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This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientifi
c discoveries and contributions made in India[fn 1] throughout its cultural and
technological history, during which architecture, astronomy, cartography, metall
urgy, logic, mathematics, metrology and mineralogy were among the branches of st
udy pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the R
epublic of India has also focused on automobile engineering, information technol
ogy, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Inventions
* 2 Discoveries
o 2.1 Agriculture
o 2.2 Mathematics
o 2.3 Medicine
o 2.4 Mining
o 2.5 Science
* 3 Innovations
* 4 Footnotes
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Bibliography
* 8 External links
[edit] Inventions
Bangles on display in India.
* Bangle: Bangles made from shell, copper, bronze, gold, agate, chalcedony etc
. have been excavated from multiple archaeological sites throughout India.[1] A fi
gurine of a dancing girl wearing bangles on her left arm has been excavated from Mo
henjo-daro (2600 BCE).[2] Other early examples of bangles in India include coppe
r samples from the excavations at Mahurjhari soon followed by the decorated bangle
s belonging to the Mauryan empire (322 185 BCE) and the gold bangle samples from t
he historic site of Taxila (6th century BCE).[1] Decorated shell bangles have al
so been excavated from multiple Mauryan sites.[1] Other features included copper
rivets and gold-leaf inlay in some cases.[1]
* Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti
Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magne
tic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various mag
netic properties.[3] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a
Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm
Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[3]
* Bounce lighting: Invented by cinematographer Subrata Mitra for The Apu Tri
logy, three Bengali films by parallel Indian film director Satyajit Ray from 195
5 to 1959.[4][5]
* Bow drill: The bow drill appeared in Mehrgarh between 4th-5th millennium B
CE.[6] It was used to drill holes into lapis lazuli and cornelian and was made o
f green jasper.[6] Similar drills were found in other parts of the Indus Valley
Civilization and Iran one millennium later.[6]
* Button: Buttons made from seashell were used in the Indus Valley Civilization
for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[7] Some buttons were carved into geometric
shapes and had holes pieced into them so that they could attached to clothing by
using a thread.[7] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was orig
inally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being fo
und at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about
5000 years old."[8]
* Calico: Calico had originated in India by the 11th century and found menti
on in Indian literature by the 12th when writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabr
ic prints done in a lotus design.[9] The Indian textile merchants traded in cali
co with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeare
d in Egypt.[9] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[9] With
in India, calico originated in Calicut.[9]
* Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the inv
ention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India.[10] The earliest
evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE)
.[10] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture o
f the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[10]
* Carrom:
Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe
, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and ti
me.
* Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated in India durin
g the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE).[11][12][13][14] Both the Persians and Ara
bs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.[13][15][16] The word
s for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively t
erms derived from catura?ga in Sanskrit,[17][18] which literally means an army o
f four divisions or four corps.[19][20] Chess spread throughout the world and ma
ny variants of the game soon began taking shape.[21] This game was introduced to
the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education
of Persian nobility.[19] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carrie
d it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often
played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squa
res.[21] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the
expanding Arabian empire.[20][22] Muslims carried Shatranj to North Africa, Sici
ly, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess.[
21]
* Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of cali
co in India.[23] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language
word ?????? (chitr) , which means a spot.[23][24]
* Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Jagdish Chandra
Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone d
etector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[25] He also later re
ceived U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a
specific electromagnetic receiver.
* Cockfighting: Cockfighting was a pastime in the Indus Valley Civilization
by 2000 BC.[26] The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) on the origins of cockfighting hold
s: "The game fowl is probably the nearest to the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus
gallus), from which all domestic chickens are believed to be descended...The spo
rt was popular in ancient times in India, China, Persia, and other Eastern count
ries and was introduced into Greece in the time of Themistocles (c. 524 460 BCE).
The sport spread throughout Asia Minor and Sicily. For a long time the Romans af
fected to despise this "Greek diversion," but they ended up adopting it so enthu
siastically that the agricultural writer Columella (1st century AD) complained t
hat its devotees often spent their whole patrimony in betting at the side of the
pit."[27]
* Corrosion-resistant iron: The first corrosion-resistant iron was used to e
rect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 year
s.[28]
* Cotton Gin: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller co
tton gin in use by the 5th century CE.[29] This cotton gin was used in India unt
il innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[29] The cotton gin was in
vented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "w
ooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, d
riven by water power.[10]
* Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was
invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Jagdish Chandra Bos
e.[30][31]
* Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCE although certainly by 200 CE high
quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would
later call the crucible technique.[32] In this system, high-purity wrought iron,
charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted a
nd absorbed the carbon.[32] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that or
iginated in India before the beginning of the common era.[33] Archaeological evi
dence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South
India well before the Christian era.[34][35]
* Dental drill, and dental surgery: The Indus Valley Civilization has yielde
d evidence of dentistry being practiced as far back as 7000 BCE.[36] This earlie
st form of dentistry involved curing tooth related disorders with bow drills ope
rated, perhaps, by skilled bead craftsmen.[37] The reconstruction of this ancien
t form of dentistry showed that the methods used were reliable and effective.[38
]
* Dice: The die is attributed to India by some accounts.[39][40][41] Some of
the earliest archaeological evidence of oblong dice have been found in Harrapan
sites such as Kalibangan, Lothal, Ropar, Alamgirpur, Desalpur and surrounding t
erritories, some dating back to the third millennium BCE, which were used for ga
mbling.[42][43][44] The oblong or cubical dice (ak?a) is the precursor of the mo
re primitive vibhi?aka small, hard nuts drawn randomly to obtain factors of a cert
ain integer.[45] Dicing is believed to have later spread westwards to Persia, in
fluencing Persian board games.[46] Early references to dicing can be found in th
e ?g Veda (c. early 2nd millennium BCE)[44][47][48] as well as the newer Atharva
Veda (c. late 2nd millennium ~ early 1st millennium BCE).[42][49]
* Dike: Dikes were known to be widely used in the Indus valley civilization,
[50][51] which are believed to be the first dikes in the world,[51] built as ear
ly as the 1st millennium BCE.[51] This was the same period when the dockyard at
Lothal was in operation.[51] The use of dikes became known from then onwards.[51
]
* Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located a
way from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[52] Modern oceanographers
have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating t
o tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarma
ti, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[52] This was the
earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[52]
It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effec
ts on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[53] This
knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as
the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced th
rough flow tides in the river estuary.[53] The engineers built a trapezoidal str
ucture, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west ar
ms of 37 metres (121 ft).[53]
Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.
