Table of Content

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... 4

List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 6
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Rotary Drilling System ...................................................................................................... 6
1.2.1 Rotating mechanism ................................................................................................ 7
1.2.2 Drilling Rods ............................................................................................................. 8
1.2.3 Impregnated Core Diamond Bits .............................................................................. 8
1.2.4 Impregnated Diamond Segment .............................................................................. 9
1.2.5 Cutting Mechanism ................................................................................................ 10
1.2.6 Core Extraction ....................................................................................................... 10
1.2.7 Mud/air circulation system – Flushing ................................................................... 11
1.2.8 Weight on Bit.......................................................................................................... 12
1.3 Brazing ............................................................................................................................ 13
1.4 Electrical Induction and Heating .................................................................................... 13
1.5 Automation (PLC Controller) .......................................................................................... 14
1.6 Project Outline ............................................................................................................... 15
1.6.1 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................... 15
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 16
2.1 Joining Processes .............................................................................................................. 16
2.1.1 Temporary joining processes ................................................................................. 16
2.1.2 Permanent joining processes ................................................................................. 16
2.1.3 Welding .................................................................................................................. 16
2.1.4 Soldering................................................................................................................. 17
2.1.5 Brazing .................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Steps of Brazing .............................................................................................................. 17
2.3 Basics of Brazing ............................................................................................................. 17
2.3.1 Types of Braze Joints .............................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Filler Metal ............................................................................................................. 20
2.3.3 Brazing Flux ............................................................................................................ 22

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 2.3.4 Brazing Parameters ................................................................................................ 22
2.3.4.1 Gap ......................................................................................................................... 23
2.3.4.2 Capillary flow .......................................................................................................... 23
2.3.4.4 Applied Pressure .................................................................................................... 24
2.4 Heat Sources for Brazing ................................................................................................ 24
2.4.1 Induction ................................................................................................................ 24
2.4.2 Infrared ................................................................................................................... 25
2.4.3 Furnace/ovens ........................................................................................................ 25
2.4.4 Torch....................................................................................................................... 26
2.5.4 Heating Method Selection ..................................................................................... 26
2.7 Basics of Electrical Induction Brazing ............................................................................. 28
2.7.1 Mechanisms of Induction Heat Generation ........................................................... 28
2.7.2 Electromagnetic Properties .................................................................................... 29
2.7.2.3 Skin Effect ............................................................................................................... 31
2.7.2.4 Proximity Effect ...................................................................................................... 32
2.7.2.5 Slot Effect ............................................................................................................... 33
2.8 Components of Induction Heating System .................................................................... 34
2.9 Thermal Properties of Materials .................................................................................... 35
2.9.1 Thermal Conductivity ............................................................................................. 35
2.9.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity .............................................................. 36
2.10 Estimation of Required Power ....................................................................................... 36
2.11 Industrial Applications.................................................................................................... 37
2.12 Basics of PLC ................................................................................................................... 38
2 2.10.1 PLC Programming Languages .............................................................................. 39
FILLER METAL SELECTION .................................................................................... 40
3.1 Objective ........................................................................................................................ 40
3.2 Apparatus ....................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Materials ........................................................................................................................ 40
3.4 Theory: ........................................................................................................................... 41
3.5 Apparatus setup: ............................................................................................................ 41
3.6 Procedure: ...................................................................................................................... 42
3.7 Observations & calculations:.......................................................................................... 44

2
 3.8 Result:............................................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 45
ANEEXURE 1 DATA SHEETS

3
 List of Figures

FIGURE 1: SHOWING LABELLED ROTARY DRILLING RIG SET UP............................................. 7

FIGURE 2: CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW OF DRILL PIPE WITH INTERNAL THREADS AT ONE END

AND EXTERNAL THREAD AT OTHER END FOR COUPLING. ............................................... 8

FIGURE 3: PARTS OF CORE DIAMOND BIT. ............................................................................. 9

FIGURE 4: SHOWS CUTTING MECHANISM OF DIAMOND DRILL BIT. ...................................... 10
FIGURE 5: SHOWS CUTTING MECHANISM OF DIAMOND DRILL BIT. ...................................... 11
FIGURE 6: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MUD FLUSHING. ......................................................... 12
FIGURE 7: WEIGHT ON BIT VS RATE OF PENETRATION, FOR 6.25” DIA IMPREGNATED
DIAMOND CORE BIT TYPE WHILE DRILLING ST. BEES SANDSTONE, ENGLAND. ............ 12

FIGURE 8: INDUCTION HEATING APPLICATION .................................................................... 14

FIGURE 9: BASIC FLOW CHART OF PLC SYSTEM ................................................................. 14
FIGURE 10: BUTT JOINT ..................................................................................................... 19
FIGURE 11: LAP JOINT ........................................................................................................ 19
FIGURE 12: ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY CHART OF COMMON METALS ................................... 30
FIGURE 13: A) FIELD LINES ARE CONCENTRATED BETWEEN WORK COIL AND WORK PIECE, 33
FIGURE 14: A) FIELD LINES ARE CONCENTRATED ONLY BETWEEN WORK COIL AND WORK

PIECE, .......................................................................................................................... 34

FIGURE 15: SHOWS HOW MAGNETIC FIELD LINES ARE CONCENTRATED TOWARDS CENTER,

AND DIVERGED IN OUTER SIDE .................................................................................... 34

FIGURE 16: BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PLC CIRCUIT ........................................................ 39

