
material of this poorly exposed and strongly weathered sandstone on the base of the Sena
Formation* most probably occur within the Precambrian basement terrain in the west, where
felsic intrusive and supracrustal rocks prevail.

Basal conglomerate Member (CrSb)

A conglomeratic horizon with large pebbles of crystalline basement rocks and Phanerozoic
lavas have been observed at the base of the Sena sandstone sequence, the clast material
mostly comprising granites, gneisses, quartzites, feldspar fragments, and lavas (Fig. 9.41). At
the bottom of some deep oil drillholes within the same Formation*, impure limestones and
calcareous schists with fragments of fossil flora, fish scales and arthropods were encountered.
Higher in the sedimentary sequence of the Sena Formation*, conglomeratic layers are
interstratified with medium to coarse-grained sandstones, also tentatively assigned to the
Basal conglomerate Member. These deposits, which cover large areas to the east of thorium-
enriched unit, are brownish or reddish, locally also brownish yellow to light grey, arkosic
sandstones with angular and sub-rounded quartz and feldspar clasts in calcic-clayey cement.
A characteristic primary sedimentary feature for these sandstones is cross-stratification. The
erosion of conglomeratic layers gives origin to the pebble debris, which often cover
sandstones of the Sena Formation*.

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The deposition of Basal conglomerate Member has probably been occurred in a high-
energy fluvial environment, such as alluvial fans, conglomerates interfingering with fluvial
sands within a fault-controlled Cretaceous basin.

Fig. 9.41. Polymictic

conglomerate with well-
rounded quartzite and lava
clasts. The Basal
conglomerate Member of the
Sena Formation*. NE of the
Canxixe village (0654401/
8077386). Scale bar is 10 cm.

Upper conglomerate-sandstone Member (CrSc)Member

Random areas of coarse-grained sandstones and conglomeratic sandstones, assigned to the
Upper conglomerate-sandstone Member, occur in the centre and in southeast corner of the
Chemba map sheet (SDS 1734), where they form tabular geomorphological features such as
elevated and elongated hills with typical dense woodland.
An Albian-Turonian (Middle Cretaceous) or Barremian-Maastrichtian (Middle to Late
Cretaceous) age is generally agreed for deposits of the Sena Formation*.

Grudja Formation* (CrG)

The Grudja Sandstone Formation*, which mostly occur on the map sheets 1834 and 1835, is
composed of glauconitic sandstone with subordinate marl and calcarenite, greenish-yellow in
colour, with Lopha (Alectronya) ungulata fossils at the bottom, followed by massive
fossiliferous limestone up to 200 m in thickness.
A Turonian-Campanian (Late Cretaceous) age is accepted for the lower part of the
unit. The upper part of the sequence is attributed a Maastrichtian-Paleocene age.

Mágoè Formation* (CrM)

The Mágoè (Sandstone-Limestone) Formation is exposed in Zumbo-Changara region and in
the plains and lowlands east and west of the Serra Mevunge dome (SDS 1632). It is composed
of three members (Real, 1966) (from bottom to top): (1) Conglomerate, (2) Sandstone and (3)
Sandstone-Limestone Members. Member (2) grade into and is contemporaneous with parts of
the Sena Sandstone Formation* in the contiguous Lupata Trough, in the eastern part of Tete
province.

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Conglomerate (CrMc)
Conglomeratic layers have been found in many places on the base of Mágoè sandstone
Formation*. A polymictic conglomerate with well-rounded vein quartz pebbles up to 10 cm
in diameter and bigger clasts of micro-gabbro up to about 20 cm in diameter are exposed at a
location where the road to Chioco village crosses the Birira River. Nearby, in the Birira
riverbed, conglomerate with pebbles, 30 – 40 cm in size, and with carbonate cement was
found. These conglomerate exposures are considered to represent the basal conglomerate of
the Mágoè Formation* in view of their stratigraphic position, overlying subhorizontal Upper
Karoo basalts. Intraformational, younger conglomeratic sandstone horizons are exposed
nearby in the same river. The pebbles are composed of rhyolitic, basalt and quartzose rocks of
Karoo age. The general trend of these conglomerates and sandstones is 290o/10oSW. Red,
coarse-grained to conglomeratic sandstone, trending 190o/10oSW, occur at the top of the
white Sandstone Member.
In a tributary of Rio Luia, near the southern margin of the Serra Mevunge dome,
rounded cobbles comprise merely mafic and felsic lavas of underlying Karoo formations (Fig.
9.42A). In the Rio Nhamafite, in the fault zone between Precambrian and Phanerozoic rocks,
angular to sub-rounded fragments of conglomerate are mostly composed of pegmatites,
granites and various schists or gneisses in a greywackish matrix (Fig. 9.42B). Here this
matrix-supported conglomerate has greywackish interbeds and turns upwards into strongly
weathered, silty or muddy sandstone with thin calcite-chalcedony vein network, a feature
typical to sediments near major fault zones of the mapped area.

A B

Fig. 9.42. (A) Polymictic basal conglomerate of the Mágoè sandstone, comprising granioids and gneisses
mostly from the Precambrian terrain. Rio Nhamafite (0461002/ 8191284), (B) Polymictic basal conglomerate
of the Mágoè Formation*, comprising rounded clasts of Karoo volcanics. Tributary of the Luia River south of
of the Serra Mevunge dome (0394485/8190520). Scale bar is 15 cm.

Sandstone and conglomerate (CrMs)

The Cretaceous Mágoè sandstones cover the plains and lowlands to the east and west of the
Serra Mevunge dome (SDS 1631-1632). Due to the friable nature of the formation,
subhorizontal or slightly tilted sandstones are poorly exposed, cropping generally out only as
steep walls carved into the sediments by big rivers (Fig. 9.43).

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Fig 9.43. High wall of slightly

tilted Mágoè sandstone,
unconformably covered by
massive colluvial (Quaternary)
deposits (dark brown). A tribu-
tary of Rio Molinge (0420866/
8230611).

In general, terrestrial Mágoè sandstones consist of fine to medium-grained feldspathic

sandstones, whitish or reddish brown in colour, with thin conglomeratic horizons or random
pebbles derived from mafic and felsic Karoo volcanics. Laminar bedding is common and
cross-stratification is often well developed (Fig. 9.44A). Locally sandstones are affected by
alteration (kaolinization?), tile-red, fresh sandstone portions forming amoeba-like patterns
within the altered Mágoè sandstone (Fig. 9.44B).

A B

Fig. 9.44. Large-scale tabular cross-bedding in a variously altered Mágoè sandstone. A tributary of Rio Metan-
gua (0450792/8206993), (B) Tile-red, fresh sandstone portions in a strongly altered Mágoè sandstone. Rio
Caluaze (0419975/ 8229045). Scale bar is 15 cm, hammer is 50 cm long.

Limestone and sandstone (CrMl)

Limestones and sandstones comprise thinly bedded lacustrine limestone and subordinate
poorly cemented sandstone. Stratification in the latter is not well defined. On aerial
photographs the unit presents a very distinct light coloured tone with a characteristic fine
dendritic drainage pattern. In the field, it forms sparsely vegetated badlands with a yellow
stony, dry and infertile soil.

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9.4.6. Carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks

Carbonatites and associated alkaline rocks – nephelinite and phonolite plugs, alkaline dykes,
dolerite and granophyre dykes – occur throughout the area, particularly in adjacent Malawi
and also form part of the Chilwa Alkaline Province defined by Bloomfield (1968). Within the
area covered by this Map Explanation, carbonatite vents or plugs are located at Lupata Hill,
Monte Muambe, Monte Chandava, Monte Salambídua, Monte Buzimuana and various
nephelinite and phonolite plugs emplaced into the Sena Formation*. At Monte Muambe
carbonatite is in a ring structure formed by (from the margin to the centre): Uçúpè
Sandstones, feldspathic breccias and feldspathic rocks (fenite), cut by trachyte and sideritic to
manganiferous carbonatite veins. At Lupata Hill carbonatite agglomerate and tuffs are
extrusive (Afonso, 1975). Minor related alkaline intrusions at Monte Chandava and Monte
Buzimuana carbonatite is only present as ring complexes and radiating dykes of solvsbergite
and other alkaline rocks.
In the easternmost part of DS 1634, near the Zemira railway yard, a single plug of
basaltic lavas penetrates deposits of Upper Cretaceous Sena (Sandstone) Formation*. Their
distribution appears related to the margins of the Lupata Trough, the Chire Graben and the
Urema Graben. These volcanic vents probably represent igneous activity associated with the
reactivation of old basement faults bounding young rift structures of the EARS.
The newly discovered Rio Mufa carbonatite occurrence in the area of this Volume
belongs to the same cluster as the nearby occurrences of Monte Muande and Monte Fema in
the area of Volume 4. These are unique in the Map Explanations area in that they have been
emplaced into the tectonic shear zone below the Tete Suite. Previously Mt.Muande and
Mt.Fema were not in the class of carbonatites but have now been reclassified as such – see
Volume 4, Chapter 9.

Monte Xiluvo carbonatite Suite (CrX)

The Xiluvo Carbonatite Suite, made up of fine- to coarse-grained calciocarbonatites (sövites
and alvikites), is located in the NW quadrant of the Beira map sheet (SDS 1934), about 14 km
to the west of the Nhamatanda village. The Beira-Machipanda road (EN 6) passes the Suite on
its northern side, while the Beira-Mutare railway line goes around the southern perimeter of
the mountain.
Morphologically, Xiluvo is characterized by a series of elevations roughly forming a
sub-circular structure with ca. 4.5 km in external diameter, constituted by a group of hills
presenting a maximum altitude of 443 metres (Fig. 9.45). This set of elevations, known as
Xiluvo Mount, delimits an internal, caldera-type depression with a diameter of about 3 km. It
constitutes a huge volcanic vent, preserved from the erosion due to the tectonic features of the
region, dominated by the Chire-Urema-Beira Rift System. Externally to the carbonatitic
structure of the Xiluvo Mount, and still related with that volcanic morphology, there are
satellite volcanic bodies, including the Cura Mounts towards NE and several minor elevations
distributed towards SSE.
The Cura Mounts correspond to E-W oriented, alkaline rock pipes, cut by NE-SW
trending fractures, which created a subsided zone, separating the twin hills with 133 and 143
meters of altitude, respectively. The elevations existing towards SSE can be observed up to 10
km far of the volcanic focus, a result from the accumulation of pyroclastic rocks projected
from the Xiluvo volcanic vent.

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Fig. 9.45. A photo taken

towards east from the
top of Xiluvo Mount,
showing a quarry in a
satellite intrusion in the
background.
(0612643/7872650).

The Xiluvo Carbonatite Suite is formed by the following sequence:

• Central core constituted by carbonatite.
• A ring around the central nucleus constituted by volcanic breccias, which can or
not present fragments of carbonatic rocks.
• An external zone around that ring, very complex, in which trachytic and porphyric
rocks densely cut the quartz-feldspathic schistose rocks.

The main intrusion is associated with other smaller plugs of carbonatites and trachytes,
with less than one kilometre in diameter. In ternary radiometric imagery the main carbonatite
plug is reflected by a high- to very high K-Th-U core, surrounded along the eastern side by a
high-K rim and with two separate high-Th and high-U anomalies on the western side. On the
basis of the combined occurrence of slightly higher K-values and contrasting topography,
several associated smaller plugs can be suspected. The area around Xiluvo Mountain is
crossed by abundant narrow, NNE-SSW trending dykes (dolerites, doleritic basalts, quartzites
and trachytes), which correspond to some oriented aeromagnetic lineaments.
The Xiluvo Carbonatite Suite with its typical ring structure took place during the Early
and Middle Cretaceous, after the intrusion of pipes and dykes of hyperalkaline trachytes with
augite-aegirine. They present pure calcite in the centre of the structure and volcanic breccias
in the outer ring. Calcic-ferrugineous cement and components of quartz, feldspars, schists,
quartzites and basic rocks characterize the latter. Carbonatites were followed by a
hydrothermal phase, resulting in brecciated quartz dykes.
The Xiluvo volcanic vent originated a moderate and paroxysmal volcanic activity. The
first one is enhanced by the occurrence of the massive carbonatites and the second one is
denounced by the pyroclastic rocks projected not only around the crater, but also in long
distances, as one can observe in the agglomerate outcrops located, as previously mentioned,
up to 10 km far from the crater.

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In the Xiluvo Carbonatite Suite, carbonate rocks cover an area of approximately 4.5
2
km , occupying the central part of the ring structure. Locally, carbonatites are covered by
reddish soil and sometimes presents karstification phenomena. The lithology of the
carbonatite zone is dominated by the occurrence of light brown and of dark green, massive
carbonatites, by carbonatitic agglomerates and by carbonatite veins. The first ones present
fine- to medium-granular texture, essentially constituted by calcite. The second type occurs
around the first ones and has been named as trachytoid carbonatites, because of its similarity
with trachytic rocks. Associated to the massive carbonatites, the carbonatitic agglomerates
can be found. Angular fragments of carbonatites constitute them, with calc-ferruginous
cement, which seems an ash alteration product.
The above mentioned carbonatitic rocks are followed by dyke and vein swarms,
mainly constituted by calcite and other accessory minerals identical to the ones existing in the
light brown massive carbonatites. Some of these veins correspond to veins that filled circular
fractures of ‘cone-sheets’ type. The second zone is constituted by elevations comprising by
two types of volcanic breccias: the calc-ferruginous and the feldspathic one. The first type
occurs in the contact with the massive carbonatites or interlaid with them. The feldspathic
breccias are more external in relation with the crater of the Monte Xiluvo volcanic vent.
Fragments of dolerite rocks, trachy-phonolytic rocks, carbonatitic rocks, quartz-feldspathic
rocks and slag constitute them. Large quantities of feldspar clasts, microcline-type, are
associated with those rocks fragments. The name feldspathic breccia was given to this rock
type due to the large variety of feldspars that compose it. A matrix formed by iron oxides and
hydroxides, calcite and secondary silica cements the clasts and fragments.

Carbonatites emplaced along the mylonite floor of the Tete Suite; Rio Mufa (Crcb)
Rio Mufa carbonatite layer is situated 30 km west of Tete, close to the main road to Songo,
accessible by foot. The occurrence is situated a little SW of the Mazoe dome, whose NE and
SE margins are flanked by the nearby carbonatites of Mt.Muande and Mt.Fema, respectively.
The carbonatite origin of these occurrences is discussed in Volume 4, Chapter 9.
The Rio Mufa carbonatite layer forms a high narrow ridge with steep slopes, following
the E-W strike (Figs. 9.46A and B). The whole extent of the layer has not yet been mapped. In
the west it ends to the overlying Karoo beds, in the east probably to gabbro.
The carbonatite layer is underlain by mylonite-flaser gneiss after Chacocoma granite,
and overlain in its northern side by gabbro of the Tete Suite. The dip of the underlying
mylonite varies between 40º-70º to the north, which value is shared also by the carbonatite
layer between the underlying and overlying units. This is a unique place in the sense that here
is the only known place where the southern side contact of the tectonic sheet formed by the
Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite is exposed – though separated by the granitoid floor by the
carbonatite layer. Most likely it is the only such place in reality, because elsewhere the
overlying Karoo beds cover the contact.
The very steep southern slope of the ridge is covered by down-rolled blocks of the
carbonatite materials, but also corners of outcrops are frequently visible. The high elongate
crest forms a continuous outcrop, where layering is well expressed by colour and grain size
variation, and by layer-controlled variation in apatite contents (Figs. 9.46A,C,D). The surface
of some layers is decorated by abundant big magnetite clusters, resistant to weathering.

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A B

C D

Fig. 9.46. Rio Mufa carbonatite; subcontinuous outcrop along the crest of the local ridge. (A) Top of the ridge.
The background belongs to the Precambrian granitoids, to the left there is the overlying Tete gabbro rising to
higher altitudes. Open warps of the layering, with northerly fold axis, (B) Carbonatite debris on the crest, steep
slopes to both sides, (C) Obscure layering by colour variation, apatitic bands and clusters of magnetite (width
of the number plate is 5 cm.), (D) Close-up from Figure A: the layering is shown by the grain size and
compositional variation, including the variable contents of apatite and magnetite. SE of Mte Caconde
(0532281/8213274).

9.4.7. Tertiary terrestrial sediments

Tertiary terrestrial sediments of the Explanation area comprise three lithostratigraphic units:
the Cheringoma, Inhaminga and Mazamba Formations*.

Cheringoma Formation* (TeC)

The oldest of these units, the Cheringoma Formation*, form a continuous belt along the
northeastern boundary of the Zânguè-Urema depression (SDS 1834) and covers wide areas
north of the Búzi River (SDS 1934). Separated by a Paleocene-Eocene hiatus from underlying
Cretaceous deposits, this formation is composed of glauconitic limestones (bottom) and
dolomitic limestones and calcarenites (top). Also massive limestone horizons occur in places
in this succession with the maximum thickness of about 70 m. The depositional facies of the
Cheringoma Formation* corresponds to a neritic environment, including oxygenated and
warm seawaters. The unit is rich in fossils such as Pecten, Nummulites sp., Nummulites
atacicus, Discocyclina, in association with briazoa, gastropoda and calcareous algae (e.g.,
Lithothamnium sp.) and worms (Tubulostium cyclaminoides). A Middle-Upper Eocene age is
generally accepted to the Cheringoma Formation*.

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Inhaminga Formation* (TeI)

Tertiary sandstones of the Inhaminga Formation* are mostly found along the north-eastern
boundary of the Zânguè-Urema depression (SDS 1835) outside the Explanation area, only
small, scattered occurrences existing on the Beira map sheet (SDS 1934). These deposits,
separated by a Late Miocene hiatus and unconformity from underlying formations, are
composed of purple, red and mauve argillitic sandstones (bottom) and coarse-grained
sandstones (top). Fossils found from these deposits include Turritella sp., Protocardia sp. and
Pecten sp., manifesting a deltaic or marine environment. A Late Miocene age is commonly
accepted as the age of the Inhaminga Formation*.

Mazamba Formation* (TeZ)

Arkosic sandstones and random conglomeratic horizons of the Mazamba Formation* overlie
purple sandstones of the Inhaminga Formation* in the southeastern corner of the Explanation
area (SDS 1834-1934). Named earlier as the Mazamba Formation, the Inhaminga Beds or the
Inhaminga sandstones (Flores, 1959), these deposits mainly comprise poorly cemented and,
locally weakly silicified, medium- to coarse-grained arkosic sandstones, brownish yellow in
colour, which are changing into white or pale yellow sandstones in the upper portion of the
sequence.
The main outcrop for this unit is situated on the Cheringoma Plateau, along the
Massamba River. Similar unit was found further south on both sides of the Save River, where
it was called in the past as Chicolane Formation (Barrocoso, 1968).
The initial facies of the Mazamba Formation is litoral, with rare fossils, passing to
continental facies. The rocks present an Eocene age, probably reaching the Pliocene.

Quartz breccia veins

Quartz breccia veins form prominent sinuous to irregular ridges and constitute conspicuous
landmarks. They display a brecciated texture with irregular angular fragments of host rock or
quartz within a carbonate or siliceous matrix. The breccias have often cavities and vugs into
which, in some cases, well-developed euhedral quartz crystals are found. Breccia veins
contain also other minerals such as feldspar, calcite, fluorite, barite, haematite and minor
sulphides. These quartz breccia veins are found especially within the zones of contacts
between Precambrian and Phanerozoic rocks (Fig. 9.47). They are interpreted as ‘siliceous
fault gouges’ already discussed in Chapter 4 of this Explanation.
A zone with silicified-carbonated breccia oriented 088o/40oS occurs in Massangano
area. These breccias form a strip-zone 50 m wide and about 4 km long. About 500 metres
northeast of the Precambrian/Phanerozoic boundary, an outcrop of tectonic breccias was
observed on the north side of the road, two kilometres southeast from the Campino settlement.
The rock is a chaotic assemblage of large angular fragments (up to 1 x 2 m in size) of
Precambrian amphibolite and augen gneisses, cemented by a feldspathic-siliceous (?)
material.

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Fig. 9.47. Fault gouge fill

showing rhyolitic country rock
fragments cemented by a
network of milky quartz. E
slope of Mte Domba (0507839/
8146860). Scale bar is 15 cm.

9.4.8. Quaternary

Quaternary deposits are widespread not only in the valleys of the major rivers, but also in
structural depressions caused by Phanerozoic faulting. Several types of Quaternary sediments
occur in the Explanation area, namely: various eluvial floodplain deposits and coastal dynes
as well as colluvial and alluvial deposits along and filling the main river channels.

Eluvial floodplain clayey sand (Qps)

During the Pleistocene, normal erosion acting on the Tertiary sandstone units, specially the
ones of the Mazamba Formation, caused the accumulation of extensive eluvial floodplain
deposits of loose clay and sand. In the area of present Explanation, these deposits are found in
the southern and eastern part of the Beira map sheet (SDS 1934).
In general the floodplain sand is siliceous with different colours, being the ochre the
most recurrent. The grains are spherical or rounded, where the percent of grains with dull
feature are showing the later results of the knocks caused by the wind action. These sands are
considered as being of local origin and, according to this, their deep wearing with in part a
shining surface could be explained in an environment of an ancient sea covering during the
Cenozoic and Quaternary the whole area of the Zambezi River mouth. The eluvial foodplain
clayey sand deposits are very permeable and host quite dense vegetation.

Eluvial floodplain mud (Qpi)

Eluvial floodplain muds are found at lower elevations in the southeastern corned of the
Explanation (SDS 1934), covering large areas of a planar morphology. These terrains have a
very low permeability due to the high clay content and, consequently, they form areas of
frequent flooding with lagoons and swamps, usually persisting for long time after the rainfall.
Characterized by their ochre yellowish to reddish colour, these deposits underlay the eluvial
floodplain clayey sand deposits and present more iron oxides than the previous. It is assumed
that the origin of these floodplains is linked with the development of small and shallow sea

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channels between the eluvial clayey sand floodplains. Eluvial floodplain muds are described
in a more detailed manner in the Map Explanation - Volume 3.

Fluvial terrace sand (Qt)

Fluvial terrace sands are widely found along the Mazoe and Luia rivers and their tributaries in
the Mecumbura (SDS 1632) and Chioco (SDS 1933) map sheets. Occurrences of terrace
sands exist also north of the Nhacolo village in the northern side of the Zambezi River (SDS
1634) and as small, scattered deposits around the Explanation area.
In steep walls of the Mazoe River, a section of fluvial deposits consist mainly of
greyish or reddish brown, fairly massive sand, but more coarse, gritty or pebbly varieties are
not uncommon on the base of the unit (Fig. 9.48). Also large-scale, tangential cross-bedding
has also been found in some river bank outcrops.

Fig. 9.48. Steep wall of

reddish brown fluvial
sand, covered by ~2 – 3
m thick, light brown
layer of colluvium. Rio
Mazoe
(504110/8154833).

Along the Zambezi River, fluvial terraces locally show altitudes ranging from 20 to
100 metres above the riverbed and are composed of white or brownish sand with layers of
polymict pebbles in a clayish and limonitic matrix. The upper terrace deposits are attributed
an Early Pleistocene age.

Colluvium (Qc)
Colluvial deposits constitute loose, heterogeneous, incoherent weathered deposits of material
characterized by occurring in the region of tectonic depressions like Zânguè-Urema (SDS
1834-1934), and along the main rivers of the Explanation area. The mass of soil material
and/or rock fragments was deposited by rain wash and by slow, gravity assisted downslope
creep, usually accumulating at the base of slopes or dome structures into massive, unsorted
deposits (Fig. 9.49).

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Fig. 9.49. Massive colluvium

deposit at the southern
margin of the Mevunge
dome (0393485/ 8189658).
Scale bar 15 cm.

Pebble debris (Mantos de cascalheira) (Qp)

Small occurrences of Quaternary pebble terraces exist on both sides of the Revue River (SDS
1934), covering there the Cretaceous Sena sandstones. Forming terrace-like elevations and
ridges up to 30 – 40 m high, these deposits mostly comprise rounded pebbles and cobbles of
quartz, quartzite and basalt up to 20 – 30 cm in size.

Coastal dune sand (Qd)

Aeolian and marine sands are found all along the littoral zone of the Mozambican coast, but
exist only in the southeastern corned of the present Map Explanation area, south of the Rio
Búzi estuary (SDS 1934). These dune sands are white to yellow in colour, and they are
originated by the combined action of the erosional factors such as the maritime winds and the
sea waves. Sands are not consolidated, and no signs of lithification have been observed. A
more detailed description of coastal dynes is provided in the Map Explanation - Volume 3.

Alluvium (Qa)
Recent alluvial deposits, composed of silts, sands and gravels, are distributed on the flood
plains of the main rivers like Luenha and Zambezi, where prominent sand banks are often
deposited on the river beds (Fig. 9.50). Large accumulations of alluvium occur also in some
other regions, as for example along the Sorodeze and Mazoe Rivers, where deposits are
mostly composed of white and red sands, clays and clay-rich sands.

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Fig. 9.50. Large sand bank in the Zambezi River. The Lupata gorge (0616700/ 8162200). Note a helicopter as
a scale.

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CHAPTER 10

STRUCTURE AND METAMORPHISM

10.1. INTRODUCTION
The Archaean Zimbabwe Craton underlies the western part of the area covered by this Map
Explanation (Volume 2), enveloped by Proterozoic strata in fold belts along the northern and
eastern Craton’s margins. Karoo and younger rocks of the Middle Zambezi Graben and the
Mozambique Basin bound this basement block (Zimbabwe Craton + Proterozoic Fold Belts)
in the north and east, respectively.
The basement block constitutes a small part of the South Gondwana Terrane (Section
5.6; see also next Chapter), bounded in the north by the Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara fold belt
(515-560 Ma), the superposed Sanangoè Shear Zone (SSZ) and Karol rift structures. The
allochthonous Tete Suite (Chapter 8) partly overlies the SSZ and thus straddles the boundary
between the South and West Gondwana Terranes. As will be argued, the Tete Suite went
astray after collision and amalgamation of the South and West Gondwana Terranes but before
the emplacement of late Pan-African granitoids dated at ~ 0.46 Ga.

10.2. ZIMBABWE CRATON

The Zimbabwe Craton has crystallisation ages between ~ 3.55 and ~ 2.54 Ga and is mainly
composed of a granite-greenstone terrain and Archaean gneiss terrains along its northern and
southern margin (Fig. 6.1). Episodic crustal accretion is manifested by deposition of several
generations of low-grade supracrustals in so-called ‘greenstone belts’, each associated with
the emplacement of a coeval or slightly younger TTG suite (Table 6.1). The northern
Archaean gneiss terrain comprises the Migmatic Gneiss Terrane, which is composed of
amphibolite-grade ortho- and para-gneisses with relics of granulite-facies rocks. Barton et al.
(1991) describe a petrogenetic history comprising an early phase of granulite and tonalite
formation (3.0-3.2 Ga), followed by later phases of migmatisation and retrogradation
(amphibolite facies) at the end of the Archaean (2.6-2.5 Ga) and, in places, Pan-African
overprinting.

10.3. NORTHERN MARGIN OF THE ZIMBABWE CRATON

The northern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton is part of the Pan-African transcontinental
Damara-Lufilian-Zambezi orogenic belt (560-515 Ma), separating the Congo from the
Kalahari Craton. The belt is composed of older reworked crust, belonging to several terranes,
and minor juvenile magmatic material. The south-verging major thrust masses have been
assembled as the Zambezi Allochthonous and Marginal Gneiss Terranes (Section 7.1). The
first comprises the Mavuradonha Complex and Masoso Suite, the second the Rushinga Group.
Two periods of tectono-metamorphism have been recognised in thrust masses of the
Chewore Inliers (Goscombe et al., 1994,1998; Johnson & Oliver, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004).
Posterior to creation of an oceanic basin, dated at 1393±22 Ma (Johnson & Oliver, 2000) and,

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300 Ma later, Andean- and island-type magmatic arcs (~ 1100 Ma), the first phase of dynamo-
thermal metamorphism M1 occurred under HT-LP granulite facies conditions (>800° C, < 4.4.
kbar; Goscombe et al., 1994) at 1068±21 to 1071±8 Ma (Goscombe et al., 2000).
Subsequently, extensive M2 recrystallisation took place under collisional-style HP-MT garnet-
amphibolite conditions (> 13 kbar, 600-700° C) at 526±17 Ma, lastly associated with NE-
directed thrusting.
According to Barton et al. (1991) emplacement of the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane
was associated with HP metamorphic fabrics (DZm1), followed by emplacement of the Basal
Rushinga Intrusive Suite (BRIS) at ~ 820-830 Ma, with associated retrogradation and
formation of HT migmatites (DZm2). The HP metamorphic assemblages comprise garnet-
clinopyroxene in allochthonous granulites. Kyanite in metapelites of the Rushinga Group are
restricted to the western occurrences in Zimbabwe. Further east, in Mozambique, sillimanite-
grade metamorphism is found in association with the BRIS.

10.4. EASTERN MARGIN OF THE ZIMBABWE CRATON

Hitherto, the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton has been only poorly mapped. The GTK
Consortium highlighted impressive, thin-skin style thrust masses comprising both slabs of the
Archaean Craton and Proterozoic rocks, a feature encountered in many collisional orogens.
Geochronological data furthermore indicated that Archaean gneisses are exposed further to
the east than hitherto was known. Archaean gneisses E and NE of Catandica are interpreted as
parts of allochthonous sheets in a structural elevated position in the tectonic pile. The profile
in the lower part of the Guro map sheet (SDS 1732/1733) schematically illustrates the local
situation and is reproduced in Fig. 10.1.
The dimensions of the easternmost tectonic sheet, which is rather wide at the present
level of erosion, needs further checking. Elsewhere, the distribution of Archaean rocks is well
constrained by recent field verification by the GTK Consortium, due to the presence of
numerous outcrops in road cuts along village roads and excellent exposures in more
mountainous zone, near the Zimbabwean border. These traverses show tectonic piling of
Archaean basement gneisses/-migmatites and the cover sequence comprising Gairezi
quartzites and non-migmatised mica schists, in part with abundant aluminosilicates, staurolite
and garnet.

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Fig. 10.1. Profile extending from Archaean crust across Palaeoproterozoic formations until the
Mesoproterozoic Báruè Complex, showing extensive allochthonous structure at the Zimbabwe craton margin.
Latitude ca. 17°30', south of Guro. Cf. Figs. 6.3 and 6.4.

During the thrusting process the Archaean craton margin must have been shortened but
may still extend in the subsurface considerably further to the east, may be till the contact with
the Mozambique Basin.
In outcrop, overprinting of Archaean gneisses can be witnessed on different scales. In
many outcrops Archaean complex structures have been preserved, while in other exposures
the rocks have assumed a later foliation and shear planes parallel to the tectonic sheet
boundaries and parallel to the overlying tectonic cover rocks. These tectonic structures
mapped west of Guro continue northwards, further around the northeastern corner of the
Zimbabwe Craton, where the structural elements curve in a western direction following the
grain of the Neoproterozoic Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara fold belt.
The presence of sillimanite in the quartzite and schists in the northeastern corner of the
craton manifests amphibolite metamorphic grade of the Rushinga quartzites and schists.
Along the eastern margin of the craton, however, kyanite and chloritoid are the abundant
index minerals, often accompanied by garnet and staurolite. The first metamorphic fabric S1 is
defined by the parallel arrangement of tiny mica flakes. The second fabric S2 is characterised
by discrete and coarser schistosity planes that, in places, progress into a widely spaced
crenulation cleavage (Fig. 10.2) parallel to the axial plane of mesoscopic fold structures.

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Fig. 10.2. Gairezi schist veined by quartz,

very fine schistosity expressing itself as
silky lustre under sunshine, folded, with
crenulation cleavage in the axial plane.
Village road to Gairezi. (0507904/
8064042). Scale bar is 10 cm.
The extensive thrust structures involving Archaean rocks observed in the area covered
by the Guro Map Sheet (SDS 1732/1733) seem to disappear southwards, southeast of
Catandica and east of Manica. The level of erosion in the south appears to be deeper and,
consequently, only Archaean rocks are exposed. Proterozoic quartzites and schists of the
Gairezi Group are only met with as the lowermost parts of isolated narrow synclines (F2) that
are superposed on an older phase of deformation manifested by the presence of recumbent
microfolds (F1).
A narrow shear zone separates the eastern Craton margin from the Báruè Complex.
The result of the N-S directed sinistral shear event is well shown in a roadside outcrop south
of Catandica, ~11 km north of Vanduzi (Figs. 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5). The exposure is a water-
washed narrow channel along the tarred main road. The man-made continuous exposure of
140 m long, crosses at low angles the mylonitic boundary between the two domains. Three
hundred meters to the north of this channel exposure there is also a road cut (obs. point 1713-
05), which shows highly sheared Gairezi quartzite. Outside the road a thin layer of soil and
vegetation effectively prevent more observation of the shear zone.
To the west of the mylonitic boundary illustrated in Fig. 10.3, the crust is mainly
composed of Archaean rocks. The nearest outcrops of Archaean rocks are located a few
hundred meters to the west, among them the prominent hill, seen in Fig. 10.4, behind the flat
farmland. The farmland itself in the front area is characterized by red soil, which indicates the
presence of Gairezi schist below.
The granitoid and migmatitic rock exposures of the Báruè Complex, which occupies
the area to the east of the mylonitic boundary, are in general solid and well preserved.
Whereas the thrusted and folded lithologies the Rushinga and the Gairezi Groups are
considered to be parautochthonous, the rocks of the allochthonous Báruè Complex are
composed of metamorphosed supracrustal rocks of unknown age and Mesoproterozoic
magmatic intrusions, which are believed to have been thrusted over the eastern Craton margin
prior to the later northward block movement (Chapter 11). Different lithologies within the
Complex are expressed in satellite imagery and aerial photographs. They show mega-
mushroom structures, manifesting fold interference patterns. The generally low angle to
subhorizontal dip in many locations explains the lack of outcrop, particularly in flat terrains.
Some linear, more tightly compressed zones occur, but none of them are of regional
importance.

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The northernmost part of the Precambrian domain in the southern side of Tete extends
southwards for more than 100 km until the Guro-Mungári latitude. In the north it has the
contact with the Mid Zambezi Karoo beds. In the west, this domain is bounded by the
Archaean Craton margin with its enveloping Rushinga strata. In the east, the boundary of the
Mozambican Basin is marked by silicified normal faults. North of Tete, the allochthonous
Tete Suite is exposed. Its footwall is characterized by mylonites – both in the Mussata
Granites of the West Gondwana Terrane as well as the Chacocoma granitoid windows
attributed to the South Gondwana Terrane. Mylonites continue, however, further to the south
(as indicated on the maps, see DS 1633) indicating that the Tete Suite once existed further
south. Its present absence can be explained by either exhumation/erosion or by a certain
amount of back thrusting.

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Fig. 10.3. Section in horizontal roadside ditch outcrop showing thin-skinned stacking of Archaean basement,
Gairezi and Báruè lithologies. The current attitude of the sinistral shear between the blocks I and III is
subvertical. (0529791/7914931).

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Fig. 10.4. The roadside ditch

outcrop of Fig. 10.3. The
outcrop along the ditch
represents the shear zone (a part
of it) between the Báruè
Complex in the east (to the right
in the picture) and the Archaean
craton margin in the west, with
local covers of the Gairezi
schists. The hill at the left
background is an isolated block
of Archaean granitoid
surrounded by Gairezi schists,
probably with tectonic contacts.
N of the Vanduzi village
(0529791/ 7914931).

Fig. 10.5. Sheared Gairezi

quartzite in the core of the shear
zone of the previous two
pictures. Width of number plate
is ~10 cm.

Mesoproterozoic or older rocks south of Tete are intruded by lithologies attributed to

the Neoproterozoic Guro Suite, which are ~ 850 Ma old. The unit forms parallel sheets of
both leucocratic and mafic rocks. They are well exposed in hillsides around and inside Guro
town, in the steep Monte Calinga Muci, north of Guro, and in numerous roadside outcrops
between Monte Calinga Muci and Changara. This vast area of generally flat-lying or gently-
dipping (20º - 30º E and NE) rocks are continuous east of Mungári, and from there
northwards.
Massive recrystallisation masks an early phase of strong deformation. Unlike the rocks
of the Báruè Complex, mushroom or fold interference patterns are absent. Sheet-parallel
rootless isoclinal folds occur, however, frequently. Each of the individual intrusive sheets
appears commonly emplaced parallel to subparallel to the next sheet, showing a well-
developed streaky deformation fabric parallel to the sheet margins, frequently with incipient
mineral segregation. In occasional discordant sheets this fabric is also parallel to the sheet

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margins, implying syntectonic emplacement. Strong deformation is also demonstrated by

boudinage of the mafic, gabbroic layers. Frequently the boudins are highly separated,
remaining connected to each other by strongly to extremely thinned mafic tails. The two-
component assemblage is commonly flattened as a mass, resulting in a conspicuously banded
rock owing to the vivid alternation of mafic and felsic components. Well-exposed examples
are present in the easily accessible rocky riverbed below the Luenha bridge, south of
Changara, and in a multitude of analogies elsewhere in the region.
The size of the mafic boudins ranges from centimetres to outcrop scale. Some map-
scale mafic bodies may actually represent mega-boudins or tectonic enclaves as inferred from
their round shapes.
It shoud be noted that at Luenha and elsewhere there are also boudins with pegmatite
in pressure lows. These more modestly developed boudins are posterior to the early layer-
parallel deformation of the Guro Suite, coeval with the availability of late (Pan-African)
pegmatites.
It is suggested that the emplacement of the Guro Suite, dated at 867±15 Ma, took place
under extensional conditions in a craton margin setting (Chapter 11) and was affected by (E-
to NE-directed?) detachment thrusting, dated at 850-830 Ma, shortly after its emplacement,
followed by Pan-African overprinting dated at 512±4 Ma. The detachment thrusting event
corresponds to the ~830-820 Ma DZm2 tectonometamorphic phase sensu Barton et al. (1991).
Dirks et al. (1998) advocated a similar scenario for the Masoso Suite (Section 7.3.). The
volume of the Guro Suite is by far not as large as suggested by its surface extension. The
thickness of this subhorizontal unit in the flat countryside may be relatively thin (1 - 2 km?).
Pan-African deformation related to closure of the ‘Zambezi Ocean’ (Chapter 11) is
poorly documented. The collision front is masked by Karoo cover rocks and younger
mylonites below the allochthonous Tete Suite. Further southwards, Pan-African deformation
is not expressed by penetrative deformation but caused open to tight folding, with roughly E-
W axes, of previously deformed Mesoproterozoic west-verging thrust masses of the Báruè
Complex, giving rise to the mentioned mushroom megastructures. Reactivation of former
Mesoproterozoic thrust planes cannot be excluded, however. Northward thrusting of the upper
part of the Báruè Complex (the Macossa and Chimoio Groups) over the Mungári gneisses
may be attributed to the Pan-African collision.
The Guro Suite shows from S to N progressively the effects of Pan-African
deformation, migmatisation and emplacement of pegmatite. The abundance of these
pegmatite bodies reduces from Tete, where it constitutes between 10 and 20 % of the rock
mass by volume, southwards. Pegmatites are still common at Changara and in the eastern
areas, but become rare while approaching Cuchamano in the west. West of Tete, close to the
Tete-Songo road, there are a few undeformed late Pan-African granite bodies and related
dykes, attributed to the Monte Caverie Suite, which crosscut the pegmatites. The increase in
the proportion of pegmatite from S to N supposedly indicates a transition from a relatively dry
to a more fluid-rich system closer to the Pan-African thrust front.
Pegmatite veins or dykes are just flattened or in boudins or showing pinch-and-swell
textures. Occasionally, minor pegmatite apophyses intruded parallel to the foliation of the
country rock show intense shearing and mylonite textures. Whereas the country rock shows
isoclinal (rootless) folds, pegmatite is discordant. Pegmatite veins with an orientation
perpendicular to macrobanding show ptygmatic folds, reflecting flattening of Guro country
rock by some 20-40 %. This would suggest pegmatite emplacement at the end of the

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deformation phase that caused the isoclinal folds in the country rock. A younger generation of
pegmatite rock is found as crosscutting or semiconcordant dykes up to one m wide.
Apart from pegmatite emplacement, progressive migmatisation from S to N also
caused metasomatic reactions over original sharp mafic-felsic boundaries in members of the
Guro Suite. It resulted in the formation of intermediate, greyish coloured reaction zones,
composed of fine-grained plagioclase-quartz-hornblende-biotite rock with a well-developed
foliation on cm- to mm-scale by leuco- and palaeosomes.
In summary, the Pan-African collisional front between the Kalahari and Congo cratons
in the Tete area is well-evidenced in geochronological data and furter manifested by
deformation of older fold structures and prograde remobilisation. Although the northernmost
part of this collisional front is masked by younger mylonites and Karoo cover, deformation
appears relatively mild.
The reason for this mild deformation is not fully understood but may be related to the
fact that the opposite crustal block – the Tete-Chipata block of West Gondwana – was not
fully cratonised but composed of an assemblage of different terranes (or crustal fragments)
(Johnson et al., 2006) with, at the time, poor cohesion. Further to the west in the Zambezi
belt, high-grade Pan-African metamorphism and deformation has been documented in the
Chewore Inliers (Goscombe et al., 2002).
Late Pan-African deformation in the area covered by this Map Explanation is
expressed as a number of N-S directed shear zones. A well-documented shear zone is
developed in the border zone of the eastern (exposed) margin of the Zimbabwe craton and the
Báruè Complex east of Manica (Manhiça et al. 2001). The same N-S directed sinistral
shearing was responsible for the curvature of the Umtare-Manica greenstone belt from an E-
W direction into a N-S direction. This sinistral shearing is a regional feature in the East Africa
orogen. Further to the west in the Zimbabwe craton late Pan-African tectonic overprinting is
neither reflected in any structural elements or in zircon geochronology.
Karoo rift boundaries are normal faults with dip values commonly ranging from 45º to
60º. Rocks along Karoo boundary fault planes have been transformed into homogeneous
brown fault gouge, measuring 10 – 20 m in width. Usually, but not always, the fault gouge is
brecciated with deposition of various generations of vein quartz into the fractures. This
implies longevity of the fault zone with episodic and repeated periods of reactivation, causing
brecciation, followed by periods of quiescence marked by annealing and younger quartz fills.
The basement-Karoo boundary faults may, owing to their erosional resistance, form
spectacular ridges, as for example just south of Changara and in numerous other places. A
minor section of the fault gouge at Changara was found to cut across a Karoo mafic dyke,
suggesting reactivation younger than ~ 190 – 180 Ma. Where the fault gouge cuts across
marble layers, exposed or in the subsurface, bodies composed of low-temperature platy quartz
with abundant carbonate filling the interstices between the quartz plates are found. Similar
rocks also occur frequently in the Tete Suite footwall where the carbonate is derived from
carbonatite and/or carbonate of sedimentary derivation (see below).