* Dyeing: Early evidence of dyeing comes from India where a piece of cotton
dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Moh
enjo-daro (3rd millennium BCE).[54] The dye used in this case was madder, which,
along with other dyes such as Indigo was introduced to other regions through trade.
[54] Contact with Alexander the Great, who had successfully used dyeing for mili
tary camouflage, may have further helped aid the spread of dyeing from India.[54
] Within India these dyes have found consistent mention in Indian literature and
in some cases have been excavated in archaeological findings.[54] Dyes in India
were a commodity of both Internal trade and exports.[54] Indian exports of Indi
go alone reached nearly 15, 097, 622 pounds in 1887-88 with the principle market
s being the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France and Egypt.[54]
* Furnace: The earliest furnace was excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indu
s Valley Civilization, dating back to its mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BCE). The f
urnace was most likely used for the manufacturing of ceramic objects.[55]
* Hookah: The invention of the modern Hookah is attributed to Hakim Abul Fat
eh Gilani (c. 1580 CE), who was a physician in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar
(1542 - 1605 CE).[56][57][58] Following the European introduction of tobacco to
India, Gilani raised concerns after smoking tobacco became popular among Indian
noblemen, and subsequently envisaged a system which allowed smoke to be passed
through water in order to be 'purified'.[57] Gilani invented the Hookah after As
ad Beg, then ambassador of Bijapur, encouraged Akbar to take up smoking.[57] Fol
lowing popularity among noblemen, this new device for smoking soon became a stat
us symbol for the Indian affluent.[57]
* Hospital: Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as
early as 431 BCE.[59] The Indian emperor Ashoka (ruled from 273 BCE to 232 BCE)
himself established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire (322 185 B
CE) by 230 BCE.[59] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272 231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere K
ing Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and ho
spitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, h
e ordered that they be bought and planted."[60]
* Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock
is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not
function.[61][62] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th c
entury CE the period it appeared in China all seem to have Devanagari carvings on
them instead of Chinese seal characters.[61][62] Incense itself was introduced t
o China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism
by travelling monks.[63][64][65] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were
probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devanaga
ri inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[61] Silvio Bedini on the
other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals
mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China aft
er those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds that the
time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[62]
* India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used
in India ink was India.[66][67] In India, the carbon black from which India ink
is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[67]
[68] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BC.[69] Ma
si, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[69] I
ndian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[7
0] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in anc
ient South India.[71] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[72]
* Indian clubs: The Indian club which appeared in Europe during the 18th centu
ry was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[73]
During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exer
cises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[73] From Britain the use
of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[73]
Laser Interferometer for measuring refractive index invented by M.V.R.K. Murty.
* Interferometer, lateral shear: Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a Lateral Shear
Interferometer utilizes a laser source for measuring refractive index.[74] The
principle of the Murty Interferometer is: 'when a parallel plate of glass receiv
es a collimated laser beam at an oblique angle, the reflections from front and b
ack of the plate are always separated by a certain amount of shear depending on
thickness and refractive index of the glass plate and angle of incidence of the
beam. An interference fringe of uniform intensity is obtained in the common area
of two laterally sheared beams. When a wedged plate of a few arc seconds instea
d of parallel plates is used as a shearing plate such as its apex of wedge lies
in the horizontal plane, a set of straight fringes parallel to the horizontal di
rection are formed for the well collimated laser beam. The interferometer is ins
ensitive to vibrations and therefore the fringes are stable even without isolati
on table.'[75] The schematic diagram for measuring refractive index of liquids o
r solids by using the Murty Interferometer is given in this figure.[75] The lase
r interferometer did not require any optical path compensation.[74]
* Iron: Iron was developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same tim
e as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in I
ndia, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day U
ttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BC 1200 BC.[76] Early
iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of
radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepa
ns, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BC to 200 BC have
been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[77] Some scholars be
lieve that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger
scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be plac
ed earlier.[76] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as
11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significan
t close contact with the northwest of the country.[78]
* Iron pillar: The first iron pillar was the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected a
t the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375 413 CE).[79]
* Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[80] Su
ggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises,
military drills, and collective self defense but most authorities agree that th
e game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500
-400 BCE.[80]
* Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[81] The earliest evi
dence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[8
1] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being
that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[81][82] A
variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Ra
j.[81]
* Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encounte
red it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhak
a in what is now Bangladesh.[83][84] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named
Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic
).[84]
* Oil spill, micro organisms as treatment of: Indian (Bengali) inventor and
microbiologist Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty created a species of man made micro orga
nism to break down crude oil. In a highly controversial decision taken by the Un
ited States Supreme Court, Chakrabarty's discovery was granted a patent even tho
ugh it was a living species. The court ruling decreed that Chakrabarty's discove
ry was "not nature's handiwork, but his own..." The inventor Chakrabarty secured
his patent in 1980 (see Diamond v. Chakrabarty).[85][86]
* Optical fibre: Narinder Singh Kapany is often described as the "father of
fibre optics", for inventing the glass fibre with cladding during the early 1950
s.[87][88]
* Oven: The earliest ovens were excavated at Balakot, a site of the Indus Va
lley Civilization. The ovens date back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 25
00-1900 BCE).[55]
The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used
in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.