FIGURE 17: SAW BLADE JOINT STRENGTH TESTER AUTOMATIC MACHINE. .......................... 42
FIGURE 18: AUTOMATED INDUCTION BRAZING MACHINE SETUP. ....................................... 42
FIGURE 19: CIRCULAR BLADE MOUNTED ON STRENGTH TESTER MACHINE AFTER BRAZING.
2S AND 2F, LABELLED ON BLADE, SHOWS BAG-6 SLOW AND FAST BRAZING

RESPECTIVELY. ........................................................................................................... 43

FIGURE 20: VIEW SHOWING FILLER METAL ROD AT LEFT SIDE, AND DRAWN 0.3MM SHEETS
AT RIGHT. .................................................................................................................... 43

4
 List of Tables

TABLE 1: ROTATIONAL SPEED OF STANDARD DIAMOND BITS ............................................... 8

TABLE 2: STANDARD DIAMOND BIT SIZES ............................................................................ 9
TABLE 3: COMPARING DIFFERENT FLUIDS USED IN ROTARY DRILLING FOR

FLUSHING/CLEANING OF BOREHOLE. ........................................................................... 11

TABLE 4: COMMON SELECTION CRITERIA FOR FILLER METALS. .......................................... 20

TABLE 5: RELATION BETWEEN SILVER CONTENT AND GAP ................................................. 23
TABLE 6: COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT HEAT SOURCES. ........................................... 26
TABLE 7: LIST OF MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES USED IN FILLER METALS SELECTION

EXPERIMENTS .............................................................................................................. 40

TABLE 8: SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF FILLER METAL SELECTION EXPERIMENT. ................... 44

5
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

With the advancement in Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, different methods of

joining metals are being discovered and used in industry. Because of a large size, high
degree of shape complexity, or wide variation in required properties, it is not uncommon
for manufactured products to contain components that are actually joint assemblies of two
or more smaller parts. These parts might be smaller and therefore easier to handle
simpler, simpler shapes that are easier to manufacture, or segments that have been made
from different materials. A wide variety of consolidation processes have been developed
to facilitate the joining, fabrication and assembly. The joining processes includes
welding, brazing and soldering, as well as the use of discrete fasteners, such as nuts,
bolts, screws and rivets. Advancements in engineering fields is directly linked to the
development processes in country.

Due to development in northern areas of Pakistan for CPEC and hydro power plants,
large structures are being constructed in those areas. Structural design of mega structures
like dams, bridges, power plants, highways and tunnels depends upon bearing capacity
and other parameters of subsurface rocks. Process of bearing capacity calculation is
known as geotechnical investigation. In geotechnical investigation, boreholes are drilled
in rock upto several hundred meters below ground level through rotary drilling method.
Rock samples are extracted at equal intervals, which are then tested and analyzed to
calculate bearing capacities of rock on which structures rest. The reason we do core
drilling is to examine the properties of rock and soil. Mostly rotary drilling systems are
used to examine hard rocks and different type of soils.

1.2 Rotary Drilling System

Rotary drilling system is used to drill into hard underground rocks and concretes. A
typical rotary drilling machine is shown in figure 1. It is used widely in many industries
and operations, some of which are listed as under;
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  underground mining industry,
 surface quarry field,
 geological exploration,
 construction job sites,
 anchoring,
 bolting,
 consolidation applications,
 dimensional stone sites,
 dams consolidation,
 underwater drilling,
 special drilling applications.

Figure 1: Showing labelled rotary drilling rig set up.

The main process involves a cutting tool, known as drill bit, being rotationally driven into
rock to cut through it. Basic system includes;

1.2.1 Rotating mechanism

It rotates drilling rods using rotational force applied through rotary rig. Rotating speed
depends upon drill bit, machine capacity, underground rock and required drilling

7
progress. Spindle speed is in range of 600-1200 rpm for holes under 125mm diameter, it
decreases for larger diameter holes, as stated in table below;

Table 1: Rotational speed of standard diamond bits

Main accessory which cuts through rock is the diamond core bit. It is attached at the rod
which is pushed and rotated into the subsurface.

1.2.2 Drilling Rods

Drilling rods have internal threads at one end and external threads at other end (as shown
in figure 2) which enables them to be coupled so they can reach to several hundred meters
depth underground. Length of typical drilling rod is 10 feet. Drilling bit is attached at end
of the rods which is fed into the ground.

Figure 2: Cross sectional view of drill pipe with internal threads at one end and external
thread at other end for coupling.

1.2.3 Impregnated Core Diamond Bits

This drill bit is composed of group of small, industrial grade diamonds set into a metallic,
soft matrix. As the ground is drilled, this matrix will wear away and expose more
diamonds. This is then attached to a drill rod, which is around 10 foot in length, and then

8
 more sections of pipe can be attached to the top of this so a greater depth can be drilled.
The depth that is drilled to is estimated by the number of rods attached to the top of the
drill rod. Inside the drill rod, a core tube is attached to a cable via a latching mechanism.
The core tube is lifted to the surface using the cable, so the solid core can be removed.
There a four standard tube sizes associated with drilling. These are as follows:

Table 2: Standard diamond bit sizes

Fig 1 shows diamond core bit. The drill size used depends on the desired core diameter
and the desired depth of drilling, and the wider the diameter of the tube, the more power
that is required to drive the drilling. The diamond segments consist of industrial grade
diamonds sintered into special metal matrix.

Diamond Segment
Carbon Steel Rod

Figure 3: Parts of core diamond bit.