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10.2. STRUCTURES AND CONTACT RELATIONSHIPS OF THE TETE

SUITE
The Tete Gabbro-Anorthosite Suite is described in Chapter 8. Overall, the rocks of the Tete
Suite are little or not deformed except at and near their base, where brittle and ductile
deformational features are abundant and of an intense nature. Although recognised in the past,
the significance of these features with respect to the origin and post-magmatic evolution of
the Suite was, so far, not fully appreciated. Present-day views on structural geology in general
and the significance of (blasto-)mylonitic rocks in particular allow a re-interpretation of the
available information.
The northern border of the Tete Suite broadly coincides with the regional E-W
trending Sanangoè Shear Zone (SSZ), also referred to as Mylonite Zone (Hunting, 1984) or
Sanangoè Thrust Zone (Barr and Brown, 1987). The Sanangoè Shear Zone is a steeply S-
dipping ductile shear zone that can be traced further west up to Cahora Bassa Lake and
allegedly to the Zambian border. Because of its steep dip it is considered to represent a major
strike-slip structural zone. Afonso (1976) has reported on differences in rock units north and
south of this structure that he interpreted this zone as a major break between two distinct
structural provinces, i.e., the Niassa Structural Province in the north and the Mid-Zambezi
Structural Province in the south. In the present Map Explanation the Sanangoè Shear Zone is
considered to represent the southern border of the Tete-Chipata Block, part of the West
Gondwana Terrane.
Another E-W trending ductile thrust zone north of the Tete Suite has been described.
This thrust zone is possibly 1 – 2 km thick, but unlike the steeply dipping Sanangoè Shear
Zone, the mylonitic fabric is subhorizontal to weakly S-dipping. Mylonitic granitoids north of
the SSZ are attributed to the Mussata Granites, equally mylonitised rocks south of the SSZ
below the Tete Suite are attributed to Chacocoma granites, exposed in windows of the Rio
Chacocoma and Rio Mazoe domes and further south, straddling along the margin of the
Precambrian south and southwest of Tete. One may assume that these mylonites only
represent the southernmost (top) level of a far thicker shear zone affecting the basement on
which the Tete Suite presently rests. The bottom part of the Suite is also affected by
widespread and intense subhorizontal shear deformation, not only near the Sanangoè Shear
Zone, but also further south as manifested within the erosional windows of the Rio
Chacocoma and Rio Mazoe domes.
The obvious conclusion is that the Tete Suite is underlain by a horizontal to sub
horizontal ductile shear zone that extends north of the layered intrusion over a distance of at
least 10 – 15 km. We refer to this thrust zone as the Tete Suite Footwall Mylonite Zone
(TSFMZ). The relationship between both shear zones (SSZ and TSFMZ) is not fully
understood. The steep Sanangoè Shear Zone is considered to represent a late Pan-African
strike-slip fault that bounds, together with the Mwembeshi Dislocation, the Tete-Chipata
block. The TSFMZ is a post-Pan-African structure. It could only form after amalgamation of
South and West Gondwana.
A direct implication of the existence of the TSFMZ is that the Tete Suite is
allochthonous and arrived at its current position by subhorizontal thrusting. The source area
remains to be defined. The TSFMZ extends both north and south of the Suite, but the sense of
bulk shear seems to be to the S(E). From this one can assume that the Tete Suite was
emplaced as part of a thrust mass or ‘nappe’ from N to S, or rather, from NW to SE in view of

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abundant ‘mega-striae’ present in (meta)granitoids of Chiúta Serra (Volume 4). These

structures probably correspond to remnants of low-order shear zones that branch off and
extend below the sub-horizontal TSFMZ. The term ‘mega-striae’ is particularly appropriate in
the sense that these structures would have been left behind in the underlying lithologies after
passage of the ‘Tete nappe’. Similar structures are observed as far north as the eastern
occurrence of the Chidzolomondo Group, suggesting that the original ‘nappe’ was
significantly larger than the erosional remnants now present in the Tete Suite.
A likely mechanism for the type of mass transport envisaged is provided by
gravitational tectonics in an orogenic or epeirogenic context that remains to be worked out.
Such a nappe model might also explain the presence of pyroxene- and granitic granulites in
the southeastern portion of the Suite, reported by Afonso and Araújo (1970). These might
represent remnants of the metamorphic country rock, into which the gabbros and anorthosites
have been intruded before became incorporated into the ‘Tete nappe’.
The sheared base of the present-day Tete Suite coincides mainly with anorthosite.
Since the latter most likely did not occur at the base of the original igneous massif, one may
infer that the bottom portion of the intrusion was probably ‘left behind’ during ‘Tete nappe’
transport and that shearing in the original Tete Suite was guided by ductility contrasts
between anorthosite and gabbro layers. The ‘left behind’ bottom portion appears to have been
eroded away completely since no relics have been identified.
The Tete Suite is further dissected by numerous rectilinear brittle faults with variable
throw. These probably originated as major joint sets during exhumation or later uplift, and
were subsequently activated as block faults by movements associated with Karoo, Cretaceous
and Tertiary rifting. The Rio Imandezue dyke system likely represents such a ‘block’ horst or
graben.

10.3. METAMORPHIC CONDITIONS DURING PROTEROZOIC

TIMES
In addition to the Archaean (Shamvaim-Bulawayan) orogeny, the study area has undergone
during the Precambrian thermal events at (1) Palaeoproterozoic (dolerites), (2) Mesoprotero-
zoic (Kibaran) and (3) Neoproterozoic (Guro Suite, Pan-African) eras.
Fine-grained mica schists of the Palaeoproterozoic Gairezi Group, located near and/or
against the Archaean high-grade gneiss terrains have undergone greenschist to lower
amphibolite facies metamorphism (Fig. 10.6). This is indicated by common mineral
assemblages (1) chloritoid-staurolite-chlorite, (2) kyanite-staurolite-muscovite and (3) musco-
vite-biotite-garnet found in the metapelites of the formation. However, the rocks have also
undergone deformations, which are not accompanied with a notable recrystallization (Fig.
10.7).

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Fig. 10.6. Intensively deformed

garnet-muscovite-biotite schist
of the Gairezi Group.
Metamorphic grade is that of
lower amphibolite facies. Serra
Nhamahono (0504242/
7976586). Scale bar is 10 cm.

The easternmost Gairezi metapelites are, in fact, medium-grained mica gneisses,

characterized by sillimanite and garnet porphyroblasts without muscovite. This mineral
assemblage represents metamorphic P-T conditions of amphibolite facies. Sillimanite and
garnet are also common in the pelitic rocks of the Rushinga Group of approximately of the
same age, but seems to represent a different sedimentary facies compared to the Gairezi
Group.

Fig. 10.7. Microphotograph of

post-metamorphically
deformed garnet-muscovite-
biotite schist of the Gairezi
Group. Old foliation is
overprinted by crenulation
cleavage. Thin section is from
the schist in Fig. 10.6.
(0504242/ 7976586). Width of
photo is 20 mm.

Further to east, in the heterogeneous Báruè Complex, there occur migmatites and two-
pyroxene gneisses, indicating P-T conditions for metamorphism that are within the range of
amphibolite to granulite facies transition (Fig. 10.8). Thus, the metamorphic grade broadly
increases eastwards.

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Fig. 10.8. Intensively melted

garnet-biotite gneiss in the
Báruè Complex. Metamorphic
grade is intermediate between
amphibolite and granulite facies.
Rio Nhangoma (0604113/-
8078811). Scale bar is 10 cm.

The chloritoid-bearing assemblage – with nearby kyanite schists – requires metamor-

phic conditions of about 450 oC and 5 Kbar. Crystallization of coexisting clinopyroxene and
orthopyroxene in gneisses involves metamorphic temperatures over 700 oC (Spear 1993).

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The aforementioned mineral assemblages, observed in the Proterozoic rocks of the

Volume 2 area (east-adjacent to the Zimbabwe craton), are typical of intermediate P/T
metamorphic facies series (kyanite-sillimanite), which is characteristic for tectonic
environment of continental collisions (e.g. Spear 1993). The relative high-pressure
metamorphism proposed is supported by the absence of progressive andalusite, although
pelitic rocks are common. However, part of the Báruè Complex may be allocthonous, and
even Mesoproterozoic in age. Thus, all discussion about P-T-t (+deformation) paths
absolutely need further, more detailed studies.
Palaeoproterozoic dolerites in the Archaean Manica greenstone belt have, in practice,
not caused notable reheating of the crust. However, they metamorphically differ from the
chemically similar dykes – and supposedly of same age – found within the Gairezi Group.
The last-mentioned dykes comprise commonly metamorphic/retrogressive garnet and biotite,
which are mostly absent in the dykes within greenstone belts. Thus, only the margins of the
Archaean craton seem to have undergone Proterozoic overprinting and re-heating in the
Manica area.

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CHAPTER 11

GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION

11.1. INTRODUCTION
The regional geology of Africa has been briefly summarised in Section 5.4. The principles of
geodynamics and continental crust formation – Wilson or Supercontinent Cycles,
Superplumes – have been sketched in Section 5.5. In its simplest form it can be argued that
Africa is largely composed of a mosaic of Archaean cratons and mobile belts amalgamated by
elongated Proterozoic-Cambrian fold belts and basins filled by undeformed sediments and
associated igneous rocks of Neoproterozoic, Late Carboniferous-Early Jurassic and Creta-
ceous-Quaternary age. With the conclusion of the Pan-African orogeny, the African continent
is largely cratonised. Younger fold belts (with penetrative deformation) formed during the
Hercynian (Middle Palaeozoic) and Alpine (Cretaceous-Tertiary) orogenies are restricted to
the Mauritides and the Moroccan Meseta in the northwest, the Cape fold belt in the south and
the Kabylia-Rif-Betic orocline (or Gibraltar Arc) around the westernmost part of the
Mediterranean. Africa’s major structural-metamorphic-igneous domains – the ‘building
blocks’ – have been summarised in Table 5.1. They reflect the geodynamic evolution of
Africa in terms of successive and episodic periods of crustal growth during phases of
compression – plate collision and amalgamation, eventually leading to the formation of a
Supercontinent – and phases of crustal extension – periods of rifting, continental break-up,
continental drift and dispersion.
It will further be argued that the crystalline basement of Mozambique belongs to three
major ‘building blocks’ or terranes that collided and amalgamated during the Pan-African
orogeny. Prior to the Pan-African orogeny each terrane had been affected by a specific and
individual geodynamic development.

11.2. TERRANE BOUNDARIES

From a geodynamic point of view it is generally accepted that formation of the Gondwana
Supercontinent involved the consumption of the Mozambique Ocean and the collision and
amalgamation (~ 640 – 550 Ma) of two crustal blocks, provisionally named West and East
Gondwana (Shackleton, 1996; Wilson et al. 1997; Kröner et al. 2001). West Gondwana
comprised most of Africa and South America. East Gondwana was composed of Arabia, the
horn of Africa, Madagascar, India, Antarctica and Australia (Fig. 11.1).
Unlike former reconstructions (Shackleton, 1996; Kröner et al. 2001), the
reconstruction by Jacobs and Thomas (2004) (Fig. 11.1) assumes extension of the East
African orogen (EAO) (Stern, 1994) southwards, to south of ~16° S, into Antarctica thereby
renaming the EAO into East Africa-Antarctica orogen (EAAO). At the same time it was
widely argued that Zambezi belt orogenesis occurred at 850 – 830 Ma and that the Choma-
Kaloma block, south of the Zambezi belt, was a continuation of the Mesoproterozoic Irumide
belt, north of the Zambezi belt (Hanson et al. 1994; Stern, 1994; Shackleton, 1996; Wilson et
al. 1997). This implies little or no major tectonic displacement between the Congo and
Kalahari Cratons since the Mesoproterozoic.

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In alternative reconstructions (Grantham et al. 2003; Johnson and Oliver, 2004) three
continental masses are assumed prior to Pan-African collision and amalgamation: West
Gondwana (Africa minus the proto-Kalahari craton and South America), East Gondwana
(parts of east Africa, India, Madagascar and Arabia) and South Gondwana (proto-Kalahari
craton, Antarctica and Australia). This model is favoured in this Map Explanation. Being
located close to a triple junction between the Irumide belt, Zambezi belt and Mozambique
belt, the basement geology of central and southern Mozambique is extraordinarily complex
with pieces of the above three Gondwana terranes all being present.

Fig. 11.1. Reconstruction of Gondwana after Jacobs and Thomas (2004). Key: ANS = Arabian-Nubian Shield;
EAAO = East Africa-Antarctica Orogen; M = Madagascar; Da = Damaran; Z = Zambezi Belt.

In general, in flat metamorphic terrains, terrane boundaries and palaeo-sutures may be

difficult to trace. The actual suture may be overlain by low-angle thin-skin-style thrust masses
of metamorphic rocks. Palaeosutures in general can be identified by the presence of (1)
ophiolites representing relics of oceanic crust, (2) the distribution of magmatic arcs formed in
a continental margin above the subducting oceanic plate, (3) the distribution of specific
metamorphic rocks such as eclogites and blueschists, HP-LT metamorphic rocks formed in
subduction zones and (4) the distribution of metamorphosed sandstones, carbonates and other
supracrustal rocks, believed to have been deposited in originally passive, but subsequently

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active continental margins. Magmatic arcs have typically calc-alkaline affinities and are
largely composed of andesite and dacite and/or their more plutonic equivalent tonalite,
trondjhemite and granodiorite – the so-called TTG suites. Basalt and rhyolite and/or their
plutonic equivalent gabbro and granite are relatively rare. Grantham et al. (2003) have
collected data of the above nature together with all available geochronological data, including
igneous crystallisation ages, metamorphic ages and Nd model ages (or TDM ages) and
tectonic/structural information for eastern Africa (Figs. 11.2. and 11.3.). Tracing the East-
West Gondwana suture is based on the following data (Fig. 11.2):
• The west-verging thrust front of the Mozambique belt in Kenya and Tanzania
(Coolen, 1980; Malisa and Muhongo, 1990; Maboko, 2000).
• The sporadic occurrence of ophiolites near the trust front, close to the eastern
margin of the Tanzania craton (Vearncombe, 1983; Shackleton, 1986; Stern 1994).
Further southwards, the suture cuts the domain of the Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran
and Ubendian fold belts. The Ubendian belt is a complex collision/strike-slip
orogen with eight structural blocks (McDonnell, 1950; Sutton et al. 1954; Lenoir et
al. 1994; Muhongo et al. 2002). Some of the blocks are predominantly (ultra-)
mafic but most likely of Palaeoproterozoic age. A small, undated serpentinite-talc
body has been identified south of the Nyika Plateau in northeastern Zambia (Page,
1973) and mapped as an ophiolite, structurally hosted by mylonite gneisses and
quartzites, by Westerhof (1976).
• Eclogite reflects HP-LT conditions manifesting burial at great depth (> 10kb), as in
subduction zones, and exhumed during plate margin collisional orogeny. Eclogite
may also be emplaced otherwise, e.g., during kimberlite or carbonatite magmatic
events during incipient rifting. Consequently, their geodynamic position, mode of
emplacement and age is often obscure. Rare eclogite is reported from the Pan-
African thrust front near the southeastern margin of the Tanzanian Craton. Ring et
al. (1997, 1999) emphasised the role of Pan-African overprinting of Ubendian
rocks in northern Malawi. Subsequently, Ring et al. (2002) reported the presence of
eclogites in the same area manifesting maximum PT-conditions of 17 – 18 kbar at
660 – 780 °C with a Neoproterozoic age of ~ 530 – 500 Ma. Eclogites are also
reported from the Zambezi belt (Vrana et al. 1975; Dirks, 1997). Their age is
uncertain but varies between ~ 500 and ~ 1300 Ma (Johnson and Oliver, 2000;
Oliver et al. 1998). An isolated eclogite occurrence is reported from southern
Malawi.
• Juvenile ~ 750 Ma TTG suites have been reported from eastern Tanzania and
include the ‘Eastern Granulites’, high-grade, arc-derived lithologies with Pan-
African emplacement ages ranging between 841 Ma and 632 Ma. TTG suites are
also present in the northern Mozambique segment of the Mozambique belt. The
latter is divided into three structural blocks and the WSW-ENE striking Lurio belt
(Bingen et al. 2006). The Nampula block is dominated by high-grade orthogneisses
and migmatites, while the Marrupa block is composed of orthogneisses, migmatites
and granulites with the Montepuez block consisting mainly of metasedimentary
rocks. Two distinct TTG suites have been identified: (1) An event of Mozambican
calc-alkaline magmatism between 1150 – 950 Ma and (2) a Pan-African period of
calc-alkaline magmatism between 850 – 750 Ma. The Sr isotope signature suggests
juvenile crustal additions in a magmatic arc environment.

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• Further southwards Pan-African granitoids, including the Sinda Suite (SHRIMP

zircon age 502±8 Ma), are encountered in the Tete block. South of the Sânangoè
Shear Zone no TTG suites with Pan-African crystallisation ages have been
encountered. As will be discussed below, bimodal igneous suites along the northern
and eastern margin of the Zimbabwe craton are related to post-Rodinia break-up
rather than Pan-African subduction. The undated Monte Caverie granites and
pegmatites (northeastern part SDS 1633) may present an exception.
• Metamorphosed supracrustal rocks, including small quantities of carbonate rocks,
are present in the Proterozoic Umkondo Group, the ~ 2.0 Ga Gairezi Group, the ~
2.0 Ga Rushinga Group and undated paragneisses and migmatites of the Báruè
Complex. Supracrustals of the Zâmbuè Group have a maximum age of 1.2 – 1.3
Ga. Metavolcanic material of the Fíngoè Group yield an age of 1327±16 Ma.
Significantly younger early-Pan-African supracrustals are deposited in northern
Mozambique and include the Xixano, Muaquia and Lalamo Complexes (Bingen et
al. 2006; Bjerkgård et al. 2006). Carbonate sequences (~ 775 Ma) have also been
described from the Damara fold belt, Namibia (Trompette, 1994). Felsic volcanic
units of ~750 Ma and younger carbonate and pelitic sequences, typical of passive
margin setting, have been described from the Damara fold belt along the southern
margin of the Kongo craton in Namibia (de Kock et al., 2000; de Kock, 2001).

Summarising and evaluating the above data, collision between East and West
Gondwana led to the westward accretion of the Mozambique belt onto the Archaean
Tanzanian craton. Further southwards, west-verging thrusting of the Mozambique belt onto
the Palaeoproterozoic Usagaran and Ubendian fold belts resulted in a complex structural and
metamorphic intercalation of all three orogenic belts and the suture is difficult to trace. Still
further to the south it is assumed that the suture crosses the northern part of Lake Malawi
(Lake Niassa) at or near the 1.95 Ga Ponta Messuli Complex, to continue further southwards,
straddling the Malawi/Zambia international border. In the Tete area the boundary between
East and West Gondwana is formed by the contact between crystalline rocks with a NNW-
SSE trend of the Angónia Complex and a crystalline domain with a predominantly WSW-
ENE ‘Irumide’ trend. The latter is part of the Tete-Chipata block of the West Gondwana
Terrane (see Map Explanation Volume 4, GTK Consortium, 2006d).
In the Tete area the Sânangoè Shear Zone (SSZ) constitutes the boundary between
West and South Gondwana. The SSZ was mapped as the Estima Fault, separating the Luia
Group from the (former) Báruè Group, by Hunting (1984) and Barr and Brown (1987, 1988).
The shear zone can be followed westwards towards Lake Cahora Bassa as the Mágoè Fault
and eastwards into Malawi as the Mwanza Fault. Further to the west it is concealed below
Karoo and younger rocks. In the absence of ‘terrane concepts’ the SSZ was traditionally
considered as marking the boundary between the Nyassa structural province and the Mid-
Zambezi structural province (Hunting, 1984 and earlier publications). Here it is postulated
that the SSZ is a Pan-African transpressional fault zone, more or less similar in structural
aspects and timing to the Mwembeshi dislocation, formed within a structural weakness zone
of the Zambezi belt and now forming the boundary between the West and South Gondwana
terranes. Clustering of 0.53 Ga granitoids in an E-W zone near the northern shore of Lake
Cahora Bassa confirms this assumption.

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Fig. 11.2. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Distribution of lithologies reflecting
consuming/collisional lithospheric margins. Ophiolite body south of Nyika Plateau (Zambia) has been added
(adapted from Grantham et al. 2003 with updates).

11.3. GEODYNAMIC EVOLUTION

Major geodynamic events affecting the three terranes in Mozambique, recognised in the area
covered by this Map Explanation and elsewhere in LOT 2 (see Volume 4; GTK Consortium,
2006d) are the prolonged and complex geodynamic development of the Archaean Zimbabwe
craton (3.5 – 2.5 Ga), the Palaeoproterozoic extension of the Zimbabwe Craton (~ 2.0 – 1.7
Ga), Pre-Kibaran Mesoproterozoic extension (1350 – 1250 Ma), Mesoproterozoic
Kibaran/Irumide/Grenvillian collision/amalgamation and the formation of the Rodinia
Supercontinent (~ 1.1 Ga), Rodinia break-up and dispersion (0.9 – 0.8 Ga) followed by the
Neoproterozoic Pan-African orogeny and re-assembly of the crustal plates in the Gondwana
Supercontinent. Post-Pan-African extension is expressed by deposition of Karoo sediments,
prior to the break-up of Gondwana, and development of the still active East African Rift
System.

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11.3.1. Archaean geodynamic evolution of the Zimbabwe craton

This is not the place to discuss the complex and prolonged Archaean geology of the
Zimbabwe craton in any detail. In summary it can be stated that the present Zimbabwe craton,
as part of the Kalahari craton, formed through collision and amalgamation of older craton
fragments and neoformation of continental crust particularly in the Neo-Archaean.
Two contrasting models to explain the evolution of the Zimbabwe craton – and
granite-greenstone terrains in general – have been proposed. In the ‘vertical accretion’ model
the greenstone volcanics and associated sediments were laid down in rifts on older continental
basement. The current greenstone belt stratigraphy thus reflects the stratigraphy as it was
originally laid down (Bickle et al. 1994; Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996). Subsequent
compressional deformation is either attributed to far-field stress related event like the
Limpopo orogeny (Treloar and Blenkinsop, 1995) or to diapiric granite emplacement (Jelsma
et al. 1993). Dirks and Jelsma (1998) and Kusky (1998) proposed a different ‘lateral
accretion’ model. They suggested that, prior to compressional deformation, ultramafic and
mafic oceanic crust and plateaus coexisted with felsic crustal fragments, such as volcanic arcs
and lithospheric slivers (mini continental fragments). Early accretion and compressional
deformation caused low-angle imbrication and lateral stacking of the crustal segments.
The geodynamic evolution of the Zimbabwe craton (mainly after Hofmann et al. 2002)
is summarised in Table 6.1. TTG gneisses, 3.55 to 3.35 Ga in age (e.g., Horstwood et al.
1999), associated with Sebakwian greenstones, manifest the earliest dated collisional event.
Subsequent accretion added greenstones of the ~ 2.9 to 2.8 Ga Belingwean/Lower
Bulawayan, the ~ 2.7 to ~ 2.64 Ga Upper Bulawayan and the ~ 2.6 Ga metasedimentary
Shamvaian (Wilson et al. 1995). Each sequence was accompanied by the emplacement of
TTG suite granitoids assembled in the ~2.9 to 2.8 Ga Chingezi, ~ 2.7 Ga Sesombi, ~ 2.65
Wedza and ~2.6 Ga Chilimanzi Suites, respectively (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996).
Stabilisation of the central Zimbabwe craton was thus achieved shortly after ~ 2.6 Ga (Wilson
et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996) as demonstrated by the emplacement of the Great Dyke mafic-
ultramafic layered suite at ~ 2575 Ma (Oberthür et al. 2002).
The geodynamic evolution of the granite-greenstone terrain in Mozambique (south of
15° 30' S) can be summarised as follows:
• Emplacement of ‘Older Granitoids’. This includes the Penhalonga and other
granitoids in the area. The ‘Older Granitoids’ may include fragments of Sebakwean
greenstones.
• Deposition of the volcano-sedimentary greenstones of the Macequece and
Munhinga Formations* prior to ~ 2.65 Ga. Peak deformation and metamorphism
took place around 2650 Ma and coincides with the emplacement of structurally
hosted gold deposits. A similar age (2659±13 Ma) has been established by Vinyu et
al. (1996). The greenstones of the above formations, which include metamorphosed
and metasomatically altered (ultra-)mafic komatiites and BIF layers, can be
correlated with the Upper Bulawayan Supergroup of the Zimbabwe craton.

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• The above greenstones are discordantly overlain by metasediments of the

M’Beza/Vengo Formation*. They appear diachronous throughout the Zimbabwe
craton and have been deposited and metamorphosed between 2.64 and 2.60 Ga.
The short time span between deposition, incorporation in thrust sheets and
metamorphism suggests a foreland trough environment (Hofmann et al. 2002). A
passive continental margin, although short-lived, may also be envisaged (cf.
Hoffman and Bowring, 1984).
• Emplacement of ‘Younger Granites’, assembled in the Mavonde Complex. In the
Makaha greenstone belt in Zimbabwe, a supposedly syntectonic ~2601 Ma
granodiorite was invaded by a slightly deformed leucocratic gneiss precursor at ~
2593 Ma. Hofmann et al. (2002) conclude that the major phase of deformation (D1)
affecting the ‘younger granitoids in the north-eastern margin of the Zimbabwe
craton began prior to ~ 2593 Ma.
• D1 was followed by collinear folding and shearing. Foliation planes and associated
linear structures generally dip or plunge to the east and sense-of-shear indicators
consistently indicate top-to-the-west tectonic transport.
• Emplacement of late stage granitoids at ~ 2570 Ma (Chilimanzi Suite). Granitoids
of this suite have produced U-Pb zircon dates of 2634±17 Ma (Horstwood, 1998)
in the central part of the craton and of 2601±14 Ma in the northern part (Jelsma et
al. 1996).
• The protoliths of the felsic volcanics in the greenstone sequences may have been
derived from depleted mantle as indicated by older TDM model ages (3.0 – 2.8 Ga)
with crustal residence time up to 200 Ma. Alternatively, they may have been the
product of interaction between depleted mantle-derived melts and older crustal
material (Jelsma et al. 1996).

The similarity between U-Pb zircon ages and TDM model ages (2.65 – 2.62 Ga),
positive εNdT values and other parameters suggest a juvenile mantle source for the late
syntectonic and posttectonic intrusive plutons without significant involvement of older crustal
sources (Jelsma et al. 1996).
Recent work in several greenstone belts of the Zimbabwe craton indicates that the
supracrustal greenstones and metasedimentary beds represent tectonic amalgamations of
various litho-tectonic units that were juxtaposed between ~ 2.70 and ~ 2.64 Ga during a west-
verging thrusting event (Hofmann et al. 2002). The thrusting event is unrelated to posterior
granitoid diapirism (Jelsma and Dirks, 2000; Dirks et al. 2002). The trusting event may be the
final expression of the horizontal accretion process, which ultimately gave rise to the
stabilisation of the Zimbabwe craton.
The stable Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons collided and amalgamated at ~ 2.6 Ga
forming the E-W trending high-grade Limpopo belt. This mobile belt is separated from the
cratons by major equally E-W trending shear zones (Fig. 6.1). Stabilisation of the central
Zimbabwe craton was achieved shortly after ~ 2.6 Ga (Wilson et al. 1995; Jelsma et al. 1996)
as demonstrated by the emplacement of the Great Dyke (ultra-)mafic layered suite at ~ 2575
Ma (Oberthür et al. 2002). Archaean extension is further expressed by the development of the
intracratonic Witwatersrand basin (Fig. 5.1).

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A belt of allochthonous migmatitic gneisses, incorporated into the Migmatitic gneiss

terrane (MiGT) and comprising the Mudzi Complex, can be regarded as the Archaean part of
the polyphase Zambezi belt. The MiGT consists of a complex suite of amphibolite-facies
para- and orthogneisses containing granulite facies relicts (Barton et al. 1991). Geochrono-
logical data indicate that the MiGT was subjected to granulite facies metamorphism during
mid-Archaean times (~ 3.0 Ga) and reworked at amphibolite facies metamorphism at ~ 2.6 Ga
(Barton et al. 1991; Vinyu et al. 2001). The latter event may be coeval with the emplacement
of granitoids of the Chilimanzi Suite. Dating by the GTK Consortium yielded an oldest zircon
fraction with ages of 2713±22 Ma and 2632±3 Ma with metamorphic overprinting at ~ 2.54
Ga and 554±33 Ma.
The tectonic history of the MiGt is difficult to establish. Hofmann et al. (2002)
describe a pervasive S1 foliation, compositional layering boudins and rootless folds forming
foliation-parallel trails. Asymmetric structures such as back-rotated boudins manifest top-to-
the-west tectonic transport. High strain zones are parallel to the general trend. Granitoids,
together with intrusive aplitic dykes are transposed into these zones of maximum strain,
giving rise to layered gneisses. Elsewhere, evidence of anatexis is provided by enclaves of
migmatitic gneiss with ptygmatically folded leucosomes and biotite-rich restites. East-
directed shearing is indicated by the offset of the Great Dyke and N-S compression by
deformation of the same dyke.
Granitoid gneisses of the granite-greenstone terrain and the MiTG along the northern
and eastern exposed craton margin show ample evidence of Pan-African overprinting at ~ 500
Ma (Barton et al. 1991; Dirks et al. 1998; Vinyu et al. 2001; this Map Explanation). Pan-
African overprinting of the northern and eastern margin of the Zimbabwe craton is manifested
by a Rb-Sr biotite age of 473±8 Ma (Vail and Dodson, 1969) of the Chirwa dome (Makaha
greenstone belt), representing a cooling age below the ~ 450° C isotherm (Villa, 1998). Pan-
African recrystallisation ages produced by the GTK Consortium include 554±33 Ma for the
MiGT 520±16 Ma for granitoid gneisses of the granite-greenstone terrain. 40Ar/39Ar
thermochronology on mica manifests that lithologies of the eastern margin of the Zimbabwe
craton were heated above ~ 300° C during the ~ 1100 Ma GOC and subsequently during the
~530 Ma Pan-African orogeny (Manhiça et al. 2001).

11.3.2. Palaeoproterozoic extension of the Zimbabwe craton

The Limpopo belt experienced transpression at ~ 2.0 Ga and was affected by complex
transpressional/transtensional forces between 2.0 and 1.7 Ga. McCourt et al. (2001) correlate
the latter event with e.g., deposition of Palaeoproterozoic continental Waterberg basin
sediments and associated volcanics. U-Pb geochronology yields maximum ages for the
metasediments of the Gairezi and Rushinga Groups of ~ 2.04 Ga. The protoliths have been
deposited in troughs along the eastern and northern margin of the Zimbabwe Craton.
Elsewhere in the South Gondwana Terrane Palaeoproterozoic crustal extension is
expressed by the development of the Griqualand, Transvaal and Waterberg-Soutpansberg
basins (Kaapvaal cratons).

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Post-Umkondo N-S directed dolerites dated at 1783±51 Ma (Sm-Nd) could possibly

be related to the same event. It is possible that these dolerites intersect the undeformed
sedimentary sequence of the Umkondo Group. This could mean a Palaeoproterozoic age of
the Umkondo Group. Alternatively, a Mesoproterozoic age has been proposed (see Sections
6.6. and 6.7.).

11.3.3. Palaeoproterozoic orogeny

Palaeoproterozoic orogenesis is not expressed in the area covered by this Map Explanation.
Along the western boundary of the Kalahari craton, however, several fold belts including the
Kheiss belt, Okwa gneiss and Magondi belt manifest extensive crustal collision and
amalgamation. It further involved transpressional events in the Limpopo belt (see above) and,
further a field, outside the Kalahari realm, tectogenesis in the Richterveld terrain and the
Rehoboth arc.

11.3.4. Mesoproterozoic Pre-Kibaran extension

Pre-Kibaran extension is well expressed in the West Gondwana Terrane by the development
of the intracratonic Kibaran trough as manifested by rhyodacitic intercalations dated at
1353±46 Ma in the sedimentary sequence of the Burundi Supergroup and the emplacement of
bi-modal magmatic rocks (Klerkx et al. 1987). This includes early- to pre-Kibaran S-type
granitoids with ages between 1330 and 1250 Ma and A-type alkaline granitoids with an age of
1249 Ma. The oldest mafic sills yield ages between 1379 and 1340 Ma; a younger generation
yields ages of ~ 1282 Ma. Layered ultramafic intrusives have been dated at ~ 1275 Ma (Tack
et al. 1994; Deblond and Tack, 1999).
Nearby, pre-Kibaran extension in the Irumide trough (eastern Zambia) is exemplified
by emplacement of the ultra-potassic Mivula Hill nepheline-sodalite syenite and Nyika-type
granitoids, yielding ages of ~ 1360 and 1329 Ma, respectively. In the Tete-Chipata block
(Map Explanation Volume 4; GTK Consortium 2006d) detrital zircon in the supracrustal
Zâmbuè Supergroup indicates a maximum age of 1.2 – 1.3 Ga. Volcanic rocks of the Fíngoè
Supergroup yield an age of 1327±16 Ma.
In the South Gondwana Terrane crustal extension is only expressed by juvenile
oceanic crust encountered in the Chewore Inliers, a group of isolated metamorphosed
basement inliers located in the Zambezi Rift Valley of northern Zimbabwe (Johnson and
Oliver, 2004). Different lithotectonic terranes have been recognised, including the Ophiolite
Terranes or Chewore Ophiolite, dated at 1393±22 Ma.

11.3.5. Mesoproterozoic Grenville Orogenic Cycle – Rodinia Supercontinent

The Grenville Orogenic Cycle (GOC), at about 1.1 – 1.0 Ga, is a worldwide orogenic system
responsible for the formation of Rodinia (Fig. 11.3). On the African continent the GOC is
expressed by the Kibaran belt, the Sinclair province and Namaqua-Natal belt along the
western and southern margin of the Kalahari craton. The Choma-Kalamo block and the
Irumide belt are exposed north of the Zimbabwe craton in Zambia (Fig. 5.2).
The bulk of the crystalline basement in Mozambique has been deformed and
metamorphosed during the GOC. This includes the crystalline basement of northern
Mozambique, the Tete-Chipata block (Map Explanation Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d)

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and crystalline rocks exposed along the eastern and northern margin of the Zimbabwe craton
(Fig. 5.2). These rocks can be attributed to the Mozambique and Zambezi belts and, as shown
by Pinna et al. (1993), they have ~ 1100 Ma metamorphic and crystallisation ages and ~ 550
Ma overprints.
On reconstruction of Gondwana, the Mozambique belt in southern Mozambique forms
part of a high-grade metamorphic zone stretching from at least Namaqualand through Natal
(South Africa), through the Falkland Islands, Haag Nunatacks (West Antarctica), through the
Maud Province of Western Dronning Maud Land (Grantham et al. 1988, 1997; Groenewald
et al. 1991; Jacobs et al. 1993) (Fig. 11.3; see also Figure 11.1). This fold belt is believed to
have formed through collision and amalgamation of mostly juvenile crust onto the southern
and eastern margins of the Kalahari craton during the formation of the Rodinia
Supercontinent (Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al. 1997; Wareham et al. 1998). The suture
between the Kalahari craton and Antarctica is not known.
The Mozambique belt along the eastern and northern margin of the Zimbabwe craton
comprises the ~ 2.0 Ga supracrustals of the Rushinga and Gairezi Groups and ~ 1100 Ma
intrusive granitoids as well as mafic intrusives and supracrustal migmatitic gneisses of
uncertain age of the Báruè Complex24. The grade of metamorphism increases from west to
east, from the low grade of the Zimbabwe craton (as demonstrated by the supracrustals of the
Macequece and M’Beza/Vengo Formations*) to the high-grade of the Mozambique belt, as
demonstrated by two generations of anatectic migmatisation (Manhiça et al. 2001).
Post-Umkondo dolerite dykes (constituting one or two generations, see Sections 6.5
and 6.6) have invaded both the lithologies of the Zimbabwe craton and the Mozambique belt
and, consequently, provide a link between both domains. The dykes show progressive
metamorphism from west to east. Dykes in the west still show a fine-grained igneous texture,
although plagioclase is partly saussuritised and pyroxene is partly replaced by chlorite.
Towards the east a metamorphic garnet-bearing paragenesis develops manifesting
amphibolite-facies conditions (Manhiça et al. 2001).
Migmatitic gneisses show two phases of migmatisation. An early migmatitic layering
S1, parallel to the gneissic layering, developed during D1/M1. A younger foliation S2 is
discordant to S1 and is composed of ~ N-S directed vertical lenses, typically 2 – 3 cm and > 10
cm in length. In mafic N-S trending dykes the same deformation is show by strong
deformation along their margins and equally directed leucosomes. Elsewhere shallowly
dipping S1 fabrics are overprinted by N-S vertical shear zones. Shear sense indicators are
sparse and suggest sinistral displacements (Manhiça et al. 2001). S1 and S2 are related to the ~
1100 Ma accretion and ~ 500 Ma Pan-African overprinting of the Mozambique belt.

24
Inherited zircons have ages of ~ 1.83 Ga, 2.03 Ga and 2.50 Ga. The inherited zircons may indicate that the
granite has a sedimentary precursor or, alternatively, inherited the zircons from the neighbouring quartzites
(P2BCsi).

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Fig. 11.3. Reconstruction of Rodinia after Li et al. (1995), Dalziel (1997) and Hoffman (1999) showing
mountain belts formed during the Grenville Orogenic Cycle and the formation of juvenile crust (1.35 – 0.9
Ga). Key: M = Madagascar, S = Sri Lanka, KAL = Kalahari craton, N = Natal, A = Areachap and associated
terrains, Fk = Falkland Islands, H = Haag Nunatacks. L = Lurio belt, K = Kibaran belt and NET = NE
Tanzania.

The ~ 1100 Ma accretion has been interpreted to manifest a convergent margin setting
in which magmatic arc calc-alkaline rocks collided with the Kalahari craton along its eastern
and southern margins (Jacobs et al. 1993; Grantham et al. 1995, 2003; Wareham et al. 1998)
during the GOC. A-type megacrystic granitoids have been emplaced during the terminal
stages of the orogenic phase (e.g., in Natal, Namaqualand and megacrystic orthogneisses east
of Chimoio) and often preserve Rapakivi textures and charnockitic mineralogy (Jacobs et al.
1993). These intrusives are related to a sinistral transpressional setting along the eastern and
southern margins of the Kalahari craton. This apparently was a diachronous event.
Consequently, crystallisation ages decrease from north, with orthogneisses in the Chimoio
area yielding ages of > 1100 Ma (mean 207Pb/206Pb crystallisation age of 1112±18 Ma), to

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south through Antarctica to Natal with U-Pb SHRIMP ages of 1093±6 Ma in Sverdrupfella
(Grantham and Armstrong, unpubl. data), 1088±10 Ma in North Kirwanveggen (Harris, 1999)
and 1070 to 1030 in Natal (B. Eglington, pers. comm. in Manhiça et al. 2001).
As mentioned in Section 11.2, it was widely argued that the Zambezi belt orogenesis
occurred at 850 – 830 Ma and, stressing the continuity between the Mesoproterozoic Irumide
belt and the Choma-Kalomo block, postulated no major displacements between the Congo
and Kalahari cratons – West and South Gondwana Terranes, respectively – since the
Mesoproterozoic. Timing of the Zambezi orogenesis was based on the 850 – 830 Ma age of
allegedly syntectonic igneous rocks (Barton et al. 1991), now attributed to post-Rodinia
extension and detachment thrusting (Dirks et al. 1998). Recent work indicates that the
Zambezi belt orogenesis took place between 560 and 515 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999); Goscombe
et al. 2000; John, 2001; Hanson, 2003; Hargrove et al. 2003; Johnson and Oliver, 2004). It
was further indicated that the Choma-Kalomo block has no relation with any tectonic event in
the Irumide belt (de Waele et al. 2003). Meta-gabbroic and eclogitic fragments with MORB-
like geochemical signatures and associated plagiogranite with a zircon age of 1393±22 Ma
have been encountered in the Chewore Ophiolite. Meta-dacite with a crystallisation age of
1082±7 Ma is found in the Kaourera arc (both Chewore Inliers, Zambezi belt). These rocks
manifest the formation of a pre-Grenville juvenile oceanic basin and subsequent subduction, ~
300 Ma apart during the GOC. In Rodinia reconstructions, the Kalahari craton is still far away
from other cratonic blocks constituting Gondwana Africa (Fig. 11.3). This means that the
Zambezi-Lufilian-Damara mobile belt represents, in fact, a major Neoproterozoic suture
(Burke et al. 1977; Oliver et al. 1998; Porada and Berhorst, 2000; John et al. 2003; Johnson
and Oliver, 2000, 2004) as demonstrated by isotopically discordant zircon rims in
whiteschists (kyanite + talc + yoderite) in the Chewore Ophiolite that provide a maximum age
of < 580 Ma for a high-pressure (> 13 kbar), subduction-related amphibolite facies event. This
linear tectonic weakness zone was most likely reactivated during Mesozoic rifting to form the
Zambezi Karoo graben. Posttectonic cooling to ~ 350° C had occurred by ~ 480 Ma
(Goscombe et al. 2002).