* Pajamas: Pajamas in the original form were invented in India, which was fo
r outdoor use and was reinterpreted by the British to be sleepware.[89][90] The
use of this garment spread throughout the world with increasing globalization.[8
9][90]
* Palampore: ???????? (Hindi language) of Indian origin[91] was imported to
the western world notable England and Colonial america from India.[92][93] In 17th c
entury England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work d
esign.[92] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America,
where it was used in quilting.[93]
* Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BC
E.[94] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to
an increase in demand for this practice.[94] The surgeon Sushruta contributed ma
inly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[95] The medical works of both
Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Cal
iphate (750 CE).[96] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe vi
a intermidiateries.[96] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliac
ozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[96]
* Plough, animal-drawn: The earliest archeological evidence of an animal-dra
wn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization.[97]
* Prayer flags: The Buddhist sutras, written on cloth in India, were transmi
tted to other regions of the world.[98] These sutras, written on banners, were t
he origin of prayer flags.[98] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to
the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the de
vas against their adversaries, the asuras.[99] The legend may have given the Ind
ian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying hi
s commitment to ahimsa.[100] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, an
d the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were furthe
r modified.[100] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian prac
tice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[99]
* Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes an
d movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar the Gre
at. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[101]
 * Private bathroom and Toilet: By 2800 BCE, private bathrooms, located on th
e ground floor, were found in nearly all the houses of the Indus Valley Civiliza
tion.[102] The pottery pipes in walls allowed drainage of water and there was, i
n some case, provision of a crib for sitting.[102] The Indus Valley Civilization
had some of the most advanced private lavatories in the world.[102] "Western-st
yle" toilets were made from bricks using toilet seats made of wood on top.[102]
The waste was then transmitted to drainage systems.[102]
Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandava, from
left to right: Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and Sahadeva (Museum Indonesi
a, Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in
India to the Indus Civilization.
* Puppets and Puppetry: Evidence of puppetry comes from the excavations at t
he Indus Valley.[103] Archaeologists have unearthed terracotta dolls with detach
able heads capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BCE.[103] Other ex
cavations include terracotta animals which could be manipulated up and down a st
ick -archiving minimum animation in both cases.[103] The epic Mahabharata; Tamil l
iterature from the Sangam Era, and various literary works dating from the late c
enturies BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era including Ashokan edicts descr
ibe puppets.[104] Works like the Natya Shastra and the Kamasutra elaborate on pu
ppetry in some detail.[105] The Javanese Wayang theater was influenced by Indian
traditions.[106] Europeans developed puppetry as a result of extensive contact
with the Eastern World.[107]
* Reservoir, artificial: Sophisticated irrigation and storage systems were d
eveloped by the Indus Valley Civilization, including the artificial reservoirs a
t Girnar in 3000 BCE and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE.[1
08] Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization around 4500 BCE.[1
09] The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of this i
nnovation, which eventually lead to more planned settlements which further made
use of drainage and sewers.[109]
* Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The first iron-cased and
metal-cylinder rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian
Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used
these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Com
pany during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much m
ore advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron
tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range fo
r the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Ang
lo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential
in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put
into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[110][111]
* Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization
period prior to 1500 BCE.[112] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded on
e such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inch less than 2 millimeters.[112] Ian
Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corres
ponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivision
s with amazing accuracy to within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughou
t the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[113] Shigeo Iwata
(2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment o
f an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds
to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohe
njo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harap
a was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[114] The weights and measures of the Indus c
ivilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modifi
ed.[114]
 * Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in m
etallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589
and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kas
hmir during the Mughal Empire.[115][116] Before they were rediscovered in the 19
80s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to pro
duce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[116] These Mug
hal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce t
hese globes.[116]
* Sewage collection and disposal systems: Large-scale sanitary sewer systems
were in place in the Indus Valley by 2700 BCE.[102] The drains were 7 10 feet wid
e and 2 feet (0.61 m) below ground level.[102] The sewage was then led into cess
pools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them
for periodic cleaning.[102] Plumbing using earthenware plumbing pipes with broa
d flanges for easy joining with asphalt to stop leaks was in place by 2700 BCE.[
102]
* Shampoo: Shampoo originally meant head massage in several North Indian lan
guages. Both the word and the concept were introduced to Britain from colonial I
ndia,[102] by the Bengali entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomed.[117]
* Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based
on morality.[118] This game made its way to England, and was eventually introdu
ced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[118]
* Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found
in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro.[119] The
three features of Indian stepwells are evident from one particular site, abandon
ed by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and
figures of some religious importance into one structure.[119] The early centurie
s immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India ada
pt the stepwells into their architecture.[119] Both the wells and the form of ri
tual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[119] Rock-cut step
wells in India date from 200-400 CE.[120] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-6
25 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[120]
* Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[121
] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.