1.2.4 Impregnated Diamond Segment

Diamond bit consists of sharp cutting edges of laboratory grade impregnated diamond
segments. Diamond segments are manufactured by mixing diamond dust particles in
molten metal matrix, this whole process is known as sintering. During drilling process,
diamond segment’s face wears off and new layer appears which is also abrasive and can
continue drilling. Diamond bits can drill through very hard rocks at high rpm.

9
1.2.5 Cutting Mechanism

Diamond core bit is the main accessory which cuts through hard rock when it is rotated at
specified rpm and fed linear into rock. Sharp cutting edges of bit strikes and penetrates
into rocks. Fig 1.1 shows how cracks are produced and travels away from surface which
is in direct contact with the bit. At point 1, when bit comes in contact with rock, crushed
rock particles are formed and sucked out of the hole, through water or air circulation. At
point 2, cracks are formed which then travels down the hole.

Figure 4: Shows cutting mechanism of diamond drill bit.

1.2.6 Core Extraction

To extract core, the drill rod rotates the diamond bit, spinning it into the ground. As the
drill bit bores through the rock, solid rock is taken into the circular opening at the end of
the bit, into the core tube, and can then be recovered at the surface as it piles up. Once the
core is recovered at the surface it is broken along natural fractures and stored in core trays
to await analysis. A standard core tray can hold around 10 feet of core.

To keep the drill moving through the rock smoothly, the drill must be well lubricated
using water to prevent overheating or sticking. For optimum core extraction, the driller
must listen to the drill to evaluate subsurface conditions. To keep drilling efficient, the
rotation speed, pressure and water circulation must be strictly monitored. Sometimes
when drilling in highly fractured zones, overheating can occur due to a stuck bit. This
issue is usually counteracted by the injection of mud or sawdust to plug fractures in the
rock. Figure below shows core extracted out of a hole at equal intervals. These cores are

10
indexed and stored in a wooden box to analyze geological formations of underground
rocks.

Figure 5: Shows cutting mechanism of diamond drill bit.

1.2.7 Mud/air circulation system – Flushing

As drill bit cuts through rocks, rock cuttings must be transported from bottom of the hole
to the ground. Water, air or mud circulation systems are used based on different
parameters. Fluid is flown into the drilling rod through positive pressure. Fluid comes in
contact with rock cuttings and transport if back to ground through clearance at outer
diameter of the drilling bit, as shown in figure. Comparison of water mud, mud and air
circulation system for borehole cleaning is discussed as under;

Relative Recommended
S.No Fluid Operating Operating Remarks
Cost Depth

1 Water Low 0-5ft Low operating cost, used for shallow drilling
depths
2 Mud Medium 0-200ft Medium operating cost, used widely in
industry for shallow to deep boreholes.
High operating cost due to expensive air
3 Air High 0-300ft compressors. Improved borehole quality and
progress. Very high cost at deep boreholes.

Table 3: Comparing different fluids used in rotary drilling for flushing/cleaning of

borehole.

11
 Figure 6: Schematic diagram of mud flushing.

1.2.8 Weight on Bit

An essential part of the drilling process is adding force to the drill bit in order to
successfully break the rock. Weight on the Bit, or WOB, is the amount of downward
force exerted on the drill bit provided by thick-walled tubular pieces in the drilling
assembly that are known as drill collars. The downward force of gravity on these steel
tubes provide force for the drill bit in order to effectively break the rock. Brazing process
must be optimized for greater joint strength so it can withstand weight on bit.

Figure 7: Weight on bit vs rate of penetration, for 6.25” dia Impregnated diamond core
bit type while drilling St. Bees Sandstone, England.

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1.3 Brazing

There are many joining or assembly operations where welding may not be the best
choice. Perhaps the heat of welding is objectionable, the materials possess poor
weldability, welding is too expensive, or the joint involves thin or dissimilar materials. In
such cases low temperature joining methods may be preferred. These include brazing,
soldering, adhesive joining, and the use of mechanical fasteners. In brazing and soldering,
the metal surfaces are cleaned, the components assembled or fixture, and a low melting
point nonferrous metal is then melted, drawn into the space between the two solid
surfaces by capillary action, and allowed to solidify. Adhesive bonding utilizes a
nonmetallic filler material (often a polymerizable resin) to fill the space between the
surfaces to be joined.

1.4 Electrical Induction and Heating

Induction heating is the process of heating an electrically conducting object (usually

a metal) by electromagnetic induction, through heat generated in the object by eddy
currents. An induction heater consists of an electromagnet, and an electronic
oscillator that passes a high-frequency alternating current (AC) through the
electromagnet. The rapidly alternating magnetic field penetrates the object,
generating electric currents inside the conductor called eddy currents. The eddy currents
flowing through the resistance of the material heat it by Joule heating.
In ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials like iron, heat may also be generated by
magnetic hysteresis losses. The frequency of current used depends on the object size,
material type, coupling (between the work coil and the object to be heated) and the
penetration depth.

An important feature of the induction heating process is that the heat is generated inside
the object itself, instead of by an external heat source via heat conduction. Thus objects
can be heated very rapidly. In addition there need not be any external contact, which can
be important where contamination is an issue. Induction heating is used in many
industrial processes, such as heat treatment in metallurgy. Simple induction heating
application is shown below in figure 4.

13
 Figure 8: Induction heating application

1.5 Automation (PLC Controller)

A Programmable Logic Controller, or PLC, is a ruggedized computer used for industrial

automation. These controllers can automate a specific process, machine function, or even
an entire production line.