11.3.6. Post-Rodinia break-up (Neoproterozoic)

The GOC was followed by a phase of extension and the formation of the Mozambique and
other early-Pan-African oceanic basins. Extension is diachronous and starts in Antarctica
between ~ 900 to 1000 Ma (Manhiça et al. 2001). In eastern and southern Africa the
emplacement of alkaline complexes, dolerite dykes and bi-modal magmatic suites and
intracratonic basins demonstrate post-Rodinia extension. Extension related magmatism is
expressed as a magmatic belt, stretching from Tanzania to Madagascar over a distance of 450
km and dated between 804 Ma and 776 Ma (Maboko, 2001; Handke et al. 1999). Post-
Rodinia basins include the Congo, Malagarasi/Bukoban, Kundulungu and Nama basins and
the platform sediments topping the Bangweulu block (N Zambia). In east Africa (Tanzania
and Burundi) deposition of the Malagarasi Supergroup was initiated at ~ 850 Ma. The Kalolo-
Lusaka alkaline complex has an age of 877±23 Ma. Bukoban dolerite dykes have K-Ar ages
of 794±3 Ma and 795±7. Gagwe volcanic units of the Malagarasi Supergroup have K-Ar ages
of 813±21 Ma and 822±30 Ma. Emplacement of granitoids such as the Kwamanga granite
(842±80 Ma) and Kalunduru granite (724±6 Ma) manifests remobilisation of Ubende belt
(Boven et al. 1999).

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Emplacement of bimodal magmatic suites assembled in a number of tectonic thrust

masses or nappes, comprising the Zambezi Allochthonous Terrane (ZAT) and Marginal
Gneiss Terrane (MaGT) are expressions of post-Rodinia extension in the area covered by this
Map Explanation. Together with the Migmatic gneiss terrane (MiGT) – an allochthonous slab
of the Archaean Zimbabwe craton – the latter nappes formed through east- to southeast-
verging midcrustal detachment faulting (Dirks et al. 1998). Subsequently these thrust masses
were involved in Pan-African south-directed tectonic transport during the formation of the
Zambezi belt. These bimodal suites comprise the Masoso Metamorphic, Basal Rushinga
Intrusive and Guro Suites.
Imprecise Rb-Sr ages of the Masoso Metamorphic Suite yield ages between ~ 823 and
~ 605 Ma (Barton et al. 1991; Section 7.3.4). Mariga et al. (1998) reported a U-Pb zircon
crystallisation age of 849±2 Ma for one of the small metagabbro bodies that truncate so-called
DZM1 tectonic fabric in the Masoso Metamorphic Suite. The ‘DZM1’ deformation is marked
by isoclinal folding and a variably developed mylonitic foliation and fabric. The dating result
indicates that the DZM1 phase and the accompanying high-pressure granulite-facies
metamorphism are older than ~ 850 Ma. Ma. Vinyu et al. (1999) consider a 207Pb/206Pb age of
869.5±1.0 Ma as the best estimate for leucocratic migmatite, either representing its
crystallisation age or the timing of the DZM1 retrogradation and migmatisation.
Three samples of the Guro Suite have been dated which yield crystallisation ages
between ~ 867 and 852 Ma (Section 7.8.5). In one sample three ages can be recognised: (1)
867 ± 15 Ma for magmatic zircons, (2) 850 – 830 Ma for metamorphic zircon domains and
(3) 512 ±4 Ma for a younger phase of metamorphism. Age (1) can be attributed to the
magmatic emplacement of the rocks of the Guro Suite. Age (2) can be related to extensional
detachment faulting and age (3) to Pan-African metamorphic overprinting. The Monte
Atchiza layered (ultra-)mafic massif, located north of the Sânangoè Shear Zone in the Tete-
Chipata block (Map Explanation, Volume 4; GTK Consortium, 2006d), has an Sm-Nd age of
864±30 and is considered to represent the mafic member of the bimodal suites.
The emplacement of the Basal Rushinga Intrusive Suite (BRIS) – a folded sheet-like
body with an average thickness of 500 m with strike-length in excess of 120 km – in the thrust
plane between the MiGT and MaGT is considered to be a related and coeval event. Imprecise
Rb-Sr ages range from ~ 955 to ~ 627 Ma (Barton et al. 1991). Zircons and titanite from a
sample of the westernmost BRIS, produced a linear regression curve with upper and lower
intercepts of 805±11 Ma and 571±71 Ma (Vinyu et al. 1999).
The above bimodal suites are also coeval with supracrustals with basal metarhyolites
north of Zambezi belt in the Tete-Chipata block of southern Zambia (Wilson et al. 1993;
Hanson et al. 1994). The sequence is supposedly deposited in a continental rift to oceanic
setting along the present day southern margin of the Congo craton (Johnson et al. 2006).
Around Lusaka, the sequence includes the Kafue Rhyolite Formation, a 2500 m thick
sequence of folded, variably metamorphosed rhyodacitic flows and tuffs with subordinate
rhyolite and other epicrustals, including thin mafic horizons. The Kafue Rhyolite Formation
grades into the Nazingwe Formation, a narrow succession of tuffaceous metapelites and acid
volcanic horizons. SHRIMP dating confirms a previously unpublished TIMS age of 879±19
Ma (Wardlaw, in: Wilson et al. 1993). Whole rock εNd(T) values between –4 and –2 with TDM
model ages between 1.5 and 2.1 Ga are consistent with a generation by mixing and
assimilation of juvenile mantle material and older continental crust in a continental
extensional setting (Johnson et al. 2006).

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11.3.7. Pan-African Orogenic System (Neoproterozoic – Ordovicium)

Consumption of the Mozambique Ocean can be correlated with the Pan-African assembly of
East and West Gondwana (Fig. 11.1). In the ~ 1100 Ma Proterozoic fold belts along the
eastern margin of the Zimbabwe craton the Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (PAOC) is expressed
by thermal reactivation and metamorphic overprinting followed by cooling through the ~ 350°
C at ~ 553 Ma and ~ 468 Ma. The younger ages are confined to a N-S directed zone of strong
shear that coincides with the eastern border of exposed Archaean rocks of the Zimbabwe
craton.
Alternatively, this zone of maximum shear can be viewed as suture between East and
West Gondwana (Fig. 11.1). Manhiça et al. (2001) emphasise, however, the absence of
ophiolites and calc-alkaline igneous rocks that can be related to a magmatic arc above a
subduction zone having an age of ~ 850 – 750 Ma. Consequently, these authors conclude that
accretion of the Mozambique belt to the Kalahari craton and amalgamation with Antarctica
during the GOC was maintained after the break-up of Rodinia but suffered repeated
deformation and reactivation at ~ 550 Ma and 470 Ma during the Pan-African orogeny. The
latter event involved the formation of N-S directed foliation with neosomes, rehydration,
retromorphism and migmatisation of the older rocks.
Meert (2002) recognises three broad age groups related to the PAOC. These include
(1) the initial oceanic arc/ophiolite genesis in the EAO between ~ 710 and 800 Ma. This was
followed by (2) the EAO between ~ 690 and 580 Ma in a N-S belt stretching from the
Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique and (3) the Kuunga orogeny from ~ 580 to
460 Ma in ~ E-W and N-S zones along the northern and eastern margins of the Kalahari
craton.
Summarising all available geochronological, structural and petrological data Grantham
et al. (2002) outline a picture of the PAOC with two provinces (Fig. 11.4):
• A northern province dominated by Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic crust,
represented by the Congo-Tanzania (or Central Africa) craton in the west (West
Gondwana terrane) and the Madagascar-India-Enderby craton in the east (East
Gondwana terrane). These cratons are separated by the N-S ~710 – 800 Ma
Mozambique Ocean. The EAO appears to continue into northern Mozambique.
• A southern province comprising the Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic Kalahari (or
Southern Africa) craton and marginal metamorphic belts. A northern belt includes
the Zambezi/Damara belt. An eastern belt extends southwards through southern
Mozambique into Maud province, Antarctica, and into Natal in southern Africa.
Crystallisation ages are predominantly of Grenvillian age (900 – 1100 Ma) with
TDM model ages of < 1.7 Ga.
• Continued eastward subduction of the floor of the Mozambique Ocean resulted in
the collision between parts of West Gondwana (Congo-Tanzania-Saharan cratons)
and parts of East Gondwana (India, Madagascar and other cratons) and the
formation of the East African orogen (EAO) between ~ 690 and 580 Ma in a N-S
belt stretching from the Arabian-Nubian Shield to northern Mozambique.

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• This was followed by collision and amalgamation of North Gondwana (formed by

amalgamation of West and East Gondwana) and South Gondwana (Kalahari craton,
Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica). This formed the Kuunga orogeny at ~ 580
– 480 Ma.
• Docking of South and North Gondwana resulted in N-S sinistral shearing observed
along the eastern margins of the Kalahari and Tanzania cratons, in east Antarctica,
southern India, Madagascar and as far north as Uganda (i.e., the Aswa fault).
Together with other major late Pan-African shear zones such as the Mwembeshi
dislocation and Sânangoè Shear Zone these are interpreted as ‘escape tectonic’
features. N-S directed sinistral shearing was also responsible for the curvature of
eastern part of the Manica greenstone belt from an E-W into a N-S direction.

The Sânangoè Shear Zone (SSZ) currently forms the boundary between the West and
South Gondwana Terranes. On a regional scale, this boundary is formed by the Damara-
Lufilian-Zambezi (DLZ) orogenic belt. Grantham et al. (2003) suggest an eastward
continuation through to the WSW-ENE trending Lurio belt and the thrust belts of Sri Lanka.
Recently, however, a suture origin for the Lurio belt has been questioned by Bingen et al.
(2006). They argue that the Lurio belt is a polyphase high-strain zone showing amphibolite-
to granulite-grade metamorphism and deformation constrained between 578±10 and 545±6
Ma. Monazite, related to posterior extensional structures, has been dated at 531±6 Ma. An
alternative location for the eastward continuation of the suture between South and North
Gondwana can be south of the Nampula block, an area covered by younger cover rocks.

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Fig. 11.4. Gondwana reconstruction after Lawver et al. (1998). Ages and locations of various major
structural/tectonic features (e.g., major thrust belts, shear zones) showing direction of tectonic transport and
shear sense. Key: PC = Palgat-Cauvery Shear Zone; RC = Rayner Complex; A = Achankovil Shear Zone; GC
= Grunehogna cratonic fragment; H = Heimefrontflella; RF = Ranotsara Shear Zone; U = Urfjell; N =
Namama Shear Belt; O = Orvinfjella Shear Zone; M = Manica Shear Zone (adapted from Grantham et al.
2002).

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CHAPTER 12

MINERAL RESOURCES

12.1. INTRODUCTION
Mozambique has large and diverse, unexploited mineral resources potential. Despite this
mineral wealth commercial mining has played a relatively minor role in the development of
the country’s economy. The situation is changing now mainly due to production of natural
gas. Planned production of coal, ilmenite, zircon, gold, rare earth minerals in pegmatites and
several industrial minerals will further increase the contribution from the extractive industry.
The main reasons for the low utilization of the country’s mineral resources have been,
amongst others, incomplete geological data and weak infrastructure which hampers
exploitation of resources due to lack of transport and energy supply. Lack of internal and
external financial resources has further contributed to the slow development of the mineral
sector. Instead artisanal miners and prospectors have played an important role in the local
economy at village level and also in identifying deposits of gold, gemstones and construction
materials. Gold in greenstone belts to the east of Lake Niassa in northern Mozambique was
first found and panned by local prospectors. The majority of gemstones in the Alto Ligonha
pegmatite field is still been mined by local people.
However, significant exploration work has been carried out by the National
Directorate of Geology (DNG), with the support of private mining companies and bilateral
and multilateral missions during the past decades. This has led to the discovery of important
deposits of coal, heavy mineral sands, gold, tantalum-niobium, phosphates and dimension
stone as well as aggregate, clay and gravel. Several of these deposits are currently in
development stage. The development of mineral resources in a manner that is mutually
attractive and beneficial for the foreign investor and for the Government of Mozambique has
been chosen as a national economic priority.
Investment in Mozambique’s mineral potential by leading international and regional
mining companies is expected to increase substantially as a consequence of increased
geological knowledge, achieved by the activity of the Mineral Resources Management
Capacity Building Project. Global mining houses will be encouraged to invest in exploration
for energy minerals (hydrocarbons, coal and uranium), for titanium-zirconium in heavy
mineral sands, for gold, diamonds and other gemstones, and also for agrominerals such as
lime and phosphate and for tantalum, fluorite and other industrial minerals. The economic
growth rate of 10% for the first half of 2006 (MBendi information letter 11/09/2006) indicates
that local investment in production of construction materials and industrial minerals to serve
the increasing domestic consumption should be encouraged.
The Archaean Macequece and Vengo Formations of the Manica Greenstone Belt host
good potential for gold, copper, nickel, asbestos and iron ore resources. Lode and placer gold
deposits have been mined for decades in this region. Small high-grade bauxite deposits are
mined at Moriangane in Manica. Other areas with bauxite occurrences are Monte Salambidua
in Tete Province and Monte Mauze in Zambezia Province. The metasediments of the Gairezi
Group and the Umkondo Supergroup along the frontier with Zimbabwe host deposits of iron,
copper and limestone. Graphite is found in Proterozoic rock units associated with gneisses

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and schists, mostly as small silvery flakes and also as narrow veins and small lenses often in
the proximity of marble. The Proterozoic sequences in the Zambezia and Nampula Provinces
in Alto Ligonha area contain pegmatites with rare earth minerals and semiprecious
gemstones, beryl group minerals (aquamarine), mica, feldspar, kaolin and also radioactive
minerals. Tantalum and niobium with subordinate antimony and bismuth as well as lithium
minerals are the most important with immediate mining potential.
Coal occurs in the lower sequences of the Karoo Supergroup. These deposits in the
Karoo basins most important energy mineral resources in Mozambique in addition to natural
gas and also among the biggest in world scale. Some sedimentary sequences in the Rovuma
Basin in the north and the Mozambique Basin in the south show indications of hydrocarbons,
e.g. the Cretaceous Grudja Formation, where the Temane and Pande gas fields are currently in
production. Potential for oil has been reported from the off-shore Rovuma basin.
Fluorite occurs in Mesozoic fractures in association with the rift evolution and in carbonatite
intrusions, e.g. Mt Muambe, SE of Tete. The Tertiary Cheringoma and Jofane Formations
contain large resources of limestone, halite and gypsum. Very extensive world- class
resources of heavy mineral sands with titanium and zirconium minerals occur in dunes and
beach sands along the coast.
Major zones of interest for mineral exploration in the area covered by this Map
Explanation are the Manica greenstone belt (gold, copper, nickel), the Tete Gabbro-Anor-
thosite Suite (iron, titanium, apatite) and the Moatize sub-basins (coal). The mineral occur-
rences known within this Map Explanation (Volume 2) are described in Section 12.2. and
listed in App. 12.1.

12.2. MINERAL DEPOSITS AND OCCURRENCES

12.2.1. Metallic Minerals

Gold
The numerous gold indications in the Archaean metavolcanics of the Manica greenstone belt
are of local importance. Gold showings have also been recorded at Mavita-Rotanda, south of
Chimoio, in the Inchope-Gorongoza zone and around Changara-Luenha River. In these areas
several thousand artisanal miners are estimated to produce 50 – 60 kg gold annually by
digging and panning the lateritic soil and alluvium in river valleys.
Gold has been mined from the ~ 2.65 Ga greenstone belt in the Mutare-Manica border
area since pre-historic times (Section 6.4.2.). Historically, this belt has produced over 80
tonnes of gold, of which the major part was extracted from the Rezende Mine in Zimbabwe.
Hard rock gold mining on the Mozambican side of the border started 1893 – 94 at Bragança
and Guy Fawkes and has continued ever since in an irregular and discontinuous way. Official
production figures have been very low, less than 100 kg annually during the past decade.
Gold deposits in the Mutare-Manica greenstone belt are typically low-sulphur
structural-hosted gold deposits connected to shear zones in Archaean mafic and ultramafic
volcanics, banded ironstones and chert layers or in fractured contacts between supracrustal
rocks and surrounding granitoids. From a structural point of view, the greenstone belt forms a
synformal structure and comprises of a lower stratigraphic unit of mafic to ultramafic
submarine volcanics with minor banded iron- formation and tuff horizons, which generally

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occupy the flanks of the synform. Intrusions of tonalite, granite and granodiorite intersect or
intrude the greenstones and the surrounding granitoid gneisses. According to Lächelt (2004),
two genetic types of mineralisation can be recognised:
• Au mineralisation in quartz-carbonate veins, veinlets, stringers and stockwork
(‘reef type’) of hydrothermal origin associated with mafic-ultramafic volcanics.
Examples of this type are the Monarch, Bragança, Cantão, Marianas, Richmond,
Estrela, Excelsior, Old Richard, Wednesday, Two Fools, Guy Fawkes and Damp
deposits. The copper-gold deposit of Mundonguara is considered a very similar
deposit type.
• Au associated with Fe-Cu sulphides of hydrothermal-metasomatic origin,
predominantly related to banded ironstones. Examples of this type are the Dot’s
Luck and Try Again deposits.

The hydrothermal quartz veins typically occur in talc-chlorite schists (A3MMtc),

serpentinites and meta-komatiites (A3MMse) and in foliated granitoids (A3Mpgn). Tension
gaps in brittle ironstone horizons are also a preferred location for auriferous quartz veins.
Generally, the veins strike parallel to the metamorphic structure of the greenstones, mainly E-
W and ENE-SSW. Almost without exception, the auriferous quartz veins have sub-vertical
dips and are known to extend down-dip to > 350 m in the case of the Bragança deposit. The
thickness of the quartz veins ranges from a few centimetres to two or three metres. The
sulphide content of the veins averages 3%, comprising pyrite and galena with minor
arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite. The gold grade of the veins mined to date has been
between 7 and 15 g/t (Hunting, 1988).

Monarch
Gold mineralization at the Monarch deposit (SDS 1832, 0471180/ 7912264) is the most
typical example of a hydrothermal vein-type deposit. The mine site is located directly on the
border with Zimbabwe and the deposit extends and has been mined on both sides of the
border. During the early operation period (1929 – 1949) the mine produced 90 000 tonnes of
ore with an average gold grade of 10 g/t (Sheeran, 1988), (Fig 12.1).
The gold mineralisation is hosted by a brecciated up to 20 m thick BIF horizon with
intercalations of talc schists and talc-chlorite schists. A dolerite dyke of Karoo age divides the
deposit into a western and an eastern section. The southern part of the E-W trending
mineralised zone consists of talc-chlorite schists with thin chlorite-quartzite layers which
carry 0.4 g/t gold. The talc-chlorite schists contain numerous, partly auriferous quartz-
carbonate stringers. A strongly tectonised and brecciated chlorite-quartz-carbonate schist
marks the southern limit of the deposit. The shear zone carries pyrite, pyrrhotite and
arsenopyrite and generally yields a higher gold content compared to un-sheared rock. Gold is
commonly associated with fine, disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite. A bulk sample (3
tonnes) of the ore zone gives the following chemical composition: Au 11 g/t, S 7.00%, As
1.00%, TiO2 0.02%, MnO 0.28%, SiO2 62.4%, Al2O3 1.06%, Fe2O3 10.27%, FeO 5.06%,
CaO 2.00%, MgO 4.85%. Proved ore reserves amount to 275 000 tonnes and probable
reserves to 65 000 tonnes at a gold grade of 8 g/t to a depth of 54 m (Sheeran, 1988). DNG
reports (Notícia Explicativa, 1995) a proved reserve of 1391 kg gold and a probable reserve of
4800 kg gold in addition to previously mined 260 kg of gold.

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Fig. 12.1. Monarch gold mine,

production plant.

Bragança
The Bragança deposit is located in the vicinity of Serra Vengo (SDS 1832, 488182/ 7920136)
and is considered to be the biggest vein-type gold deposit in Mozambique (Lächelt, 2004).
The auriferous sub-vertical quartz veins, exposed over a distance of 150 – 320 m, are located
within a N-S striking fracture zone. The average width of the main vein is 1.6 m and no
noticeable change has been observed down-dip to a depth of 120 m. The greenstone host rock
is composed of fine-grained quartz-chlorite schists with an E-W strike and dip to the south.
The veins contain 9 – 12 g/t gold and the content of sulphides as well as gold increases with
depth. Gold is associated with pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite and sometimes
bismuth minerals. Parallel to the main vein, there is another vein, up to 3.6 m wide, which has
yielded 4.5 – 16.0 g/t gold (Notícia Explicativa, 1995). The proved ore reserve contains 450
kg of gold and the probable reserve 1800 kg of gold. Historical production amounts to 510 kg
of gold (Notícia Explicativa, 1995).
Pan Africa Resources Company has reported a combined resource of one million troy
ounces of gold at an in situ grade of 3.4 g/t Au in 2005 in two shear zones within its Manica
claims. An extended Guy Fawkes deposit together with an extended Fair Bride deposit form,
in combination, these resources. Historical production has exceeded 60 000 troy ounces of
gold distributed between several prospects. Recent exploration (Fig. 12.2.) enabled to outline
two major mineralised zones: (1) a WNW-ESE trending Mutambarico zone, averaging 8 – 12
g/t gold over widths of 1 – 1.5m along strike lengths of 1000 – 2500 m and (2) an E-W
trending Andrade shear zone with a surface to near-surface mineralisation of 2 – 4.5 g/t gold
over widths of 45 m and strike lengths of 250 – 350 m for individual ore zones. A pre-
feasibility study is underway and Pan African Resources has planned to complete the study in
2006.
The results of the recent exploration utilizing modern, multidiscipline techniques
indicate that the Archaean Manica greenstone belt has potential for profitable gold mining in
industrial scale.

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Fig. 12.2. Two gold mineralised shear zones in the Manica area: Mutambarico and Andrada. Map by courtesy
of the Pan African Resources Company, March 2006.

Mavita region
Several artisanal gold workings are found along the Nhamaguio River, ~ 80 km SSE from
Manica, in the Sussundenga-Rotanda area. The mineralisation is hosted by sheared and
weathered mica gneisses of Archaean age. At Bandire (SDS 1933, 523768E/ 7842170N) there
are several deep trenches along the Nhamaguio River banks. Horizontal quartz veins, a few
centimetres thick, are excavated for their gold content. Vein fragments, with very fine-grained
gold, are crushed at site and panned in the river. In 1998 the Ashanti Exploration Company
carried out geochemical soil sampling and RC drilling around the Bandire deposit (Fig. 12.3).
Trench samples yielded up to 3.7 g/t/m in muscovite-quartz rock, while average grades
ranged from 0.11 to 0.69 g/t Au across the largest excavation (250m wide). A total of 792 m
of RC drilling through the quartz veined zone yielded gold grades of less than 1 g/t, with the
highest grade of 3.4 g/t found over a 2 m interval of quartz-veined muscovite schist. Ashanti
estimated an indicated resource of 640 000 t with 0.75 g/t gold (Gonçalves, 1999).
Similar trenches are found in weathered mica gneisses, ~15 km further to the west, in
Mavita (SDS 1933, 522958/ 7842542 and 523048/ 7842589). These trenches are some 5 – 10
m deep and expose fractured and folded remnants, one to two cm in thickness, of sub-
horizontal auriferous quartz veins (Fig. 12.4). Gold is panned from the crushed quartz vein
fragments in the nearby river. The foreman of the artisanal work team reports that the gold
grade is approximately 5 g/t. Since very little regional exploration work has been carried out,
the Mavita area can be classified as an interesting target area.

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Fig. 12.3. Excavating for gold in Bandire. Weathered mica gneiss with horizontal quartz veins.

Fig. 12.4. Gold bearing quartz veins in weathered mica schist near Mavita, Rotanda. Gold occurs in the white,
tightly folded quartz streaks.

Inchope-Gorongosa
Quartz veins occur frequently in Mesoproterozoic migmatic paragneisses (P2BCga) south of
the Jurassic syenite intrusion of the Serra da Gorongosa. Felsic and mafic dyke swarms,
associated with the Gorongosa syenite and trending NW-NE, are common, in particular close
to the rift margin, 20 – 25 km east of Gorongosa. Artisanal miners excavate gold-bearing
quartz veins close to Teçequire Mountain (SDS 1834, 608901/ 7932521, Fig. 12.5). Quartz
vein fragments are crushed at the site and panned in nearby small streams. Ashanti Mining
Company has carried out limited geochemical exploration in this area (Gonçalves, 1997).

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Fig. 12.5. Artisanal excavation for gold-bearing quartz veins at Teçequire Mountain, south of Serra da
Gorongosa. The quartz veins are horizontal and can easily be removed from the weathered bedrock.

Copper
Base metal concentrations of copper, nickel, gold and silver are encountered in altered
ultrabasic volcanics of the Archaean Manica greenstone belt. Mundonguara is the best-studied
occurrence.

Mundonguara
This copper-gold-silver occurrence is located on the southern hillside of the Isitaca
Mountains, ~ 12 km west of Manica town (DS 1832, 477977/ 907124). Altogether ten E-W
trending mineralised bodies have been identified. Reserves, calculated for an average mining
thickness of 2.9 m, amount to 123 000 t with 2.36% Cu (Lächelt, 2004). Other calculations by
LIMEX (1983) indicate a reserve of 325 000 t grading 3.1% Cu and 0.58 g/t Au. Ni, Co and
Ag contents of 0.06%, 0.09% Co and 24.7 g/t, respectively, were reported by Heacher (1983).
The mineralisation is concentrated in a felsic breccia that occurs as vein fillings in
komatiitic gabbro or peridotite of the Macequece Formation* (Section 6.4.2) and nearby
felsites, quartzites and quartz-feldspar breccias. Metallic minerals include pentlandite, pyrrho-
tite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, covellite, chalcocite, bornite, cuprite, copper carbonates and native
copper. Gangue assemblages include chlorite, talc-chlorite and talc-carbonate-chlorite. The
mineralised bodies are ~ 10 m wide and 20 – 120 m in length. Within an E-W trending and N
dipping zone, 1000 – 1200 m long, seven mineralised lenses have been mapped. Shearing
along the contact between a thick serpentinite layer and thinner Mg-basalt layer appears to
control the mineralisation (Lächelt, 2004).
UNDP carried out geological investigations at Mundonguara during 1989 (UNDP,
1990a). The Mining Data Bank, compiled by the Secretariat of the African, Caribbean and
Pacific Group of States (APC Group, 2002), reports that the total copper production from
Mundonguara was about 1000 t of Cu with 50 000 t of Cu remaining as a resource. Total
silver production is estimated at 700 kg with 8 t of Ag reserves remaining. The deposit is
classified in the data bank as small with minor economic potential.

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Tin
Inchope-Mucombeze-Doeroi area
This area is well known for its numerous, small pegmatite deposits with cassiterite and
columbite. Cassiterite concentrations have been recorded at Inchope (561298/ 7869563,
596351/ 7873104 and 588066/ 7882081) and at Mt Doeroi (587921/ 7873413). The pegmatite
bodies have variable strike and dip and are normally quite small. The Sn grade varies and is at
best around 1.5%. Extremely high grades have been assayed at Mt Doeroi (7 – 8% Sn).
LKAB of Sweden has investigated the area by mapping, trenching and ground geophysics in
1978 (LKAB, 1979). However, no resource evaluation was made.

Iron
Iron deposits are found either as weathered Archaean banded ironstones, of which Honde is
best documented occurrence or as titano-magnetite together with ilmenite in several magmatic
anorthosite-hosted bodies in the Tete Suite, of which Machédua is the best known occurrence.

Honde
Weathered iron formations are exposed in the Honde area, about 70 km NE of Manica (SDS
1833, 513406/ 7953542). Based on modelling of their geophysical anomaly, Aero Services
estimated a possible iron resource, down to 100 m depth, of 191 – 230 Mt in 1962. Real
(1974) calculated the presence of 126 Mt with 30 – 66% Fe to the same depth. LKAB from
Sweden investigated the deposit in 1977, using geophysics, core drilling (5 holes in 1972 and
6 holes 1977 totalling 945.85 m), trenching (700 m) and geological mapping. About 20
different deposits, including nearly 90 separate magnetite-rich lenses were identified in
quartz-sericite schists (A3MVqs) and metacherts (A3MVch) of the Macequece Formation
(Section 6.4.2.).
The iron-rich bodies are banded quartz-magnetite/hematite rock with some mica and
clay minerals (Fig. 12.6). Apatite is absent. Based on the exploration results reserves were
estimated, down to 30 m depth, at 37 Mt with 40% Fe, 37 – 40% SiO2 and low P contents
(0.003 – 0.007%) (LKAB, 1978). The ironstone is oxidised to martite and haematite near the
surface. The iron-rich bodies have a complex structural history and have been intersected and
offset by different fault systems. Consequently, reliable evaluation of the resource will require
substantial drilling (RC for large samples).
Processing tests of LKAB show that simple magnetic separation produces high quality
concentrates assaying 70.3 – 71.2% Fe, 0.003 – 0.017% P, 0.49 – 1.29% SiO2 and less than
0.025 Na2O and K2O. Pellets of satisfactory quality can be produced. Further tests are
required to see if the oxidised haematite-rich sections of the ironstone bodies are suitable for
pelletising. Steel could be produced by direct reduction of the pellets by using local coal or
gas when available.
Since the iron content of the bulk ironstone is relatively low and the size of the bodies
is modest, economic exploitation of these ironstones is obviously not feasible. Future
exploration should also pay attention to the possible presence of BIF-hosted gold deposits.

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Fig. 12.6. Banded iron stone in

Honde. Batch is 10 cm long.

Machédua
Within the Tete Suite, north and east of Moatize, a number of magnetite and titano-magnetite
lenses within gabbro, anorthosite and carbonate-rich rocks have been encountered. Some
typical occurrences, located on DS 1533 have been described in Map Explanation, Volume 4
(GTK Consortium, 2006d). Similar anorthosite-hosted iron-titanium deposits are fairly
common in the area covered by SDS 1633, as represented by Antiga Caldas Xavier and
Machédua.
The Machédua deposit (601674/8218294) consists of up to 30 separate NNE-SSW
directed lenses (Fig. 12.7). The individual lenses are usually 100 – 400 m long and 20 – 80 m
wide. Economic minerals are haematite, ilmenite, magnetite and titano-magnetite. Trenching
and mapping in 1974 highlighted a prospective zone 270 m long, 20 m wide and 30 m deep.
This ‘visible’ resource was reported to amount to 7.75 Mt with an inferred resource of 68.5
Mt (Norad, 1979). Follow-up exploration by Brodoimpeks in 1982, comprising detailed
trenching and mapping, reported a resource of loose eluvial-colluvial material of the size 1.45
Mt, containing 613 000 tonnes iron and 257 000 tonnes TiO2 (Brodoimpeks, 1984).

Fig. 12.7. Hilltops consisting of titano-magnetite-rich lenses surrounded by gabbro and anorthosite in
Machédua, Tete Province.

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12.2.2. Industrial Minerals

The gabbroic and anorthositic intrusives of the Tete Suite also provide good quality
dimension stone. Aggregates are produced along the Beira Corridor (National Road EN6)
from paragneisses and granitoids of the Chimoio Group (Figs. 12.11., 12.12.) and from
various volcanic rocks belonging to the Xiluvo Suite. Clay and sand occurrences are abundant
and may well fulfil local needs for construction, as at Degue in Tete and Dondo and
Inhamizua close to Beira.
Phosphate mineralization have been reported in connection with exploration of the
carbonatite complexes of which Monte Muambe, SE of Moatize in Tete Province, and Monte
Xiluvo near Inchope, Sofala Province, are best known examples. Fluorite has been recorded
in many shear zone-related hydrothermal veins and breccias as well as in the Monte Muambe
carbonatite. Magnetite-apatite-bearing carbonatite lenses are known at Monte Fema on the
southern bank of the Zambezi River, about 25 km NW upstream from Tete. Most likely they
represent the southwestern extension of the better known Monte Muande deposit, on the
northern side of Zambezi River, ~ 20 km towards the NE and described in Map Explanation,
Volume 4 (GTK Consortium, 2006d).

Construction materials
The development of Mozambique’s infrastructure requires a lot of aggregate rocks, sand and
gravel as well as cement and clay. Demand and availability of construction materials do not
always match. For example, good quality aggregate rocks do not exist in the coastal areas
where currently a number of major infrastructure projects, including upgrading of the national
road network, are ongoing.

Tete Province
In Tete Province there is one aggregate rock quarry in operation (CETA Lda) in Moatize
(SDS 1633, 571400/8218812), utilising anorthositic gabbro of the Tete Suite. The rock is
generally rather pale and is deformed into gneissic-banded rock with gabbroic composition in
the dark bands and patches. Sulphide impregnation is common. The shape of the aggregate
particles is good. Another, currently dormant quarry (licence holder SAME Lda.) is located ~
20 km south of Tete town (SDS 1633, 560287/8203547) by the main road in Chacocoma
granitoid-gabbro association and its highly foliated tectonic derivatives (Fig. 12.8). The rock
is quartz-feldspar augengneiss with gabbroic intercalates, cut by pegmatite screens. Artisanal
production for local consumption is ongoing and the aggregate is sold along the road. It is
foreseen that when the construction works for the planned M’Panda-Uncua dam, ~ 70 km
upstream from Tete, start, the demand for local construction material will increase
substantially.

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Fig. 12.8. Stone quarry south of

the town of Tete. Small-scale
artisanal work is ongoing.

Manica and Sofala Provinces

Granodioritic domes along the Beira Corridor are quarried in several locations for road and
railway rehabilitation. Closest to the coast and Beira Port is the Xiluvo Suite whose felsic to
mafic volcanics are used for aggregate production. Carbonate rock is also quarried and
transported by rail for upgrading of the national railway lines. Three quarries are currently in
operation in the Xiluvo area (SDS 1934, 611067/7871665, 611663/7871339 and 613124/
7869497). The Nharuchonga quarry, located some 120 km by road from Beira Port (SDS
1833, 617384/7871981), produces aggregate from mainly felsic volcanics (Fig. 12.9).

Fig. 12.9. Nharuchonga quarry

along the Beira-Chimoio road.

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About 100 km north of Inchope, on the western slope of Monte Gorongosa at Pedreira
Chande (SDS 1833, 603690/7957278), hard and dense (charnockitic?) rock is quarried. The
aggregate is of excellent quality and the location is probably one of the best hard rock
occurrences known on the southwestern side of the Zambezi River. The quarry was not in
operation at the time of the visit in 2005, but when the construction works for the bridge
crossing of Zambezi River at Caia will commence, this quarry will probably be reactivated.
Anticipating bridge construction and rehabilitation of the Sena railway line, several new
mining and quarrying licences have been granted on the opposite side of the Zambezi River in
the Morrumbala district.

Fig. 12.10. Carbonatite and felsic volcanic rocks are quarried for railway aggregate at Xiluvo.

A large quarry is in operation (licence holder PAF) in the slope of an inselberg

composed of gneissose granitoids (Inchope gneiss of the Macossa Group, 1079 Ma by U/Pb)
along the Beira Corridor, close to the Matsinho railway station, 16 km NW of Chimoio (DS
1833, 539594/7900047). The rock is crushed mechanically and delivered mainly to the
Manica and Chimoio areas, but also as far as Beira (230 km). A few kilometres further to the
south (540427/7898733), a smaller, currently inactive quarry extracts a light grey gneissose
granitoid.

Fig. 12.11. Aggregate quarry in operation at Matsinho. Rock is a hard, quartz rich gneiss.

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All three separate quarries in Messica exploit light grey gneissic granitoid rock
belonging to Neoarchaean porphyritic granites and granodiorites (A3Mpgd). They have been
developed in a small hill, about 40 km W of Chimoio, along Manica road (SDS 1933,
509145/7898703). At Vandúzi Palaeoproterozoic quartzites and schists are quarried (SDS
1833, 526339/7917596). The Chainça quarry, located about five km N of Manica town, close
to railway (DS 1832, 481281/7908276), mines a good quality, fine-grained gabbro or dolerite.
Although the quarry was opened for the production of dimension stone, the waste rock could
be used for the wearing layer in road construction and as railway aggregate.

Fig. 12.12. Dormant quarry, south of Chimoio town, DS 1833, 547254/7882478, hornblende gneiss with
folded quartz and pegmatite veins is quarried for aggregates.

Clay
Tete Province
After several dormant years, ‘Ceramica de Tete’, located in Tete town, is now operated as a
family enterprise. The nominal capacity is ~ 2000 hollow bricks/day but, due to mechanical
problems and supply of raw material, the actual production is much less than the nominal and
unable to suffice local demand. The plant uses brownish loamy clay derived from Karoo
claystones. The same raw material is also used by groups of artisanal brick makers.
Manica and Sofala Provinces – Clay that is suitable for brick and tile production is
quarried at several locations in the Sofala and Manica Provinces. Pits currently in operation
include Dondo (SDS 1934, 685265/7829305), Beira (SDS 1934, 702978/7810998) and
Inhamizua (SDS 1934, 681371/7819585). These pits provide the raw material to the industrial
brick works in Beira and Chimoio. In addition, a fair amount of artisanal brick production is
taking place along the EN6-road close to Inchope. The bricks are quite light in colour due to
kaolin content of the grey lateritic soil used as raw material.
The ‘Ceramica Villa Pery’ (Fig. 12.13.) in Chimoio utilises ~ 1 m thick horizontal
clay layer in the Cafumbe area for manufacture of pottery and bricks. Clay is from the
saprolite horizon and covered by one metre of red lateritic soil. Highly weathered banded
gneisses and dolerite dykes underlie the clay horizon.

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Fig. 12.13. Ceramica Villa Pery excavation for saprolitic clay in the Cafumbe area (DS 1933, 559331/
7889311).

Bauxite
Moriangane
Bauxite is mined from a small mine called Moriangane or Alumen in the Penhalonga zone
near Manica (SDS 1832, 470206/ 7917589). In 2005 a total of 9 518 tonnes of bauxite was
produced and exported to Zimbabwe, as raw material or alun (Al-sulphate). The bauxite
deposits near Manica have been studied and evaluated by UNDP in 1989 – 1990 (UNDP,
1990b). Reserves in different categories were estimated at:
• (1) White bauxitic clay with gibbsite concretions 662 000 tonnes,
• (2) White kaolinitic clay 2 792 000 tonnes and
• (3) Gibbsite concretions 250 000 tonnes.

The total bauxite reserve with 45 – 55% Al2O3 and <10% Fe2O3 amounts in total to 1
374 000 tonnes. Unfortunately, the quantity of active silica has not been reported. The ACP
Mining Data Bank reports a total bauxite reserve of 718 800 tonnes and total mineral
resources at 4 Mt of bauxite ore.

Alumen
The Alumen deposit represents an alteration zone of about 1 m thick, with bauxite containing
nodules of gibbsite and underlain by a kaolinitic (saprolite) horizon. The extracted zone is
very irregular, due to the fact that bauxite developed in lenses or pockets. It occupies a
predominantly E-W striking escarpment of a watershed where precipitation and percolation is
much higher than average. Deep bauxitisation developed on a slightly inclined, plateau-
shaped, palaeo-surface. Subsequently, with uplift and deepening erosion, the palaeo-surface
became dissected. Therefore, only remnants of various sizes, representing the once coherent
plateau, are now present and available for mining. Relics of these plateaux are rare at altitudes
below 1500 m. Four main ore types have been distinguished:
1) White saprolitic bauxite. It is friable, texturally light and porous, and often retains
characteristics of the primary parent rock, notably joints.
2) Light brown saprolitic bauxite of similar physical nature to (1).

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3) Brown, ferruginous, saprolitic bauxite. It is mainly fine-textured, friable and rich in

iron.
4) White kaolinitic clay with concretionary, white bauxite. The amount of gibbsite
nodules is very variable as well as their size and shape. The clay is sticky when wet,
and extremely fine and friable when dry.

Analytical results of representative ore type samples (Cilek, 1989) are presented in
App. 4. They show local high contents of TiO2 and K2O. Again, active silica has not been
analysed.
There is a distinct relationship between the bauxite type and the parent rock. White
bauxite – types (1) and (4) – derive from anorthosites, light brown bauxite – type (2) – derives
from diorite and other intermediate granitoids, and ferruginous bauxite – type (3) – derives
from gabbros and basic volcanic rocks. The variety of source rocks and their complex
interrelationship contributed greatly to the ore grade variation even within very short
distances. This feature, together with erosion, is responsible for the lens-shaped nature and
restricted size of the bauxite bodies. These vary in length from 100 m to maximum 500 m and
in width from 25 m to 150 m. Their thickness varies from a few metres to over 20 metres in
places. The depth to the unaltered bedrock is irregular and often unpredictable. For practical
purposes, both white-ore types (1) and (4) are regarded as first quality, high-grade ore. Type
(2) is regarded as second quality bauxite, whereas type (3) as third quality (Al2O3 < 45%) and
it goes for waste. White kaolinitic clay – type (4) – after being cleaned from gibbsite nodules
by wet screening and/or scrubbing, could provide raw material for construction industry
instead of dumping, such as special bricks, tiles and even fillers.

Dimension stone
Tete Province
Dimension stone from anorthosite is produced at the Nhangoma quarry near Moatize (DS
1633, 599137/822961) by Marlin Granite. The central parts of the Nhangoma intrusive body
are very coarse grained and at least the brown anorthosite variety carries blue labradorite
crystals (spectrolite). Colour shades of fresh anorthosite vary from light grey or silver to dark
brown. The average block size produced at the quarry is 2.5 x 1.2 x 1m. Demand for Tete
anorthosite and gabbro as dimension stone varies with time.