[121] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it ev
olved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[12
1]
* Swimming pool: The "great bath" at the site of Mohenjo-daro was most likel
y dug during the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 meters, is lined with b
ricks and was covered with a tar-based sealant.[122]
* Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a
toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[123] or
perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[124][125] This ancient stirrup co
nsisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle mad
e of fibre or leather.[125] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm c
limate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[125] A pair o
f megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Juna
pani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrup
s although they could as well be something else.[126] Buddhist carvings in the t
emples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2n
d century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped un
der girths.[127][128][129] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the
earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of t
he world".[129] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where wint
ers are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attache
d to hooked stirrups.[124] However the form, the conception of the primitive Ind
ian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[
125][128]
* Universal Serial Bus: Computer architect Ajay Bhatt was the co-inventor of
the Universal Serial Bus (USB).[130][131][132]
Computer-aided reconstruction of Harappan coastal settlement at Sokhta Koh near
Pasni on the westernmost outreaches of the civilization
* Urban planning: Remains of major Indus cities (mature period c. 2600 1900 BC
E) display distinct characteristics of urban planning such as streets crossing e
ach other at right angles, well arranged rows of structures as well as neatly bu
ilt, covered drainage and sewage lines, complete with maintenance sumps, running
along backlanes.[133][134] Drains in the ancient maritime city of Lothal for ex
ample, designed to be able to take out the city s entire domestic sewage and storm
-water were mostly underground, and built to high levels of uniformity, whereby
the slopes never exceed 1 in 10,000.[134][135] In terms of segregation, Lothal w
as divided into three districts: the citadel, the lower town and the dockyard, w
hich were further divided into smaller administration centres, all having well p
lanned infrastructure such as wide, straight roads along neatly arranged buildin
gs to suit their purpose.[134][136] Such planning is also evident from remains o
f Mohenjo-Daro, a city to the north-west of Lothal, which appears to have been b
uilt adhering to a complex level of city grid planning.[133][137] This leads arc
haeologists to the conclusion that these cities were conceived entirely if not t
o a large extent before they were built the earliest known manifestation of urban
planning.[133][138][139]
* Wind-powered device: The ancient Sinhalese used the monsoon winds to power
furnaces as early as 300 BC. Evidence has been found in Anuradhapura and other
cities around Sri Lanka.[140]
* Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common
era.[33] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, C
hina, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where i
t became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this man
ufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Chris
tian era.[34][35]
[edit] Discoveries
[edit] Agriculture
Jute plants Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis cultivated first in Ind
ia.
* Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in
the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[141] The woolen shawls made from wool in
Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11t
h century AD.[142] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditi
onally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employe
d weavers from Central Asia.[142]
* Cotton: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civil
ization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[143] The Indus cotton in
dustry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabricati
on continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[144] We
ll before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to th
e Mediterranean and beyond.[145]
 * Diamond Gemstones: Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India.[1
46] Golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India.[146] D
iamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[146] E
arly references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[147] India remain
ed the only major source of diamonds in the world until the discovery of diamond
s in Brazil.[148] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[
148] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BC mention it as a well-known an
d precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting.[149] Another
Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strengt
h, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive proper
ties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[149] A Chinese work from the 3rd c
entury BC mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward
off evil influences".[149] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their coun
try, initially did not use diamond as a jewel but used as a "jade cutting knife"
.[149]
* Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was
also the earliest major center for its production and processing.[150] The Indi
gofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[150] Indigo, used
as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, an
d was valued as a luxury product.[150]
* Jute: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[151] Raw jute
was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.
[151] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj i
n India.[151] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, an
d remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Ko
lkata became a center for jute processing in India.[151]
* Sugar: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asi
a.[152] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barbe
ri originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[
152] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[153]
and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[154] The process w
as soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[154] Chinese documen
ts confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining te
chnology for sugar-refining.[155] Each mission returned with results on refining
sugar.[155]
[edit] Mathematics
The Hindu-Arabic numeral system. The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1st m
illennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas.
Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (476 550) was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 AD).[156]
Brahmagupta's theorem (598 668) states that AF = FD.
Explanation of the sine rule in Yuktibhasa.