The PLC can be accurately described as a specialized computer. It differs from a typical
home or office computer, however, in that, while it cannot handle anywhere near the
same diversity of tasks, it does handle the tasks it CAN do at an exceptionally fast speed.
Due to the high-speed process of many automated applications, it is absolutely essential
that a PLC processor not get bogged down or slowed in the way a traditional computer
can. But a fast processor alone will not complete automation tasks as required – the
PLC’s ability to handle thousands of I/Os (inputs, outputs and input-outputs) with a single
processor is what really defines the product as the “brain” of any plc based automated
system. Block diagram of basic PLC circuit is also shown in figure 5.

Figure 9: Basic flow chart of PLC system

14
1.6 Project Outline

Core diamond bits are used to extract underground rock samples for bearing capacity
analysis for big structures on rocks. These samples can be extracted from several hundred
meters below ground level. The main accessory which cuts through the rock is diamond
core drilling bit. These bits are not manufactured in Pakistan. They are mostly imported
from China which takes about one month for transportation to Pakistan with a cost of
$200.

This project includes design and fabrication of automated machine capable of brazing
imported diamond segments to circumference of iron rod.

1.6.1 Aims and Objectives

 Design and manufacturing of induction coil and its brazing mechanism

 Design and manufacturing of tool holding (bit) mechanism
 Design and manufacturing of selection diamond segment feeding mechanism
 Controller design and manufacturing to fully automate the process

15
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Joining Processes

The methods of assembly of parts into a mechanical structure presents a range of options
for engineers to consider, all of which have tradeoffs between manufacturing cost,
performance and impact on the end product’s weight. The type of joining technique is
crucial to manufacturing decisions and therefore significant in design. The availability of
specialized equipment and skilled labor, plus the cost of materials and energy will guide
the decision. There are two main types of joining processes, explained below;

2.1.1 Temporary joining processes

Temporary joining is the process in which joint can be disassembled, without breaking
that joint. The strength of temporary joint is low as compared to the permanent joint.
Temporary joint includes fastners, bolts, press fit and knuckle joints.

2.1.2 Permanent joining processes

Permanent joining is the process in which joint cannot be disassembled, without breaking
that joint, or that assembled component. The strength of permanent is quiet high as
compared to temporary joints. Whereas welding, brazing, soldering, riveting, adhesive
joining are the examples of permanent joining processes.

In this report, permanent joining process will be discussed in detail.

2.1.3 Welding

In field of manufacturing, welding is widely used to join two metals; Welding is the
process of joining two or more metals by application of heat. Welding is the permanent
joining process. The disadvantage of the welding is that it also melts base metals. To
counter this process, we use other permanent joining process; soldering or brazing.

16
2.1.4 Soldering

Soldering is the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using filler metal
which has lower melting temperature then base metals. The different between brazing and
soldering is the melting temperature of filler metals. If the temperature is less then 450 oC
then we use soldering, otherwise if the temperature is above 450 oC, we use brazing.
Brazing is used in high temperature processes.

2.1.5 Brazing

Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together
by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting
point than the adjoining metal. the process of joining two similar or dissimilar metals
using filler metal which has lower melting temperature.

2.2 Steps of Brazing

The brazing process can be broken into the following steps:

 Ensure the correct gap between the base materials

 Choosing correct atmosphere
 Clean the base materials by removing residues, oxides, etc.
 Apply flux to the joint area
 Position, and if necessary clamp the parts to be brazed
 Apply the brazing filler alloy
 Induce the desired heat in the joint area
 Remove any remaining oxides or flux residue

2.3 Basics of Brazing

Brazing is a welding process that is used to join two pieces of base metal using melted
filler which flows across the joint. When the filler metal cools, it creates a solid weld
between the two pieces of metal. The process of brazing is similar in nature to that of
soldering, and brazing forms a very strong welded joint which tends to be stronger than

17
either of the base metals on their own. Brazing allows welders to create a strong weld
and does not cause the base metals to melt or lose their shape while the process is being
completed. The process of brazing is commonly used when the welder needs to create a
joint that is invisible to the naked eye, yet strong enough to hold up in a variety of
temperatures. Joints that are created using the brazing technique are often pliable and can
withstand jolts and twisting. There are several advantages with brazing in comparison
with welding, some of the advantages are:

Economical for fabrication of complex assemblies and assemblies with many components

 Easy to obtain large joint area or long joint length

 Very good stress distribution and heat-transfer properties

 Capable of preserving protective metal coating

 Possible to join cast material to wrought metals

 Ability to join dissimilar materials

 Possible to join metals with varying thickness

Part’s that cannot be joined with other methods is often possible to join with brazing.
Brazing joints is well suited for making complex assemblies with odd shapes and varying
thickness. When the joints are made it is important to keep the tolerances close otherwise
the capillary attraction will not draw the Brazing Filler Metal into the joint. Another
problem with brazing is that the brazed joint is not homogenous, the boundary zone has
different chemical and mechanical properties compared the base metal. Even in some
cases filler metal make the joint more corrosive and brittle, so we have to choose filler
metal more carefully. Joint design also plays important part in successful brazing process.

2.3.1 Types of Braze Joints

There are many kinds of joints, but most braze joints are variations of one of two basic
types – the butt joint and the lap joint

18
Butt Joint

The butt joint gives the advantage of a single thickness at the joint. Preparation of this
type of joint is usually simple, and the joint will have sufficient tensile strength for a good
many applications. However, the strength of the butt joint does have limitations. It
depends, in part, on the amount of bonding surface, and in a butt joint the bonding area
can't be any larger than the cross-section of the thinner member.