Manica Province
Dimension stone has also been produced at the Chainça quarry from a fine- to medium-
grained gabbro, probably representing the central parts of a thick dolerite dyke, near Manica,
about 5 km north of the town, close to the Machipanda railway (DS 1832, 481281/7908276).
The quarry was in 2005 operated by Tamar Company. Blocks of dimension stone have been
transported by trucks to Beira Port and exported to Spain. The waste rock of the quarry is
good as aggregate for the wearing layer in road construction and for railway aggregate.

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Crystalline limestone (marble)

The oldest crystalline limestones of Mozambique are marbles of the Archean Greenstone
Belt. Of the three formations - Macequece, Mbeza and Vengo, the last consists of a band of
sericite-chlorite schists and phyllites including black schists with minor bands of marble and
conglomerate. The marble has been used for lime production near the town of Manica.

Apatite, fluorite
Concentrations of apatite and fluorite are known in alkaline and carbonatite intrusion that are
concentrated along the western marginal zone of the southern extension of the East African
Rift System (EARS; Section 9.2.). Carbonatites and associated alkaline and felsic rocks are
generally located in or near the intersection of extensional fractures related to rift faults. Many
carbonatite bodies in Mozambique contain a certain amount of apatite and fluorite as, for
instance, Monte Muambe, Monte Xiluvo and Cone Negose (see Map Explanation, Volume 4;
GTK Consortium, 2006d). The Monte Muambe carbonatite body contains also manganese
minerals, columbite and rare-earth minerals. Secondary fluorite is frequently concentrated in
the rock adjacent to the carbonatite bodies.

Monte Muambe
Monte Muambe is located ~ 55 km ESE from Tete town (SDS 1634, 615150/8194700). The
carbonatite body, hosted by Karoo sediments, is located at the intersection of the E-W
trending Zambezi Mobile Belt and superimposed Zambezi graben and the N-S trending rift
margin. Monte Muambe forms a ring complex in Upper Karoo arkosic sandstones. The
diameter of the external ring is 6 km with the floor of the ring complex about 200 m lower
than the surrounding ground. The floor of the ring complex is composed of highly dissected
carbonatite, which is strongly karstified and covered with laterite material. Carbonatite is in
vents and also injected into adjacent rocks where it was subsequently altered.
Typical carbonatite is a hard, compact rock, grey or brown in colour, with knots of
silicified material. Calcite carbonatite or sövite predominates while siderite is less abundant.
Pure carbonatite may contain over 80% calcite and 0.2 – 6.15 % dolomite; carbonate-silicate
rock contains about 40% calcite.
Fluorite mineralization at Monte Muambe took place, according to Cilek (1989), after
emplacement of the carbonatite. Mineralization is found in permeable and fracture zones such
as the contact between fenite and carbonatite. In the field, fluorite has been observed along the
western and southern margins of the carbonatite intrusion. Electrical surveys have revealed a
resistivity anomaly near the eastern part of the structure that could be linked to fluorite
mineralization. It is recommended to investigate the entire length of 9 km of contact zone in
detail to determine the extent of fluorite mineralization.
Elsewhere, fractured zones are related to collapse of the central part of the caldera and
fluorite occurs as crusts around breccia-fragments and as fracture fillings.
The Geological Institute of Belgrade (in former Yugoslavia), Brodoimpeks, have
investigated the Mt Muambe carbonatite in the 1980’s. It should be noted that the figures
presented (Brodoimpeks, 1984) are based solely on trenching and geophysics covering only a
small part of the Mt Muambe deposit. No drilling has been carried out. Based on an average
thickness of the fluorite-bearing zones of 10 – 20 m and a length of 100 – 250 m, mineral
resources have been calculated to a depth 50 m as follows (Table 12.1):

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Table 12.1. Monte Muambe, reserve calculation.

Prospective reserve: 699 849 tonnes25 Grade: 81 % fluorite 567 457 tonnes of fluorite
Possible reserve: 723 057 tonnes Grade: 75 % fluorite 552 631 tonnes of fluorite
Total: 1.423 Mt Grade: 79 % fluorite 1 121 Mt of fluorite

Apart from mineralization in the caldera zone, residual iron deposits cover about 200
ha with an average thickness of 0.8 m, containing ca. 1.5 Mt of martite. Substantial quantities
of martite, pyrochlore, monazite and rare-earth minerals could be mined as by-products to the
fluorite.
The carbonatite in the caldera zone is reported to contain up to 2.7 % P2O5, mainly as
apatite. Somewhat higher phosphorous contents can be expected in residual material within
the caldera (Manhiça, 1991).
An aureole of fenitic rocks that are very rich in alkaline feldspars, usually surround the
carbonatite plug. Due to their high potash content these fenites could be utilised in the
ceramic or glass industry and part of the carbonatite rocks (with a low phosphorus content) in
cement or lime production (Cilek, 1989).
The Monte Muambe fluorite deposit is of economic interest. A market study combined
with further exploration is necessary to get a more reliable picture of the total industrial
mineral potential of the complex.

Monte Fema
This extensive carbonate-rich zone is located some 30 km NW from Tete, on both sides of the
Zambezi River. Monte Fema lies south of Zambezi River (SDS 1633) and Monte Muande to
the north (SDS 1533, Fig. 12.14.). The Monte Muande occurrence is discussed in more detail
in Map Explanation, Volume 4 (GTK Consortium, 2006d).
Exploration results of the apatite resources at Monte Fema are reported in
Brodoimpeks (1984) and summarised in Hunting (1988) and Cilek (1989). Trenching on
Fema hill highlighted the presence of carbonate-rich rock with euhedral apatite crystals and
large accumulations (up to 10 cm in diameter) of magnetite; also some pyrite and rutile are
visible. Apatite occurs parallel to a flow foliation (310/80).
Chemical analysis of Monte Fema carbonatite is presented in App.12.2. Data from
Monte Muande is added for comparison. The apatite resources have not been calculated, but
they are mentioned to be ‘smaller’ than at Monte Muande (Lächelt, 2004). The NW trending
Monte Fema-Monte Muande zone is, however, over 20 km long and has not been investigated
in detail for its entire length, using modern exploration methods. It can be concluded that
there is scope for additional discoveries along this Resource Potential zone.

25
Resource class ‘Prospective’ can be compared to Indicated and ‘Possible’ to Inferred in today’s terminology.

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Fig. 12.14. Monte Fema carbonatite (SDS 1633, 53803/8223684).

Monte Xiluvo
The carbonatite suite (SDS 1934, 611663/7871339 and 611067/7871665) consists of a central
carbonatite body surrounded by a volcanic breccia and accompanied by volcanic cones of
trachytic composition (Fig.12.10.). Chemical assays by Cilek (1989) are presented in Table
(App. 2). It shows that some of the samples have elevated P2O5 contents, mainly in
hydrothermally altered zones. Cilek (1989) argued that the best utilisation of Monte Xiluvo
carbonatite would be in the production of agrolime (to increase the pH of the soil), in which
case increased phosphorus content should be an advantage. In general, the apatite and fluorite
contents of the complex have not been studied in detail. Currently, the carbonatite rocks are
quarried for aggregate. Carbonatite is preferred over basalts and trachytes of the Suite, which
would be of much better quality, but much higher production costs due to their hardness.

Monte Dombe fluorite occurrence

Two fluorite occurrences have been reported in the Changara area, close to Zimbabwe border
(SDS 1632 and 1633, Real 1962, Silva 1962-1963, Afonso and Marques 1993). Fluorite
occurs at Dombe and Djanguire in quartz veins cutting Neoproterozoic migmatic gneisses
close to Karoo rift marginal faults Fig. 12.15.).
Most of the hilltops in the Dombe area consist of silicified shear zones in the
Neoproterozoic Magasso meta-gabbro and mafic gneiss (P3ROgb). A large number of
trenches, 20 – 50 m long, 1 – 2 m wide and about 1 m deep, cutting quartz vein swarms on
various small hilltops can be observed (e.g., 507845/8146129, 507893/8146161, 507839/
8146241 and 507958/8146077).
Fluorite of Monte Dombe occurs typically in NW-SE oriented quartz veins, quartz
filled fissures and shear zones. The maximum thickness of the quartz veins is about 3 m and
they can be followed along strike over the crests of the hills for up to 200 m. The quartz veins
consist of white, milky, sometimes banded or brecciated quartz with mostly green, partially
purple crystals of fluorite. The fluorite mineralization was interpreted by Hunting (1988) to be
a result of fracturing and shearing connected to Zambezi rifting and volcanic processes
associated with it. The contact with the Karoo covered area to the NE is nearby.

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Fig. 12.15. Quartz veins with greenish fluorite at Dombe. Scale bar is 8 cm.

Djanguire fluorite occurrence

The deposit is located along the Luia River (SDS 1632, 455036/8186511). The fluorite-
bearing quartz veins have predominantly an ENE-WSW orientation or occur as streaks in the
surrounding migmatitic gneisses or, occasionally, as disseminations. The prospect was first
examined in 1963/64 and different mineralised zones have been identified of which the ‘Inter
Luia’ zone is the most important one. This zone is about 2000 m long with a maximum width
of 750 m. The thickness of the veins ranges from 10 cm to 3 m. In this zone fluorite contents
up 84 % have been recorded. Reserves of the Djanguire fluorite reserves have been calculated
to 30 m depth by Alves (1961 – 64): at 70 000 ton in proved class and at 110 00 ton in
probable class with additional 600 000 ton to 200 m classified as possible. There is large
exploration potential for fluorite within the Djanguire-Mt Dombe zone.

Other fluorite occurrences

Narrow, discontinuous fluorite-bearing veins in Jurassic Monte Palamuli rhyolites (JrLP) are
known in Lupata area (SDS 1634, 62830/ 8167995), ~ 28 km SSE from Monte Muambe, as
well as further south (SDS 1734) close to the tectonic contact between Mesoproterozoic
gneisses (arkose gneisses P2BCar, garnet-sillimanite gneisses P2BCsi and Monte Tomonda
leucogranitic gneisses P2BMlg) and the Karoo rift margin. Fluorite-bearing quartz veins occur
in several other places close to the rift margin and can be followed at least 100 km from
Monte Muambe via Lupata and Geramo to Djalire. Lächelt (2004) lists and describes 11
separate fluorite mineralizations within the Geramo Resource Potential zone.
Fluorite-bearing veins trend mostly N-S and are particularly concentrated at
intersections with NW-SE oriented fractures. The Cretaceous age of the quartz veins is,
according to Lächelt (2004), confirmed by the relationship between the acid and alkaline
lavas of the Lupata Group and the carbonatite of Mt Muambe.
At Geramo (SDS 1734, 636106/8044386) Afonso and Marques (1993) estimate the
mineral resource at 160 000 tonnes with 16% CaF2. About 2 000 tonnes of fluorite have been
extracted from the surface to a depth of 25 m.
The fluorite resource at the Djalire occurrence (SDS 1734, 630633/8018601), covering
two major veins, has been estimated at 43 000 tonnes of rock with 26 % CaF2. Reserves of the
Maringue deposit are estimated to 43 000 tonnes, those of Canxixe to 160 000 tonnes of

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fluorite contained in three veins. Other fluorite veins represent estimated reserves of 500 000
tonnes (Afonso and Marques 1998).

Mineral and thermal water

Mineral water is an important resource and is commercially exploited from springs at Monte
Vumba, near Manica (SDS 1832, 485966/ 7901012). Thermal waters are known in many
places, such as Boroma (SDS 1633, 549918/ 8225478), Zónuè (SDS 1932, 487745/862286)
and Rupizi (SDS 1834, 621092/ 7906155). Currently, lack of a market for these resources
renders them minor economic importance.

12.2.3. Energy Minerals

Coal
Mozambique has very extensive and high quality coal deposits. A major part of these are
situated in the Moatize and Mucanha-Vúzi coal basins in the Tete province. Coal has been
mined in Moatize area since the beginning of the 20th century. Underground mining started
during the 1940’s. After a peak in production during the 1980’s, when about 500 000 tpa was
mined, the production of coal has plummeted. In 2005 coal production was only 3417 t
compared to 16 524 t in 2004. Coal export to Malawi (30 288 t in 2004) continues from stock
piles accrued in previous years.

Moatize-Minjova Basin
The Lower Karoo Moatize (Sandstone) Formation* (Section 9.1.12.) is well exposed in the
Moatize River, where it reaches a thickness of 340 m. It consists mainly of carbonaceous
sandstones, with six different coal seams. Koch (1961), cited by Real (1966), reported that the
bottom of the formation is here attributed to the Cambéua Sandstone unit (not shown on the
map at scale 1: 250 000) with quartzitic sandstones and conglomerates, with a maximum
thickness of 16 m.
The main coal-bearing seams in the Moatize-Minjova Basin with their respective
thickness are (from top to bottom):
• André Seam (1 m), top
• Grande Falésia Seam (12 m)
• Intermediate Seam (22 m)
• Bananeiras Seam (27 m)
• Chipanga Seam (36 m)
• Sousa Pinto Seam (14 m), basal

Continued exploration demonstrated that the Chipanga seam reaches a thickness ranging from
21 to 68 m (Limex Lda., 1981). The seams have numerous sandy or pelitic interlayers.
Unfortunately, the Moatize basin is intersected by several NE-SW trending fractures
and a large number of faults in various directions. This restricts the continuity of the coal
seams and requires drilling on a dense grid. During the final stages of the Karoo, the
sedimentary rock series was intruded by doleritic dykes, which caused the alteration of the
coal to coking coal.

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Sanângoè-Mefidéze Basin
Drilling in the Chirodeze River region manifested the presence of six separated coal seams
down to the depth of 200 m in the stratigraphic sequence. Near the Sanângoè River, a coal
seam, 32 m in thickness, was encountered at a depth of 100 m.
Several coal-bearing sub-basins are known in the SE extension of the Zambezi graben.
These include the Muaradzi, Necungas-Meconé and Rio Malica sub-basins, close to Malawi
border. Potential for open pit coal mining has been reported (Swede Coal, 1982). Still further
to the SE, along the border areas with Malawi there are some coal indications (DS 1635) at
Goma and Nhacali. A Landsat image interpretation to search for extensions of coal-bearing
sub-basins was carried out by Swedish Geological AB in 1983 (SGAB, 1983).
The Moatize coal basin, which is considered the largest un-explored coalfield in the
world (CVRD press release November 2004), lies in a sub-basin of the Zambezi graben about
20 km east of Tete. The Moatize coal basin strikes NW-SE for approximately 20 km and is
about 6 km wide. It contains seven coal seams of which five have mineable thickness. The
total coal resources are estimated at 2400 Mt (USGS Minerals Yearbook-2004).
In November 2004 a consortium led by the Brazilian Companhia Vale do Rio Doce
(CVRD) won an international bid to explore coal deposits in the Moatize region. Leading
partner CVRD has a 95% stake in the Moatize project with American Metals and Coal
International (AMCI), a North American coal producer, owning the remaining 5%. The
CVRD consortium bid US$ 122.8 million for the concession. The feasibility study started in
January 2005 and is estimated to take about 18 months to be completed. A comprehensive
core drilling campaign has been ongoing during 2006. The forecasted production will be 14
million tonnes of coal annually, comprising both metallurgical and thermal coal.
Commissioning of the mine is foreseen for 2009.
Total investments of the CVRD project are estimated at US$ 1 billion including
concession payments, mine development, construction of a maritime terminal for ship loading
and social schemes. The demand for locally available construction materials is expected to
increase considerably, especially having in mind that a dam will be constructed in the
Zambezi River, 70 km upstream from Tete at M’Panda Uncua. Financing will be through the
Export-Import Bank of China (Mbendi information letter May 2006). The old railroad, linking
Moatize to the port of Beira, is currently under reconstruction. A second railway link through
Malawi to the deep harbour of Nacala is under consideration. This link requires a completely
new construction of the Malawi connection. The Industrial Mineral Surveys project by the
GTK Consortium is currently evaluating the availability of construction materials within the
above development corridors.
The Central African Mining and Exploration Company (CAMEC) has recently
claimed the remaining prospective ground in the Moatize basin. Reconnaissance geological
mapping and exploration drilling has started on priority license areas, as reported by the
company 19th January 2006:
‘A successful geological mapping exercise was carried out by the Company's
geologists on licence area 842, measuring approximately 17 000 hectares. The total licence
areas held by CAMEC make it the single largest holder of coal exploration licences in
Mozambique.

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The geological mapping exercise identified at least three coal horizons with shallow
dips and extensive strike potential. The geologists believe that percussion drilling will be the
most effective tool to test the true thickness, down-dip extensions and strike extent of these
horizons, and at the same time identify unexposed coal horizons in the immediate vicinity.
Twenty-two percussion boreholes have been drilled on licence area 842, and three coal
horizons up to 30m in thickness were identified. The horizons were left open-ended with
strike potential of up to 10km. All the horizons are amenable to mining by open cast methods,
and diamond drilling is planned to further evaluate the quality of the coal. Based on
percussion drilling information, the Company's geologists estimated the potential resource of
the three horizons on licence 842 to be in the order of 200 million tons, and to contain a
significant coke fraction.
Simultaneously with the drilling on licence 842, reconnaissance geological mapping
has been undertaken on two additional licence areas located along the Tete/Beira rail link,
close to the border with Malawi. Three coal horizons have been identified on these licences,
and percussion drilling is planned in the first quarter of 2006 to follow up on the potential of
these horizons.’

12.3. MINERAL POTENTIAL

In general, metallogenetic modelling, which is used in evaluation of ore potential in a certain
area, is based on the assumption that geodynamics and processes forming economically
interesting mineral concentrations are intimately related. In other words, by analysing the
geodynamic evolution of a certain area, one can predict the deposit types that have formed in
the process. The formation of a metallic mineral deposit depends on four fundamental factors:
(1) a source of the metal(s), (2) mobilisation and transport of these metal(s), (3) re-
concentration of these metal(s) to ‘ore grade’ and (4) modification and preservation of the
deposit.
In Chapter 11 the geodynamic evolution of the area covered by this Map Explanation
has been outlined. In its simplest form it can be described as a succession of orogenic phases
(crustal compression) followed by phases of crustal extension. The following major phases
have been distinguished:
• Neo-Archaean (2.7 – 2.6 Ga) development of Manica greenstone belt and
associated emplacement of TTG suite(s) of Zimbabwe Craton;
• Palaeoproterozoic (2.0 Ga) extension of Zimbabwe Craton and development of
Gairezi and Rushinga (and Umkondo?) troughs;
• Pre-Kibaran extension (1.40 – 1.20 Ga) with emplacement of bi-modal magmatic
suites;
• Grenville Orogenic Cycle (1.10 – 1.00 Ga), emplacement of TTG suites; crustal
thickening with late-kinematic, anatectic granitoids;
• Post-Rodinia break-up (0.90 – 0.80 Ga), emplacement of bi-modal magmatic
suites;
• Pan-African Orogenic Cycle (750 – 450 Ma), emplacement of TTG suites and late-
kinematic, anatectic granitoids;

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• Karoo rifting (late Carboniferous–Early Jurassic), deposition of a thick sequence of

clastic sediments and emplacement of associated alkaline and bi-modal magmatic
rocks;
• Development East Africa Rift System (Cretaceous–Recent), emplacement of
alkaline magmatic rocks.

In addition to gold, base metals and iron formations of the greenstone belts also industrial
mineral resources such as serpentinite, talc, asbestos and magnesite are formed.
Typical deposits to be formed in subduction zones and collisional orogens include
porphyry copper deposits, Kuroko-type Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide deposits and
epithermal gold deposits. These deposits are all formed in structurally high levels of the
magmatic arc. The chance that they survive a phase of uplift and exhumation is rare. At
places, however, blocks of the magmatic arc may be preserved by early down faulting due to
orogenic collapse or development of a back-arc basin. In the subduction zones quartzites,
marbles, graphite and asbestos can be formed.
It is convenient to divide metallogenesis related to crustal extension into three phases:
(1) incipient rifting, (2) continued rifting and (3) continental break-up with the formation of a
young oceanic basin.
Incipient rifting is generally associated with the emplacement of relatively minor
quantities of ultra-potassic magmatic products. These include carbonatites and associated
rocks (syenites, phonolites, tephrites, alkali basalts, etc.), lamprophyres and occasionally
diamondiferous lamproites and kimberlites. The latter only in cool continental crust and,
consequently, restricted to Archaean cratons. Carbonatites may be associated with economic
deposits of fluorite, apatite, pyrochlore and rare earths minerals.
Continued rifting is generally coeval with basaltic underplating and the formation of
bi-modal igneous provinces. Anorogenic granitoids include both I-type and S-type granitoids,
the first developed by magmatic differentiation, the latter by melting of the lower sialic crust.
The first type may be associated with deposits (vein, stockwork, greisen, pegmatite, skarn,
etc.) of tin, tungsten, niobium-tantalite (‘coltan’), topaz, tourmaline, Li-minerals, mica,
feldspar, quartz, etc.
Differentiation of basaltic magmas may generate mafic to ultramafic, layered
intrusions, such as the Tete Suite and the Atchiza Suite. These may host economic deposits of
Ni-sulphides, platinoids and gold. Tropical weathering of such bodies may give rise to the
development of Ni-laterite and alluvial platinoid deposits. Differentiation of gabbroic rocks
may also produce anorthosite massifs with layers rich in ilmenite, occasionally with grades
and volumes to form economic titanium deposits.
Basin development during phases of crustal extension may give rise to the
development of paleo-placer deposits at the base of the Gairezi or Rushinga Groups.
Continued submergence may result in the development of a shallow continental platform or
rift-type basins. This, in combination with intensive weathering, may create conditions for the
formation of economic mineral deposits that form directly above the basement-cover
unconformity. These include unconformity-type uranium deposits, roll front-type uranium
deposits, red bed-type uranium-vanadium-copper deposits, Pb-sandstone deposits, White
Pine-type copper deposits and Olympic Dam-type Cu-U-Au-Ag deposits. Exhalative
processes may produce sedimentary-exhalative base metal deposits. Higher spreading rates
may produce volcano-sedimentary basins with genesis of Pyrite Belt-type VMS deposits.

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During Karoo rifting coal seams were interlayered in thick sequences of clastic
sediments. Upper Karoo volcanism produced good aggregate rocks like rhyolites and basalts.
During rifting fractures were reactivated and zeolites and agates precipitated. In post Karoo
volcanic vents and rift fractures basic and alkaline rocks were intruded Nepheline syenite and
carbonatite with possible resources of phosphorous, fluorite and iron, were often intruded as
bodies, veins and stockwork. During late Cretaceous periods of peneplane weathering and
sedimentation produced heavy mineral sands, kaolin, bentonite, bauxite and laterite. During
Tertiary closed bays, lagoons and epicontinental basins were formed resulting in
sedimentation of extensive deposits of limestones such as the Jofane, Temane, Cheringoma
and Salamanga Formations. During the same period evaporates like gypsum, anhydrite and
salt were formed. In lagoons layers of diatomite were settled. Due to oscillation in sea level
further placer deposits with ilmenite, rutile, zircon, monazite and kyanite were enriched.
Large deposits of gravel and sand were formed.

12.4. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR EXPLORATION

Based on the ideas presented above and the overview of mineral occurrences in the area
covered by this Map Explanation, the following recommendations for future exploration are
forwarded:
• The Manica greenstone belt: Exploration targets include primitive-type (or Kid
Creek-type) volcanogenic massive sulphide (MVT) deposits, komatiite-hosted Ni-
sulphide deposits, structurally- and ironstone-hosted gold deposits. The Manica and
Mavita Resource Potential areas contain targets for further exploration of gold.
• Supracrustal rocks of the Gairezi, Rushinga and Umkondo Groups: Exploration
targets include, in principle, palaeo-placers (gold, diamond), unconformity-related
deposits and possibly also Broken Hill-type (metamorphosed) sedimentary-
exhalative (‘Sedex’) deposits. Deformation and metamorphism may have upgraded
possible existing deposits (e.g., recrystallisation, mobilisation of low-grade ore into
hinge zones). At the same time these processes may have destroyed once existing
mineral deposits.
• Metasediments and migmatites of the Báruè Complex are possibly derived from a
monotonous sequence of turbidites. Potential for structurally hosted gold deposits
is evident. Assuming that the metasediments of the Báruè Complex have been
thrusted on top of the Zimbabwe Craton, possible remobilisation of metals from
below augment the potential. Special attention should be paid to Karoo boundary
faults and to faults filled with brecciated gouge material (Fig. 6.2, see also Section
4.2).
• TTG granitoids emplaced in the Báruè Complex have potential for pegmatites,
veins and stockworks, carrying tin, tungsten, niobium-tantalum, gemstones etc.
• The Tete Suite represents a mafic-ultramafic member of a Mesoproterozoic bi-
modal suite. The Suite has been explored in the past for ilmenite, nickel, copper
and gold. Further exploration seems warranted.
• Coal in the Moatize and Matinde Formations of the Lower Karoo Group is without
doubt the greatest mineral resource of Lot 2 area. Further exploration is ongoing at
Muaradzi, Necungas and Malica Coal Potential zones.

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• Igneous rocks associated with Karoo and younger rifting are expressed by several
alkaline and carbonatite complexes with potential for phosphate, pyrochlore, REE’s
and fluorite deposits. Local need for fertilizers could be covered by mining
carbonatite in Xiluvo e.g., for production of agrolime. Further exploration is
recommended in Monte Muambe and Salambidua and Monte Xiluvo.
• The cement plant at Dondo (SDS 1934) could use domestic limestone as raw
materials since acceptable quality can be found in the Cheringoma limestones,
close to the roads and railway of the Beira development corridor.
• The availability and quality of various construction materials close to the Tete-
Moatize development centre should be studied. Large construction projects related
to mining (Moatize coal), infrastructure (roads, bridges, railroads) and hydropower
(M’Panda-Uncua dam) will commence in near future.
• The availability of various types of clay, e.g. brick clay for building of houses,
should be studied in more detail, starting from the development corridors and in the
proximity of towns.

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 VOLUME 2
APPENDIX 1

DEFINITIONS OF LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS,

MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 2

 APPENDIX 1
VOLUME 2

DEFINITIONS OF LITHO-STRATIGRAPHIC UNITS

Bed: A bed (or beds) is the smallest litho-stratigraphic unit of sedimentary rocks. The
designation of a bed or a unit of beds as a formally-named litho-stratigraphic unit
generally should be limited to certain distinctive beds whose recognition is
particularly useful (e.g., marker beds, guide horizons or a coal seam).

Member: A litho-stratigraphic unit of subordinate rank, comprising some specially

developed part of a Formation. It may be formally defined and named, informally
named, or unnamed. It is not necessarily mappable and a named member may extent
from one Formation into another. Laterally equivalent parts of a Formation that differ
recognisably may be considered members, e.g., the gravel and sand member of the
‘A’ Formation. A member combines a lithologic name followed by the word
‘member’. It is higher in rank than a bed.

Formation: A mappable body of rock identified by lithologic characteristics and

stratigraphic position. Formation is the fundamental unit in litho-stratigraphic
classification. It may represent a short or a long time interval, may be composed of
material of different sources, and may include breaks in deposition. A Formation
should possess some degree of internal lithologic homogeneity or distinctive lithic
features such as chemical or mineralogical composition, texture, fossils (viewed as
rock-forming fragments), or other organic contents such as coal or oil shale. A
Formation must be amenable to being mapped at the scale of geological mapping
practiced in the region when the Formation is proposed. Thickness is not a
determining factor. A Formation name normally consists of a geographic name
followed by a descriptive geologic term (usually the dominant rock type) or by the
word ‘Formation’ in case the lithology is so variable that no single term is
appropriate.

Group: A litho-stratigraphic unit consisting partly or entirely of named formations. A

group name combines a geographic name with the term ‘group’, and no lithic
designation is included, e.g., Umkondo Group.

Supergroup: A formal assemblage of related or superimposed groups, or of groups

and Formations, e.g., Karoo Supergroup. The term should not be misused for ‘Series’.

Complex: A large-scale field association or assemblage of different rocks of any age

or origin, having structural relations so intricately involved or otherwise complicated
that the rocks cannot be readily differentiated in mapping, e.g., a volcanic complex, an
igneous complex, a metamorphic complex or a basement complex (see also ‘Ophiolite
Complex). Alternatively, complex is defined as a lithodemic unit that consist of a

2
mixture of rocks of two or more genetic classes, i.e., igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic, with or without highly complicated structures.

Suite: A suite comprises (1) two or more related, named intrusive igneous rock units
or metamorphic units that have significant lithological features in common, or (2) an
igneous or metamorphic unit that consists of several (related) rock types and which
cannot therefore be satisfactorily named using a single lithological designation. Suites
should only be used to group together rock bodies closely associated in space, time
and origin. In igneous bodies showing systematic and rhythmic layering, the term
‘Igneous Suite’ is to be preferred over ‘Igneous Complex’.

In the legend pertaining to the geological maps produced by the Consortium, litho-
stratigraphic units are grouped in four ranks, i.e., member, formation, group and
supergroup. ‘Complex’ and ‘Suite’ have for practical reasons given the same position
as ‘Supergroup’.

3
 APPENDIX 2
VOLUME 2

AGE RESULTS

MOZAMBIQUE MAPPING PROJECT/LOT2:

MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 2

 APPENDIX 2

AGE RESULTS,
MOZAMBIQUE MAPPING PROJECT/LOT 2:
MAP EXPLANATION, VOL. 2

Irmeli Mänttäri
Geological Survey of Finland
P.O.Box 96
FIN-02151 Espoo, Finland

2
APPENDIX 2................................................................................................................2
CONVENTIONAL TIMS U-Pb DATING ................................................................4
Analytical methods ....................................................................................................4
Samples ......................................................................................................................4
Mos-4 / 1072-02 aplogranite gneiss.......................................................................7
Mos-6 / 1170-03 gneiss..........................................................................................9
Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss .............................................................................11
Mos-22 / 2893-04 granite.....................................................................................13
Mos-24 / 15273-04 syenite ..................................................................................14
Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite ..................................................................15
Mos-30 / 19140-04 granodiorite ..........................................................................16
Mos-31 / 6845-04 metatonalite............................................................................18
SHRIMP U-Pb DATING ON ZIRCONS ................................................................20
Analytical methods ..................................................................................................20
Samples ....................................................................................................................20
Mos-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss.....................................................................25
Mos-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist ....................................................................30
Mos-7 / 1284-03 Archaean gneiss .......................................................................34
Mos-19 / 2638-04 aplitic granite/meta-arkose.....................................................37
Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss....................................................................40
Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss....................................................................41
Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss .............................................................................44
Mos-23 / 13625-04 tonalite..................................................................................47
Mos-26 / 1011-02 garnet-kyanite schist ..............................................................49
Mos-28 / 19313-04 granite...................................................................................51
Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite ..................................................................53
Sm-Nd MINERAL DATING ....................................................................................55
Analytical methods ..................................................................................................55
Samples ....................................................................................................................55
Mos-25 / 25416-04 dolerite/gabbro .....................................................................56
Mos-36 / 1714-05 metadolerite............................................................................58

3
 CONVENTIONAL TIMS U-Pb DATING

Analytical methods

Heavy minerals are separated using heavy liquids (methylene di-iodide and Clerici’s
solution) and Franz magnetic separator. The final selection of the minerals for U-Pb
dating is done by hand picking.

The decomposition of zircons and extraction of U and Pb for conventional isotopic

age determinations follows mainly the procedure described by Krogh (1973, 1982).
235
U-208Pb-spiked and unspiked isotopic ratios were measured using a VG Sector 54
thermal ionization multicollector mass spectrometer. The measured lead and uranium
isotopic ratios were normalized to the accepted ratios of SRM 981 and U500
standards. The Pb/U ratios were calculated with PbDat program (vers.1.24; Ludwig,
1993). The concordia plots and the final age calculations were done using the
Isoplot/Ex 3.00 program (Ludwig, 2003).

The common lead corrections were done using the age related Stacey’s and Kramers’s
(1975) lead isotope compositions (206Pb/204Pb±0.2, 208Pb/204Pb±0.2, and
207
Pb/204Pb±0.1). The total procedural blank level was 20-50 pg. All the ages are
calculated with 2σ errors and without decay constant errors. In figures, the data-point
error ellipses are at 2σ level.

Samples

The following samples were dated using conventional U-Pb dating method:

Mos-4 (1072-02)
Mos-6 (1170-03)
Mos-21 (1519-04) (see also SHRIMP dating)
Mos-22 (2893-04)
Mos-24 (15273-04)
Mos-29 (19290-04) (see also SHRIMP dating)
Mos-30 (19140-04)
Mos-31 (6845-04)

The U-Pb isotopic data of the conventionally dated samples are collected in Table 1.

4
 Table 1. Conventional U-Pb isotopic data for samples from the Map Explanation Vol. 2 area.

206 204 208 206 1,2) APPARENT AGES / Ma±2ó

Sample information Sample U Pb Pb/ Pb Pb/ Pb ISOTOPIC RATIOS
3)
Analysed mineral 206 238 207 235 207 206
Rho 206 207 207
weight/mg ppm measured radiogenic Pb/ U ±2ó% Pb/ U ±2ó% Pb/ Pb ±2ó% Pb/238U Pb/235U Pb/206Pb
and fraction
Mos-4, aplogranite gneiss 1072-02
A) zr>4.2 g cm-3, >75ìm, transparent, quite
0.50 220 31 7499 0.14 0.1369 0.65 1.273 0.65 0.06741 0.15 0.97 827 833 850±2
colourless prismatic, inclusions, abraded 22 h
-3
B) zr>4.2 g cm , >75ìm, transparent, quite
0.55 331 43 5240 0.11 0.1273 0.65 1.168 0.65 0.06654 0.15 0.97 773 786 823±2
colourless prismatic, inclusions
-3
C) zr>4.2 g cm , <75ìm, transparent, quite
0.31 377 54 14457 0.16 0.1362 0.65 1.264 0.65 0.06733 0.15 0.97 823 830 848±2
colourless prismatic, inclusions, abraded 17 h
-3
D) zr>4.2 g cm , <75ìm, transparent, quite
0.48 390 52 10674 0.14 0.1291 0.65 1.190 0.65 0.06684 0.15 0.97 783 796 833±2
colourless prismatic, inclusions
Mos-6, gneiss 1170-03
-3
A) zr>4.2 g cm , >75ìm, transparent,
0.46 211 106 27622 0.11 0.4554 0.33 10.987 0.33 0.17497 0.05 0.99 2419 2522 2606±1
elongated, abraded 20 h
-3
B) zr>4.2 g cm , <75ìm, transparent,
0.45 258 119 24154 0.09 0.4209 0.35 10.017 0.35 0.17260 0.06 0.99 2265 2436 2583±1
elongated, abraded 10 h
C) zr>4.2 g cm-3, transparent, elongated,
abraded 30 h 0.51 190 96 43666 0.11 0.4583 0.32 11.066 0.33 0.17510 0.05 0.99 2432 2529 2607±1

Mos-21, orthogneiss 1519-04

A) zr >4.2 g cm-3, 150-75ìm, prismatic,
0.43 639 179 833 0.09 0.2515 0.65 5.256 0.65 0.1516 0.15 0.97 1446 1862 2364±3
translucent to transparent, abraded 17 h
B) zr >4.2 g cm-3, <75ìm, prismatic, translucent
0.48 813 241 1153 0.12 0.2553 0.65 5.508 0.65 0.1565 0.15 0.97 1466 1902 2418±3
to transparent, abraded 9 h
C) zr >4.2 g cm-3, <75ìm, prismatic,
0.32 573 178 1576 0.11 0.2773 0.65 5.944 0.65 0.1555 0.15 0.97 1578 1968 2407±3
transparent, abraded 30 h
D) zr >4.2 g cm-3, <75ìm, prismatic,
0.22 544 156 1121 0.08 0.2581 0.65 5.466 0.65 0.1536 0.15 0.97 1480 1895 2386±3
transparent, abraded 4 h
2)
Mos-22, granite 2893-4
A) zr >4.2 g cm-3, 150-75ìm, prismatic,
0.59 101 4 419 0.28 0.0293 0.70 0.203 1.90 0.0501 1.60 0.50 186 187 201±39
transparent, abraded 17 h
B) zr >4.2 g cm-3, <75ìm, prismatic,
0.48 163 6 508 0.32 0.0308 0.70 0.241 1.90 0.0567 1.60 0.50 196 219 479±39
transparent, abraded 9 h
C) zr >4.2 g cm-3, 150-75ìm, prismatic,
0.53 102 4 382 0.25 0.0297 0.70 0.204 1.90 0.0497 1.60 0.50 189 188 179±39
transparent, abraded 26 h

5
 Table 1. Continued.
206 208 1,2) APPARENT AGES / Ma±2ó
Sample information Sample U Pb Pb/204Pb Pb/206Pb ISOTOPIC RATIOS
3)
Analysed mineral 206 238 207 235 207 206
Rho 206 238 207 235 207 206
weight/mg ppm measured radiogenic Pb/ U ±2ó% Pb/ U ±2ó% Pb/ Pb ±2ó% Pb/ U Pb/ U Pb/ Pb
and fraction
Mos-24, syenite 15273-4
A) zr >4.2 g cm-3, 150-75ìm, elongated,
0.53 3194 112 1592 0.34 0.0284 0.33 0.195 0.36 0.0497 0.14 0.92 181 181 182±3
transparent, quite colorless, abraded 17 h
B) zr >4.2 g cm-3, <75ìm, elongated,
0.57 1822 64 1136 0.33 0.0285 0.33 0.195 0.38 0.0498 0.18 0.88 181 181 183±4
transparent, quite colorless, abraded 9 h
Mos-29, metagranodiorite 19290-04
A) mon: transparent, abraded 20 minutes 0.46 2696 1690 3000 7.42 0.0851 0.92 0.674 0.98 0.0575 0.30 0.95 526 523 509±7
Mos-30, granodiorite 19140-04
A) zr >4.0 g cm-3, >75ìm, translucent,
0.50 1392 330 3924 0.09 0.2217 0.65 4.073 0.65 0.1332 0.15 0.97 1291 1649 2141±3
prismatic, abraded 17 h
B) zr >4.0 g cm-3, <75ìm, translucent,
0.47 1266 269 2416 0.11 0.1964 0.65 3.441 0.65 0.1271 0.15 0.97 1156 1514 2058±3
prismatic, abraded 9 h
C) zr >4.0 g cm-3, <75ìm, translucent,
0.13 1288 279 1338 0.10 0.19793 0.65 3.4907 0.65 0.1279 0.15 0.97 1164 1525 2069±3
prismatic, abraded 20 h
D) zr >4.0 g cm-3, >75ìm, translucent,
0.27 1468 313 4115 0.11 0.1974 0.65 3.470 0.65 0.1275 0.15 0.97 1162 1521 2063±3
prismatic, abraded 30 h
E) zr >4.0 g cm-3, >75ìm, translucent,
0.50 1406 338 1803 0.11 0.2194 0.65 4.060 0.65 0.1342 0.15 0.97 1278 1646 2154±3
prismatic, abraded 5 h
Mos-31, metatonalite 6845-04
A) zr >4.0 g cm-3, >75ìm, transparent, euhedral
0.64 149 28 6725 0.22 0.1667 0.65 1.790 0.65 0.0779 0.15 0.97 994 1042 1144±3
to subherdal, abraded 17 h
B) zr >4.0 g cm-3, <75ìm, transparent, euhedral
0.44 156 24 5289 0.18 0.1425 0.65 1.446 0.65 0.0736 0.15 0.97 859 908 1030±3
to subhedral, abraded 9 h
C) zr >4.0 g cm-3, <75ìm, transparent, euhedral
0.45 268 36 13252 0.16 0.1275 0.65 1.235 0.65 0.0702 0.15 0.97 774 816 935±3
to subhedral, abraded 20 h
D) zr >4.0 g cm-3, >75ìm, transparent, euhedral
0.33 136 25 6326 0.21 0.1653 0.65 1.774 0.65 0.0779 0.15 0.97 986 1036 1143±3
to subhedral, abraded 30 h
1) 206 204 207 204 208 204
Isotopic ratios corrected for fractionation, blank (30-50 pg), and age related common lead (Stacey and Kramers, 1975; Pb/ Pb±0.2; Pb/ Pb±0.1; Pb/ Pb±0.2;
2) 206 204 207 204 208 204
Errors for common lead composition of low-U, young zircons in sample MOS-22 are Pb/ Pb±0.5; Pb/ Pb±0.3; Pb/ Pb±0.5 ).
3) 207 235 206 238
Rho=Error correlation between Pb/ U and Pb/ U ratios. Abbreviations: zr=zircon; mon=monazite

6
 Mos-4 / 1072-02 aplogranite gneiss

Sample information and description

Sample: Aplogranite gneiss.

Field number: 1072-02
Coordinates: 0434400/8126625

Problem setting: The sample comes from an aggregate rock quarry by the Changara-
Cuchamano road, close to Cuchamano and close to the margin of the Zimbabwe
Archaean craton. The sampled rock is presumably correlative to the dated rock sample
Mos-3 (=1024-02) (see below, SHRIMP dating), collected near Luenha bridge. On
outcrop scale, the only formal difference is that the individual felsic layers are here
much more voluminous than at Luenha bridge. In fact, the quarry itself includes only
felsic granitoid rock and the mafic layers are met with only outside the quarry, in
many outcrops.

Zircon description

The zircon amount (d>4.2 g cm-3) in aplogranite sample Mos-4 (=1072-02) is quite
large. They are mostly almost colourless, bright (transparent), and euhedral to
subhedral (l:w=3-5) with varying grain size. In the fine grain fraction the edges of
crystal faces are not very sharp. Zircons contain frequently black inclusions. In the
coarser grain size fraction also dark brown and formless, most probably inherited
zircons occur. For U-Pb dating only the bright euhedral crystals were selected.

U-Pb age results

From the aplogranite gneiss Mos-4, four zircon fractions were analysed for their Pb/U
ratios. The density and grain-size fractions, time of air-abrasion as well as type of the
selected zircons is presented in Table 1. The zircon fractions have moderate U
concentrations and the abraded fractions show the lowest U content and the highest
206
Pb/204Pb ratio within a grain-size group. In general, the 206Pb/204Pb ratios are high
and especially the abraded analyses show only slight discordancy.