* 0: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation
is attributed to India.[157] In India, practical calculations were carried out
using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even
in case of division.[157][158]
* AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-pr
oving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Ka
npur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on Au
gust 6, 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[159][160] Commenting on the impac
t of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within t
he mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing
problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wonder
ing what else has been similarly overlooked".[160][161]
 * Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abb
reviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[162] He employed abbreviations for m
ultiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[162] Brahmagupta also used ab
breviations for square roots and cube roots.[162]
* Analysis, classical: Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the founder of
classical analysis,[163] for developing the first Taylor series expansions of tr
igonometric functions and for first making use of an intuitive notion of a limit
to compute his results in infintie series.[164]
* Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) stat
es that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statis
tic.[165][166]
* Binary numbers: The modern system of binary numerals appears in the works
of German polymath Gottfried Leibnitz during the 17th century. However, the firs
t description of binary numbers is found in the chanda?-sastra treatise of the I
ndian mathematician Pingala.[167][168]
* Binomial coefficients: The Indian mathematician Pingala, by 300 BCE, had a
lso managed to work with Binomial coefficients.[169][170]
* Brahmagupta Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta interpolati
on formula Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian
mathematician, Brahmagupta (598 668 CE).[171][172]
* Calculus textbook: The Yuktibhasa, written by Jyesthadeva of the Kerala sc
hool of astronomy and mathematics in circa 1530, is widely considered to be the
first textbook on calculus.[173][174][175][176]
* Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve inde
terminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhaskara II, (c. 1114 1185
CE)[177][178][179] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[1
80] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta s approach to solving equations of this
type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then describe
d a general method of solving such equations.[181] Jayadeva's method was later r
efined by Bhaskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala m
ethod, chakra (derived from cakra? ?????) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant
to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[181][182] With reference to the Chakraval
a method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhask
ara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity
.[177][181][183]
* Decimal number system: The modern decimal number system originated in Indi
a.[184][185][186][187] Other cultures discovered a few features of this number s
ystem but the system, in its entirely, was compiled in India, where it attained
coherence and completion.[184] By the 9th century CE, this complete number syste
m had existed in India but several of its ideas were transmitted to China and th
e Islamic world well before that time.[158][187]
* Derivative and differential: In the 12th century, Bhaskara II developed th
e concept of a derivative and a differential representing infinitesimal change.[
188]
* Differential equation: In 499, the Indian mathematician Aryabhata used a n
otion of infinitesimals and expressed an astronomical problem in the form of a b
asic differential equation. Manjula, in the 10th century, elaborated on this dif
ferential equation in a commentary. This equation was eventually solved by Bhask
ara II in the 12th century.[188]
 * Diophantine equation and Indeterminate equation: The Sulba Sutras (literal
ly, "Aphorisms of the Chords" in Vedic Sanskrit) (c. 700-400 BCE) list rules for
the construction of sacrificial fire altars.[189] Certain Diophantine equations
, particularly the case of finding the generation of Pythagorean triples, so one
square integer equals the of the other two, are also found.[190]
* Fibonacci numbers: The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers named a
fter Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci.[191] Fibonacci's 1202 book Liber Abac
i introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics, although the sequence
had been previously described in Indian mathematics.[191] The so-called Fibonac
ci numbers were also known to the Indian mathematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[170]
* Hindu-Arabic numeral system: The Hindu-Arabic numeral system originated in
India.[192] Graham Flegg (2002) dates the history of the Hindu-Arabic system to
the Indus valley civilization.[192] The inscriptions on the edicts of Ashoka (1
st millennium BCE) display this number system being used by the Imperial Mauryas
.[192] This system was later transmitted to Europe by the Arabs.[192]
* Large numbers: The religious texts of the Vedic Period provide evidence fo
r the use of large numbers.[193] By the time of the last Veda, the Yajurvedasa?h
ita (1200-900 BCE), numbers as high as 1012 were being included in the texts.[19
3] For example, the mantra (sacrificial formula) at the end of the annahoma ("fo
od-oblation rite") performed during the asvamedha ("horse sacrifice"), and utter
ed just before-, during-, and just after sunrise, invokes powers of ten from a h
undred to a trillion.[193]
* Limit: The mathematicians of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematic
s were the first to make use of an intuitive notion of a limit to compute their
results in infinite series.[164]
* Leibniz formula for pi The Leibniz formula for pi was derived in the early
part of the 15th century by Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425 CE), an India
n mathematician and founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics ov
er 200 years before Leibniz.[194][195]
* Mean value theorem: An early version of this calculus theorem was first de
scribed by Parameshvara (1370 1460) from the Kerala school of astronomy and mathem
atics in his commentaries on Govindasvami and Bhaskara II.[196]
* Negative numbers: The use of negative numbers was known in ancient India a
nd their role in mathematical problems of debt and directions between points on
a straight line was understood.[197][198] Mostly consistent and correct rules fo
r working with these numbers were formulated.[158] The diffusion of this concept
led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[197]
* Pascal triangle: The so-called Pascal triangle was solved by the Indian ma
thematician Pingala by 300 BCE.[169][170]
* Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell
's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598 668 CE) was able to find integral solutio
ns to vargaprak?iti (Pell's equation):[199][200] \ x^2-Ny^2=1, where N is a nons
quare integer, in his Brâhma-sphu?a-siddhânta treatise.[200]
* Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for p is attributed to Madhava of
Sangamagrama (c. 1340-1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.