Figure 10: Butt Joint

LapJoint

The lap joint gives the double thickness at the joint, but in many applications (plumbing
connections, for example) the double thickness is not objectionable. And the lap joint is
generally self-supporting during the brazing process.

Figure 11: Lap Joint

19
2.3.2 Filler Metal

Filler metal is a metal which is introduced between two metals to be joined. It is poured
into the gap through capillary action. This filler metal is then heated upto its melting
point. Molten filler metals flows through microscopic pores of base metals and hence,
metals are joined after cooling. Filler metal can be used in various forms depending upon
application, joint type and material properties. Filler metals are available in form of wires,
rods, sheets, strips, powders and pastes. It is selected based upon following properties;

 Melting temperature of filler metal must be lower then solidious temperature of

base metal.
 There should be no chemical or physical reaction between filler metal and base
metal.
 Filler metal should have good wettability.
 Chemical composition of filler metal and base metals.

Table 4: Common selection criteria for filler metals.

20
Filler metal is alloy made up of different metals, each added metal has its own benefit and
purpose, hence each added metal serves specific purpose. Purpose and effect of different
added metals is discussed as under.

2.3.2.1 Commonly used elements

There are almost endless possibilities of combinations of elements when selecting a

brazing filler metal and it is necessary to know how each element affects the brazing
process. The most commonly used elements in brazing filler metals for brazing are
presented below.

Nickel

Nickel produces strong and corrosion resistant joints but it tends to prevent flow of the
melted brazing filler metal. It can endure high temperature service and needs alloying
additions of elements such as boron, carbon, chromium or manganese to lower its melting
point.

Gold

Gold is very expensive but has excellent corrosion resistance and can wet most materials;
it has a low rate of interaction with the base metal which makes it suitable for brazing of
thin sections. Gold are generally suitable for continuous service at 425°C and intermittent
service at 540°C depending on the operating environment.

Silver

Silver offers excellent capillary flow but is not suitable for vacuum brazing. It reduces the
melting point of most alloys.

Palladium

Palladium possesses many of the beneficial properties of the gold brazing filler metal, but
at a lower price. It has good corrosion resistance although not as good as the gold-bearing
brazing alloys. Palladium provides higher mechanical strength at elevated temperatures
than gold-bearing alloys. Palladium does not form brittle intermetallics.

21
Chromium

Chromium increases the strength, ductility and corrosion resistance but the downside is
that it impairs wetting of gold/nickel alloys, this can be compensated by additions of
boron or phosphor.

Boron and phosphor

Boron and phosphor lowers the melting point of most metals and at the same time it
increases the wetting characteristics of nickel-base brazes. They rapidly diffuse into the
base metal, which might cause intergranular embrittlement and will therefore greatly
decrease the joint ductility. The rapid diffusion will also increase the remelt temperature,
allowing brazing filler metal to be used for step brazing.

2.3.3 Brazing Flux

If brazing process is carried out in vacuum, no flux is required, since vacuum brazing is
expensive process so we use flux. Fluxes are used to hinder the formulation of oxides and
other useless products during the process. Flux is removed after the process. Flux usually
includes chlorides and other chemicals of halogen category. Better flux must have
following properties;

 Low melting temperature

 Helps in wetting the joint
 Must safeguard joint against oxide formations
 Low viscosity then filler metal.

2.3.4 Brazing Parameters

Brazing process depends upon several parameters which should be decided while
considering all other parameters together.

22
2.3.4.1 Gap

The gap between parts is very important. As shear and tensile strengths heavily depends
upon it. If the gap is too small, the filler metal will not fill the gap properly, or if the gap
is too large, the resulting joint will be weak.

So we have to design optimal gap for best results. The recommended gap for materials
having silver content is as follows;

Silver Content Gap

% mm
> 40 0.05 - 0.1
32-40 0.08 – 0.15
<32 0.1 – 0.2
Table 5: Relation between silver content and gap

2.3.4.2 Capillary flow

Capillary flow is one of the most important parameters in brazing. Capillary attraction
means that the base metal wants to draw the Brazing Filler Metal into the joint gap
between the parts; this is caused by attraction between the molecules in the Brazing Filler
Metal and the base metal. There are several parameters that influence the capillary flow
including; fluidity, viscosity, vapor pressure, gravity and metallurgical reaction between
the base metal and the Brazing Filler Metal. When the joint is accurately spaced and
designed, the molten Brazing Filler Metal is drawn through the joint gap without
producing any voids.

2.3.4.3 Wetting

To achieve good flow the Brazing Filler Metal has to be able to wet the base metal.
Wetting means that the adhesion between the base metal and the molten Brazing Filler
Metal is greater than the liquids cohesive force. In practice it means that the Brazing
Filler Metal spreads on the surface. The filler metal has to be able to dissolve into, or
alloy with the base metal. The capillary space in the joint has to promote wetting
otherwise the filler metal will not be drawn in with capillary attraction. Oxide layers and
contaminated surfaces prevent wetting, making it important to keep the joint clean.

23
2.3.4.4 Applied Pressure

It is important to apply pressure during brazing process. It ensures complete flow of

molten filler metal into pores of base metals. However, in nickel based filler metals,
applied pressure doesn’t effects joint strength. But it is always recommended to apply
minimal pressure during brazing process to get better results.