7
 Mos-4 / 1072-02 aplogranite gneiss
0.140
840

A
0.136 820
Pb/238U C

800
0.132
206

780 Intercepts at
D
0.128 867 ± 9 Ma & 389 ± 61 Ma
MSWD = 1.0; n=4
B

0.124
1.12 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28 1.32
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 1. Concordia plot for conventional U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-4 / 1072-02
aplogranite gneiss.

The four analysed zircon fractions plot well on a same discordia line with concordia
intercept ages at 867±9 Ma and 389±61 Ma (MSWD=1; n=4) (Fig. 1). This sample is
similar and coeval with the SHRIMP-dated aplogranite gneiss Mos-3 / 1024-02 with
an age of 852±15 Ma.

8
 Mos-6 / 1170-03 gneiss

Sample information and description

Sample: Tonalite gneiss

Field number: 1170-03
Coordinates: 0513666/8099303

Problem setting: The sample is collected from an area designated in previous maps as
Archaean, from a local extension of Zimbabwe craton. Does the dating confirm an
Archaean age? The rock is banded-segregated pale gneiss (TTG gneiss?) with minor
metabasite bands. The sample is from the pale part.

The locality of this large shallow outcrop is situated a few kilometers east of the
Massanga village. A poor bush road leads to the sampling site from the Changara-
Guro main road, not passable during the rainy season.

Zircon description

Zircon amount in gneiss sample Mos-6 /1170-03 is extremely small. They are mostly
very bright and quite colourless euhedral crystals to round/oval grains. The elongated
(l:w ~2) zircons show often visible crystal faces and edges. The grain-size varies from
medium to extremely fine.

U-Pb age results

From sample Mos-6, only three zircon fractions were analysed for their Pb/U ratios as
the zircon amount was extremely small. The density and grain-size fractions, time of
air-abrasion as well as type of the selected zircons is presented in table 1. In general,
the 206Pb/204Pb ratios are extremely high.

In the concordia plot the three fractions give an upper intercept age of 2.63 Ga for the
gneiss (Fig. 2). Although the discordia line is practically determined only by two data
points, the Archaean age is evident. This is already seen in >2.58 Ga 207Pb/206Pb ages
for the analysed zircon fractions (Table 1).

9
 0.50
Mos-6 / 1170-03 gneiss
2600

0.48
Pb/238U 2500

0.46 C
A
2400
206

0.44

2300
B Intercepts at
0.42
2632 ± 3 & 554 ± 33 Ma
MSWD = 0.09; n=3

0.40
7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 2. Concordia plot for conventional U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-6 / 1170-03
Archaean gneiss.

10
 Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss

Sample information and description

Sample: Orthogneiss
Field number: 1519-04
Coordinates: 0527152/8040966

Problem setting: The sampling place is the schoolyard at the Macossa road junction
by the main road Guro – Catandica. The locality is in the area traditionally called as
Báruè Complex. However, the rock contrasts to 'ordinary' rocks of the Báruè
Complex, while being highly segregated, banded quartzofeldspathic coarse gneiss
(orthogneiss). Dating was asked to confirm the suggested Archaean origin of this rock
– if positive, the result would call for a major change in the lithology and the tectonic
reinterpretation of the area east of the Zimbabwe craton margin.

Zircon description

Sample Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss contains a good amount of homogeneous

looking prismatic zircon with varying grain-size. Only the degree of colour and
brightness varies slightly between the smallest and largest zircons.

U-Pb age results

From the orthogneiss sample Mos-21 / 1519-04, four zircon fractions were analysed
(Table 1). The age data are highly discordant and scattering (Fig. 3). However, an
assumption of the

0.48 Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss

2400
0.44

2200
0.40
Pb/238U

2000
0.36
206

1800
0.32
Reference line intercept
1600 at ca. 2.53 Ga
0.28

1400
0.24
2 4 6 8 10 12
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 3. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-21 / 1519-
04 orthogneiss

11
Archaean age can be made. As the age results by conventional TIMS method give
highly discordant and scattered data, the zircons were further dated using SHRIMP
(2.60 Ga).

12
 Mos-22 / 2893-04 granite
Sample information and description

Sample: Granite
Field number: 2893-04
Coordinates: 0472187/8158379

Problem: Granite, probably Phanerozoic.

Zircon description

Granite sample Mos-22 / 2893-04 contains a good amount of homogeneous looking

zircon in nonmagnetic, >4.2 g cm-3 and magnetic (1.4A) >3.3 g cm-3 fractions. The
long to short crystals are mainly transparent, almost colourless, have clear crystal
faces and contain occasionally dark inclusions. The finer fraction (<75 µm) mostly is
represented by zircon fragments indicating that the grains were larger than 75 µm.

U-Pb age results

From the granite Mos-22 / 2893-04, three zircon fractions were dated (Table 1). Two
of them give concordant Lower Jurassic ages (Fig. 4). As the Pb/U results from the
two individual, very young and low-U fractions are not exactly the same the results
may indicate some uncertainty within Pb and U fractionation during the mass
spectrometry. Therefore it is suggested that an age of ~195-180 Ma is used for the
granite. One data point (B) is discordant and may indicate involvement of some older

0.034
Mos-22 / 2893-4 granite
210

0.032
200
Pb/238U

0.030 190
206

180
0.028

170
Age = ca. 195-180 Ma; n=2

0.026
0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.23
207 235
Pb/ U

lead.
Fig. 4. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-22 / 2893-04 granite.

13
 Mos-24 / 15273-04 syenite
Sample information and description
Sample: Syenite
Field number: 15273-04
Coordinates: 0624079/7964478
Location: Gorongosa

Problem: Cretaceous?

Zircon description

The majority of the zircons in syenite sample Mos-24 / 15273-04 are transparent to translucent, almost
colourless to yellowish and elongated. The crystal faces are frequently striated and the grains are
preferably quite platy. Whether this is due to fragmentation of the grains during milling is unsure. In
addition to these zircons there exist also a small amount of darker brown stubby grains. These are
considered as inherited ones.

U-Pb age results

Two analysed zircon fractions from the syenite sample MOS-24 / 15273-04 give
concordant and identical Lower Jurassic ages (Table 1). Thus, the age of the syenite is
181±2 Ma (Fig. 5).

0.02865 182
Mos-24 / 15273-4 syenite

181.6
0.02855
181.2
Pb/238U

180.8
0.02845
206

180.4

0.02835 Concordia Age = 181 ± 2 Ma

180
(2s, decay-const. errs ignored)
MSWD (of concordance) = 1.5; n=2

0.02825
0.1936 0.1940 0.1944 0.1948 0.1952 0.1956 0.1960 0.1964
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 5. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-24 / 15273-
04 syenite.

14
 Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite
Sample information and description

Sample: metagranodiorite
Field number: 19290-04
Coordinates: 0599269/7875446
Location: East of Inchapa

Problem: Metagranodiorite, Archaean?

U mineral description

The magnetic fraction d>3.3 g cm-3 consists almost exclusively of monazite. The
monazite is dated using TIMS U-Pb dating method. See “SHRIMP U-Pb dating on
zircons” part for zircon dating results.

U-Pb age results

Monazite from the metagranodiorite sample Mos-29 / 19290-04 gives slightly

reversely discordant age data (Table 1 and Fig. 6). This may be due to excess of 206Pb
from 230Th of a high Th-mineral (Shärer, 1984). However, the result indicates clearly
an effect of Pan–African metamorphism at 530-510 Ma.

0.090
Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite 550

0.088
540

0.086 530
Pb/238U

0.084 520

Monazite
206

510 ca. 530-510 Ma

0.082

500
0.080

0.078
0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 6. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on monazite, sample Mos-29 / 19290-04
metagranodiorite.

15
 Mos-30 / 19140-04 granodiorite

Sample information and description

Sample: granodiorite
Field number: 19140-04
Coordinates: 0509201/7898987
Location: Granodiorite from the quarry about 20 km east from Manica
Problem: Archaean?

Zircon description

Zircon population in granodiorite sample Mos-30 / 19140-04 looks quite

homogeneous and the amount of it is large. The larger grains are totally turbid, grey-
brown, mostly euhedral although also sub- to anhedral forms exist. The fine-grained
zircons are mostly translucent, grey-brown, and short prismatic (l:w=2-3). The sample
contains also much dark and pale brown sphene (fr.m. 1.4A)

U-Pb age results

From the granodiorite sample MOS-30 / 19140-04 five zircon fractions were analysed
using TIMS U-Pb dating method (Table 1). The results are highly discordant and in
spite of the different grain-size fractions and time of air-abrasions the Pb/U ratios plot
in two clusters (Fig. 7). The practically two-point reference line intercepts the
concordia curve at 2.47 and 0.56 Ga. It may be argued that the Pan-African
metamorphism has strongly affected the older Archaean high-U zircons. Therefore,
the possibly disturbed upper intercept age of the highly discordant data could only be
taken as a rough age estimate.

The ion microprobe age data from the Mozambican Archaean rocks have yielded
complex age data. This sample should be dated with the SHRIMP to get a better
constraint on the age of the rock.

16
 Mos-30 / 19140-04 granodiorite 2600

0.45

2200

Pb/238U
0.35
1800
206

Reference line intercepts at

0.25 1400 ca. 2.47 and 0.56 Ga
(n=5)

0.15
1 3 5 7 9 11
207 235
Pb/ U

Fig. 7. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-30 / 19140-04
granodiorite.

17
 Mos-31 / 6845-04 metatonalite
Sample information and description

Sample: metatonalite
Field number: 6845-04
Coordinates: 0547097/7882707
Location: Metatonalite from Mt. Chissui
Problem: Archaean?

Zircon description

The majority of the zircons in metatonalite sample Mos-31 / 6845-04 are almost gem
type: extremely bright, have a tint of pink colour, are either euhedral or more oval in
shape. The length to width ratio of the crystals and grains is mostly 2 to 4. In addition
to these bright ones, only few translucent and turbid grains were detected.

The sample contains also light brown sphene.

U-Pb age results

The TIMS dating of four zircon fractions (Table 1) yielded discordant age data in
spite of the very bright appearance of the zircons. However, it is not very uncommon
that BSE and CL images of bright crystals illustrate altered zircon domains. The data
points A and D plot near each other and therefore the discordia line is practically
determined by three points only (Fig. 8). The apparent concordia intercept ages are
1300 Ma and 600 Ma. The quite high lower intercept age most probably indicates
effect of metamorphism(s).

The upper intercept age of 1.30 Ga is relatively high and odd in the group of the dated
Mozambican rocks. As a matter of fact the metamorphism between 800 and 500 Ma
can shift the zircon Pb/U ratios to the left from the original lead loss trend. That would
change the upper intercept at the concordia curve and the resulting age would be
older. Therefore, it is suggested that this age is considered merely as a maximum age
for the tonalite. The highest 207Pb/206Pb ages of 1150 Ma would then be the minimum
age for the rock. It is also suggested that this sample should be dated using ion
microprobe to reveal the age for the rock.

18
 0.175
Mos-31 / 6845-04 metatonalite
1020

0.165 980

940
0.155
Pb/238U

900

0.145 860
206

820
0.135 Reference line intercepts at
1.30 Ga and 0.60 Ga; n=4

0.125

0.115
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 8. Concordia plot for TIMS U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-31 / 6845-04
metatonalite.

19
SHRIMP U-Pb DATING ON ZIRCONS

Analytical methods

Selected zircon grains were mounted in epoxy resin together with chips of the
TEMORA (Middledale Gabbroic Diorite, New South Wales, Australia) and 91500
(Geostandard zircon) reference zircons. The grains were sectioned approximately in
half and polished. Back-scattered electron images (BSE) and cathode luminescence
(CL) images were prepared for all zircons.

The U-Pb analyses of the zircons were made using SHRIMP-II in Center of Isotopic
Research, VSEGEI, St.Petersburg, Russia. Each analysis consisted of 5 scans through
the mass range, the spot diameter was 20 µm, and primary beam current was about 4
nA. The data have been reduced by a manner similar to that described by Williams
(1998, and references therein), using the SQUID Excel Macro of Ludwig (2000). The
Pb/U ratios have been normalized relative to a value of 0.0668 for the 206Pb/238U ratio
of the TEMORA reference zircons, equivalent to an age of 416.75 Ma (Black and
Kamo, 2003). The common lead correction has been made using measured 204Pb and
modern lead isotope composition (Stacey and Kramer, 1975). Uncertainties given for
individual analyses (Table 3) are at one σ level. The concordia plots as well as the
final age calculations were done using SQUID (Ludwig, 2000) and ISOPLOT/EX 3
(Ludwig, 2003). All the results are calculated at 2σ level with the ignored decay
constant errors. The uncertainties of the means of the Pb/U-standard calibrations are
included into final concordia age errors (not included into discordia intercept ages). In
figures, the data-point error ellipses as well as the error bars are 2s.

Samples

The following samples were dated using SHRIMP U-Pb dating:

Mos-3 (1024-02)
Mos-5 (1097-03)
Mos-7 (1284-03)
Mos-19 (2638-04)
Mos-20 (2943-04)
Mos-21 (1519-04)
Mos-23 (13625-04)
Mos-26 (1011-02)
Mos-28 (19313-04)
Mos-29 (19290-04)

The U-Pb data of the SHRIMP dated samples are collected in Table 2.

20
 Table 2. SHRIMP U-Pb isotopic data for samples from the Map Explanation Vol. 2 area
(1) (1) %
232 206 207 (1) (1) (1) error
Dated zircon % ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- 207 * 207 * 206 *
Spot 206 238 206 238 206 Pb ±% Pb ±% Pb ±% corre-
domain Pbc U Th / U Pb* / U / Pb cor- 206 * 235 238
/ Pb / U / U lation
Age Age dant
MOS-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss
MOS3.1.1 zoned -- 369 207 0.58 48 904 ±6 863 ±19 -5 0.0678 0.9 1.408 1.1 0.1506 0.7 0.60
MOS3.2.1 zoned -- 763 254 0.34 97 891 ±16 882 ±36 -1 0.0684 1.7 1.399 2.6 0.1482 1.9 0.74
MOS3.3.1 zoned -- 199 106 0.55 24 861 ±7 850 ±26 -1 0.0674 1.3 1.327 1.5 0.1428 0.8 0.54
MOS3.4.1 zoned 0.03 586 208 0.37 72 865 ±6 846 ±23 -2 0.0673 1.1 1.331 1.3 0.1436 0.7 0.55
MOS3.5.1 zoned 0.03 427 245 0.59 52 856 ±6 848 ±21 -1 0.0673 10.0 1.318 1.2 0.14193 0.7 0.57
MOS3.6.1 zoned 0.17 1036 485 0.48 113 767 ±6 902 ±66 15 0.0691 3.2 1.203 3.3 0.1263 0.8 0.24
MOS3.7.1 zoned (dark CL) 0.16 466 233 0.52 54 813 ±19 824 ±56 1 0.0665 2.7 1.233 3.7 0.1344 2.5 0.68
MOS3.8.1 zoned (dark CL) 0.03 1181 343 0.30 133 792 ±5 819 ±67 3 0.0664 3.2 1.197 3.3 0.1308 0.7 0.20
MOS3.9.1 zoned -- 242 113 0.48 27 794 ±8 902 ±28 12 0.0691 1.3 1.248 1.7 0.1310 1.0 0.61
MOS3.10.1 zoned 0.04 280 149 0.55 33 837 ±7 813 ±39 -3 0.0662 1.9 1.266 2.1 0.1386 0.8 0.41
MOS3.11.1 zoned 0.06 573 269 0.48 69 840 ±11 844 ±19 0 0.0672 0.9 1.290 1.7 0.1392 1.4 0.84
MOS3.12.1 zoned 0.09 311 199 0.66 38 845 ±6 820 ±35 -3 0.0664 1.7 1.283 1.8 0.1401 0.8 0.41
MOS3.13.1 zoned 0.10 261 131 0.52 32 869 ±7 849 ±32 -2 0.0674 1.5 1.340 1.8 0.1443 0.9 0.50
MOS3.14.1 zoned 0.03 323 200 0.64 38 826 ±7 859 ±42 4 0.0677 2.0 1.276 2.2 0.1367 0.9 0.40
MOS3.15.1 zoned -- 187 72 0.40 23 872 ±6 841 ±31 -4 0.0671 1.5 1.340 1.7 0.1448 0.8 0.45
MOS-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist
MOS5.1.1 rim (light CL) 0.09 105 23 0.23 15 973 ±16 1092 ±38 11 0.0759 1.9 1.704 2.6 0.1629 1.8 0.69
MOS5.1.2 core (zoned,dark CL) 0.04 457 164 0.37 64 979 ±18 1002 ±16 2 0.0726 0.8 1.641 2.2 0.1640 2.0 0.93
MOS5.2.1 core (dark CL) 0.07 451 86 0.20 66 1011 ±56 1041 ±22 3 0.0740 1.1 1.73 6.1 0.1700 6.0 0.98
MOS5.2.2 rim (medium CL enveloped
by thin light CL rim) 0.11 127 20 0.16 19 1052 ± 10 1058 ±40 1 0.0746 2.0 1.824 2.2 0.1773 1.0 0.45
MOS5.3.1 zoned(unaltered) -- 494 225 0.47 75 1045 ±7 1097 ±17 5 0.0761 0.9 1.845 1.1 0.1759 0.7 0.61
MOS5.4.1 zoned(unaltered) 0.02 600 201 0.35 91 1052 ±7 1055 ±13 0 0.0745 0.6 1.821 1.0 0.1773 0.7 0.75
MOS5.5.1 zoned(unaltered) 0.03 965 283 0.30 135 969 ±23 1104 ±30 12 0.0763 1.5 1.707 2.9 0.1622 2.5 0.86
MOS5.6.1 rim (light CL) 0.85 96 24 0.26 13 963 ±9 1071 ±58 10 0.0751 2.9 1.668 3.1 0.1611 1.0 0.33
MOS5.6.2 core(disturbed zoning,dark CL) 0.17 1212 533 0.45 171 979 ±8 955 ±75 -3 0.0709 3.7 1.604 3.8 0.1640 0.8 0.22
MOS5.7.1 zoned (dark CL) -- 995 351 0.36 148 1031 ±6 983 ±36 -5 0.0719 1.8 1.720 1.9 0.1735 0.7 0.36
MOS5.8.1 zoned (dark CL+thin rim) 0.01 547 175 0.33 83 1048 ±12 1193 ±59 12 0.0798 3.0 1.943 3.2 0.1765 1.3 0.40
MOS5.9.1 zoned (dark CL+thin rim) 0.00 417 126 0.31 62 1027 ±8 1064 ±68 4 0.0748 3.4 1.781 3.5 0.1726 0.9 0.25
MOS5.10.1 zoned(dark CL) 0.06 446 164 0.38 62 971 ±13 1013 ±16 4 0.0730 0.8 1.635 1.7 0.1626 1.4 0.87
MOS5.11.1 zoned(dark CL) 0.27 174 54 0.32 27 1072 ±8 1048 ±32 -2 0.0743 1.6 1.852 1.8 0.1809 0.8 0.46
MOS5.12.1 zoned(dark CL) 0.05 492 154 0.32 78 1096 ± 60 1053 ±14 -4 0.0744 0.7 1.900 6.0 0.1850 6.0 0.99
MOS-7 / 1284-03 gneiss
MOS7.1.1 zoned(osc) 0.01 284 122 0.44 116 2497 ± 19 2670 ± 7 6 0.1819 0.4 11.86 1.0 0.4730 0.9 0.91
MOS7.2.1 zoned(striped) 0.06 318 204 0.66 110 2184 ± 35 2585 ± 22 16 0.1728 1.3 9.610 2.3 0.4033 1.9 0.82
MOS7.3.1 rim (homog,light CL +dark core) 0.04 284 97 0.35 84 1897 ±110 2469 ± 25 23 0.1612 1.5 7.610 6.6 0.3420 6.4 0.97
MOS7.4.1 zoned(osc) 0.01 518 63 0.13 127 1621 ± 48 2373 ± 21 32 0.1524 1.3 6.010 3.6 0.2858 3.3 0.94
MOS7.5.1 rim (light CL+dark, altered core) 0.92 27 0 0.00 2 516 ± 12 680 ±360 24 0.062 17.0 0.710 17.0 0.0834 2.4 0.14
MOS7.6.1 zoned(striped) -- 476 341 0.74 195 2513 ± 16 2728 ± 25 8 0.1884 1.5 12.380 1.7 0.4767 0.8 0.45
MOS7.7.1 homog, dark CL, inner domain 0.01 361 102 0.29 141 2411 ± 37 2523 ± 70 4 0.1665 4.2 10.410 4.5 0.4536 1.8 0.40
/metam/rounded(+thin light CL rim)

21
 Table 2. Continued.
(1) (1) %
232 206 207 (1) (1) (1) error
Dated zircon % ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- 207 207 206
Spot 206 206 Pb* ±% Pb* ±% Pb* ±% corre-
domain Pbc U Th /238 U Pb* /238 U /206 Pb cor- 206 * 235 238
/ Pb / U / U lation
Age Age dant
MOS7.8.1 homog, dark CL, inner domain -- 361 98 0.28 132 2284 ± 28 2620 ± 92 13 0.1765 5.5 10.350 5.7 0.4252 1.5 0.26
/metam/rounded(+thin light CL rim)

MOS7.9.1 zoned(striped) 0.05 265 44 0.17 74 1814 ± 90 2461 ± 59 26 0.1605 3.5 7.190 6.7 0.3250 5.7 0.85
MOS7.10.1 zoned(disturbed,dark CL) 0.02 554 230 0.43 206 2321 ±110 2495 ±7 7 0.1638 0.4 9.790 5.5 0.4330 5.5 1.00
MOS7.11.1 rim(light CL/metam) 1.57 50 1 0.01 4 522 ±9 475 ±270 -10 0.0566 12.0 0.658 12.0 0.0843 1.7 0.14
MOS7.12.1 zoned(osc,CL dark) 0.10 614 98 0.17 85 966 ± 15 1860 ± 17 48 0.1137 0.9 2.535 1.9 0.1617 1.6 0.87
MOS7.13.1 homog,CL dark/metam?/rounded 0.00 343 114 0.34 152 2681 ±130 2553 ±7 -5 0.1696 0.4 12.050 5.9 0.5160 5.9 1.00
MOS7.14.1 zoned(striped) 0.08 136 47 0.36 51 2339 ± 46 2610 ± 37 10 0.1754 2.2 10.580 3.2 0.4370 2.3 0.73
MOS7.15.1 tip/rim?,homog(dark CL) 0.02 346 114 0.34 131 2356 ± 19 2555 ± 7 8 0.1697 0.4 10.320 1.1 0.4411 1.0 0.92
Mos-19 / 2638-04 aplitic granite / meta arcose
MOS-19.1.1 zoned, CL-pale inner domain 0.11 486 311 0.66 60 858 ±4 804 ±40 -6 0.0659 1.9 1.294 2.0 0.1424 0.5 0.26
MOS-19.1.2 quite homogeneous, CL-dark rim 0.11 2071 313 0.16 245 832 ±2 834 ±13 0 0.0669 0.6 1.270 0.7 0.1377 0.3 0.39
MOS-19.2.1 quite homogeneous, CL-pale rim 1.18 581 162 0.29 69 824 ±4 810 ±54 -2 0.0661 2.6 1.243 2.7 0.1363 0.6 0.21
MOS-19.3.1 quite homogeneous, CL-pale rim 0.38 645 135 0.22 79 857 ±4 863 ±35 1 0.0678 1.7 1.330 1.7 0.1422 0.5 0.27
MOS-19.3.2 CL-dark and spotty inner domain 0.04 2475 625 0.26 290 825 ±2 836 ±12 1 0.0669 0.6 1.259 0.6 0.1364 0.3 0.46
MOS-19.4.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.44 522 354 0.70 61 825 ±4 834 ±37 1 0.0669 1.8 1.258 1.8 0.1364 0.5 0.28
MOS-19.5.1 relicts of zoning, CL-dark 0.20 675 482 0.74 82 852 ±4 869 ±24 2 0.0680 1.2 1.325 1.3 0.1412 0.4 0.35
MOS-19.6.1 zoned, CL-bright 0.70 281 167 0.61 33 827 ±5 798 ±63 -4 0.0657 3.0 1.241 3.1 0.1369 0.7 0.22
MOS-19.7.1 CL-pale replacing phase 2.68 480 122 0.26 56 796 ±5 750 ±96 -6 0.0643 4.5 1.164 4.6 0.1314 0.7 0.15
quite homogeneous,
MOS-19.8.1 0.52 991 6 0.01 72 518 ±2 528 ±42 2 0.058 1.9 0.669 2.0 0.0837 0.5 0.24
CL-medium inner domain
quite homogeneous, Cl-dark core
MOS-19.9.1 0.07 651 30 0.05 46 513 ±3 515 ±30 1 0.0576 1.4 0.658 1.5 0.0828 0.6 0.38
domain
MOS-19.9.2 quite homogeneous, CL-dark rim 0.08 662 419 0.65 81 854 ±4 843 ±24 -1 0.0672 1.1 1.312 1.2 0.1416 0.4 0.36
MOS-19.10.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.13 646 496 0.79 78 848 ±4 863 ±23 2 0.0678 1.1 1.314 1.2 0.1406 0.5 0.41
MOS-19.11.1 weakly zoned, CL-dark 0.16 1079 14 0.01 80 530 ±2 485 ±30 -8 0.0568 1.4 0.671 1.4 0.0857 0.4 0.27
MOS-19.12.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.01 782 363 0.48 91 814 ±4 872 ±17 7 0.0681 0.8 1.265 0.9 0.1347 0.5 0.49
MOS-19.13.1 zoned, CL-medium 0.16 503 384 0.79 62 857 ±5 849 ±32 -1 0.0674 1.5 1.320 1.6 0.1421 0.6 0.35
MOS-19.14.1 zoned, CL-medium 0.18 915 345 0.39 107 822 ±3 879 ±21 7 0.0684 1.0 1.281 1.1 0.1360 0.4 0.40
MOS-19.15.1 zoned/spotty, CL-dark 0.03 1315 30 0.02 93 509 ±2 507 ±21 0 0.0574 1.0 0.650 1.0 0.0821 0.4 0.39
MOS-19.16.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.51 1377 110 0.08 108 561 ±2 618 ±49 10 0.0604 2.3 0.757 2.3 0.0909 0.4 0.18
MOS-19.17.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.13 979 529 0.56 113 813 ±3 903 ±19 11 0.0692 0.9 1.281 1.0 0.1343 0.4 0.37
zoned, possibly hit partly
MOS-19.18.1 2.13 699 276 0.41 81 798 ±10 840 ±68 5 0.0671 3.3 1.219 3.5 0.1318 1.4 0.39
on CL-dark center domain
Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss
MOS-20.1.1 CL-bright rim 2.09 120 6 0.05 9 506 ±8 490 +247 -3 0.0570 11.2 0.641 11.3 0.0816 1.7 0.15

MOS-20.1.2 zoned main domain (+CL-bright rim) 0.13 274 46 0.18 84 1959 ±11 2673 +12 36 0.1822 0.7 8.922 1.0 0.3552 0.7 0.68

CL-dark, smoothly zoned

MOS-20.2.1 1.65 845 23 0.03 69 576 ±3 951 +65 65 0.0708 3.2 0.911 3.2 0.0934 0.5 0.16
(+thin CL-bright rim)
CL-dark, smoothly zoned
MOS-20.3.1 0.33 485 14 0.03 35 521 ±3 528 +83 1 0.0579 3.8 0.673 3.8 0.0843 0.6 0.17
(+core and thin CL-bright rim)

22
 Table 2. Continued.
(1) (1) %
232 206 207 (1) (1) (1) error
Dated zircon % ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- 207 * 207 * 206 *
Spot 206 206 238 206 Pb ±% Pb ±% Pb ±% corre-
domain Pbc U Th /238 U Pb* / U / Pb cor-
/206Pb* /235U /238 U lation
Age Age dant
MOS-20.4.1 CL-bright rim on zircon 8 6.71 56 7 0.12 4 475 ±16 619 +795 30 0.0604 36.8 0.638 37.0 0.0765 3.4 0.09
core, CL-medium
MOS-20.4.2 0.47 293 61 0.22 76 1691 ±9 2367 +16 40 0.1519 0.9 6.281 1.1 0.3000 0.6 0.54
(CL-dark and bright rims around it)
MOS-20.5.1 CL-bright rim on zircon 8 1.17 127 7 0.05 9 497 ±7 631 +246 27 0.0608 11.4 0.671 11.5 0.0801 1.5 0.13
MOS-20.6.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.36 656 82 0.13 84 891 ±4 1553 +23 74 0.0962 1.2 1.967 1.3 0.1482 0.5 0.36
MOS-20.7.1 CL-bright rim on zircon 8 21.00 32 5 0.16 3 500 ±28 -2636 +0 -628 0.0806 5.9
MOS-20.8.1 center/core?, CL-dark 1.87 225 49 0.23 41 1211 ±11 2244 +38 85 0.1414 2.2 4.029 2.4 0.2067 1.0 0.41
CL-dark domain (+core+CL-bright
MOS-20.9.1 1.92 1218 30 0.03 84 491 ±2 351 +87 -29 0.0535 3.9 0.584 3.9 0.0792 0.5 0.12
rim)
MOS-20.9.2 core, CL-medium 0.48 379 81 0.22 68 1220 ±7 1810 +30 48 0.1106 1.6 3.179 1.7 0.2084 0.6 0.34
smoothly zoned, CL-dark
MOS-20.10.1 0.91 501 9 0.02 36 515 ±4 520 +110 1 0.0577 5.0 0.661 5.1 0.0831 0.7 0.15
(+metamict core)
MOS-20.11.1 center, zoned CL-pale domain 0.29 308 137 0.46 84 1776 ±10 1908 +19 7 0.1168 1.0 5.106 1.2 0.3171 0.7 0.53
MOS-20.12.1 zoned core (+CL-bright rim) 0.03 467 92 0.20 128 1787 ±7 2426 +12 36 0.1572 0.7 6.926 0.8 0.3195 0.5 0.56
MOS-20.13.1 zoned core (+CL-bright rim) 0.28 376 62 0.17 62 1122 ±6 2149 +21 91 0.1338 1.2 3.508 1.3 0.1901 0.6 0.42
MOS-20.14.1 core, CL-medium 1.64 258 105 0.42 69 1720 ±11 2449 +30 42 0.1593 1.8 6.719 1.9 0.3058 0.7 0.39
Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss
MOS-21.1.1 zoned core 0.26 607 186 0.32 249 2511 ±8 3048 +6 21 0.2294 0.4 15.061 0.5 0.4762 0.4 0.72
MOS-21.1.2 zoned, CL-dark 0.19 747 115 0.16 251 2128 ±8 2509 +8 18 0.1652 0.5 8.905 0.6 0.3910 0.4 0.68
MOS-21.2.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.14 467 43 0.10 188 2474 ±10 2599 +8 5 0.1743 0.5 11.239 0.7 0.4678 0.5 0.72
MOS-21.3.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.71 672 115 0.18 252 2324 ±9 2598 +9 12 0.1742 0.6 10.424 0.7 0.4340 0.4 0.62
MOS-21.4.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.26 968 77 0.08 255 1721 ±6 2361 +8 37 0.1513 0.5 6.384 0.6 0.3060 0.4 0.64
MOS-21.5.1 zoned, CL-medium, tip 0.14 314 102 0.34 121 2389 ±11 2595 +10 9 0.1739 0.6 10.754 0.8 0.4486 0.6 0.68
MOS-21.5.2 zoned, CL-dark, middle 0.21 699 69 0.10 179 1677 ±76 2073 +133 24 0.1282 7.6 5.251 9.2 0.2972 5.2 0.57
MOS-21.5.3 zoned, CL-medium,center 0.01 459 373 0.84 214 2788 ±12 2866 +129 3 0.2050 7.9 15.291 7.9 0.5410 0.5 0.07
MOS-21.6.1 zoned, CL-medium -0.01 211 72 0.35 90 2596 ±16 2489 +75 -4 0.1632 4.4 11.159 4.5 0.4958 0.8 0.17
MOS-21.7.1 CL-bright rim 31.01 30 3 0.12 5 760 ±62 2022 +1606 166 0.1245 90.6 2.148 91.0 0.1251 8.7 0.10
MOS-21.8.1 zoned, Cl-medium -- 550 337 0.63 246 2702 ±9 2756 +86 2 0.1916 5.3 13.750 5.3 0.5205 0.4 0.08
MOS-21.9.1 zoned, Cl-medium 0.16 208 60 0.30 88 2569 ±27 2589 +21 1 0.1732 1.2 11.693 1.8 0.4896 1.3 0.71
MOS-21.10.1 zoned, Cl-medium 0.32 180 84 0.49 72 2463 ±14 2597 +13 5 0.1740 0.8 11.164 1.0 0.4653 0.7 0.65
MOS-21.11.1 zoned, Cl-medium 0.36 491 92 0.19 128 1698 ±8 2365 +12 39 0.1517 0.7 6.306 0.9 0.3014 0.5 0.61
MOS-21.12.1 zoned, Cl-medium 0.09 328 195 0.61 143 2650 ±13 2714 +12 2 0.1867 0.7 13.091 0.9 0.5084 0.6 0.62
MOS-21.13.1 zoned, Cl-medium 0.05 250 218 0.90 107 2609 ±12 2654 +9 2 0.1801 0.6 12.386 0.8 0.4988 0.6 0.72
Mos-23 / 13625-04 deformed tonalite
MOS-23.1.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.11 425 292 0.71 204 2861 ±16 2909 +9 2 0.2104 0.5 16.206 0.9 0.5586 0.7 0.79
CL-medium dark, weakly zoned
MOS-23.2.1 0.16 136 64 0.49 68 2934 ±39 2911 +15 -1 0.2108 0.9 16.747 1.9 0.5763 1.6 0.87
core/centre domain
MOS-23.3.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.05 223 86 0.40 110 2930 ±19 2909 +9 -1 0.2105 0.6 16.702 1.0 0.5754 0.8 0.81
MOS-23.4.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.08 384 203 0.55 184 2862 ±16 2900 +7 1 0.2093 0.4 16.130 0.8 0.5589 0.7 0.84

23
 Table 2 . Continued.
(1) (1) %
232 206 207 (1) (1) (1) error
Dated zircon % ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- 207 207 206
Spot 206 206 238 206 Pb* ±% Pb* ±% Pb* ±% corre-
domain Pbc U Th /238 U Pb* / U / Pb cor-
/206Pb* /235U /238U lation
Age Age dant
MOS-23.5.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.56 426 187 0.45 199 2793 ±18 2921 +11 5 0.2121 0.7 15.855 1.0 0.5423 0.8 0.77
MOS-23.6.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.23 293 145 0.51 131 2694 ±16 2898 +9 8 0.2090 0.6 14.949 0.9 0.5188 0.7 0.80
MOS-23.7.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.25 259 137 0.55 118 2736 ±19 2873 +10 5 0.2058 0.6 15.008 1.0 0.5288 0.9 0.81
CL-dark, quite
MOS-23.8.1 0.26 565 305 0.56 214 2351 ±13 2729 +8 16 0.1884 0.5 11.436 0.8 0.4402 0.7 0.82
homogeneous core

MOS-23.8.2 CL-medium dark, weakly zoned tip 0.23 206 79 0.40 97 2821 ±19 2883 +11 2 0.2071 0.7 15.671 1.0 0.5489 0.8 0.78

MOS-23.9.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.19 254 147 0.60 121 2838 ±19 2901 +9 2 0.2094 0.6 15.969 1.0 0.5532 0.8 0.82
MOS-23.10.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.10 352 142 0.42 168 2847 ±16 2888 +8 1 0.2077 0.5 15.902 0.9 0.5552 0.7 0.83

MOS-23.10.2 Cl-dark replacing homogeneous phase 0.15 896 34 0.04 236 1724 ±9 2463 +8 43 0.1607 0.5 6.794 0.8 0.3066 0.6 0.79

Mos-26 / 1011-02 garnet-kyanite schist

MOS-26.1.1 homogeneous, CL-dark 0.12 270 207 0.79 108 2460 +16 2574 +11 5 0.1717 0.7 10.998 1.0 0.4646 0.8 0.75
MOS-26.2.1 zoned, dark and pale stripes 0.15 195 94 0.50 71 2270 +16 2131 +16 -6 0.1325 0.9 7.708 1.3 0.4221 0.9 0.67
MOS-26.3.1 zoned, CL-medium dark -- 279 58 0.21 93 2109 +14 2063 +14 -2 0.1275 0.8 6.800 1.1 0.3869 0.8 0.71
MOS-26.4.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.11 509 56 0.11 153 1930 +12 2035 +12 5 0.1254 0.7 6.037 1.0 0.3490 0.7 0.74
MOS-26.5.1 zoned, dark and pale stripes 0.34 112 41 0.38 35 1994 +18 2048 +24 3 0.1263 1.4 6.313 1.7 0.3624 1.0 0.60
MOS-26.6.1 zoned, Cl-medium dark 0.11 293 116 0.41 93 2027 +13 2061 +16 2 0.1273 0.9 6.485 1.2 0.3694 0.8 0.64

MOS-26.7.1 quite homogeneous, CL-pale, round 0.18 77 50 0.67 24 2021 +21 2044 +31 1 0.1261 1.7 6.400 2.1 0.3682 1.2 0.57

MOS-26.7.2 homogeneous, CL-dark, round 0.11 328 302 0.95 102 1994 +13 2015 +14 1 0.1240 0.8 6.201 1.1 0.3625 0.8 0.71
weakly zoned, CL-bright,
MOS-26.8.1 0.61 94 229 2.51 23 1602 +18 1885 +54 18 0.1153 3.0 4.486 3.3 0.2821 1.3 0.40
round (metamorphic?)
MOS-26.9.1 zoned, CL-dark, round 0.04 335 198 0.61 153 2755 +17 3063 +7 11 0.2316 0.4 17.031 0.9 0.5333 0.8 0.86
MOS-26.10.1 zoned, CL-medium 0.11 216 109 0.52 69 2024 +14 2049 +19 1 0.1264 1.1 6.429 1.4 0.3688 0.8 0.61
MOS-26.11.1 zoned, CL-medium dark 0.12 500 197 0.41 140 1815 +11 1981 +12 9 0.1217 0.7 5.453 1.0 0.3251 0.7 0.73
MOS-26.12.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.15 448 244 0.56 134 1929 +11 2024 +12 5 0.1246 0.7 5.995 1.0 0.3489 0.7 0.70
MOS-26.13.1 weakly zoned, CL-pale 0.37 133 52 0.40 41 1966 +17 2065 +29 5 0.1276 1.7 6.270 1.9 0.3565 1.0 0.51
quite homogeneous, CL-pale (?zoned
MOS-26.14.1 0.12 210 79 0.39 88 2571 +19 2636 +12 3 0.1781 0.7 12.036 1.2 0.4901 0.9 0.79
rim)
MOS-26.15.1 zoned, dark and pale stripes 0.12 194 157 0.84 83 2611 +18 2698 +13 3 0.1849 0.8 12.732 1.1 0.4993 0.9 0.75
MOS-26.16.1 zoned, CL-medium dark 0.21 169 98 0.60 54 2047 +16 2051 +22 0 0.1266 1.2 6.521 1.5 0.3737 0.9 0.60
Mos-28 / 19313-04 granite
MOS-28.1.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.13 390 280 0.74 140 2245 +14 2410 +10 7 0.1558 0.6 8.945 1.0 0.4165 0.7 0.78
MOS-28.2.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.27 348 327 0.97 57 1120 +8 1162 +34 4 0.0786 1.7 2.057 1.9 0.1898 0.8 0.42
MOS-28.3.1 zoned center domain, CL-dark 0.06 386 256 0.69 128 2101 +36 2049 +12 -2 0.1264 0.7 6.714 2.1 0.3852 2.0 0.95
MOS-28.4.1 quite homogeneous, CL-brigh 0.43 14 35 2.58 3 1269 +34 2090 +89 65 0.1294 5.0 3.884 5.8 0.2176 2.9 0.50
MOS-28.5.1 zoned, CL-medium 0.45 360 383 1.10 57 1088 +8 1090 +40 0 0.0758 2.0 1.921 2.2 0.1839 0.8 0.38
MOS-28.6.1 zoned, CL-dark 1.14 687 479 0.72 76 770 +5 1073 +48 39 0.0752 2.4 1.314 2.5 0.1268 0.7 0.29

MOS-28.7.1 quite homogeneous centre domain 0.17 185 121 0.68 74 2475 +20 2495 +15 1 0.1638 0.9 10.571 1.3 0.4681 1.0 0.75

24
 Table 2. Continued.
(1) (1) %
232 206 207 (1) (1) (1) error
Dated zircon % ppm ppm Th ppm Pb Pb Dis- 207 207 206
Spot 206 206 238 206 Pb* ±% Pb* ±% Pb* ±% corre-
domain Pbc U Th /238U Pb* / U / Pb cor-
/206 Pb* /235 U /238U lation
Age Age dant
MOS-28.8.1 zoned, CL-medium 0.05 344 445 1.34 57 1130 +8 1180 +33 4 0.0793 1.7 2.095 1.9 0.1916 0.8 0.42
MOS-28.9.1 zoned, CL-bright 1.68 95 124 1.34 14 997 +14 1221 +133 22 0.0810 6.8 1.867 6.9 0.1672 1.5 0.22
MOS-28.10.1 zoned, CL-dark 1.47 634 192 0.31 90 976 +6 1276 +42 31 0.0833 2.2 1.877 2.3 0.1635 0.7 0.30
MOS-28.11.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.92 183 197 1.11 30 1123 +13 1080 +82 -4 0.0754 4.1 1.979 4.3 0.1903 1.2 0.29
MOS-28.12.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.09 246 152 0.64 71 1879 +15 1830 +17 -3 0.1119 1.0 5.219 1.3 0.3384 0.9 0.68
MOS-28.13.1 weakly zoned, CL-bright 0.01 269 188 0.72 85 2017 +14 2027 +14 0 0.1249 0.8 6.324 1.1 0.3673 0.8 0.71
MOS-28.14.1 zoned, CL-dark 0.57 220 231 1.09 37 1139 +11 1133 +57 0 0.0775 2.9 2.064 3.0 0.1932 1.0 0.34
Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite
zoned, CL-medium, long (+CL-dark
MOS-29.1.1 0.26 630 741 1.22 88 971 ±4 1087 ± 28 12 0.0757 1.4 1.697 1.4 0.1626 0.5 0.32
rim)
MOS-29.1.2 homogeneous CL-dark rim 4.38 2220 164 0.08 252 768 ±3 902 ± 83 17 0.0691 4.0 1.205 4.0 0.1265 0.4 0.11

MOS-29.2.1 zoned, CL-pale, long (+CL-dark rim) 6.15 270 97 0.37 17 418 ±5 762 ±230 82 0.0646 11.0 0.597 11.0 0.0670 1.2 0.11

MOS-29.3.1 zoned, CL-pale, long (+CL-dark rim) 0.66 124 99 0.82 19 1065 ±9 1166 ± 65 9 0.0787 3.3 1.9500 3.4 0.1796 1.0 0.28

MOS-29.4.1 zoned, CL-pale, long (+CL-dark rim) 0.34 174 70 0.42 27 1063 ±8 1123 ± 67 6 0.0771 3.4 1.905 3.5 0.1792 0.8 0.24

zoned, CL-medium, long (+CL-dark

MOS-29.5.1 0.24 746 928 1.29 108 1006 ±4 1076 ± 22 7 0.07528 1.1 1.752 1.2 0.1688 0.4 0.35
rim)
MOS-29.5.2 homogeneous CL-dark rim 0.65 1792 71 0.04 167 659 ±2 902 ± 28 37 0.06912 1.4 1.026 1.4 0.1076 0.4 0.26
zoned, CL-medium, long (+CL-dark
MOS-29.6.1 0.15 567 475 0.86 89 1083 ±5 1070 ± 22 -1 0.07504 1.1 1.892 1.2 0.1829 0.5 0.39
rim)

MOS-29.7.1 zoned, CL-pale, short (+CL-dark rim) 2.38 160 165 1.07 26 1109 ± 10 1104 ±110 0 0.0763 5.6 1.9800 5.6 0.1877 1.0 0.17

MOS-29.8.1 zoned, CL-pale, short (+CL-dark rim) 1.05 111 115 1.07 18 1081 ±10 1017 ± 77 -6 0.0731 3.8 1.8400 3.9 0.1826 1.0 0.26

MOS-29.9.1 zoned, CL-medium dark, short 0.08 498 124 0.26 78 1079 ±5 1088 ± 22 1 0.07573 1.1 1.902 1.2 0.1822 0.5 0.41

MOS-29.10.1 zoned, CL-pale, short (+CL-dark rim) 0.66 155 158 1.05 25 1099 ±9 1037 ± 65 -6 0.0738 3.2 1.892 3.4 0.1858 0.9 0.27

zoned, CL-medium, short (+CL-dark

MOS-29.11.1 0.39 292 182 0.65 46 1081 ±7 1076 ± 41 0 0.0753 2.1 1.894 2.2 0.1825 0.7 0.30
rim)

Mos-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss

MOS-29.12.1 zoned, CL-pale, short (+CL-dark rim) 0.96 79 110 1.44 12 1042 ±12 1137 ± 97 9 0.0776 4.9 1.877 5 0.1754 1.3 0.25

MOS-29.13.1 zoned, CL-pale, short (+CL-dark rim) 1.58 91 127 1.45 14 1041 ±11 999 ±100 -4 0.0725 5.1 1.751 5.2 0.1752 1.1 0.21

MOS-29.13.2 homogeneous CL-dark rim 3.86 3664 64 0.02 193 370 ±2 992 ± 69 168 0.0722 3.4 0.588 3.4 0.0591 0.4 0.11
zoned, CL-medium, long (+CL-dark
MOS-29.14.1 0.41 725 445 0.63 70 684 ±3 1101 ± 32 61 0.0762 1.6 1.177 1.7 0.1120 0.5 0.30
rim)
204
Errors are 1-sigma; Pbc and Pb* indicate the common and radiogenic lead portions, respectively. (1) Common Pb corrected using measured Pb. The rejected data are in italics.