[201][202] He made use of the series expansion of arctanx to obtain an infinite
series expression, now known as the Madhava-Gregory series, for p.[201] Their ra
tional approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of part
icular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging s
eries for p.[164] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,
[164]104348 / 33215 for p correct up to eleven decimal places, i.e. 3.1415926535
9.[194][195]
* Pythagorean theorem: Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhaya
na Sulba Sutra, the best-known Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Py
thagorean triples, such as: (3,4,5), (5,12,13), (8,15,17), (7,24,25), and (12,35
,37)[203] as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a s
quare: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an
area double the size of the original square."[203] It also contains the general
statement of the Pythagorean theorem (for the sides of a rectangle): "The rope s
tretched along the length of the diagonal of a rectangle makes an area which the
vertical and horizontal sides make together."[203]
* Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan
graph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Rama
nujan in the early 20th century.[204]
* Rolle's theorem: The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was f
irst stated by the Indian mathematician, Bhaskara II, in the 12th century.[205]
* Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in
an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Ary
abhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[162] By t
he 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, e
ven for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[162] Brahmagupta als
o managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[162] By the 7th
century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except f
or the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[162] A dot symbol for n
egative numbers was also employed.[162] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cros
s, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when wri
tten just after the number affected.[162] The '=' sign for equality did not exis
t.[162] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notat
ion was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics
in full and without symbols.[206]
* Taylor-Maclaurin series: In the 14th century, the earliest examples of the
Taylor-Maclaurin series were first given by Madhava of Sangamagrama and his suc
cessors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics. They found a number o
f special cases of the Taylor series, including those for the trigonometric func
tions of sine, cosine, tangent, and arctangent. They also found the second-order
Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approxima
tion for sine.[207][208][209]
* Trigonometric functions: The trigonometric functions sine and versine were
discovered by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[210
][211]
[edit] Medicine
Cataract in the Human Eye magnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Ind
ian surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE.
Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. Upendranath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 -
February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly era
dicate Visceral leishmaniasis.
* Anesthesia: Anesthesia was known to Sushruta, who used to give herbal wine
as anesthetic before he performed surgeries.
* Angina pectoris: The concept of Hritshoola literally heart pain was known to S
ushruta (6th century BCE).[95] Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007) hold that: 'It embodies
all the essential components of present day definition, i.e. site, nature, aggra
vating and relieving factors and referral."[95] Sushruta also linked this kind o
f pain to obesity (medoroga).[95]
* C-section: Susruta was known to have performed C-section from 6th century
BCE.
* Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushr
uta (6th century BCE).[212] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a spec
ial tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens an
d push the cataract out of the field of vision.[212] The eye would later be soak
ed with warm butter and then bandaged.[212] Though this method was successful, S
usruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely
necessary.[212] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these
surgeries were performed by physicians.[212] The removal of cataract by surgery
was also introduced into China from India.[213]
* Circulatory system: The knowledge of circulation of vital fluids through t
he body was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE).[95] He also seems to possess kn
owledge of the arteries, described as 'channels' by Dwivedi & Dwivedi (2007).[95
]
* Diabetes: Sushruta (6th century BCE) identified Diabetes and classified it
as Madhumeha.[95] He further identified it with obesity and sedentary lifestyle
, advising exercises to help cure it.[95]
* Hypertension: Sushruta (6th century BCE) explained hypertension in a manne
r which matches the modern symptoms of the disease.[95]
* Inoculation and Variolation: The earliest record of inoculation and variol
ation for smallpox is found in 8th century India, when Madhav wrote the Nidana,
a 79-chapter book which lists diseases along with their causes, symptoms, and co
mplications.[214] He included a special chapter on smallpox (masurika) and descr
ibed the method of inoculation to protect against smallpox.[214]
* In vitro fertilization :Dr. Subash Mukherjee was the first to successfully
use human menopausal gonadotrophins (hMG) for ovulation stimulation in an IVF p
rogramme to ensure the availability of multiple ovarian follicles for aspiration
, was the first to approach the ovaries via the vaginal route by posterior colpo
tomy. The transvaginal route is the most widely used approach to the ovaries for
follicular aspiration under ultrasonographic guidance, was the first person to
have succeeded in freezing and thawing human embryos using a reagent (DMSO) whic
h is now very commonly used for freezing embryos, was the first to have aspirate
d oocytes in a stimulated cycle, fertilize them invitro and freeze the embryos i
n that cycle, recover and thaw and transfer them into the uterus during the foll
owing natural cycle. This Procedure is been followed by several other clinics su
ccessfully now.
* Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is d
escribed in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[215]
However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of
leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-ved
a (1500 1200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[216]
* Metabolism:Charaka had knowledge about the metabolic processes and digesti
on. His book Charaka Samhita describes the various processes.
* Molecular Biology:Har Gobind Khoranawas awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiol
ogy or Medicine (shared with Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg) in
1968 for his work on the interpretation of the genetic code and its function in
protein synthesis.
 * Obesity: Obesity was known to Sushruta (6th century BCE), who also related
it with diabetes and heart disorder.[95] He recommended physical work in order
to help cure it and its side effects.[95]
* Stones: The earliest operation for curing stone is also given in the Sushr
uta Samhita (6th century BCE).[217] The operation involved exposure and going up
through the floor of the bladder.[217]
* Veterinary medicine: The Egyptian Papyrus of Kahun (1900 BCE) and literatu
re of the Vedic period in India offer the first written records of veterinary me
dicine.[218] One of the edicts of Ashoka (272 - 231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King
Piyadasi (Asoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospi
tals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he o
rdered that they be bought and planted."[60]
* Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practit
ioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (December 19, 1873 - February 6, 1946) was nomina
ted for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of '
ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease
, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[219] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishm
aniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea
Stibamine.[220] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmanias
is was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions
.[220]
[edit] Mining
* Diamond: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[149][2
21][222] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found al
ong the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were fi
rst mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[223] Indi
a remained the world's only source of diamonds until the 18th century.[224][225]
* Zinc: Zinc was first recognised as a metal in India.Zinc metal extraction
was one of the most difficult extractions but not for Indians.[226][227] Zinc mi
nes of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BCE.[228] There ar
e references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[228] Th
e Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th cent
ury CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which
is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[22
8][229] The metal extraction was then stolen by the Chinese and then used by Wil
liam Champion for his metallurgy of zinc.