2.4 Heat Sources for Brazing

There are numerous heating methods available for brazing. The choice of the most
suitable method is affected by many different factors. The most important are:

 Size of assembly
 Production rate/quantity
 Access
 Type of heating
 Heating/cooling rate
 Capital cost
Different heat sources can be used for brazing:
 Induction
 Furnaces
 Infrared
 Torches / flames

2.4.1 Induction

Induction brazing is carried out by inducing electric current into the parts that will be
brazed together. The coils that induce the current are water-cooled. Brazing filler metal
must be preplaced and the design of joints and coils are critical to make sure the joints
reaches brazing temperature at the same time.

Induction brazing is suitable when rapid heating is required and the method is ideal when
good temperature control is desired. It is possible to braze in sequences and to control
which parts to heat making it possible to only heat the joint areas and keep the rest of the

24
component in room temperature. Induction brazing is difficult to use when the assemblies
are complex. The investment cost is also high and the fixturing is more difficult than in a
furnace.

2.4.2 Infrared

Infrared brazing is a type of furnace brazing where the difference is that the heating
occurs by infrared radiation from high-intensity quartz lights. The time and temperature
in infrared brazing can be controlled down to fractions of degrees and seconds. Reflectors
and parabolic focuses is used to control the heat in the furnace. The lamps can reach a
power output of 5000 W making it faster than a traditional furnace.

2.4.3 Furnace/ovens

One of the most commonly used brazing methods is furnace brazing. The popularity
originates from its many advantages such as:

 Minimal fixturing
 Adaptability of the furnace
 Simultaneously brazing of multiple joints
 Highly repeatable
 Option of integrating heat treatmen
t Controlled atmosphere
Furnace brazing is a medium- to high-volume process where the Brazing Filler Metal
needs to be preplaced near or in the joint. The assembly can either be self-fixturing,
fixtured in the furnace or tack-welded before going into the furnace. Distortion is avoided
in furnace brazing due to the gradual and homogeneous heating. Flux is used except when
reduced atmosphere, such as hydrogen or vacuum, and exothermic or exothermic
combusted gas are used in the furnace. Hydrogen furnaces are filled with H2 molecules
that react with the metals oxide layer forming H2O, vacuum furnaces prevents oxides
from forming by keeping the atmosphere free of O2 molecules.

25
 2.4.4 Torch

The simplest braze heating method is manual torch brazing. The most common way to
perform this is by a hand-held torch in one hand and the brazing filler metal rod or wire in
the other. This can be used to perform repairs, one of a kind brazing jobs or small-scale
production. Torch brazing may also be automated by using several machine-mounted
burners; this setup can produce up to a couple of hundred assemblies every hour. Torch
brazing is widely used because of its relatively low costs and portability. The method
resembles welding with the main difference being that only the base metal is heated
during brazing while the filler metal is heated during welding.

2.5.4 Heating Method Selection

The demands on the brazing operation are that it must be carried out in a controlled
atmosphere, the heating source must be able to emit heat on the joint and the brazing
operation must be automated. The complex geometry therefore rules out torch brazing
and induction brazing because the brazing equipment cannot reach the joint, as shown in
table below;

Characteristics
Method Flux Production Complex Feasible
Capital Cost Usage Cost
Required Rate geometry sizes
Torch Large Medium/High Yes Medium Low Large
Furnace Medium/High Medium/High Yes/No High/Low High Large
(atmospher
e)
Furnace High Low No High/Low High Large
(vacuum)
Induction Medium/High Medium/High Yes/No Low Medium Medium
Infrared Medium Low Yes/No Low High Medium
Table 6: Comparison between different heat sources.

26
Induction heating method is selected for brazing of diamond segments with carbon steel
rod because

1. Speedier Solution

Induction heating transfers more energy per square millimeter than an open flame.
Induction can therefore braze more parts per hour than alternative processes. Rapid and
precise heating results in less mass to be heated. And there is less damage to surrounding
insulation.

2. Quicker Throughput

Induction is ideal for in-line integration. Batches of parts no longer have to be taken
aside for separate brazing or sent off site.

3. Consistent Performance

Induction heating is controllable and repeatable. Enter the desired process parameters
and the induction equipment will repeat the heating cycles.

4. Unique Controllability

Induction lets operators view the brazing process, something that is difficult with flames.
This and precise heating minimize the risk of overheating.

5. More Productive Environment

Open flames create uncomfortable working environments. Induction is quiet and clean. It
is easy to extract fumes and there is virtually no increase in ambient temperature.

6. Compact Footprint

EFD Induction brazing equipment has a small footprint. Induction stations slot easily into
production cells and existing layouts. And our compact, mobile systems let you work on
hard-to-access parts.

27
7. No-Contact Process

Induction produces heat within the base metals— and nowhere else. Unlike flame heating
the base metal never comes into contact with the heat source. The homogeneous and
controlled heat minimizes distortion, and there is no danger to create hydrogen
embrittlement.

2.7 Basics of Electrical Induction Brazing

Induction heating was first used in 1831 to heat up metallic materials by scientist Michael
Farady. Through extensive experimentation, Farady concluded that electrical current can
be induced by variable magnetic field. German scientist Heinrich Lenz also played
important role in strengthening our knowledge about electrical induction. He presented a
law known as Lenze’s law which states that induced current is in opposite direction to
applied magnetic field.

Later, this technology was used to manufacture commercial transformers to meet

industrial demands. With technological advancements, metal melting furnaces were
engineered on the basis of induction heating. Heat is generated into metal objects locally
on specific areas due to material properties and magnetic field lines passing through those
areas. In present world, induction heating is widely used in almost all industries where
localized heating is required without heating other areas of the part.