2σ errors in standard calibration (not included in above errors): 0.34% for MOS-3, MOS-5, and MOS-7, 0.37% for MOS-19 (9-18), 0.40% for MOS-19 (1-8), MOS-20 and MOS-21; 1.15% for MOS-23, MOS-26 and MOS-28, and 0.28% MOS-29.

25
Sample information and description

Sample: Aplogranite gneiss.

Field number: 1024-02
Coordinates: 0528044/813443

Problem setting: The sample is collected from an extensive river-eroded outcrop

below the Luenha river bridge, south of the town Changara.

The outcrop consists of two main components, the felsic granitoid gneiss and the
mafic gabbroic foliated rock, with layer-thicknesses varying mostly from centimetres
to decimetres, locally to more than a meter. This vivid alternation of felsic and mafic
layers makes the rock spectacularly banded when seen from a short distance. Owing
to an extensive layer-parallel deformation and isoclinal folding, parts of the bands are
tectonically repeated and the layer-thicknesses have been modified.

The extensively deformed assemblage has later been invaded subconformably and
discordantly by pegmatite, which also has occupied low-pressure areas of many
metagabbro boudin necks. The chocolate tablet character of the synpegmatitic boudins
shows that by the emplacement of the pegmatite (this particular pegmatite) the layer-
parallel deformation of the host assemblage had ceased.

The sample represents the felsic part of the two-component assemblage, collected
from a layer where there was no foreign quartzofeldspathic vein material.

SHRIMP method is suggested to find out whether there is zircon characterized by a

core dating the crystallisation of the protolith rock enclosed by shell, with the
outermost part potentially dating the thermal peak during the pegmatite emplacement.
If so, is the time difference measurable?

Zircon description

The density fraction >4.2 g cm-3 contains a large amount of zircon with quite
homogeneous population. Mostly the zircons are long prismatic (l:w ~3-4), quite
colourless to yellowish-brownish (pigmentation?) grains. Majority of the colourless
grains are transparent to translucent and contain occasionally inclusions. Among the
more common types also large, turbid and dark, as well as more formless grains
occur.

In CL images, most of the zircons show clear magmatic zoning. Only a few show
dark, spotty CL indicating metamictization. A couple of possible small cores were
identified but they were either too metamict or too small for dating. Some zircons
show later zircon growth around corroded domains. Examples of the zircons are
shown in figure 9.

26
 MOS-3.5.1

MOS-3.4.1

Fig. 9. Selected CL images of the zircons from sample Mos-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss.
The ion microprobe spot sites with analysis numbers are indicated (see table 2).

U-Pb age results

Fifteen zircon spots were dated using SHRIMP (Table 2). As the supposed
metamorphic rims were too thin to be dated, all the age data come from magmatic
domains. The

27
A)

MOS-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss 940

0.155

900

0.145
860
Pb/238U

820
0.135
206

780

0.125 Intercepts at
852±13 Ma & -90±530 Ma
740
MSWD = 0.56; n=15/15

0.115
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
207 235
Pb/ U

B)

MOS-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss

1050

950
Pb age / Ma

850
206
Pb/
207

750

Mean = 852±15 Ma; n=15/15

650

Fig. 10. SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-3 / 1024-02 aplogranite gneiss. A)
Concordia plot. B) The weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages.

concordant or nearly concordant data deviate on the concordia diagram (Fig. 10)
between 760 and 920 Ma. An upper intercept age of 852±13 Ma can be calculated.
However, because it is unsure if the data really form a discordia line, a 852±15 Ma
weighted average of the 207Pb/206Pb ages (Fig. 10) is supposed to give the best age
approximation for the rock. Later metamorphism is indicated by the thin zircon
envelopes around the magmatic, zoned crystals.

28
The conventional U-Pb age for the other aplogranite sample Mos-4 / 1072-02 is
867±9 Ma. Thus, the ages for the two aplogranites are coeval within the error limits.

29
 Mos-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist

Sample information and description

Sample: Granodiorite schist.

Field number: 1097-03
Coordinates: 0541792/8202565

Problem setting: The sample comes from a small village of Salinhanga, southwest
from Tete. A small bush road from the Songo main road leads close to the sampling
site opposite to a high hillside in the neighbourhood.

The sample represents the felsic part of the two-component gneiss, as did the samples
Mos-3 / 1024-02 and Mos-4 / 1072-02, referred to above. Mafic boudins dating from
an extensive early deformation, are met with as a minority.

In the large region the composition of the felsic part is variable. While it was rather
uniformly pale granitic in both of the above localities (Mos-3 / 1024-02 and Mos-4 /
1072-02, respectively), here at Salinhanga and at a number of other places also darker,
more biotitic varieties are met with. It is common to find now biotitic
blastoporphyritic, originally intrusive layers, which grade through augen gneisses into
flaser gneisses or streaky gneisses and ultimately into biotitic schists (hence of
igneous origin).

The sample is one of the grey, biotitic schistose rocks from the felsic part of the two-
component assemblage. In this outcrop and region pegmatite forms screens and shows
a prominent pinch-and-swell structure. A younger generation of discordant red
pegmatites and granites occurs nearby but is abundant mostly to the west of this area.

SHRIMP method is suggested to test a possible analogy with Mos-3 / 1024-02. Would
the zircon cores from Mos-5 / 1097-03 yield equal or close to equal, or different ages
compared to Mos-3 / 1024-02? Is there a thermal peak associated with the
emplacement of pegmatites in the region – if possible to answer? Various alternative
results would lead to different interpretations of the geological evolution in the region.

Zircon description

The sample contains a large amount of homogeneous looking zircon in density

fraction >4.2 g cm-3. They are mostly long (l:w ~ 4-5) euhedral, transparent to
translucent, quite colourless to slightly brownish (pigment) with varying grain size
and some inclusions. Among these also elongated more tabular grains and grains with
poorly developed crystal faces (metamorphic?) do occur.

In CL images most of the zircons are dark and show tight magmatic zoning. Almost
all the zircons show thin, or rarely wider, metamorphic CL bright and quite
homogeneous rims. These in turn can be corroded and replaced or enveloped by a still
later and thinner zircon phase. In few grains, metamorphic or magmatic CL medium
coloured rims can occur before the CL bright rims. Furthermore, some zircons or

30
zircon domains show disturbed magmatic zoning to more blurry structures indicating
the beginning of metamictization. Examples of the zircons are shown in figure 11.

MOS-5.6.2

MOS-5.7.1
MOS-5.6.1(rim)

Fig. 11. Selected CL images of the zircons from sample MOS-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist.
The ion microprobe spot sites and corresponding analysis numbers are indicated (see table 3).

U-Pb age results

Total of 15 zircon domains were dated using SHRIMP (Table 2). Nine of these
represent magmatically zoned crystals with or without thin metamorphic (?) rims. In
addition, two CL bright and one CL medium dark rim domains were wide enough for
dating. The CL dark, mostly zoned core domains of the grains with wide rim domains
were also dated.

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 12), the age data scatter mainly between 960 and 1080
Ma. One zoned zircon (Mos 5.8.1) gives an apparently higher 207Pb/206Pb age of ~1.2
Ga (no raster in figures 12). However, the errors are large and it overlaps partly with
the other data.

The age data from two CL bright rims with low U and Th (Table 2; Mos 5.1.1, and
Mos 5.6.1) and corresponding zoned core domains plot in the lower end of the data
cluster (darker rastering of the ellipses in Figure 12). Therefore, it could be argued
that they form a meaningful younger

31
A)

MOS-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist

0.21
1200

1160

0.19 1120

Pb/238U
1080

1040
0.17 1000
206

960

920
0.15
880

0.13
1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3
207 235
Pb/ U

B)

MOS-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist

1350

1250
Pb age / Ma

1150

1050
206
Pb/
207

950

850
Mean = 1046±20 Ma; n=14/15
750

Fig. 12. SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-5 / 1097-03 granodiorite schist.
A) Concordia plot. B) Weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb ages.

32
age group at ~0.98 Ga. However, in that case the U-Pb system of the core domains
(preserved zoning) should have reset to correspond the time of the crystallization of
the rim phase. Furthermore, their higher 207Pb/206Pb ages, although with huge errors
(see Table 2), and the fact that a few other Pb/U analyses from zoned crystals without
rim phases plot in the same cluster do not strongly favour this idea.

As the quite concordant age data is scattering, the weighted average of 207Pb/206Pb
ages would give an age estimate for the rock. The data with the apparently highest
207
Pb/206Pb age is rejected from the 1046±20 Ma mean age (Fig. 12).

33
 Mos-7 / 1284-03 Archaean gneiss

Sample information and description

Sample: Archaean(?) gneiss

Field number: 1284-03
Coordinates: 0503824/8119250

Problem setting: The sample comes from the river Múdze channel, ~3,5 km walk west
along the river sands and over rugged rocks when started from the end of a poor bush
road to the river. No ground vehicle can be used for reaching the outcrop.

The sample was taken from inside an area, which has been designated on previous
maps as a roundish Archaean dome, a few kilometres wide. The suggestion is based
on image interpretation rather than on mapping. Observation on outcrop strongly
suggests that the rock indeed is Archaean. If positive, we can trust on the current
general interpretation.

SHRIMP method is suggested.

Zircon description

The zircons in the sample can be divided into two main populations. The one
population is composed of mainly long or elongated (l:w ~4-2), euhedral, partly
corroded (?), pale brown, translucent to turbid zircon, while the other is composed of
very bright (transparent), colourless, elongated to oval or round grains
(metamorphic?). Among these also other intermediate phases with varying grain-size
do occur.

In CL images, the majority of the zircons show magmatic zoning, which in few cases
is disturbed to blurry internal structures. Only small, often disturbed/altered possible
cores were found. Many of the zircons are enveloped by a quite homogeneous,
metamorphic Cl bright and/or darker rim phase. In addition to zoned zircons, also
rounded, internally quite homogeneous zircons with dark CL do occur
(metamorphic?). Also these show sometimes thin, CL bright rim phases. Examples of
the zircons are shown in figure 13.

U-Pb age results

Total of 15 zircon domains were dated using SHRIMP (Table 2). As the zircon
material showed to be quite complex internally, the analyses were done on zoned
zircons, CL bright rims, and dark CL, supposedly metamorphic grains.

34
 MOS-7.7.1

MOS-7.5.1
MOS-7.6.1

MOS-7.13.1

Fig. 13. Selected CL images of the zircons from sample Mos-7 / 1284-03 Archaean gneiss.
The ion microprobe spot sites and corresponding analysis numbers are indicated (see table 2).

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 14), the U-Pb data plot partially in a cluster and most
of the data are discordant. Especially the scattering Archaean data is quite difficult to
interpret. Here, the age results are divided into three groups (Fig. 14) according to the
dated zircon domains although also other classifications or groupings could be
possible, too.
1) The zoned zircons make the oldest group with an age approximation of 2.71
Ga (2713±22; n=6/6; MSWD = 1.3).
2) These zircons presumably suffered a metamorphism at 2.54 Ga. This is
indicated by the upper intercept age from three rounded, internally quite
homogeneous grains and by a metamorphic rim (Mos 7.7.1, 8.1, 13.1, 3.1). In
this group plots also analyses (white ellipses in figure 14) from another
internally quite homogeneous rim (Mos 7.15.1) and from a zircon domain,
showing disturbed zoning (Mos 7.10.1). However, when these data points are
included into age calculation no discordia age is available anymore.
3) The young metamorphism at 520±16 Ma is indicated by two wider rim
growths (Mos 7.5.1 and 11.1) on older zircons as well as by the highly
discordant age from one, most probably metamict zircon. The CL bright rims
have very low U and almost nonexistent Th contents.

The conventional U-Pb dating of the other Archaean gneiss (Mos-6 / 1170-03) gave
an age approximation of 2.63 Ga based on only three, highly discordant zircon
fractions, which actually form a two-point reference line. It represents quite good
average of the supposed Archaean magmatic and metamorphic age populations.

35
 MOS-7 / 1284-03 gneiss
0.6 Dark CL, metamorphic grains
and a rims (darker ellipses; n=4/6):
Intercepts at
2542±22 Ma & 377±260 Ma 2600
MSWD = 0.58
Pb/238U

2200
0.4

1800
Zoned zircons (pale ellipses; n=6/6):
206

Intercepts at
1400
2713±22 Ma & 822±120Ma;
0.2 MSWD = 1.3
1000

Young metamorphic rims (n=2/2):

Concordia Age = 520 ±16 Ma

0.0
0 4 8 12 16
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 14. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-7 / 1284-03
Archaean gneiss.

36
 Mos-19 / 2638-04 aplitic granite/meta-arkose

Sample information and description

Sample: Aplitic granite/meta-arkose
Field number: 2638-04
Coordinates: 0497126/8124947
Problem: plutonic or sedimentary rock?
Location: ~1 km northwest of Monte Pitão

Zircon description

In the > 4.0 g cm-3 nonmagnetic fraction, the zircon amount of the Mos-19 / 2638-04
sample is extremely small and the population looks quite heterogeneous in terms of
outlook and grain-size. The (very) fine-grained zircons are either tabular or euhedral
to subhedral (from oval to prismatic types), transparent, and quite colorless to
yellowish/brownish. The larger grains are either turbid and dark brown or transparent
and quite colourless. The shapes of these vary from short prismatic to longer crystals.
The amount of flat, round grains is quite high (abraded/dissolved?).

In addition, the >3.3 g cm-3 magnetic fraction contains a large amount of dark brown,
turbid and lighter colored, translucent zircons with mostly euhedral forms.

U-Pb age results

21 zircon domains were dated from sample Mos-19 / 2638-04 using ion microprobe
(Table 2). One analysis was rejected because of high common lead content. The CL-
images show several types of internal structures in zircons. Most of the rounded (flats)
grains are CL-dark and spotty with occasional lighter coloured spots inside or on the
rim areas of the grains. In the group of mounted zircons there exist also clearly zoned
crystals as well as grains with zoned rim domains, which in most of the cases are quite
dark in CL images.

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 15), the data divide into two main age groups. The
older data plot roughly between 850 Ma and 800 Ma. Furthermore, the older data
apparently split into two sub-clusters. These may represent true age groups. However,
here they are considered as a single age group because the Pb/Pb ages of all that data
are approximately the same. Furthermore, the data point error ellipses in the figure do
not include the error for standard Pb/U ratios.

The ~850-800 Ma age group includes data from both zoned (n=11) and homogeneous
zircon domains (n=4). The weighted average of the 207Pb/206Pb ages from zoned
zircon domains (n=11) is 867±15 Ma (Fig. 15). This is the age for the magmatic
zircons.

37
In addition to magmatic zircons, the older group includes four analyses from
structurally homogeneous zircon domains. These were measured mainly from the rim
phases possibly indicating metamorphism at that time. Two analyses per grain were
made on three roundish, CL-dark and spotty zircons (Table 2) (Fig. 16). These are
considered as metamict grains. Zircon number 1 has an older inner domain/core
around which the high-U rim phase is apparently somewhat younger. Zircon number 3
instead shows apparently older rim phase compared to high-U core domain. Thus at
least two of the younger data in the older group could be explained also with Pb loss
of the high-U zircons. Furthermore, one was measured from the structurally
homogeneous rim phase of zircon number 2.

The younger data plot around 520 Ma. Of these, three have a concordia age of 512 ±4
Ma and two show slightly older ages. All these show exceptionally low Th/U. Zircon
number 9 (Fig.16) has 850 Ma rim domain around the 510 Ma core domain with low
Th/U. This means that the older core recrystallized/healed during the Cambrian Pan-
African metamorphism. The two, apparently slightly older data do not indicate any
primary age.

Aplitic granite vs. meta-arkose

What ages we do have?

1. 867 ± 15 Ma magmatic zircons.
2. 850-830 Ma metamorphic zircon domains.
3. 512 ±4 Ma metamorphism.

The available age data is quite simple and do not favor a sedimentary origin for the
rock. However, the sample contains a significant amount of rounded, flat zircon grains
which show CL-dark and spotty internal structures. An example of these is zircon
number 3 (see Fig. 16). Some of these show younger core domains. These may
represent abraded sedimentary zircons which initial age can be older than 850 Ma as
the ages from metamict zircons are quite vulnerable for later metamorphism.
However, these zircons cannot solve the problem of the origin (sedimentary vs.
magmatic?) of the rock, as these can also be inherited sedimentary zircons.

The 867±15 Ma age for the zoned zircons is the same as the previously reported ages
for the aplogranites MOS-3 / 1024-02 (852±15 Ma) and MOS-4 /1072-02 (867±9
Ma). However, the age distribution as well as the existence of rounded, metamict
zircons (unsure initial age) is quite similar with the results from the postulated
paragneiss sample MOS-16 / 13016-03 (App. 2, Map Explanation Vol. 4).

In conclusion, from these data indicating quite homogeneous magmatic zircon ages it
is hard to say whether the rock is magmatic or sedimentary in origin. The age of
867±15 Ma is the age for magmatic zircons and the 512±4 Ma age is considered
totally metamorphic age.

38
 0.16
Mos-19 / 2638-04 aplitic granite / meta arkose 950
850
0.14
Concordia Age = 512 ±4 Ma
750
MSWD = 0.0; n=3
U

207 206
0.12 Mean of Pb/ Pb ages
238

= 867 ± 15 Ma;
650
Pb/

MSWD = 1.0; n=11/15

0.10
206

1000
550

Age / Ma
900

0.08 800
450
700
magmatic zircons
600
0.06
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
207
Pb/235U
Fig. 15. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-19 / 2638-
04 aplitic granite/meta-arkose.

39
 0.16
1.2 950
Zircon 1 (dotted):
1.1/ centre ca. 850 Ma 850
0.14 1.2 / CL-dark ca. 830 Ma
1.1
750
Pb/238U

0.12
3.2
Zircon 3 (striped):
3.1650
/ rim ca. 850 Ma
206

0.10 3.1 3.2 / CL-dark, spotty centre ca. 830 Ma

550

0.08 Zircon 9 (chess board):

9.1
450 9.1/ centre ca. 510 Ma
9.2 / rim ca.850 Ma
9.2
0.06
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
207
Pb/235U
Fig. 16. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-19 / 2638-
04 aplitic granite/meta-arkose. Age results from three zircons with two analyses per each.

40
 Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss
Sample: Sillimanite gneiss
Field number: 2943-04
Coordinates: 0491312/8124697
Location: A roadside outcrop 6 km from Cuchamano towards Changara.
Problem: Rushinga Group metasediment. SHRIMP dating for maximum age
determination and for provenance study.

Zircon description

In the sillimanite gneiss sample Mos-20 / 2943-04, the zircons are quite few in density
fraction > 4.0 g cm-3. General tone is quite pinkish although single crystals are almost
colourless, transparent, and elongated and the grain-size is quite small and uniform.
Zircons show either clear crystal faces or the surfaces are quite smooth. The darker
grains are translucent. It might be that the older grains are healed/metamorphosed to
transparent, colourless grains.

U-Pb age results

A total of 17 zircon domains were dated from sillimanite gneiss MOS-20 / 2943-04
(Table 2). Two analyses have high common lead contents and were therefore rejected.
Almost all the selected zircons have CL-bright rims around them. The mostly CL-dark
inner domains are often extremely altered or show compositional zoning. A few
grains show clear separate cores surrounded first by CL-dark, sometimes zoned zircon
phase and secondly by a very thin CL-bright rim (see Fig. 17).

The U-Pb data form four separate groups (Fig. 18):

1. Five concordant or slightly discordant, low Th/U zircon domains have a
concordia age of 518 ± 6 Ma (n=3/5). These youngest ages were measured
from either CL-bright rims or CL-dark, compositionally zoned or
homogeneous zircon domains.
2. Four discordant data points from cores and main domains of the zircons fall on
a same discordia line. Calculating these data solely or combined with the 500
Ma data, the upper intercept age will be ~2.0 Ga. The analyses from a core and
CL-dark outer domain from zircon 9 yield also a reference line, which
intercepts the concordia curve at 2.04 Ga.
3. Five discordant older data from cores (with CL-bright rims) have an upper
intercept age of 2.54 Ga when calculated with or without the youngest 500
Ma data.
4. The oldest data is from zircon 1 (Fig. 17). The CL-bright rim plots in the ~500
Ma group and the clearly magmatically zoned main domain has a very
discordant age data with a 207Pb/206Pb age of ~2.7 Ga. When plotted together,
an age of 2.8 Ga can be estimated for the magmatic zircon.

41
 MOS-20.1.2

MOS-20.1.1

MOS-20.9.1

MOS-20.9.2

Fig. 17. Selected CL images of zircons, sample Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss. The
upper zircon (number 1) has a CL-bright, low Th/U rim with an age of ~500 Ma. The zoned
inner domain has an age of ~2.8 Ga (see text for further information). The lower zircon has a
core with an age estimate of ~2.0 Ga. The core is surrounded by ~500 Ma CL-dark, low Th/U
zircon domain, which has a thin CL-bright rim (the ages for the CL-bright rims are also ~500
Ma).

From the available age data from the sillimanite gneiss, it is obvious that the
provenance is composed at least from rocks with ages of ~2.8 Ga, ~2.5 Ga, and ~2.0
Ga. However, as the data is highly discordant and the metamorphism at ~500 Ma
could have shifted the data points slightly, the ages should be considered as rough
estimates. Then, the maximum age for sedimentation would be 2.0 Ga.

The 500 Ma, CL-dark, smoothly compositionally zoned domains with thin CL-bright
rims make the interpretation of the data more difficult. Do these refer original
magmatic ages or ~500 Ma metamorphism? Analysis 2.1 (see Fig. 18) is from a CL
dark, smoothly compositionally zoned zircon domain with thin CL-bright rim. Its U-
Pb data plot quite near at the lower intercept end of a discordia line formed by the
older zircons. This example strengthens the idea that the ~500 Ma ages are solely
metamorphic – not magmatic. Furthermore, all the analyses plotting at or close to
~500 Ma have low Th/U despite of the type of the dated zircon domain. The low Th/U
in metamorphic zircon domains is a typical feature of the Mozambican rock samples.
The Th/U ratios for magmatic ~500 Ma zircons are clearly higher (see App. 2, Map
Explanation Vol. 4, biotite granite Mos-8 / 2450-03 and Sinda granite Mos-12 / 4493-
03).

42
In conclusion, all the ~500 Ma ages are metamorphic. The concordia age of 518 ± 6
Ma for the CL-bright rim zircon phases record metamorphism. That age is also a
minimum age for the sedimentation. The maximum sedimentation age is determined
by the youngest, ~2.0 Ga zircons.

Mos-20 / 2943-04 sillimanite gneiss

2200
0.4
Intercepts at
1976 ± 35 &
503 ± 15 Ma 1800 1.1 and 1.2:
0.3 MSWD = 1.5; n=9 reference line
intercept
Pb/238U

1400 at ca. 2.8 Ga

0.2 2.1
206

1000 Intercepts at
2543 ± 20 & 510 ± 10 Ma
MSWD = 1.2; n=10
0.1 600

Concordia Age = 518 ± 6 Ma

MSWD (of concordance) = 0.01; n=3/5
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
207
Pb/235U
Fig. 18. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-20 / 2943-04
sillimanite gneiss.

43
 Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss

Sample information and description

Sample: Orthogneiss
Field number: 1519-04
Coordinates: 0527152/8040966
Location: School yard in turnoff to Macossa from the Chimoio-Tete main road.
Problem: Archaean orthogneiss?

Previously it was found that four fractions of conventional TIMS zircon age data
show highly discordant and scattered age data. Therefore this sample was reanalysed
on the SHRIMP.

Zircon description

Sample Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss contains a good amount of homogeneous

looking prismatic zircon with varying grain-size. Only the degree of colour and
brightness varies slightly between the smallest and largest zircons.

U-Pb age results

A total of 16 zircon domains were dated from orthogneiss Mos-21 / 1519-04 (Table
2). One analysis has high common lead content and was therefore rejected.
Unfortunately that data point was the only one measured from a thin CL-bright rim
growth. All the zircons show compositional zoning in CL-images. Only a few clear
inherited cores were detected but in most of the cases they are too small or altered for
even SHRIMP dating.

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 19) the concordant and nearly concordant U-Pb data
plot mostly between 2.6 and 2.8 Ga. Six points give an upper intercept age of ~2.60
Ga. Moreover, the three discordant data points with small errors (1.2, 4.1, 11.1) would
plot on a line with an upper intercept coinciding with that of the six ~2.60 Ga zircons.
Therefore it is suggested that the initial age of these zircons is also 2.60 Ga.

In addition to the ~2.6 Ga zircons, there are few older zircon domains (1.1, 5.3, 8.1,
12.1, 13.1), which commonly show also higher Th/U ratios. These are measured from
the centre domains of the zircons. Of these, some are clear inherited cores and the rest
are not in a first sight considered as older cores (Fig. 20) but older zircons. For that
the zircon number 5 with three analyses on it is a good example (Fig. 19 inset): The
centre of zircon 5 gives the oldest age and highest Th/U. The youngest and most
discordant age was measured from the middle part of the zircon with the lowest Th/U
and darkest domain in CL image. The upper intercept age of ~2.73 Ga of the three-
point reference line determines the age for the zircon. The CL-darkest domain with
low Th/U has been most vulnerable for later lead loss.

44
The apparent core from zircon 1 has a 207Pb/206Pb age of 3.05 Ga (1.1) whereas the
main zircon domain (1.2) belongs to the 2.60 Ga age group (see fig. 20).

According to TIMS and SHRIMP age data, the age of the orthogneiss is absolutely
Archaean. The TIMS data suggested an age of >2.52 Ga and from the SHRIMP data it
can be concluded that its age is ~2.60 Ga. The >2.6 Ga zircons are all considered as
inherited ones.

Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss

0.6 3000

Intercepts at
2593 ± 22 & -125 ± 670 Ma
MSWD = 0.59; n=6 2600
0.5
Pb/238U

Three dated spots on zircon 5

2200
0.4 0.6 3000
206

2600
0.5 5.3

1800 2200 5.1

0.4 Reference line
0.3 1800
intercept
0.3
5.2 at ca. 2.73 Ga
1400 0.2
0 4 8 12 16 20
0.2
0 4 8 12 16 20
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 19. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-21 / 1519-
04 orthogneiss. Inset: the three data points analysed on zircon number 5 (see text for further
information).

45
 MOS-21.1.2

MOS-21.5.2

MOS-21.5.3 MOS-21.1.1
core

MOS-21.5.1 MOS-21.2.1

MOS-21.3.1

Fig. 20. Selected CL images on zircons, sample Mos-21 / 1519-04 orthogneiss. Zircon
number 1 has an inherited > 3.05 Ga core and the main domain gives discordant, younger age
(2.6 Ga?). Zircons 2 and 3 are 2.60 Ga old. The U-Pb data for the separate zircon domains of
zircon number 5 plot on a same line indicating an age of ~2.73 Ga.

46
 Mos-23 / 13625-04 tonalite

Sample information and description

Sample: Tonalite
Field number: 13625-04
Coordinates: 0491095/7904309
Location: Manica

Problem: Deformed tonalite from Archaean area. Previously interpreted to be

Proterozoic.

Zircon description

In the tonalite sample Mos-23 / 13625-04 the zircon amount is extremely small.
Therefore the dating was done with SHRIMP although the bedrock mapping team
suggested TIMS dating method.

In the density fraction 4.0-3.3 g cm-3 there are only few turbid and assorted grains. In
the heaviest fraction the very fine-grained zircons are mainly brown, transparent and
prismatic. The large grains are either white to yellowish, totally turbid and stubby or
dark brown, translucent/transparent, prismatic (stubby to l:w ≤ 4). The white turbid
ones must have suffered strong hydrothermal alteration. In some views they resemble
impact-shocked zircons.

The sample contains also a large amount of dark and light brown sphene (d >3.3 g cm-
3
, fr.m. 0.6A).

U-Pb age results

The SHRIMP U-Pb age results from the tonalite sample MOS-23 / 13625-04 are quite
unambiguous and therefore only 12 analyses were made (Table 2). In CL images,
most of the zircons show clear magmatic zoning and are dark. A few are totally
altered/metamict (turbid whitish/yellowish) and altered inherited cores are thought to
be quite common.

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 21), the ten concordant or nearly concordant analyses
on magmatically zoned zircons plot in a cluster at 2.9 Ga. The upper intercept age of
2907 ± 16 Ma is the age for the tonalite. Thus this deformed tonalite is Mesoarchaean.
The altered/metamict cores indicate even older zircon ages for inherited components.

Two of the data points are very discordant (Fig. 21). These were measured from the
structurally quite homogeneous core and from the low Th/U zircon phase that replaces
original magmatic zoning. The inherited core clearly shows homogenisation and
radiogenic lead loss.

47
 0.7
Mos-23 / 13625-04 deformed tonalite

0.6 Intercepts at
2907 ± 16 & 577 ± 680 Ma 3000
MSWD = 1.9; n=10/12 2800

2600
Pb/238U

0.5
2400
8.1
2200
206

0.4
2000

0.3 10.2

0.2
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 21. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-23 / 13625-04
tonalite.

48
 Mos-26 / 1011-02 garnet-kyanite schist

Sample: garnet-kyanite schist

Field number: 1011-02
Coordinates: 0512045/8008144
Location: West of Catandica, Gairezi Formation.
Problem: Provenance study, SHRIMP.

Zircon description

The garnet-kyanite schist sample Mos-26 / 1011-02 contains mixed type of zircons with quite uniform
grain-size (medium to fine). These include 1) transparent, colourless, round to oval and elongated
grains with only rare clear crystal faces, 2) translucent to turbid, white prismatic crystals, and 3) totally
turbid, usually yellowish (metamictic or pigmentation). The first group, at least partly, contains
metamorphic grains.

U-Pb age results

17 zircon domains were dated from garnet-kyanite schist Mos-26 / 1011-02 (Table 2).
Most of the zircons show compositional zoning in CL-images. The few mounted
round, internally quite homogeneous zircons make the exceptions. On the contrary to
some other Mozambican rock samples, the bright rim zircon growths are very few in
this sample.

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 22), the majority of the U-Pb data plot in a same
regression line intercepting the concordia curve at 2.06 Ga. These are mostly
magmatic zircons. The lower intercept age is quite high (0.86 Ga) and can therefore
indicate some real metamorphic event. However, as it is determined only by a few
discordant data points the age is absolutely not an exact age. If well determined, the
lower intercept age may have an important role in estimating the minimum age for the
sedimentation. The maximum age of 2041±15 Ma for the sedimentation is determined
by the mean age of the 207Pb/206Pb ages of concordant data.

In addition to the 2.04 Ga zircons, the SHRIMP age data indicate also Archaean
provenances for the sediment. The four Archaean zircons have 207Pb/206Pb ages of
3.06 Ga, 2.7 Ga and two about 2.6 Ga.

49
 0.6
Mos-26 / 1011-02 garnet-kyanite schist 3000

Intercepts at 2600
0.5
2063 ± 16 & 856 ± 170 Ma
MSWD = 0.73; n=13/13 Mean of 207Pb/206Pb ages=
U

2041 ± 15 Ma
238

2200 MSWD = 1.1; n=6

0.4
Pb/

2110
206

2090
2070
Age / Ma
1800
2050
0.3 2030
2010
1400 1990
1970
0.2
0 4 8 12 16 20
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 22. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-26 / 1011-02
garnet-kyanite schist.

50
 Mos-28 / 19313-04 granite

Sample information and description

Sample: Granite
Field number: 19313-04
Coordinates: 0594485/7857368
Problem: Granite intruding quartzite of Báruè Complex.

Zircon description

The granite sample Mos-28 / 19313-04 contains an abundant amount of quite

homogeneous looking zircon in density fraction d>4.0 g cm-3. The grain size is
mainly fine to medium. Two zircon types are the most common ones: 1) totally
transparent, colourless, mainly stubby/short prismatic zircons although also longer
prisms do occur and 2) turbid to sometimes translucent, pale brown, stubby/short
prismatic crystals. The larger are usually more coloured and turbid compared to the
smaller zircons.

U-Pb age results

A total of 14 zircon domains were dated from granite sample Mos-28 / 19313-04
(Table 2). The majority of the mounted zircons show compositional zoning and are
dark to medium dark in CL-images. Among these also CL-bright zircons with either
weak zoning or quite homogeneous internal structures do exist.

Five concordant values from zoned zircons have an age of 1119±21 Ma (Figs 23 and
24). Furthermore, three discordant values from zoned zircons are considered to be
coeval with the 1.1 Ga zircons.

The inherited zircons have ages of about 1.83 Ga, 2.03 Ga and 2.50 Ga. Almost all the
old zircons have a very thin, CL-dark phase around them (Fig. 23).

12.1 Fig. 23. CL images of selected

zircons, granite sample Mos-28 /
19313-04. Zircon 8 is a magmatic
zircon in a group of 1119±21 Ma
zircons. Zircons 13 and 12 are
examples of inherited zircons. 12.1
from a clearly zoned zircon
domain has an age of 1.83 Ga.

8.1 13.1

51
 0.55
Mos-28 / 19313-04 granite
2600

0.45 ca. 2.5 Ga

2200

2.03-2.05 Ma
Pb/238U

0.35
1800 1.83 Ga
206

0.25 1400

1000
0.15 Concordia Age = 1119 ± 21 Ma
MSWD (of concordance) = 1.6; n=5/5

0.05
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
207
Pb/235U

Fig. 24. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-28 / 19313-04
granite.

The magmatic age for the granite is 1119±21 Ma. The discordancy pattern of the
magmatic zircons does not favour later episodic lead loss (going to T=0). The sample
contains inherited zircons with quite a wide age range. This means that the granite
may have a sedimentary precursor or, alternatively the inherited zircons are from the
neighbouring quartzites. Then, the surrounding sediments cannot be Archaean as the
youngest inherited, magmatic zircon is 1.83 Ga (Fig. 23; zircon 12).

52
 Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite

Sample information and description

Sample: metagranodiorite
Field number: 19290-04
Coordinates: 0599269/7875446
Location: 1.4 km east of Inchapa
Problem and method: Metagranodiorite, Archaean? SHRIMP dating.

Zircon description

The metagranodiorite sample Mos-29 / 19290-04 contains a small amount of

brownish, turbid to translucent, coarse to fine-grained zircon in density fraction d>4.0
g cm-3. The larger grains are typically shorter prismatic and the smaller grains are thin
and long prismatic. Among these types, a few transparent usually colourless, possibly
metamorphic grains were detected.

The magnetic fraction d >3.3 g cm-3consists almost only of monazite. The monazite
was dated using TIMS U-Pb dating method (see “Conventional U-Pb dating” part of
the report).

U-Pb age results

17 zircon domains were dated from the metagranodiorite sample Mos-29 / 19290-04
(Table 2). Three analyses were rejected because of high common lead contents. In CL
images the short grains show tight oscillatory zoning, which is surrounded by dark
rim. CL-dark rims surround also the mostly pale centre domains of the long crystals
(Fig. 25). A few totally CL-dark grains were also detected

On the concordia diagram (Fig. 26), the majority of the U-Pb data plot around 1100
Ma. The seven concordant analyses define an age of 1079±7 Ma for the granodiorite.
The discordia age formed by the U-Pb data from 12 zoned zircon domains is the same
as the concordia age.

Three analyses were done on the high-U CL-dark rims. Unfortunately two of these
show high common lead contents and were therefore rejected. The one with highly
discordant age data plots on the younger side of the discordia line formed by the
analyses of healthy zircons domains. However, the data from CL-dark rims are not
considered important, as the high U domains have been sensitive for later
hydrothermal events. Actually, the TIMS monazite age of 530-510 Ma clearly
indicates the effect of the Pan-African metamorphism on the granodiorite.

53
 5.2

5.1
Fig. 25. Typical zircon from metagranodiorite sample MOS-29 / 19290-04, 5.2 gives highly
discordant age data. See Fig. 20 and text for further explanation.

0.20 Mos-29 / 19290-04 metagranodiorite

1150
Concordia Age = 1079 ± 7 Ma
MSWD (of concordance) = 1.2;
0.18 1050
n=7

0.16 950
Pb/238U

850
0.14
206

750 CL-black rim (5.2)

0.12 Intercepts at
1078 ± 24 Ma & -75 ± 660 Ma
650
MSWD = 0.47; n=12
0.10

Monazite ca. 520 Ma

0.08
0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
207
Pb/235U
Fig. 26. Concordia plot for SHRIMP U-Pb age data on zircons, sample Mos-29 / 19290-04
metagranodiorite.

54
 Sm-Nd MINERAL DATING

Analytical methods

For Sm-Nd analyses handpicked mineral concentrates were washed ultrasonically in

warm 6 N HCl for 30 min, and rinsed several times in water. The samples (150-200
mg) were dissolved in HF-HNO3 using Savillex screw cap teflon beakers for 48h.
Mixed 149Sm-150Nd spike was added to the sample prior the dissolution. After careful
evaporation of fluorides the residue was dissolved in 6N HCl and a clear solution was
achieved. Sm and Nd were separated in two stages using a conventional cation-
exchange procedure (7 ml of AG50Wx8 ion exchange resin in a bed of 12 cm length)
and a modified version of the Teflon-HDEHP (hydrogen di-ethylhexyl phosphate)
method developed by Richard et al. (1976). The measurements have been made in a
dynamic mode on a VG SECTOR 54 mass-spectrometer using Ta-Re triple filaments.
143
Nd/144Nd ratio is normalized to 146Nd/144Nd=0.7219. The average value for La Jolla
standard is 143Nd/144Nd = 0.511850 ± 10 (std, 50 measurements since 2002). The
Sm/Nd ratio of the spike was calibrated against the Caltech mixed Sm/Nd standard
(Wasserburg et al, 1981). Based on duplicated analyses the error in 147Sm/144Nd is
estimated to be 0.4%. Initial 143Nd/144Nd and ε were calculated with the following
parameters: λ147Sm=6.54x10-12a-1, 147Sm/144Nd=0.1966 and 143Nd/144Nd=0.51264 for
present CHUR. T-DM is calculated according to DePaolo (1981). Measurement on
the rock standard BCR-1 provided values: Sm=6.58 ppm, Nd=28.8 ppm
147 144 143 144
Sm/ Nd=0.1380, Nd/ Nd=0.51264±0.00002. The blank measured during
analyses was: 30-100 pg for Sm and 100-300 pg for Nd. Programs by Ludwig (2003)
have been used for age calculations.