[edit] Science
Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form.
A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein t
hat is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that
lie on the axes indicate N- and C-terminal residues for each subunit. The green
regions show possible angle formations that include Glycine, while the blue are
as are for formations that don't include Glycine.
* Atomism: The earliest references to the concept of atoms date back to Indi
a in the 6th century BCE.[230][231] The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools developed
elaborate theories of how atoms combined into more complex objects (first in pai
rs, then trios of pairs).[232][233] The references to atoms in the West emerged
a century later from Leucippus whose student, Democritus, systematized his views
. In approximately 450 BCE, Democritus coined the term átomos (Greek: ?t?µ??), which
means "uncuttable" or "the smallest indivisible particle of matter", i.e., some
thing that cannot be divided. Although the Indian and Greek concepts of the atom
 were based purely on philosophy, modern science has retained the name coined by
Democritus.[234]
* Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy managed to
synthesize NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done
so.[235] Prior to Ray s synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the comp
ound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the p
rocess.[235]
* Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha publis
hed a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he perfo
rmed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron s
cattering.[236] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering,
in honor of his contributions in the field.[236]
* Bose Einstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On June 4, 1924 the Bengali
professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Ein
stein entitled Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's
influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal P
hilosophical Magazine.[237] The paper introduced what is today called Bose stati
stics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum
from the assumption that light was made of photons.[237][238] Einstein, recogni
zing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted
it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift für Physik.[237][238] Einstein
later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted th
e Bose-Einstein condensate.[238][239]
* Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named afte
r Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 fo
r his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.[240]
* Cosmic ray showers, theoretical explanation of: In 1936, physicist Homi Je
hangir Bhabha collaborated with Walter Heitler to formulate a theory on cosmic r
ay showers.[241] They conjectured that the showers were formed by the cascade pr
oduction of gamma rays and positive and negative electron pairs.[241] In this pr
ocess, high energy electrons passing through matter would turn into high energy
photons by means of the bremsstrahlung process.[241] The photons then produced a
positive and negative electron pair, which then led to additional production of
photons.[241] This process continued until the energy of the particles went bel
ow a critical value.[241]
* Formal language and formal grammar: The 4th century BCE Indian scholar Pa?
ini is regarded as the forerunner to these modern linguistic fields.[242]
* Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Jagadish Chandra
Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.[243] The
Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals comprising of shortwave,
white light and ultraviolet light.[243] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena
Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena.[244]
* Linguistics: The study of linguistics in India dates back at least two and
one-half millennia.[245] During the 5th century BCE, the Indian scholar Pa?ini
had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morpholo
gy.[245]
* Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistic
ian Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (June 29, 1893 June 28, 1972), this distance meas
ure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analy
ze differing pattern with respect to one base.[246]
 * Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 b
y the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Jo
urnal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[235] The discovery contributed as a base for
significant future research in the field of chemistry.[235]
* Metrology: The inhabitants of the Indus valley developed a sophisticated s
ystem of standardization, using weights and measures, evident by the excavations
made at the Indus valley sites.[247] This technical standardization enabled gau
ging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for c
onstruction.[247] Calibration was also found in measuring devices along with mul
tiple subdivisions in case of some devices.[247]
* Molecular biophysics: Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran is conside
red one of the founders of the rapidly developing field of molecular biophysics,
[248] for bringing together different components such as peptide synthesis, X-ra
y crystallography, NMR and other optical studies, and physico-chemical experimen
tation, together into the one field of molecular biophysics. He founded the firs
t Molecular Biophysics Unit in 1970.[249]
* Panini-Backus Form: Pa?ini's grammar rules have significant similarities t
o the Backus Naur Form or BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languag
es, hence the notation is sometimes referred to as the Panini Backus Form.[250][25
1][252]
* Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachan
dran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ra
machandran, who published his results in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 196
3. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool f
or communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[249]
* Raman effect: The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wav
elength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The ph
enomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 192
8. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical
compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of
the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wave
length. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incide
nt light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[253]
* Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Rayc
haudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity t
heorems of general relativity.[254]
* Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scient
ist Meghnad Saha (October 6, 1893 February 16, 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ion
izations in context of stellar atmospheres.[255]
* Universe: The earliest known philosophical models of the universe are foun
d in the Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy dat
ing back to the late 2nd millennium BC. They describe ancient Hindu cosmology, i
n which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and r
ebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Hindu and Buddhist philosophers
also developed a theory of five classical elements: Vayu (air), Ap (water), Agn
i (fire), Prithvi/Bhumi (earth) and Akasha (aether). In the 6th century BC, Kana
da, founder of the Vaisheshika school, developed a theory of atomism and propose
d that light and heat were varieties of the same substance.[256] In the 5th cent
ury AD, the Buddhist atomist philosopher Dignaga proposed atoms to be point-size
d, durationless, and made of energy. They denied the existence of substantial ma
tter and proposed that movement consisted of momentary flashes of a stream of en
ergy.[257]
[edit] Innovations
Housed at the Musée Guimet, Paris: 17th century Ivory relief from Tamil Nadu, Indi
a. Ivory has been used in India since the Indus Valley Civilization.