2.7.1 Mechanisms of Induction Heat Generation

Induction heating is a complex process which depends upon electromagnetic fields, heat
transfer, metallurgical effects and electric circuit analysis which are closely linked
together and are linked non-linearly. Physical properties of materials depend upon
magnetic field intensity, temperature and microstructures.

Induction heating works on losses and these losses are induced into work piece which
generates heat. Same losses are present in both transformers and induction heating system
but these are optimized in induction heating system. Joule’s heating effect and hysteresis
losses are two phenomena which induces heat in these systems.

28
When a time varying current is passed through a coil, a time varying magnetic field is
produced in coil’s surroundings with same frequency as applied alternating current’s
frequency. Alternating magnetic field induces eddy currents into the magnetic work piece
present inside coil. Eddy currents are induced in magnetic materials present near the coil.
The direction of eddy currents is opposite to the current applied to the coil. Heat is
produced through Joules effect, I2R.

Joules effect depends upon eddy currents induced into the magnetic work piece. Induced
current depends upon various electromagnetic phenomena, therefore non uniform current
is induced which causes temperature gradients in work piece. Various electromagnetic
phenomena, which cause non uniform distribution, are;

1. Skin Effect
2. Proximity Effect
3. Ring Effect
4. Slot Effect

All of these effects helps to analyze and design an induction heating process. These are
factors effects magnetic field distribution and flow of eddy currents. However,
electromagnetic properties of work piece must also be studied which plays important role
in induction heating system.

2.7.2 Electromagnetic Properties

Electromagnetic properties of materials are parameters which describe material’s

behavior when heated by induction heating. There are numerous electromagnetic
properties but induction system is affected by two main properties, electrical resistivity
and magnetic permeability.

2.7.2.1 Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity describes the ability of material to oppose current flowing through it.
It is denoted by 𝜌. It depends upon resistance and geometrical properties of the material.

29
Electrical resistivity and resistance are not same, but related by following formula for a
given length and cross section of the material;

𝑅𝐴
𝜌=
𝐿

Where, R = resistance (Ω), A = cross sectional area, L = length of material.

Electrical resistivity plays an important role in determining electrical efficiency of system

because more heat will be generated in the material if greater resistance is offered to the
induced current. Different materials have different electrical resistivity values, as shown
in fig 8. Steel is among the materials who provide more resistance to current, whereas,
copper offers low resistance. Resistivity also depends upon temperature, it generally
increases with increase in temperature.

Electrical resistivity affects practically all important parameters of an induction system

including depth of heat generation, temperature distribution, heating efficiency, coil
impedance, and others. An effect of ρ on a particular parameter of the induction system is
discussed further in the text in the appropriate sections.

Figure 12: Electrical resistivity chart of common metals

30
2.7.2.2 Magnetic Permeability

Magnetic permeability describes a material’s property to conduct magnetic flux through

it. Materials having good electrical conductivity also have higher magnetic permeability.
Metals usually have high magnetic permeability, however, plastics and insulated
materials have low permeability. It is defined as the ratio of flux density and magnetic
field strength;

𝐵
𝜇=
𝐻

Where; 𝜇 = magnetic permeability, B = flux density, H = magnetic field strength.

However another term, relative permeability is widely used to relate permeability of

different materials in designing different systems. Relative permeability describes
permeability of material in comparison with permeability of vacuum, free space.
Magnetic and relative magnetic permeability are related through following relation;

𝐵
μr μ0 =
𝐻

Where, μr = relative magnetic permeability, μ0 = magnetic permeability of free space

(vacuum). Product of μr and μ0 is known as magnetic permeability. Relative magnetic
permeability has a marked effect on process parameters selection affecting electrical
phenomena, including the skin effect, electromagnetic edge, and end effect, as well as
proximity and ring effects. Relative permittivity does not usually have a measurable
impact when IH metallic materials, but it plays a major role in dielectric heating
applications.

2.7.2.3 Skin Effect

Skin effect plays important role in deciding different parameters of induction heating
system, such as frequency and magnitude of alternating current. When direct current is
passed through an inductor, current is distributed uniformly over conductor’s cross
section. But current distribution isn’t uniform in case of alternating current. Current
density is maximum at surface and it decreases uniformly from the surface of the

31
conductor to its center. This non uniform distribution of current over a cross section is
known as skin effect. It has inverse relation with frequency, higher the frequency, more
current will be concentrated on surface.

Because of this phenomena, 86% of total power is concentrated in surface layer known as
current penetration depth (ᵹ). Penetration depth is measured in meters using following
formulae;

ρ
ᵹ = 503√
μr F

Where; F= frequency (Hz), ρ = electrical resistivity (Ω*m), and μr =relative magnetic

permeability.

It can be clearly seen from the equation that penetration depth increases with increase in
electrical resistivity of material and decreases with increases in alternating current
frequency. More heat will be transferred.

Electrical resistivity also depends upon temperature. At higher temperatures, ρ also

increases because of which penetration depth is also increased during induction heating
process. Penetration depth, resistivity and frequency are shown below in table 2.1.

2.7.2.4 Proximity Effect

It is assumed that all magnetic field lines interact with work piece to induce eddy
currents. But it is not the case in real applications, all magnetic materials or current
carrying conductors present in surrounding of the system are affected by the process and
some power is lost to the surroundings.

When current carrying conductor is placed near the first coil, current will redistribute in
both conductors. If the current in both conductors is in opposite direction then, the current
is concentrated on the areas facing each other. If the current in both conductors is in same
direction, then current will be concentrated on opposite sides of conductors. This
decreases penetration depth since induced eddy currents are in opposite directions so
current is concentrated more on the surface.