Samples

One sample, Mos-25 / 25416-04, has been dated using Sm/Nd method from the Map
Explanation Vol. 2 area.

55
 Mos-25 / 25416-04 dolerite/gabbro

Sample information and description

Sample: dolerite/gabbro
Field number: 25416-04
Coordinates: 0481495/7908113
Location: A quarry 5 km NW of Manica
Problem: Post-Umkondo dolerite/gabbro by Hunting stratigraphy.

Sm-Nd results

The dolerite/gabbro sample Mos-25 / 25416-04 contains abundant pyroxene and

plagioclase for Sm-Nd isochron dating with whole-rock powder. Pyroxene is fresh,
transparent and brown. Plagioclase ranges from clear colorless to turbid white. The
sample contains also a few grains of baddeleyite, which could have been dated by
TIMS U-Pb method. However, as the amount is extremely low and the grains are
either translucent to turbid we did not even try to date it.

The results of the Sm-Nd analyses are shown in table 3 and figure 27. The data reveal
that the REE level is relatively high and the trend show significant enrichment in
LREE (cf. chondritic 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1966). The analyses on whole rock, plagioclase
and pyroxene are of good quality, but do not yield any decent isochron (MSWD=17).
An anomalous feature is the relatively high Sm/Nd in the analyzed plagioclase
fraction. The age of 1783±51 Ma derived from the analyses on whole rock and
pyroxene may be considered as the best estimate for the magmatic crystallization of
the rock.

The initial epsilon-value is –2.2 and suggests involvement of older LREE-enriched

material in the genesis of the rock.

Table 3. Sm-Nd data, Mos-25 (=25416-04).

147 144 143 144
Sample Sm Nd Sm/ Nd Nd/ Nd 2 sm T (Ma) eps(T)
Analysed mineral (ppm) (ppm)
MOS-25 (25416-04)
whole-rock 5.69 25.32 0.1359 0.511816 0.00002 1783 -2.2
pyroxene 2.63 7.08 0.2248 0.512859 0.00002 1783 -2.2
plagioclase 1.99 7.70 0.1558 0.511993 0.00002 1783 -3.3

56
 MOS-25/25416/04 dolerite
0.5130
MOS-25px

0.5126

143
Nd
0.5122
144
Nd
MOS-25plag

MOS-25 (25416-04) MOS-25/25416-04

0.5118
Age = 1813 ± 1300 Ma
MSWD = 17
px-wr: Age = 1783 ± 51 Ma

0.5114
0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21 0.23 0.25
147
Sm/144Nd

Fig. 27. Results from Sm-Nd analyses on whole rock, pyroxene and plagioclase, dolerite
sample Mos-25 / 25416-04.

57
 Mos-36 / 1714-05 metadolerite

Sample information and description

Sample: metadolerite
Field number: 1714-05
Coordinates: 0515362/7896822
Location: a road cut 30 km from Manica towards Chimoio, the main road

Problem setting: A 5-6 m wide metadolerite dyke crosscuts the Gairezi schist.
Similar-looking, geochemically similar or resembling dyke close to Manica has been
dated at ~1800 Ma. Is this dyke of similar age, in which case the supposed
Palaeoproterozoic age of Gairezi is confirmed, or younger (in which case the age of
Gairezi still can be as supposed)? In the latter case we may have a new class of dykes.

The sample came from one of the relict exfoliation balls of the otherwise perfectly
weathered dyke. The ball itself was extremely hard and solid (Figs. 6.37., 6.38. and
6.39., the Volume 2 text).

Sm-Nd results

The pyroxene fraction after standard separation procedure from the sample Mos-36
was heterogeneous and was not used for isotope analysis. Instead some garnet
together with transparent, clear plagioclase was obtained and used for Sm-Nd studies.
The Sm-Nd analyses shown in table 4 and figure 28 are technically good. The data
reveal that the REE level is relatively high and the trend shows significant enrichment
in LREE (cf. chondritic 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1966). Thus this sample resembles
previously analyzed sample Mos-25. However, the isotope data are distinct from the
dolerite Mos-25.

It is clear that the three analyses from Mos-36 do not plot on the same isochron (Fig.
28). The age estimate from the garnet-whole rock pair is 503.0 ± 7.5 Ma, whereas
analyses on plagioclase and whole rock define a slope, which gives an age of 973 ± 73
Ma (epsilon = -1.3).

58
 0.515

MOS-36 wr-plag
MOS-36grt
0.514
Age = 973 ± 73 Ma
eps = -1.3

143
Nd 0.513
144
Nd MOS-36 wr-grt
Age = 503.0 ± 7.5 Ma
MOS-36/1714-05 wr eps = -4.7
0.512
MOS-36plag

0.511
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

147 144
Sm/ Nd

Fig. 28. Results from Sm-Nd analyses on whole rock, garnet and plagioclase, metadolerite
sample Mos-36 / 1714-05.

The age of ~500 Ma is consistent with the Pan-African metamorphism. Provided that
the plagioclase remained as a closed system since its magmatic crystallization the age
of the dyke can be estimated at 973 ± 73 Ma. Considering the age information
available, the age of ~1 Ga seems to be conceivable. One may, however, speculate
whether plagioclase has remained closed during the formation of garnet.

Table 4. Sm-Nd data, Mos-36 / 1714-05.

147 144 143 144

Sample Sm Nd Sm/ Nd Nd/ Nd 2 sm T (Ma) eps(T)
Analysed mineral (ppm) (ppm)
MOS-36 (1714-05)
whole-rock 6.27 27.21 0.1394 0.512204 0.00002 973 -1.4
plagioclase 1.26 9.39 0.0811 0.511832 0.00002 973 -1.4
garnet 3.03 2.49 0.7357 0.514169 0.00002 973 -37.4

*********************************************************************
*

SUMMARY of the isotopic age determinations from the Map Explanation Vol. 2 area
is presented in Chapter 2, Table 2.2.

59
 VOLUME 2
APPENDIX 3

WHOLE ROCK ANALYSES,

MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 2

 Table 1. Chemical composition of Archaean plutonic rocks

Mudzi Complex Mavonde Complex

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

SiO2 % 44.70 45.50 47.10 47.50 48.60 68.40 73.20 38.60 48.10 49.70 65.50 70.45 70.80 71.46 71.50 72.40 72.70 72.90 73.30 73.40 76.20 82.60
TiO 2 4.51 4.46 0.78 0.82 1.84 0.38 0.29 4.50 0.59 1.82 0.51 0.37 0.39 0.27 0.35 0.28 0.21 0.27 0.18 0.22 0.13 0.12
Al2O3 14.00 13.80 15.40 14.00 14.90 17.00 12.80 12.30 9.88 14.10 17.00 14.44 15.00 14.34 14.50 14.10 13.40 14.10 14.30 14.20 12.90 14.30
Fe2O3t 17.70 17.52 10.84 12.89 14.40 2.58 2.78 16.93 11.91 15.54 3.92 2.29 3.24 2.28 2.39 2.44 2.33 1.88 1.95 1.75 1.42 1.31
MnO 0.21 0.21 0.16 0.19 0.20 0.03 0.03 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.01
MgO 5.42 5.21 12.40 8.53 6.89 1.03 0.29 7.16 19.28 6.44 1.45 0.75 0.85 0.61 0.72 0.73 0.99 0.53 0.55 0.52 0.31 0.12
CaO 8.51 8.35 10.24 11.39 9.26 4.32 1.39 11.87 8.57 9.76 3.57 2.09 3.12 2.00 1.76 2.41 2.16 1.42 1.96 1.43 1.63 0.04
Na2O 3.23 3.10 1.91 2.15 2.83 5.06 3.03 1.62 0.67 1.27 5.24 4.48 4.83 3.41 4.07 3.62 3.19 3.65 4.35 3.64 3.67 0.17
K 2O 0.74 0.78 0.54 0.62 0.58 0.81 5.65 2.19 0.11 0.49 2.11 4.08 1.33 4.64 4.09 3.63 4.48 4.74 3.00 4.39 3.34 1.02
P 2O 5 0.63 0.57 0.18 0.07 0.24 0.10 0.03 0.90 0.06 0.10 0.18 0.12 0.12 0.07 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.03 0.05
Total 99.64 99.50 99.55 98.15 99.75 99.71 99.48 96.29 99.39 99.44 99.52 99.10 99.72 99.11 99.53 99.71 99.60 99.60 99.70 99.65 99.66 99.76

Cr ppm 100 84 844 381 270 b.d. b.d. 298 2220 60 b.d. 18 b.d. 8 b.d. b.d. 37 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni 110 103 299 105 130 b.d. b.d. 196 806 80 b.d. 20 b.d. 6 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc 30 30 32 41 40 b.d. b.d. b.d. 27 43 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 400 460 173 275 260 42 b.d. 399 167 384 70 28 33 23 38 40 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Zr 340 355 67 43 130 106 740 290 54 66 282 186 193 157 254 120 116 222 111 167 94 127
La b.d. b.d. 30 b.d. b.d. b.d. 152 63 b.d. b.d. 106 b.d. 34 b.d. 83 33 b.d. 76 37 b.d. 35 48
Ce 90 98 49 b.d. 40 31 323 147 17 21 178 119 78 68 161 66 51 169 53 90 65 125
Ba 190 216 413 97 230 431 308 1004 b.d. 136 950 586 346 867 977 678 1254 790 824 970 470 41
Sr 290 334 336 128 220 627 34 271 7 107 454 203 331 165 222 150 288 245 249 234 218 b.d.
Rb 20 18 21 b.d. 10 b.d. 220 42 b.d. 19 64 90 42 141 160 98 121 182 118 98 105 110
Y 40 43 16 22 30 b.d. 138 32 30 24 b.d. 5 b.d. b.d. 10 11 14 7 8 b.d. b.d. 58
Nb 30 36 19 b.d. b.d. b.d. 137 70 4 4 b.d. 3 7 7 8 7 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 26
Th b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 39 10 b.d. b.d. 23 46 12 36 36 13 b.d. 34 12 35 23 25
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 3 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 3 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S 60 116 702 b.d. 160 b.d. b.d. 432 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.

Fe# 0.77 0.77 0.47 0.60 0.68 0.71 0.91 0.70 0.38 0.71 0.73 0.75 0.79 0.79 0.77 0.77 0.70 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.82 0.91
b.d. = below detection limit

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 1212 488934 8122360 Metagabbro 12 17067 510328 7901365 Granitic gneiss
2 1416 491268 8117211 Metaperidotite 13 13762 513559 8063731.6 Tonalite
3 13147 499449 8117071 Metadiabase 14 17051 503105 7901012 Granitic gneiss
4 2563 507321 8098736 Amphibolite 15 19214 508097 7881870.5 Granite
5 1203 485585 8128280 Gabbro 16 13717 484583 7903059.1 Granodiorite
6 13131 507959 8095339 Tonalite 17 19150 518759 7892862.8 Granitic gneiss
7 1502 543378 8089369 Trondhjemite 18 19014 503004 7888725.4 Granite
8 1364.2 527088 8046225 Banded gneiss 19 1506 520429 7973768.2 Granodiorite
9 17010 518709 7915218 Amphibolite 20 19137 517459 7886899.9 Granite
10 17108 514822 7910708 Quartz diorite 21 13686 493630 7890638.2 Granite
11 1364.1 527088 8046225 Banded gneiss / Quartz monzodiorite 22 1514 526431.3 8024020 Granite gneiss

2
 Table 2. Chemical composition of metavolcanic rocks from the Manica Greenstone Belt and Dolerites in Archean terrain

Metavolcanic rocks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

SiO2 % 39.75 34.30 34.90 41.30 42.33 44.80 51.10 45.50 51.57 36.30 40.20 53.48 44.58 59.24 61.64 69.70 55.90 52.90 76.01 77.00 71.70
TiO 2 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.04 0.20 0.28 0.25 0.27 0.24 1.93 0.23 0.61 0.76 0.98 0.65 0.55 0.89 1.26 0.14 0.05 0.16
Al2 O3 0.87 1.55 0.24 0.93 3.44 4.31 4.64 4.88 5.23 15.60 9.12 13.90 19.49 14.57 17.72 15.00 18.20 13.00 15.37 13.30 15.90
Fe2O3t 7.15 7.86 7.73 10.03 9.09 9.74 9.82 9.54 6.95 9.46 10.60 9.23 14.12 10.46 5.99 4.55 6.77 12.59 1.08 0.78 1.87
MnO 0.05 0.12 0.08 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.11 0.05 0.06 0.12 0.20 0.14 0.14 0.04 0.04 0.15 0.15 0.01 0.04 0.05
MgO 38.65 34.80 42.30 43.70 32.05 28.26 22.36 27.80 28.32 28.00 27.90 7.62 7.41 5.86 3.66 2.85 4.79 3.41 0.74 0.37 0.48
CaO 0.12 0.28 0.02 0.02 0.29 5.30 6.65 4.13 0.77 1.07 3.50 13.07 8.30 0.41 2.40 2.46 5.01 6.54 0.10 0.62 0.41
Na2O b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 1.40 1.42 4.60 4.06 2.96 4.82 2.65 0.26 4.54 8.91
K2 O 0.03 0.00 b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.03 b.d. 0.01 b.d. 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.37 0.05 1.13 1.00 2.10 0.88 4.52 2.79 0.13
P2 O5 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.01 0.01 0.02 b.d. 0.03 b.d. 0.05 0.01 0.07 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.13 b.d. 0.06 0.07
Total 86.67 78.96 78.96 96.15 87.53 92.88 94.98 92.24 93.12 92.44 91.68 99.75 96.62 96.37 97.44 99.24 98.73 93.51 98.23 99.55 99.69

Cr ppm 1397.6 2175.0 3855.0 1823.0 2149.7 2661.7 2541.3 2328.0 2009.0 83.0 3147.0 324.3 38.1 n.d. 195.6 173.0 42.0 91.0 16.0 b.d. b.d.
Ni 3561.3 2236.0 2088.0 2888.0 7534.3 1474.6 1730.3 2917.0 1510.3 99.0 1119.0 129.6 109.6 n.d. 118.5 125.0 27.0 79.0 10.8 b.d. b.d.
Sc 5.2 b.d. b.d. b.d. 14.0 18.4 19.7 b.d. 13.3 42.0 b.d. 44.0 15.3 n.d. 12.9 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 24.0 33.0 b.d. b.d. 83.0 104.6 99.4 90.0 79.7 332.0 157.0 215.6 185.3 n.d. 99.3 100.0 170.0 268.0 10.2 b.d. b.d.
Zr b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 17.3 8.0 26.0 10.0 74.0 b.d. 31.1 8.5 n.d. 146.7 128.0 160.0 127.0 67.9 53.0 111.0
La b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. b.d. 37.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ce b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. 23.8 46.0 50.0 38.0 b.d. 48.0 43.0
Ba b.d. 21.0 b.d. 22.0 b.d. b.d. 23.9 33.0 b.d. 27.0 25.0 15.5 18.6 n.d. 244.2 342.0 385.0 296.0 330.5 715.0 151.0
Sr b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 8.3 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 57.0 88.8 n.d. 293.8 325.0 92.0 101.0 10.5 221.0 145.0
Rb b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 6.0 16.1 n.d. 41.5 38.0 77.0 36.0 114.6 83.0 b.d.
Y b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 76.3 6.2 8.5 b.d. b.d. 23.0 b.d. 13.3 8.7 n.d. 17.3 18.0 29.0 23.0 5.2 12.0 7.0
Nb b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. 6.1 b.d. 7.0 b.d. 4.5 7.0 b.d.
Th b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. 9.1 b.d. b.d. b.d. 7.3 b.d. b.d.
U 2.6 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. 2.1 b.d. b.d. b.d. 4.7 b.d. b.d.
S b.d. b.d. b.d. 78.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. n.d. b.d. b.d. 81.0 649.0 b.d. b.d. b.d.
C b.d. 5.8 2.8 0.1 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.0 0.0 b.d. b.d. n.d. b.d. 0.0 0.2 1.5 b.d. 0.1 0.0

Fe# 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.17 0.20 0.24 0.28 0.24 0.18 0.23 0.25 0.52 0.63 0.62 0.60 0.59 0.56 0.77 0.57 0.66 0.78
CaO/Al2O3 0.14 0.18 0.08 0.02 0.08 1.23 1.43 0.85 0.15 0.07 0.38
Al2O3/TiO2 15.09 28.87 37.58 22.22 17.02 15.54 18.82 18.34 22.21 8.10 39.31

b.d. = below detection limit

n.d. = not determined

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 25329 481769 7914372 Serpentinite 11 25606 493668 7914908 Ultramafic metakomatiite
2 25583 474022 7907908 Serpentinite 12 25207 486694.3 7914559 Metabasalt
3 25593 473321 7907118 Serpentinite 13 25130 479803 7919990 Mafic metavolcanic rock
4 25603 492969 7912587 Serpentinite 14 25143 471750.9 7914562 Meta-andesite
5 2950 492483 7914621 Oliovine-serpentine rock 15 25375 478651.1 7910534 Meta-andesite
6 8901 502337 7922916 Basaltic metakomatiite 16 25377.1 478565 7910604 Metadacite
7 2947.4 491755 7914736 Basaltic metakomatiite 17 25607 484285 7918431 Metabasalt
8 25330 481904 7914425 Basaltic metakomatiite 18 25609 474163 7913738 Metabasalt
9 25261 472008 7902396 Basaltic metakomatiite 19 25389 475958.5 7916271 Crystal tuff
10 25125 480847 7920113 Metakomatiite 20 2815 476401.8 7912066 Crystal tuff
21 25608 474362 7914718 Feldspar porphyry

3
 Table 2 continues

Dolerites
22 23 24 25 26 27 28

SiO2 % 51.07 50.99 47.74 50.50 48.70 49.80 49.50

TiO 2 3.47 2.53 2.60 1.82 2.39 2.13 2.57
Al2O3 12.64 13.10 14.52 16.50 12.90 13.80 15.20
Fe2O3t 15.81 18.49 16.36 14.30 17.54 17.02 13.13
MnO 0.19 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.23 0.23 0.16
MgO 3.69 3.51 5.22 3.13 4.93 4.23 6.09
CaO 7.73 6.85 9.59 8.49 9.18 7.98 9.55
Na2O 1.38 1.76 1.59 3.20 2.72 2.86 2.29
K2O 1.63 1.23 0.44 1.19 0.73 1.24 0.82
P2O5 0.86 0.33 0.20 0.24 0.27 0.26 0.22
Total 98.47 99.03 98.46 99.55 99.59 99.55 99.53

Cr ppm 22.8 10.3 53.9 b.d. 37.0 48.0 96.0

Ni 19.5 28.2 53.5 30.0 61.0 41.0 78.0
Sc 25.0 33.2 35.7 b.d. 35.0 b.d. b.d.
V 339.3 317.9 393.4 358.0 535.0 451.0 367.0
Zr 191.4 226.2 115.2 175.0 173.0 193.0 186.0
La b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ce 108.4 94.9 46.4 49.0 48.0 63.0 61.0
Ba 408.7 735.2 160.9 279.0 186.0 313.0 236.0
Sr 305.5 138.9 260.3 158.0 192.0 132.0 368.0
Rb 68.0 61.2 12.7 43.0 32.0 49.0 37.0
Y 36.3 58.6 27.3 37.0 39.0 45.0 23.0
Nb 20.6 13.3 9.3 11.0 14.0 12.0 15.0
Th 8.3 9.8 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
U b.d. 4.3 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S b.d. b.d. b.d. 935.0 b.d. b.d. 291.0
C b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.0 b.d. 0.0 0.0

Fe# 0.79 0.83 0.74 0.80 0.78 0.78 0.66

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock

22 25270 473045.9 7902572.3 Dolerite, ca. 1.8 Ga
23 25334 484595.1 7915168.9 Dolerite, ca. 1.8 Ga
24 25133 471137.1 7913546.2 Dolerite, ca. 1.8 Ga
25 25416 481495 7908113 Dolerite, ca. 1.8 Ga
26 19178 511627.1 7872621.9 Dolerite, ca. 1.0 Ga
27 25610 479133 7909769 Dolerite, ca. 1.8 Ga
28 1714.3 515362 7896822 Dolerite, ca. 1.0 Ga

4
 Table 3. Chemical composition of metasedimentary rocks from Rushinga and Gairezi Groups

Rushinga Group/Rio Embuca Formation Rushinga Group/Monte Pitão Formation Gairezi Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

SiO2 % 54.00 59.00 77.50 82.40 96.10 46.30 50.00 53.80 65.70 72.10 76.10 46.80 66.60 71.20 97.20
TiO2 1.46 0.76 0.11 0.46 0.09 2.54 0.53 1.71 0.53 0.74 0.78 0.84 0.81 0.73 0.10
Al2O3 24.00 12.00 11.50 6.98 1.58 7.68 8.07 14.40 4.79 7.02 12.70 17.10 17.50 16.60 1.15
Fe2O3t 15.51 7.03 2.27 3.73 0.79 10.87 3.79 11.86 25.13 14.66 5.86 30.72 6.85 5.24 0.81
MnO 0.33 0.10 0.02 0.04 0.01 0.11 0.13 0.23 0.19 0.29 0.11 0.44 0.03 0.05 b.d.
MgO 2.17 4.44 b.d. 1.72 0.11 14.60 13.20 4.81 1.63 1.98 0.96 2.25 1.45 1.54 b.d.
CaO 0.49 12.78 0.69 1.00 0.16 13.14 22.04 7.82 0.13 0.27 0.37 0.55 0.22 0.24 0.01
Na2O b.d. 0.52 3.38 0.73 0.17 0.88 0.96 2.42 b.d. b.d. 0.12 b.d. 0.84 1.12 b.d.
K2O 1.38 1.16 4.11 2.08 0.73 0.32 0.17 1.52 1.53 2.40 1.91 0.81 4.94 2.87 0.30
P2O5 0.14 0.08 b.d. 0.06 b.d. 0.60 0.10 0.25 0.02 0.03 0.20 0.08 0.04 0.06 b.d.
Total 99.48 97.87 99.57 99.19 99.75 97.03 98.99 98.82 99.65 99.49 99.10 99.60 99.27 99.64 99.57

Cr ppm 171 98 b.d. 60 b.d. 659 43 85 115 187 94 105 89 202 b.d.
Ni 43 33 b.d. 24 b.d. 513 21 64 33 36 39 b.d. 28 51 b.d.
Sc b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 265 121 b.d. 77 b.d. 245 58 273 89 68 158 53 78 95 b.d.
Zr 220 202 869 187 60 284 393 178 412 541 209 132 268 152 112
La 57 31 86 b.d. 30 59 b.d. 33 b.d. b.d. 41 52 34 36 b.d.
Ce 132 73 198 76 80 132 48 74 42 55 89 147 100 73 47
Ba 313 214 59 374 110 49 112 327 233 886 4832 106 648 358 30
Sr 15 282 20 46 70 97 210 257 b.d. 10 37 13 64 73 b.d.
Rb 85 34 188 90 20 b.d. b.d. 45 83 116 89 38 248 97 11
Y 69 36 124 18 10 25 23 29 b.d. 22 18 136 26 20 11
Nb 19 16 236 7 10 95 b.d. 17 10 11 12 15 23 14 b.d.
Th 17 b.d. 31 b.d. b.d. 10 b.d. b.d. 14 19 13 24 20 10 b.d.
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S 509 17700 b.d. 3342 230 b.d. b.d. 119 b.d. 85 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 975 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 2550 498006 8127875 Garnet-sillimanite rock 9 1402.1 494096 8117366 Semipelitic metasandstone
2 1387 495208 8117607 Mica schist 10 1402.2 494096 8117366 Metasandstone
3 12515 502265 8154454 Arkosic gneiss 11 1399 494389 8117316 Sillimanite gneiss
4 1388 495181 8117596 Micaceous quartzite 12 1470.1 509157 8062024 Garnet-staurolite schist
5 1188 506463 8119768 Quartzite 13 1470.2 509157 8062024 Garnet-staurolite schist
6 1403 493983 8117413 Ultramafic enclave in 14 1471 507904 8064042 Garnet-staurolite schist
7 2663 498737 8123645 Calc-silicate rock 15 1505 520903 8014502 quartzite
8 14524 501088 8154230 Amphibolite

5
 Table 4. Chemical composition of rocks of the Báruè Complex and 'Palaeo- / Mesoproterozoic rocks east of the Rushinga Group'

Ungrouped igneous rocks / Báruè Complex

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

SiO 2 % 45.30 47.80 48.80 49.30 49.30 52.50 54.30 54.90 60.10 69.30 70.80 71.20 73.10 73.30 75.00 75.00
TiO 2 0.97 0.62 0.47 3.05 2.87 0.60 1.44 1.28 0.99 0.55 0.57 0.09 0.31 0.22 0.02 0.10
Al2O 3 8.43 14.70 17.10 13.50 14.00 14.70 17.40 18.40 17.80 14.80 13.40 14.50 14.00 14.20 14.00 13.70
Fe2O 3t 14.85 11.13 8.50 15.15 14.82 10.14 8.91 8.22 6.85 3.32 4.61 4.09 1.81 1.42 0.55 1.34
MnO 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.21 0.19 0.24 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.03 0.04 0.10 0.07 0.02 0.01 0.02
MgO 21.40 13.10 9.54 5.32 5.11 5.92 3.43 2.99 2.19 1.06 0.40 0.45 0.33 0.36 0.06 0.05
CaO 6.94 9.66 11.66 9.50 9.58 12.34 6.50 6.77 6.26 2.08 2.22 1.18 0.84 1.16 0.90 0.75
Na2O 0.47 1.75 2.25 2.63 2.72 1.31 3.26 3.23 3.78 3.21 2.62 2.55 3.87 2.83 2.91 3.52
K2 O 0.08 0.45 0.57 0.59 0.68 0.12 2.68 2.31 1.24 4.80 4.67 5.37 5.08 5.92 6.04 5.22
P 2 O5 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.35 0.30 0.04 0.51 0.47 0.26 0.25 0.11 0.04 0.14 0.07 0.10 b.d.
Total 98.71 99.47 99.08 99.61 99.57 97.91 98.57 98.69 99.60 99.40 99.44 99.56 99.56 99.50 99.60 99.69

Cr ppm 696.0 1028.0 370.0 127.0 96.0 442.0 68.0 49.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni 772.0 437.0 139.0 61.0 55.0 145.0 26.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc b.d. 37.0 32.0 37.0 40.0 41.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 179.0 216.0 172.0 442.0 446.0 195.0 191.0 161.0 154.0 57.0 48.0 0.0 b.d. 0.0 b.d. b.d.
Zr 61.0 69.0 39.0 212.0 194.0 42.0 364.0 347.0 172.0 310.0 814.0 383.0 409.0 216.0 36.0 101.0
La b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 35.0 46.0 31.0 104.0 126.0 b.d. 85.0 60.0 b.d. b.d.
Ce b.d. b.d. b.d. 60.0 38.0 b.d. 97.0 85.0 66.0 181.0 266.0 47.0 166.0 98.0 45.0 44.0
Ba 21.0 182.0 119.0 211.0 199.0 189.0 1598.0 1247.0 742.0 1778.0 1481.0 1260.0 1113.0 1490.0 568.0 705.0
Sr 33.0 93.0 274.0 245.0 262.0 113.0 743.0 815.0 795.0 645.0 198.0 204.0 119.0 489.0 175.0 195.0
Rb b.d. 17.0 b.d. 17.0 15.0 b.d. 128.0 145.0 27.0 194.0 140.0 188.0 181.0 200.0 185.0 178.0
Y 11.0 24.0 9.0 38.0 35.0 14.0 39.0 23.0 12.0 14.0 40.0 127.0 25.0 7.0 9.0 8.0
Nb 8.0 b.d. b.d. 14.0 16.0 b.d. 20.0 19.0 14.0 11.0 31.0 b.d. 18.0 b.d. b.d. b.d.
Th b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 10.0 b.d. 37.0 26.0 b.d. 12.0 13.0 b.d. b.d.
U b.d. 13.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 11.0
S 3801.0 180.0 461.0 439.0 215.0 1021.0 100.0 316.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C 0.1 b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 34000 b.d. b.d.

Fe# 0.41 0.46 0.47 0.74 0.74 0.63 0.72 0.73 0.76 0.76 0.92 0.90 0.84 0.80 0.90 0.96
b.d. = below detection limit

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 34560 621361 7989488 Hornblendite 9 14761 612123 8081700 Quartz diorite
2 19270 548850 7838569 Gabbroic rock 10 24023 613874 7940648 Granodiorite
3 14822 575877 8067847 Amphibolite 11 2789 598293 8009692 Biotite gneiss
4 19303 596074 7888513 Gabbroic rock 12 14757 614821 8085402 Leucogranite
5 1698.2 616118 7872413 Ultramafic sill 13 1360 570278 8039884 Granite
6 10682 616997 7863553 Gabbro 14 14810.2 625182 8051272 Granite
7 1524 616931 8015327 Monzonite 15 24009.1 604083 7976027 Leucogranite
8 14810.1 625182 8051272 Diorite 16 19351 586422 7828939 Granite

6
 Table 4 continues

Chacocoma granitoids Mungari garnet granite-migmatite Chimoio Group / Báruè Complex

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

SiO2 % 75.40 75.90 60.30 62.10 63.70 70.80 75.40 54.90 74.40 82.10 69.70 70.70 73.30 74.90 78.30
TiO 2 0.02 0.01 1.20 0.95 0.96 0.66 0.16 0.11 0.05 0.68 0.46 0.40 0.07 0.08 0.10
Al2O 3 14.10 13.20 16.00 16.50 15.60 12.50 14.40 27.30 13.40 9.42 15.40 15.00 14.90 13.70 11.80
Fe 2O3t 0.69 0.89 8.01 5.91 6.02 5.42 1.23 0.84 1.10 5.48 2.26 2.61 0.78 1.13 0.88
MnO 0.11 0.05 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.02 0.02 b.d. 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.01
MgO 0.04 0.09 1.71 1.20 1.28 0.33 0.26 0.45 b.d. 0.97 0.93 0.73 0.10 0.21 0.04
CaO 0.64 1.10 4.22 3.36 3.41 1.61 0.69 9.54 0.13 0.17 1.82 2.08 1.19 0.39 0.54
Na2O 4.99 2.24 4.10 3.80 4.12 2.63 2.03 5.30 1.90 b.d. 3.40 3.42 2.97 3.96 2.73
K2O 3.73 6.16 3.22 5.12 4.05 5.33 5.10 0.75 8.48 0.72 5.29 4.30 6.21 5.19 5.26
P2O 5 0.06 0.05 0.40 0.42 0.30 0.08 0.38 0.02 b.d. 0.02 0.16 0.19 0.05 b.d. 0.02
Total 99.77 99.69 99.30 99.45 99.52 99.43 99.67 99.23 99.44 99.63 99.43 99.47 99.59 99.59 99.68

Cr ppm b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 79 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 20 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V b.d. b.d. 119 92 98 44 b.d. b.d. b.d. 75 47.0 50.0 b.d. b.d. 0.0
Zr 21.0 51.0 447 374 406 872 80 58 132 359 221.0 213.0 58.0 134.0 129.0
La b.d. b.d. 62 48 42 220 b.d. b.d. b.d. 37 96.0 65.0 36.0 b.d. 47.0
Ce 30.0 36.0 132 115 121 432 51 b.d. 36 84 178.0 135.0 42.0 30.0 112.0
Ba 91.0 614.0 776 1378 749 619 398 167 1662 173 1831.0 1255.0 805.0 354.0 523.0
Sr 20.0 162.0 384 443 358 130 134 712 520 18 745.0 376.0 317.0 41.0 56.0
Rb 116.0 259.0 91 138 146 233 165 32 323 39 199.0 191.0 173.0 258.0 178.0
Y 12.0 17.0 76 54 60 119 11 b.d. b.d. 22 7.0 9.0 10.0 9.0 44.0
Nb b.d. b.d. 21 16 18 147 b.d. b.d. b.d. 13 9.0 21.0 b.d. 19.0 9.0
Th b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 58 b.d. b.d. 25 17 30.0 23.0 b.d. 38.0 18.0
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S b.d. b.d. 61 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 93 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 93300 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.0 b.d.

0.95 0.90 0.82 0.83 0.82 0.94 0.82 0.65 0.85 0.71 0.78 0.89 0.84 0.95

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
17 15193 629635 8015534 Gneiss 25 1436 569864 8193448 Augen gneiss
18 14849 593446 8045927 Leucogranite 26 1349 557920 8181550 Granite
19 1299.2 544271 8208011 Monzonitic gneiss 27 14904.1 608734 7992074 Metagreywacke
20 1299.1 544271 8208011 Monzonitic gneiss 28 24107 538422 7973475 Metapsammite
21 1097 541803 8202569 Banded gneiss 29 14897 600487 7995805 Metapsammite
22 1024 558183 8200706 Banded gneiss 30 34525 575695 8051677 Meta-arkose
23 1461 555311 8197065 Granodiorite gneiss 31 14754 615209 8085374 Arkosic gneiss
24 1457 562800 8195751 Leucocratic gneiss, weathered

7
 Table 4a. Chemical composition of Mesoproterozoic plutonic rocks

Masoso Suite Tete Suite Guro Bimodal Suite

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

SiO2 % 50.50 65.00 48.60 44.70 46.80 47.20 47.20 48.10 49.40 50.60 68.10 68.50 68.70 69.50
TiO2 3.94 1.14 0.46 4.40 1.72 1.75 1.86 2.80 1.47 2.65 0.82 0.60 0.84 0.75
Al2O3 12.50 13.40 6.48 15.00 16.50 16.00 16.60 14.70 14.50 14.30 13.70 13.50 12.90 13.50
Fe2O3t 17.84 6.63 14.57 17.34 11.79 11.79 13.11 14.34 14.60 14.55 6.17 5.69 6.28 5.71
MnO 0.26 0.10 0.22 0.18 0.22 0.17 0.17 0.24 0.23 0.19 0.06 0.10 0.08 0.07
MgO 4.13 2.59 22.90 3.89 7.10 6.93 7.34 5.88 6.07 4.30 0.62 0.33 0.67 0.60
CaO 7.82 4.03 4.25 8.51 10.02 11.26 9.60 7.38 11.04 8.32 2.96 2.00 2.82 1.17
Na2O 1.36 3.07 0.83 3.16 3.30 3.31 2.87 3.78 2.11 2.73 2.84 3.45 2.84 3.06
K2O 0.40 3.27 0.22 1.26 1.40 1.05 0.63 1.59 0.08 1.46 4.01 5.14 4.17 5.04
P2O5 0.66 0.27 0.02 1.17 0.23 0.18 0.28 0.49 0.11 0.35 0.19 0.15 0.26 0.16
Total 99.41 99.49 98.55 99.60 99.08 99.63 99.66 99.30 99.61 99.45 99.47 99.46 99.55 99.55

Cr ppm 46 65 2144 b.d. 129 176 88 98 140 86 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni 21 43 567 56 118 99 159 94 54 48 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc 32 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 30 b.d. b.d. 43 30 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 360 146 154 344 250 298 267 335 360 336 66 30 48 45
Zr 434 335 13 231 96 96 155 237 60 274 909 870 420 723
La 60 55 b.d. 30 b.d. b.d. b.d. 33 b.d. b.d. 124 110 59 103
Ce 141 121 b.d. 122 58 44 60 101 33 82 252 230 124 214
Ba 48 757 75 401 145 65 304 261 123 388 1226 1470 1151 1110
Sr 105 352 134 338 355 303 338 252 112 268 227 140 174 74
Rb b.d. 139 b.d. 48 16 38 16 67 b.d. 61 122 190 140 187
Y 68 37 b.d. 44 18 17 28 36 25 40 58 80 46 61
Nb 48 20 b.d. 37 14 16 20 32 13 33 54 100 29 55
Th 11 20 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 22 20 b.d. 24
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S 413 608 b.d. 340 b.d. b.d. 92 214 104 126 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C 0 b.d. 0 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.

Fe# 0.81 0.72 0.39 0.82 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.71 0.71 0.77 0.91 0.95 0.90 0.91
b.d. = below detection limit

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 34195 449677.2 8183969.6 Mafic enclave 8 2510.1 513962.1 8138113.7 Metagabbro
2 14444 446271.6 8184464 Metatuffite 9 1465 564311 8187544 Metagabbro
3 1629 591381.8 8120949 Pyroxenite 10 1500 541323 8093292 Mafic dyke/gabbro
4 14640 529774.1 8220205.3 Gabbro 11 2474 506713.5 8120766.5 Aplite granite
5 1338.2 513962.1 8138113.7 Metagabbro 12 1264 502260 8127813 Aplogranite gneiss
6 1024-02 527931 8134434 Metagabbro 13 2486 496987.6 8123486.5 Granodiorite
7 14612 508688.3 8142118.1 Gabbro 14 2539 497688.4 8127947.4 Biotite gneiss

8
 Table 4a continues

15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

SiO2 % 70.80 71.30 71.60 72.50 73.00 73.60 73.80 74.20 74.70 74.90 75.20 77.20 77.60
TiO2 0.44 0.47 0.39 0.45 0.41 0.28 0.27 0.31 0.23 0.31 0.25 0.17 0.28
Al2O3 13.40 12.90 13.00 13.00 12.80 14.20 12.80 12.20 12.80 12.00 10.90 11.70 10.30
Fe2O3t 4.53 5.29 4.13 3.78 3.46 1.90 3.14 3.51 2.15 3.24 4.11 1.95 3.40
MnO 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.04
MgO 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.31 0.14 0.09 0.44 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.07
CaO 1.65 2.39 1.35 1.07 1.72 1.34 0.83 1.07 1.07 0.54 0.30 0.45 0.22
Na2O 3.09 3.22 2.98 2.59 2.83 3.43 2.93 2.01 2.95 2.57 0.79 2.72 1.94
K2O 5.25 3.60 5.64 5.84 4.97 4.47 5.54 6.07 5.29 5.83 7.93 5.41 5.56
P2O5 0.07 0.08 0.16 0.09 0.06 0.10 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.02 0.02 b.d. 0.03
Total 99.49 99.48 99.45 99.54 99.47 99.66 99.51 99.51 99.75 99.52 99.54 99.64 99.43

Cr ppm b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Zr 790 820 757 547 438 177 675 673 186 1060 838 319 1113
La 144 139 73 152 68 58 145 168 31 200 104 154 144
Ce 298 289 196 262 153 113 293 335 75 430 176 264 342
Ba 1520 893 1192 1065 1071 516 409 713 563 160 549 125 116
Sr 150 98 108 98 121 142 37 64 81 20 42 25 28
Rb 158 117 208 225 169 197 233 209 223 150 185 220 147
Y 86 88 88 88 41 15 101 68 19 130 97 98 132
Nb 93 93 109 71 42 13 86 76 17 180 119 31 137
Th 29 30 33 26 15 27 35 33 28 20 30 45 26
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S b.d. b.d. b.d. 63 1582 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
C b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.