* Bhatnagar-Gross-Krook: The operator is named after Prabhu Lal Bhatnagar, E
. P. Gross, and Max Krook, the three scientists who introduced it in a paper in
Physical Review in 1954.[258]
* BCH code: The BCH error detecting codes were discovered by Hocquenghem, Bo
se & Ray-Chaudhuri by 1960, and are named after their inventors.[259]
* Pati-Salam model: A mainstream Grand Unification Theory proposed by Jogesh
Pati in collaboration with Abdus Salam in 1974.[260][261]
* Ivory: The use of ivory in India dates to the Indus Valley Civilization (2
300-1750 BCE).[262] Archaeological excavations have yielded combs, buttons, and
other material made from Ivory.[262] The use of ivory for making figurines in In
dia continued into the 6th century BCE.[262] Banglapedia (2008) holds that: "Sto
ne inscriptions found at the ruins of Sanchi Stupa speak of trading in ivory cra
fts at Bidisha in the 1st century BC. During the Sung rule (1st century BCE) ivo
ry craftsmen were engaged to work on the gates of the stupas at Bharhut, Buddhga
ya and Sanchi. Ivory artefacts dating from the Sung period meant for cosmetic us
e have also been found at Chandraketu Garh in West Bengal. Ivory crafts were als
o popular during the Kushan period, as suggested by the abundance of ivory artef
acts found at Taxila and Begram.".[262]
* Public bathing: According to John Keay the Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro was
the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool', complete with stairs leading dow
n to the water at each one of its ends.[263] The bath is housed inside a larger mo
re elaborate building and was used for public bathing.[263]
* Radio: In 1894, the Bengali physicist, Jagdish Chandra Bose, demonstrated
publicly the use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patent
ing his work.[264] He also ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using
electromagnetic waves, showing independently that communication signals can be
sent without using wires. In 1896, the Daily Chronicle of England reported on hi
s UHF experiments: "The inventor (J.C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distan
ce of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuab
le application of this new theoretical marvel." The 1895 public demonstration by
Bose in Calcutta was before Marconi's wireless signalling experiment on Salisbu
ry Plain in England in May 1897.[265][266]
* Same language subtitling: Same Language Subtitling (SLS) refers to the ide
a of subtitling in the same language as the audio, converse to the original idea
of subtitling, which was to present a different language.[267][268] This idea w
as struck upon by Brij Kothari, who believed that SLS makes reading practice an
incidental, automatic, and subconscious part of popular TV entertainment, at a l
ow per-person cost to shore up literacy rates in India. His idea was well receiv
ed by the Government of India who now uses SLS on several national channels.[267
][268] For his idea, Kothari was adjudged a winner at the Development Marketplac
e the World Bank s Innovation Award which gave him enough funds to implement this p
rogramme nationally. The innovation has been recognised by the Institute for Soc
ial Inventions, UK and the Tech Museum of Innovations, San Jose, USA.[267][268]
* Simputer: The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual
people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, design
ed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers ar
e deemed inappropriate. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian I
nstitute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with E
ncore India, a company based in Bangalore.[269][270] Originally envisaged to bri
ng internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today w
idely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-govern
ance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organization
s.[271][272]
* Wilson-Bappu effect: In a paper published in 1957, American astronomer Oli
n Chaddock Wilson and Manali Kallat Vainu Bappu had described what would later b
e known as the Wilson-Bappu effect.[273] The effect as described by L.V. Kuhi is
: 'The width of the Ca II emission in normal, nonvariable, G, K, and M stars is
correlated with the visual absolute magnitude in the sense that the brighter the
star the wider the emission.'[273] The paper opened up the field of stellar chr
omospheres for research.[274]
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ The term "India" in this article refers to the Indian Sub-continent.
The term India as used here is what was referred to as Bharat for centuries. Bha
rat is what the majority of Indians call their country even today.
[edit] See also
* History of science and technology in India
* Inventions of the Islamic Golden Age
* List of Chinese inventions
* List of Japanese inventions
* List of Korean inventions
* Timeline of historic inventions
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ortant when large numbers were fired rapidly in mass attacks. They were particul
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256. ^ Durant (1935):
"Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical theories suggestively
similar to those of Greece. Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy, held
that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. Th
e Jains more nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were o
f the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. K
anada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; Udayana tau
ght that all heat comes from the sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, interpreted l
ight as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye.
"
257. ^ Stcherbatsky (2003), page 19:
"The Buddhists denied the existence of substantial matter altogether.
Movement consists for them of moments, it is a staccato movement, momentary flas
hes of a stream of energy... "Everything is evanescent ,... says the Buddhist, bec
ause there is no stuff... Both systems [Sankhya, and later Indian Buddhism] shar
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[edit] External links
* Essays on Indian Science and Technology.
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