0.96 0.97 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.86 0.96 0.97 0.83 0.98 0.99 0.98 0.98

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
15 2458 506713.5 8120766.5 Biotite gneiss 22 1338 563605.9 8107281.8 Granite
16 12694 509254.1 8132748.8 Aplite granite 23 2641 497454.8 8123104.4 Aplite granite
17 2767 505310.3 8133350.7 Aplite granite 24 1105 500197 8127542 Aplite granite
18 2673 497094 8122073.5 Aplite granite 25 12599 498158.8 8137233.5 Aplite granite
19 107202 494400 8126625 Granite 26 2473 495728.9 8126511.6 Aplite granite
20 12926 611022.6 8087240.1 garnet gneiss 27 13064 496393.1 8120090.8 Granite gneiss
21 2579.1 499556 8121969 Felsic gneiss

9
 Table 5. Chemical composition of Phanerozoic igneous and sedimentary rocks

Karoo volcanic rocks of Rio Mazoe Fm. Rio Merenguese Fm. Chueza Fm. Bangomatete Fm.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

SiO2 % 46.00 46.60 52.40 54.80 55.70 56.10 61.60 49.70 50.30 53.60 58.70 52.40 52.60 56.60 57.30 55.60 61.50 68.40 70.10 73.70
TiO 2 0.45 0.95 1.13 1.28 1.53 1.41 0.79 2.61 1.19 1.23 1.97 1.29 1.05 0.81 0.89 1.97 0.98 0.72 0.44 0.56
Al2 O3 10.50 16.10 15.00 14.80 15.10 14.10 13.60 13.50 14.70 14.20 10.80 14.10 15.20 13.70 14.50 14.10 13.30 13.20 13.40 12.90
Fe2 O3t 11.80 10.80 10.30 11.60 10.70 12.00 6.60 15.64 11.48 11.67 11.53 11.64 13.10 10.01 9.61 11.90 7.82 4.52 4.53 2.74
MnO 0.16 0.14 0.17 0.11 0.10 0.17 0.11 0.22 0.14 0.16 0.10 0.22 0.20 0.14 0.13 0.09 0.12 0.07 0.07 b.d.
MgO 20.20 7.08 4.91 3.34 3.25 3.31 3.94 4.96 6.52 4.94 3.03 6.16 4.46 7.46 5.40 2.51 2.42 0.64 0.25 0.06
CaO 6.35 12.20 8.99 7.74 6.03 7.14 5.78 9.55 10.60 8.59 3.55 9.18 8.99 6.85 7.03 3.54 3.07 1.86 0.54 0.19
Na2O 1.21 2.33 2.80 3.03 3.45 3.02 1.90 2.60 2.27 2.53 1.74 2.36 2.76 2.16 2.35 3.22 2.52 3.59 3.09 1.12
K2O 0.42 0.56 1.66 1.82 2.67 1.80 3.61 0.56 0.85 0.87 2.69 1.17 1.10 1.29 1.92 3.46 4.26 1.39 5.87 6.38
P2O5 0.08 0.25 0.18 0.22 0.35 0.27 0.13 0.27 0.14 0.17 0.47 0.18 0.21 0.12 0.14 0.62 0.21 0.18 0.05 0.08
Total 97.17 97.01 97.54 98.75 98.88 99.32 98.07 99.61 98.19 97.95 94.58 98.69 99.67 99.14 99.27 97.02 96.18 94.57 98.34 97.74

Cr 2080 230 270 110 40 40 230 70 508 98 b.d. 300 40 417 251 b.d. b.d. 50 b.d. b.d.
Ni 820 130 90 70 20 b.d. 70 33 215 61 b.d. 74 70 74 52 b.d. b.d. 30 b.d. b.d.
Sc b.d. 40 30 b.d. b.d. 40 b.d. 41 b.d. b.d. b.d. 32 40 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 160 260 250 290 240 300 150 434 293 295 264 301 330 224 212 220 121 70 0 0
Zr 50 70 140 150 310 190 380 190 100 133 212 142 120 117 130 340 490 340 830 761
La 0 b.d. 30 40 40 30 70 b.d. b.d. b.d. 36 b.d. b.d. b.d. 32 50 81 50 160 127
Ce 30 40 60 60 90 70 130 47 36 52 72 38 50 55 58 100 169 100 260 255
Ba 160 380 560 530 600 580 860 155 259 410 544 434 340 409 559 750 792 820 1140 1195
Sr 110 340 220 220 220 230 220 220 195 267 57 169 170 198 205 200 155 130 60 48
Rb 20 10 60 70 90 50 80 11 30 28 91 40 50 49 67 110 165 180 200 239
Y 10 20 30 20 50 40 40 42 24 21 30 29 30 23 23 50 72 40 90 205
Nb b.d. 20 b.d. 10 30 20 40 14 9 9 12 12 b.d. 9 12 30 74 30 90 98
Th b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 10 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 20 20 30 29
U b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S b.d. b.d. 100 b.d. b.d. 60 60 336 60 193 358 b.d. 120 b.d. b.d. b.d. 622 600 b.d. 499
C b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.611 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.

Fe# 0.37 0.60 0.68 0.78 0.77 0.78 0.63 0.76 0.64 0.70 0.79 0.65 0.75 0.57 0.64 0.83 0.76 0.88 0.95 0.98

b.d. = below detection limit

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
1 14076 414913 8220669 Basalt 11 34481 635136 8017203 Andesite
2 14264 531390 8171272 Basalt 12 14734 624901 8092174 Basalt
3 14249 540611 8170894 Basalt 13 15065 597229 8169736 Mafic dyke
4 15082 535036 8138896 Basalt 14 17211 628949 8073975 Basaltic andesite
5 14103 398662 8197345 Basaltic andesite 15 17214 629546 8074634 Andesite
6 14101 396767 8194082 Basaltic andesite 16 14071 420215 8227326 Basaltic andesite
7 14252 538770 8170546 Andesite 17 17198 521520 8175109 Andesite
8 10705.1 608534 7842728 Basalt 18 14114 405729 8207966 Dacite
9 10707 612002 7849038 Basalt 19 14260 535392 8169354 Rhyolite
10 10704 609263 7843748 Basalt 20 14503.2 524478 8168964 Rhyolite

10
 Table 5 continues

S.Bombue Karoo dykes Gabbro Karoo sedim. rocks Cretaceous volcanic rocks of Lupata Group Cret sed
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

SiO2 % 78.00 70.60 47.10 47.20 49.50 60.80 72.40 88.50 47.60 63.60 65.60 49.30 52.30 52.70 53.40 53.60 54.10 56.80 76.00
TiO2 0.55 0.80 0.78 1.86 2.87 1.51 0.65 0.57 0.18 2.36 0.20 0.66 1.66 0.73 1.04 1.55 0.53 0.74 0.23
Al2O3 9.10 11.60 15.40 16.60 13.60 13.10 12.40 4.44 19.80 4.85 5.20 14.80 19.30 19.50 20.20 19.80 19.90 17.80 11.80
Fe2O3t 4.17 5.97 10.84 13.11 14.90 8.85 4.31 2.68 5.03 1.78 0.82 13.36 6.56 4.04 4.93 5.94 3.61 6.90 2.53
MnO 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.09 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.26 0.02 0.05 0.19 0.21 0.20 0.17 0.22 0.27 0.02
MgO 0.48 0.66 12.40 7.34 4.38 0.97 0.41 0.10 11.10 0.09 0.15 0.09 1.62 0.45 0.67 1.61 0.43 0.42 0.50
CaO 1.46 1.53 10.24 9.60 9.38 2.74 1.09 0.68 14.15 13.70 15.10 4.48 3.50 2.74 1.98 3.75 2.97 2.76 0.45
Na2O 1.62 2.81 1.91 2.87 2.66 3.37 2.88 b.d. 1.41 0.11 0.41 1.43 5.99 8.80 3.92 6.37 8.02 6.09 1.32
K2O 4.17 5.11 0.54 0.63 0.64 4.55 5.30 1.27 0.15 1.74 2.90 9.73 5.55 6.25 8.08 5.49 5.64 4.72 6.01
P2O5 0.12 0.18 0.18 0.28 0.40 0.62 0.11 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.04 0.12 0.85 0.20 0.12 0.57 0.12 0.07 0.03
Total 99.71 99.35 99.55 99.66 98.52 96.59 99.61 98.35 99.51 88.54 90.44 94.02 97.52 95.62 94.53 98.85 95.53 96.57 98.88

Cr 70 b.d. 844 88 60 b.d. b.d. b.d. 999 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
Ni 30 b.d. 299 159 70 b.d. b.d. 28 410 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 22 b.d. b.d. b.d.
Sc b.d. b.d. 32 b.d. 40 b.d. b.d. b.d. 31 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
V 60 77 173 267 420 172 36.0 53 96 120 40 77 118 99 58 82 87 0 0
Zr 200 290 67 155 260 442 349.0 497 12 1010 100 2927 1098 1490 1045 715 1630 2841 260
La 30 61 30 b.d. 30 79 64.0 87 b.d. 100 40 499 114 102 142 119 102 409 80
Ce 50 99 49 60 80 149 131.0 162 b.d. 200 70 839 221 215 238 208 214 574 130
Ba 640 1244 413 304 320 1238 1248.0 702 70 490 710 499 1415 1893 2369 1847 1637 96 620
Sr 100 119 336 338 290 179 159.0 68 179 220 110 2042 2001 1938 1864 1891 2091 323 70
Rb 130 200 16 16 20 170 218.0 40 b.d. 60 100 334 169 168 191 139 143 223 270
Y 20 35 19 28 40 52 37.0 47 b.d. 30 30 162 37 37 41 33 36 103 50
Nb b.d. 20 b.d. 20 20 28 19.0 12 b.d. 60 b.d. 660 370 290 309 184 307 798 50
Th b.d. 24 b.d. b.d. b.d. 16 27.0 23 b.d. 60 b.d. 57 46 27 21 16 30 68 30
U b.d. b.d. 61 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 40 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d.
S b.d. 94 235 92 290 655 b.d. b.d. 245 90 b.d. 689 b.d. 1882 109 b.d. 254 87 150
C b.d. 0.134 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.03 b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. b.d. 0.183 b.d. b.d. b.d.

Fe# 0.90 0.90 0.47 0.64 0.77 0.90 0.91 0.96 0.31 0.99 0.80 0.90 0.88 0.79 0.89 0.94

Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock Obs. no. Easting Northing Rock
21 14087 409038 8212677 Rhyolite 31 10288 588103 8171097 Sandstone
22 34490 636880 8016042 Rhyolite 32 24396 606758 8163920 Tephriphonolite
23 13147 499449 8117071 Mafic dyke 33 24398 617030 8162428 Tephriphonolite
24 14612 508688 8142118 Mafic dyke 34 10519 625318 7874923 Tephriphonolite
25 15068 599428 8166247 Mafic dyke 35 24400.1 618077 8166141 Tephriphonolite
26 2763 505145 8132794 Mafic dyke 36 34261 615945 8135806 Tephriphonolite
27 14927 622495 7979924.2 Felsic dyke 37 10520 626218 7874193 Phonolite
28 1445 549472 8164580 Felsic dyke 38 24401 625652 8177713 Phonolite
29 34593 605596 7969555 Gabbro/Gorongosa 39 15069 601675 8165418 Sandstone
30 10273 589536 8179007 Sandstone

11
12
 APPENDIX 4
VOLUME 2

MICROPROBE ANALYSES FROM MINERALS,

MAP EXPLANATION, VOLUME 2

Table 1. Average chemical composition of minerals from sedimentary and volcanic rocks concerning the
Explanation text, Volume 2. Analyses are made by Cameca Camebax SX100 microprobe in the Geological
Survey of Finland. Mineral abbreviations are in the end of Table. nd = not detected or not determined.

Rock 1. 2. 2. 2. 2. 3. 3. 3. 3. 4.
Grt Pl Opx Cpx Bt Bt Grt (rim) Grt (core) Tur Anl
SiO2 wt% 37.15 55.21 48.99 50.05 34.95 35.80 37.60 37.85 35.58 53.98
TiO2 0.00 0.01 0.11 0.23 5.49 2.61 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.01
Al2O3 20.52 27.58 0.82 1.51 13.53 18.29 21.21 21.26 33.96 24.92
FeOt 10.89 0.15 34.01 14.82 22.18 14.42 30.70 30.03 4.31 0.13
MnO 22.05 0.00 0.79 0.32 0.10 0.05 2.10 1.81 0.00 0.01
MgO 3.75 0.01 13.09 10.12 8.83 12.58 6.08 6.43 7.44 0.01
CaO 4.68 9.88 0.67 20.91 0.01 0.01 1.54 1.55 1.58 0.14
Na2O 0.00 5.48 0.00 0.23 0.00 0.10 0.01 0.04 1.55 10.82
K2O 0.00 0.40 0.01 0.01 9.24 9.48 0.01 0.01 0.11 0.57
BaO nd nd nd nd nd 0.22 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01
F nd 0.03 0.19 0.13 0.78 0.41 0.10 0.09 0.16 0.04
Total 99.05 98.76 98.67 98.33 95.11 93.98 99.38 99.10 85.25 90.62

Rock 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 4. 5. 5. 5. 5.
Cpx Sa Bt Hd Pl Gt Grt (rim) Grt (core) Bt St
SiO2 wt% 49.46 65.31 39.11 49.28 57.92 5.14 36.63 36.88 35.15 26.92
TiO2 2.39 0.06 6.18 0.56 0.13 3.32 0.01 0.00 1.77 0.60
Al2O3 3.79 18.82 12.10 1.90 24.79 5.84 20.23 20.51 17.75 51.23
FeOt 8.17 0.12 13.59 18.34 0.21 57.75 32.40 35.52 20.38 15.43
MnO 0.39 0.00 0.29 0.95 0.00 0.87 3.33 1.43 0.02 0.10
MgO 12.62 0.00 15.61 5.35 0.00 2.01 1.55 3.08 9.28 1.85
CaO 21.93 0.49 0.02 20.33 6.44 0.55 4.79 2.03 0.02 0.00
Na2O 0.78 4.45 0.82 1.65 6.58 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.00
K2O 0.03 9.92 8.69 0.52 1.57 0.05 0.01 0.02 8.80 0.02
BaO 0.02 0.31 0.60 0.02 0.56 0.09 0.01 0.01 0.16 0.02
F 0.10 0.05 4.75 0.18 0.01 0.22 0.08 0.13 0.36 0.08
Total 99.69 99.54 101.74 99.11 98.21 75.84 99.04 99.61 94.07 96.25

Rock type Location Observation Coordinates

number
1. BIF-type rock Gairezi 13507 7966951/ 0522291
2. Gneissic granulite Barue 13767 8073037/ 0627886
3. Mica gneiss Rushinga 14686 8136123/ 0497641
4. Trachyandesite Lupata 34261 8135806/ 0615945
5. Staurolite-garnet-mica gneiss Gairezi 13392 8064117/ 0509035

2
Table 1. Continues

Rock 6. 6. 6. 7. 7. 7. 8 8 8
Grt(core) Grt(rim) Bt Alb Amp Amp Amp Grt (rim) Grt (core)
SiO2 wt% 36.69 36.43 34.35 68.83 53.99 51.62 39.99 37.65 37.85
TiO2 0.03 0.02 3.40 0.00 0.01 0.00 1.38 0.07 0.06
Al2O3 20.95 20.86 18.94 19.74 0.34 0.03 14.54 20.98 21.19
FeOt 35.68 36.09 21.40 0.02 19.10 32.37 18.44 27.32 26.04
MnO 1.27 1.75 0.05 0.01 0.44 1.51 0.12 1.19 0.66
MgO 3.58 2.95 6.93 0.01 11.53 9.37 7.73 3.87 4.58
CaO 1.46 1.48 0.02 0.14 11.34 0.77 10.99 8.48 8.78
Na2O 0.04 0.03 0.16 11.42 0.57 0.23 1.52 0.01 0.02
K2 O 0.01 0.01 9.37 0.04 0.03 0.06 1.38 0.01 0.02
BaO nd nd nd 0.01 0.02 0.01 nd nd nd
F 0.02 0.01 0.25 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.22 0.13 0.12
Total 99.72 99.63 94.87 100.25 97.41 96.04 96.30 99.70 99.32

Rock 9 9 9 9
Pl Cpx Bt Amp
SiO2 wt% 56.75 50.33 35.26 41.06
TiO2 0.03 0.23 5.65 2.48
Al2O3 26.61 1.24 13.37 10.44
FeOt 0.07 15.10 21.75 19.81
MnO 0.02 0.52 0.14 0.33
MgO 0.01 9.60 8.90 7.72
CaO 8.54 20.96 0.01 10.78
Na2O 6.37 0.32 0.00 1.28
K2 O 0.32 0.02 9.23 1.67
BaO 0.00 0.05 0.67 0.07
F 0.06 0.14 0.85 0.52
Total 98.79 98.50 95.84 96.13

6. Garnet-mica gneiss Gairezi 13461 7970755/ 0524774

7. Felsic metavolcanite Manica Belt 25401 7915035/ 0476525
8 Xenolith (eclogite?) in gneiss Masoso 34195 8183970/ 0449677
9 Tonalite gneiss Barue 13778 8052904/ 0627142

Mineral abbreviations:
Alb = Albite Hd = Hedenbergite
Amp = Amphibole Opx = Orthopyroxene
Anl = Analcite Sa = Sanidine
Bt = Biotite St = Staurolite
Cpx = Clinopyroxene Tur = Tourmaline
Grt = Garnet
Gt = Goethite

3
Table 2. Average chemical composition of minerals from plutonic and dyke rocks concerning the
Explanation text, Volume 2. Analyses are made by Cameca Camebax SX100 microprobe in the
Geological Survey of Finland. Mineral abbreviations are in the end of Table. nd = not detected or not
determined.

Rock 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3
Cpx Amp Pl Bt Cpx1 Amp Pl Cpx2 Cpx Pl
SiO2 wt% 51.72 42.14 59.99 36.17 50.30 48.97 53.40 49.85 49.67 55.49
TiO2 0.11 1.37 0.00 4.89 0.60 0.53 0.06 0.72 0.78 0.03
Al2O3 1.92 11.06 23.60 14.04 3.07 3.93 28.95 2.66 2.46 26.62
Cr2O3 nd nd nd nd 0.17 0.01 0.00 0.01 nd nd
FeOt 9.48 15.59 0.09 16.47 10.81 21.61 0.23 14.25 16.90 0.64
MnO 0.30 0.19 0.01 0.09 0.25 0.46 0.00 0.34 0.40 0.02
MgO 12.80 11.18 0.00 12.90 15.83 10.29 0.05 14.17 14.20 0.06
CaO 21.49 11.36 6.56 0.03 17.14 9.60 11.27 16.03 13.29 9.59
Na2O 0.77 1.39 7.64 0.00 0.25 0.55 5.00 0.39 0.28 5.47
K2O 0.01 1.38 0.53 9.64 0.02 0.35 0.13 0.02 0.02 0.62
BaO 0.01 0.06 0.05 0.57 nd nd nd nd nd nd
F 0.05 0.22 0.02 0.30 0.11 0.21 0.02 0.13 0.05 0.00
Total 98.65 95.94 98.48 95.10 98.54 96.50 99.11 98.57 98.04 98.55

Rock 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 6
Amp Cpx1 Cpx2 Pl Amp Amp Opx,zoned Pl Cpx1 Cpx2
SiO2 wt% 42.50 50.39 50.23 53.02 43.73 41.51 54.71 54.49 50.72 52.19
TiO2 1.50 0.74 0.56 0.09 1.24 1.25 0.05 0.12 0.30 0.23
Al2O3 7.46 2.39 1.51 29.12 6.81 13.42 2.10 27.94 2.34 1.50
Cr2O3 nd nd nd nd nd 0.65 0.15 0.01 0.12 0.05
FeOt 25.94 15.09 20.27 0.58 25.09 9.88 13.10 0.21 15.29 9.47
MnO 0.24 0.37 0.50 0.00 0.35 0.11 0.33 0.01 0.20 0.11
MgO 5.31 13.15 11.82 0.04 6.33 13.82 26.70 0.00 13.83 12.89
CaO 9.91 16.77 13.71 11.96 10.22 11.31 0.59 10.21 15.01 22.31
Na2O 1.60 0.33 0.38 4.45 1.69 2.39 0.16 5.41 0.39 0.49
K2O 0.94 0.00 0.06 0.38 0.98 0.66 0.04 0.19 0.13 0.05
BaO nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd nd
F 0.09 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.48 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.04
Total 95.48 99.28 99.13 99.68 96.93 95.03 97.96 98.60 98.40 99.32

Rock type Location Observation Coordinates

number
1 Tonalitic rock Mudzi 13316 8094287/ 0505729
2 Diabase Manica area 13671 7893097/ 0493249
3 Diabase Manica area 25610 7909769/ 0479133
4 Diabase Manica area 25416 7908113/ 0481495
5 Pyroxenite Tete 1629 8220205/ 0529774
6 Mafic garnet-bearing dyke Manica area 1714 7896822/ 0515362

4
Table 2. Continues

Rock 6 6 6 6 6
Grt Amp Opx Bt Ilm
SiO2 wt% 37.70 46.93 50.50 36.15 0.00
TiO2 0.05 0.80 0.14 4.55 46.37
Al2O3 21.11 7.49 1.01 14.15 0.00
Cr2O3 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01
FeOt 27.03 15.07 28.14 15.71 48.89
MnO 1.02 0.11 0.33 0.02 0.26
MgO 4.95 12.69 18.02 13.10 0.33
CaO 7.18 11.36 0.40 0.05 0.01
Na2O 0.04 0.80 0.00 0.05 0.12
K2O 0.02 0.66 0.00 9.61 0.03
BaO nd nd nd nd nd
F 0.06 0.21 0.05 0.29 0.00
Total 99.16 96.13 98.58 93.70 96.03

Mineral abbreviations:

Amp = Amphibole
Bt = Biotite
Cpx = Clinopyroxene
Grt = Garnet
Opx = Orthopyroxene
Pl = Plagioclase
Ilm = Ilmenite

5
VOLUME 2, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Primary_
Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class Comm Subsid_1 Subsid_2 Subsid_3 Size_category Size_class Status Mining_method Map_symbol
1 216 478,2 Mavita_Asbestos 520898 7849577 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Hydrothermal A Medium 2 Prospect Open pit 141
2 217 448,2 Serra Mangota II 494734 7912081 1832 Manica Industerial mineral Hydrothermal A Al Occurrence 0 Showing 141
3 23 1513 Serra Mangota I 491225 7915768 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other AC T Small 1 Closed mine 139
4 201 417 Moriangane 470206 7917589 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Al CK Large 3 Active mine Open pit 144
5 21 1509 Manica Serra V 494725 7943430 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Al An Ky Occurrence 0 Anomaly 123
6 25 1520 Mavita_Al 510491 7840159 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Al Ky Sl Occurrence 0 Showing 145
7 379 Bandire 523768 7842170 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Medium 2 Active Mine 119
8 77 407 Bragança 488182 7920136 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Medium 2 Closed mine Underground 132
9 135 419 Chimezi 500000 7917644 1833 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Medium 2 Prospect 145
10 85 452 Dot's Luck 481493 7910703 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Medium 2 Closed mine 121
11 134 405 Inhamucarara 486330 7921714 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Medium 2 Prospect 145
12 84 447 Monarch 471180 7912264 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Medium 2 Closed mine Underground 121
13 136 429 Muza 498244 7914909 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Medium 2 Prospect 145
14 133 426 Rio Revuè 474542 7915291 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Clastic sediment Au Ag Medium 2 Prospect Dredging 145
15 98 451 Boa Esperança 493152 7911061 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Chemical sediment Au Ag AC Small 1 Closed mine Underground 121
16 105 275 Cacanga 582971 8217704 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Cu Ag W Small 1 Prospect Underground 132
17 91 412 Cantão 479571 7919109 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Small 1 Closed mine 132
18 88 409 Damp 480156 7920000 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 132
19 93 415 Dias Pereira 487357 7918747 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 121
20 94 416 Excelsior 483465 7918252 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 132
21 99 453 Fair Bride 486820 7910745 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Chemical sediment Au Ag Small 1 Closed mine 121
22 97 445 Guy Fawkes 486687 7913306 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Closed mine 121
23 137 315 Luenha 546234 8170175 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Small 1 Prospect 145
24 138 318,2 Lupata Au 479397 7917971 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 145
25 89 410 Marianas 488790 7919639 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 132
26 86 404 Mimosa 481998 7922215 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 138
27 87 408 Morondo 479014 7920245 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 132
28 92 414 Old Wednesday 480067 7920738 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Small 1 Prospect 132
29 399 Palhada 487618 7913278 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Chemical sediment Au Occurrence 1 Showing 133
30 398 Pilhada 488000 7913100 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Chemical sediment Au Occurrence 1 Prospect 133
31 90 411 Richmond 488059 7919300 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 132
32 100 454 Try Again 486046 7910201 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Small 1 Prospect 121
33 171 476 Tsetserra 487834 7861109 1932 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Small 1 Active mine Open pit 121
34 95 422 Two Fools 480471 7917375 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Ag Small 1 Closed mine Underground 132
35 96 444 Vinganca 486365 7913675 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Small 1 Closed mine 121
36 120 437 A Rir 494733 7914417 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
37 112 425 André 478785 7915911 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 132
38 117 434 Brown 471910 7914396 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
39 106 350 Caniaculo 588783 8138695 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ba F Occurrence 0 Showing 132
40 104 260 Cansunça 585581 8227212 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Cu Occurrence 0 Showing 132
41 141 427 Capitaite 499941 7915309 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
42 101 393 Caurezi 494707 8009814 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
43 376 Chipaceti 529127 8125729 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Clastic sediment Au Unknown 0 Showing 145
44 129 460 Chivuma 485964 7902855 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 140
45 118 435 Colonelle 489554 7914414 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
46 119 436 Donkey 493768 7914416 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 138
47 108 406 Estrela 485541 7920682 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
48 110 423 Firenza 481680 7917390 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
49 127 450 Futuro 482945 7910998 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 121
50 79 443 Galiza 490461 7913800 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 145

1
VOLUME 2, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Primary Subsid_ Subsid_ Subsid Mining_meth Map_sy

Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class _Comm 1 2 _3 Size_category Size_class Status od mbol
51 116 433 Gold-Kop 490988 7914599 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
52 121 438 Hermínia 474807 7914339 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 132
53 111 424 Hong-Wong 479398 7916803 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
54 114 430 Ivone 486482 7914843 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 148
55 122 439 Joana 492890 7914139 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
56 115 431 Laugh 494353 7914724 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
57 128 456 Lion 485872 7908634 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
58 126 449 Matai 476186 7911728 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 138
59 130 468 Mavita_Au 522958 7842542 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Au Occurrence 0 Prospect Open pit 132
60 392 Monte Tecequire 608901 7932521 1834 Sofala Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Clastic sediment Au Unknown 0 Prospect Open pit 119
61 109 413 Morgan 483142 7918989 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 132
62 113 428 Mulato 492099 7915153 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 148
63 80 458 Munene_Au 487716 7906852 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
64 81 466 Mussapa 1 514028 7891791 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
65 83 486 Mussapa 2 513985 7836465 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
66 339 noname 553404 8228920 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 133
67 124 441 Paradox 475920 7913910 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132
68 107 367 Passaru 521268 8100153 1733 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 134
69 78 432 Pedras Douradas 491514 7914661 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
70 17 1493 Rio Luenha 526625 8131491 1633 Tete Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Clastic sediment Au Occurrence 0 Anomaly 145
71 123 440 Rosalina 494528 7914140 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 132
72 82 485 Rotanda 512237 7836466 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 145
73 125 446 Tambarico 498010 7913311 1832 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 121
74 132 482 Xivume 522735 7843833 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 140
75 131 479 Yankee-Grab 529740 7849355 1933 Manica Precious metal (Au,Ag,PGE) Shear zone-related Au Occurrence 0 Showing 132
Special metals
76 187 364 Nhandonguè 597603 8125749 1633 Tete (Be,Li,Mo,Nb,REE,Sc,Sn,Ta,W,Zr) Hydrothermal Ba Occurrence 0 Showing 132
77 58 278 Moatize 576634 8218026 1633 Tete Coal Organic C Large 3 Active mine 121
78 149 290 Muarádzi 605081 8203158 1633 Tete Coal Organic C Medium 2 Prospect 121
79 159 302 Malica River 658426 8189927 1634 Tete Coal Other C Occurrence 0 Showing 121
80 158 291 Necungas-Mecondé 635385 8206680 1634 Tete Coal Other C Occurrence 0 Showing 121
81 14 1476 Luia 407391 8201367 1632 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other CB Occurrence 0 Showing 121
82 386 Cafumbe 559331 7889311 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Cl Unknown 0 Active mine Open pit 121
83 227 263 Canchoeira 588249 8225358 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Cm Small 1 Closed mine 131
84 231 488 Revuè 569916 7833567 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Cm Small 1 Closed mine 131
85 230 342 Chimessolo 503552 8146257 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Cm Occurrence 0 Showing 131
86 12 1461 Moatize (East) 589144 8227202 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Cm Occurrence 0 Showing 131
87 679 495,1 Manga clay 697323 7813242 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic sediment CP CF CS Small 1 closed mine 121
88 73 457 Mundonguara 477977 7907124 1832 Manica Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Ag Au Ni Medium 2 Closed mine Underground 132
89 317 noname 531973 8229014 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
90 319 noname 526310 8230870 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Fe Unknown 0 Anomaly 140
91 320 noname 525511 8229014 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 140
92 321 noname 541678 8226123 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
93 324 noname 546213 8229061 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
94 367 noname 571474 8218862 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Fe Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
95 368 noname 572250 8217053 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
96 369 noname 581226 8223280 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Fe Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
97 370 noname 575093 8225160 1633 Tete Base metal (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Cu Ni Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
98 1148 Degue 553751 8216081 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Cy Medium 2 Showing 121
99 1139 759 Beira sand II 702978 7810998 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic sediment Cy Small 1 Active mine Open pit 144
100 195 490 Dondo 685265 7829305 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic Cy Small 1 Active mine Open pit 144

2
VOLUME 2, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Primary Subsid_ Subsid_ Subsid Size_cla Mining_meth Map_sy

Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class _Comm 1 2 _3 Size_category ss Status od mbol
101 200 494,2 Inhamizua 681371 7819585 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic Cy Small 1 Active mine Open pit 144
102 199 469 Chimoio Clay 549083 7886198 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Clastic Cy Occurrence 0 Showing 144
103 197 462,1 Macequece I 487719 7901013 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Clastic Cy CS CF Occurrence 0 Closed mine Open pit 144
104 198 463 Machipanda 470179 7899149 1932 Manica Industrial mineral Clastic Cy Occurrence 0 Closed mine 144
105 28 2662 Zumbo 677741 8156574 1634 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other D Unknown 0 Showing 148
106 710 Monte Muambe 615150 8194700 1634 Tete Industrial mineral Vein, stockwork F Large 3 Prospect 134
107 189 343 Dombe 507893 8146161 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Hydrothermal vein/breccia F QV GF Medium 2 Prospect 132
108 659 392 Djalire 630633 8018601 1734 Manica Industrial mineral Hydrothermal F Small 1 prospect 136
109 188 304 Djanguire 455036 8186511 1632 Tete Industrial mineral Shear zone-related F QV GF Small 1 Prospect Open pit 132
110 191 385 Geramo 636106 8044386 1734 Sofala Industrial mineral Hydrothermal vein/breccia F QV GF Small 1 Closed mine 132
111 15 1484 Lupata F 628030 8167995 1634 Tete Industrial mineral Hydrothermal vein/breccia F Occurrence 0 Anomaly 148
112 190 308 Lupata North 615640 8179133 1634 Tete Industrial mineral Hydrothermal vein/breccia F QV GF Occurrence 0 Showing 132
113 166 401 Honde 513406 7953542 1833 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Chemical sediment Fe Medium 2 Prospect 121
114 165 264 Machédua 601674 8218294 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Orthomagmatic Fe Ti V Medium 2 Prospect 141
115 169 273 Antiga Caldas Xavie 598035 8220707 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Orthomagmatic Fe Ti Small 1 Showing 141
116 173 483,1 Cepucuto 506995 7842924 1933 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Fe Small 1 Showing 166
117 170 318,1 Lupata Fe 620032 8168968 1634 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Skarn Fe Ti Small 1 Showing 141
118 174 483,2 Mocuta 509619 7842923 1933 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Fe Small 1 Showing 166
119 172 481 Xigundo 522156 7847215 1933 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Fe Small 1 Showing 166
120 18 1494 Changara 500000 8129660 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Orthomagmatic Fe Ti Occurrence 0 Showing 125
121 181 355 Lutino 503550 8135194 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Orthomagmatic Fe Ti Occurrence 0 Showing 141
122 175 487 Mussapa Fe 502622 7835548 1933 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Fe Occurrence 0 Showing 121
123 322 noname 540832 8225230 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Fe Cu Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
124 260 498 Búzi Gas 671446 7789832 1934 Sofala Gas Other G Small 1 Prospect 163
125 218 381 noname 586666 8057569 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Other Gr Occurrence 0 Showing 166
126 219 383 noname 560118 8052134 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Other Gr Occurrence 0 Showing 166
127 220 384 noname 567184 8050268 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Other Gr Occurrence 0 Showing 166
128 221 403 noname 616032 7939387 1834 Manica Industrial mineral Other Gr Occurrence 0 Showing 166
129 658 390 Barauro 508831 8030096 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/other Ky Occurrence 0 showing 166
130 19 1496 Choa 512419 8114910 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Ky Sl Occurrence 0 Anomaly 123
131 29 2691 Massanga 500000 8089104 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Ky Occurrence 0 Showing 123
132 20 1500 Senga-Senga 508839 8055914 1733 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other Ky Sl Occurrence 0 Showing 123
133 378 Chainca 481281 7908276 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other MA Medium 2 Prospect 141
134 388 Nhangoma 599160 8222977 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic MA Medium 2 Prospect Open pit 125
135 665 455 Macatacata 582115 7909749 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic MB M Medium 2 prospect 141
136 211 267 Sicarabo 599833 8224388 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic MB MB St Small 1 Prospect 141
137 228 467 Minas Gerais 568379 7889825 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic Mc Small 1 Closed mine 131
138 229 352 noname 597654 8136812 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic Mc GB Occurrence 0 Closed mine 131
139 672 472,3 Monte Xiluvo 612114 7873011 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic MM F P Small 1 active mine 141
140 160 326 Catambula 487556 8162846 1632 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Chemical sediment Mn Occurrence 0 Anomaly 121
141 161 334 Foia 498223 8153632 1632 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Chemical sediment Mn Occurrence 0 Anomaly 121
142 16 1486 Fumo Dique 491118 8157314 1632 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Unknown/Other Mn Occurrence 0 Anomaly 166
143 308 noname 489406 7917651 1832 Manica Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Mn Fe Unknown 0 Anomaly 121
Base metal
144 55 noname 522309 8226866 1633 Tete (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Unknown/Other Ni Occurrence 0 Showing 140
Base metal
145 307 noname 493752 7912132 1832 Manica (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Orthomagmatic Ni Unknown 0 Anomaly 123
146 673 478,1 Mavita 520993 7849368 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic P Small 1 closed mine 141
147 36 268 Monte Fema 538303 8223684 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic P Fe Small 1 Prospect 129
Base metal
148 75 333 Chiôco 476899 8155463 1632 Tete (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Pb Occurrence 0 Showing 132
Base metal
149 27 2661 Fumo Dique 489337 8157313 1632 Tete (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Pb Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 166
Base metal
150 76 335 Mazoe 502665 8153632 1633 Tete (Cu,Co,Ni,Pb,Zn) Hydrothermal Pb Ag Occurrence 0 Showing 132

3
VOLUME 2, CHAPTER 12, App.12.1. Mineral indications, occurrences and deposits

Siz
Primary Subsid_ Subsi e_c Mining_metho Map_symbo
Number ID_No REF_No Deposit_Name Easting Northing Map_250k Province Deposit_class Genetic_class _Comm Subsid_1 2 d_3 Size_category lass Status d l
151 183 496 Búzi Guano 624701 7793609 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Organic Pg Small 1 Prospect 144
152 660 402 Cheringoma 700536 7947905 1834 Sofala Industrial mineral Organic Pg Small 1 prospect 121
153 1149 Chimozi sand 559597 8214234 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 121
154 196 495,2 Manga sand 697942 7815715 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic QB Medium 2 Active mine 144
155 212 484 Mafambisse 618904 7839766 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Clastic sediment QB St Occurrence 0 Closed mine 145
156 377 Chinguere 519048 8135263 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Pegmatite formation QV Unknown 0 Showing 131
157 232 480 Serra Mocuta 513993 7847530 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Hydrothermal QV Occurrence 0 Showing 166
158 13 1462 Boroma 546344 8223638 1633 Tete Ferrous (Cr,Fe,Mn,Ti,V) Orthomagmatic Rt Occurrence 0 Showing 132
Special metals
159 185 474 Inchope II 561298 7869563 1933 Manica (Be,Li,Mo,Nb,REE,Sc,Sn,Ta,W,Zr) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Sn Columbite Ta Medium 2 Closed mine 131
Special metals
160 186 471 Doeroi 587921 7873413 1933 Manica (Be,Li,Mo,Nb,REE,Sc,Sn,Ta,W,Zr) Hydrothermal vein/breccia Sn Columbite Ta Small 1 Closed mine 131
161 24 1517 Inchope I 588066 7882081 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Pegmatite formation Sn Nb Ta Small 1 Prospect 138
Special metals
162 30 2772 Inchope III 596351 7873104 1933 Manica (Be,Li,Mo,Nb,REE,Sc,Sn,Ta,W,Zr) Unknown/Other Sn Au Ta Occurrence 0 Showing 132
163 213 465 Bué Maria 625412 7895981 1934 Sofala Industrial mineral Other St M Medium 2 Prospect 129
164 384 Matsinho 539594 7900047 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 141
165 382 Messica 509145 7898703 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 141
166 395 Xiluvo carbonatite_1 611663 7871339 1934 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic St Gap Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 125
167 396 472,1 Xiluvo carbonatite_2 611067 7871665 1934 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Gap Medium 2 Active mine Open pit 166
168 385 Matsinho_S 540427 7898733 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic St Small 1 Closed mine Open pit 166
169 381 Munene 475360 7903520 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Small 1 Prospect Open pit 141
170 1155 Cande 603690 7957278 1833 Tete Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic St Small 0 Closed mine Open pit 141
171 383 Chigove 533110 7892103 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Occurrence 0 Closed mine Open pit 166
172 393 Nharuchonga 617384 7871981 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Unknown 0 Active mine Open pit 166
173 375 Paduc 560287 8203547 1633 Tete Industrial mineral Unknown/Other St Unknown 0 Active mine 141
174 214 421,2 Vandúzi 526339 7917596 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Other St M Occurrence 0 Active mine 148
175 394 Xiluvo basalt 613124 7869497 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic St Unknown 0 Closed mine Open pit 166
176 234 461 Vumba 485966 7901012 1832 Manica Water Other SW Large 3 Active mine 147
177 237 470 Maforga 571871 7886123 1933 Manica Water Other SW Small 1 Showing 147
178 236 420 Penhalonga 473661 7917596 1832 Manica Water Other SW M Small 1 Showing 147
179 235 305 Mecito 649486 8184458 1634 Tete Water Other SW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
180 663 442 Serra Mangota III 496489 7913925 1832 Manica Industrial mineral Hydrothermal T Occurrence 0 showing 139
181 417 421,1 Chimoio 550006 7888674 1833 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic Ti Small 1 Active mine Open pit 141
182 434 Chissui 547097 7882707 1933 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic Ti Small 1 Closed mine Open pit 141
183 435 Dongueni 555448 7876637 1834 Manica Industrial mineral Orthomagmatic Ti Unknown 0 Closed mine Open pit 141
184 238 262 Boroma 549918 8225478 1633 Tete Water Other TW Medium 2 Prospect 147
185 239 475 Zónuè 487745 7862286 1932 Manica Water Other TW Medium 2 Prospect 147
186 240 459 Rupizi 621092 7906155 1834 Sofala Water Other TW Small 1 Showing 147
187 249 314 Bandar 608487 8171795 1634 Tete Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
188 252 464 Chichere 642084 7896783 1934 Sofala Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
189 259 497 Escarivira 592423 7791964 1933 Sofala Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
190 253 473 Matende 492994 7871509 1932 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
191 248 299 Muambe 610387 8195756 1634 Tete Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
192 251 389 Nhaboto 538860 8031903 1733 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
193 258 493 Nhamacombe 533191 7823530 1933 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
194 250 380 Nhamburre 553060 8057685 1733 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
195 257 492 Pamassara 587355 7825190 1933 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
196 256 491 Rupice 531454 7829066 1933 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
197 255 489 Toa 576896 7830772 1933 Manica Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147
198 254 477 Xinana 601510 7856473 1933 Sofala Water Other TW Occurrence 0 Showing 147

4
VOLUME 2, CHAPTER 12, App.12.2. Chemical analyses of mineralized rocks

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
SiO2 9.00 9.19 9.92 16.92 43.90 - 0.8 5.48 41.21 44.32 45.35 0.40 0.37 1.34 17.86 28.35 10.5 13.48
TiO2 0.27 0.84 3.07 0.00 0.01 0.29 - 0.44 0.36 0.39 0.35 0.007 0.029 0.107
Al2O3 58.83 49.65 44.01 57.16 39.60 1.54 0.12 6.37 18.80 15.39 38915 0.05 0.09 0.37 2.29 5.35 4.84 5.86
Fe2O3 1.55 13.81 17.78 0.64 0.91 5.87 1.08 10.83 6.57 15.50 8.45 3.78 4.02 5.74 5.00 11.00 2.80 12.28
FeO 0.08 0.01 0.12 1.55 0.01 0.01 2.76 1.45 2.76 4.50
MnO 0.06 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.02 0.84 - 2.28 0.46 1.47 0.99 0.185 0.120 0.119
MgO 0.27 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.42 - 0.95 0.61 1.82 0.81 9.50 5.80 4.18
CaO 0.02 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.00 49.29 42.05 54.70 8.41 3.65 8.41 40.8 46.7 47.3 35.23 27.69 22.43 24.88
Na2O 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.02 0.31 0.40 0.48 0.95 <0.07 <0.07 <0.07 1.23 0.49 0.23 0.32
K2O 1.65 1.20 0.10 0.58 0.19 0.23 0.02 0.75 13.70 12.05 25173 0.021 0.018 0.085 1.25 6.87 0.01 1.92
P2O5 0.01 0.04 0.21 0.02 0.00 0.64 0.01 2.73 0.98 0.52 0.43 9.94 1.59 1.79 3.60 1.39 6.08 2.56
H2O- 0.16 - 0.54 0.10 0.36 0.14
H2O+ 0.09 - 0.13
CO2 38.37 31.29 41.65 5.32 4.70 4.79
L.o i. 28.62 23.96 24.12 24.05 15.00

S 0.097 0.075 0.094

Sr 1.49 0.101 0.089
Ba 0.043 <0.002 <0.002
La 0.059 0.019 0.021
Ce 0.153 0.046 0.051
C 8.83 11.3 10.5

1=bauxite from Alumen deposit, type A (Cilek 1989)
2=bauxite from Alumen deposit, type B (Cilek 1989)
3=bauxite from Alumen deposit, type C (Cilek 1989)
4=bauxite from Alumen deposit, type D (Cilek 1989)
5=kaolinitic clay from Alumen deposit (Cilek 1989)
6=carbonatite from Monte Muambe, average (Cilek 1989)
7=carbonatite from Monte Muambe, min values (Cilek 1989)
8=carbonatite from Monte Muambe, max values (Cilek 1989)
9=fenitic rock from Monte Muambe (Cilek 1989)
10=fenitic rock from Monte Muambe (Cilek 1989)
11=fenitic rock from Monte Muambe (Cilek 1989)
12=carbonatite from Monte Fema (GTK)
13=carbonatite from Monte Muande (GTK)
14=carbonatite from Monte Muande (GTK)
15=carbonatite from Monte Xiluvo (Cilek 1989)
16=carbonatite from Monte Xiluvo (Cilek 1989)
17=carbonatite from Monte Xiluvo (Cilek 1989)
18=carbonatite from Monte Xiluvo (Cilek 1989)