32
2.7.2.5 Slot Effect

When we discussed the proximity effect, first we observe the magnetic field and the
current density distributions in an autonomous conductor carrying the current. The
magnetic field and the current density will be redistributed when an electrically
conductive body (for example, work piece) is placed nearby the current carrying
conductor (fig 9a). Magnetic field is concentrated between the inductor and the work
piece, giving the highest magnetic flux density inside the gap. A significant portion of the
inductor current will flow close to the surface of the conductor facing the work piece. The
rest of the current will be distributed to the sides of the conductor; however, a small part
of the current will occur on its opposite side (fig 9b).

Figure 13: a) field lines are concentrated between work coil and work piece,
b) Charge concentration in conductor
If magnetic flux concentrator or lamination is applied to the conductor (fig 13a),
resistance will be provided to magnetic field lines because of which less magnetic field
lines will travel out of the system (fig 13 a). All current will be concentrated on the
surface facing the work piece and maximum current will be induced in the work piece.
This phenomena is called the slot effect, concentrating field lines on one surface which is
facing the work piece directly to optimize our process and to increase efficiency.

33
 Figure 14: a) field lines are concentrated only between work coil and work piece,
b) charge is concentrated only on the surface facing the work piece

2.7.2.8 Ring Effect

In previous sections we have discussed cross sectional view of field lines produced due to
varying current carrying conductors. If a circular wire is bent in the shape of coil, field
lines concentrate inward, increasing magnetic field density inside the circular wire, as
shown in fig 11. Magnetic field lines will be disbursed outside the ring. So, most of the
current will flow inside the coil and stronger field is generated.

Figure 15: Shows how magnetic field lines are concentrated towards center, and
diverged in outer side
This plays an important role in utilizing more power with less loss. It is beneficial only if
it is used to heat the outer diameter of work piece.

2.8 Components of Induction Heating System

We have seen in previous section that induction heating system is adopted widely by
industry. Its main components are;

34
  Alternating current generator: Alternating current of calculated frequency is
produced. Frequency depends upon material’s electromagnetic and physical
properties of the work piece. It is generally produced by converting AC to DC
using an inverter and then switching process is used to create AC current of
desired frequency.
 Work coil: Alternating current flows through the work coil and magnetic field
lines are produced around it which interact with work piece to induce eddy
currents into it. Work coil varies for every application and it depends upon
geometry of work piece. It is a complete extensive study to design a work coil
because it is the main accessory which induces eddy currents into the work piece.

2.9 Thermal Properties of Materials

2.9.1 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity k designates the rate at which heat travels across a thermally
conductive workpiece. A material with a high k value will conduct heat faster than a
material with a low k. Depending on application specifics, a particular value of k can be
beneficial or unfavorable. For example, choosing a material for an inductor’s refractory
or a liner, a lower value of k is required corresponding to higher thermal efficiency and
lower surface heat losses. Conversely, when the k of the heated material is high, it is
easier to obtain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece, which is
important in through heating applications

However, in selective heating applications (e.g., gear surface hardening or case hardening
of shafts), a high value of k is quite often a disadvantage because of its tendency to
promote heat transfer and equalize the temperature distribution within the workpiece. As
a result of intense heat transfer, the temperature rise will take place not only in the region,
which is to be hardened, but in adjacent areas as well, which are not. The temperature
increase in the adjacent areas of the workpiece increases power consumption, making
process less energy efficient and, in some cases, can negatively affect micro-structural

35
characteristics and residual stresses. A larger than needed amount of heated mass in the
workpiece can also lead to an excessive distortion.

2.9.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

The value of heat capacity C indicates the amount of energy that would have to be
absorbed by the workpiece to achieve a unit of required temperature change.
Mathematically speaking,

𝑑𝑄
𝐶=
𝑑𝑇

Where dQ is the required energy and dT is the required temperature change.

Heat capacity C is measured in J/(mol °C). Heat capacity is closely related to a parameter
called specific heat c, which represents the heat capacity per unit mass, meaning the
amount of the required energy to be absorbed by a unit mass of the material to achieve a
unit temperature increase. The c is measured in J/(kg °C) or Btu/(lb °F). A higher value of
specific heat corresponds to the greater required power to heat a unit mass to a unit
temperature.

2.10 Estimation of Required Power

Since the value of specific heat c represents the amount of the thermal energy required to
be absorbed by a unit mass of the workpiece to achieve a unit temperature increase, an
average value of specific heat c can be used for a ballpark estimate of the required
workpiece power (Pw) to heat a given workpiece to an average temperature rise at the
required production rate. Following equation can be used for this purpose,

𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑚𝑐
𝑡

Where m is the mass of the heated body (kg), c is the average value of specific heat
[J/(kg °C)], Tin and Tf are average values of initial and final temperatures (°C), and t is
the required heat time (s).

36
In engineering calculations, some practitioners prefer to use the value of the heat content
of the material to determine the value of Pw. Heat content is measured in kW hour/t. In
this case, above equation can be rewritten as;

𝑃𝑤 = 𝐻𝐶 ∗ 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

2.11 Industrial Applications

There are countless ways to induce heat into metallic objects. Metallic objects can be
heated through oxy-fuel gas flame, fluidized bed furnace, gas fired furnace, coal fired
furnace, microwave heating, infrared heating, electromagnetic induction heating etc.
However, following are some of the applications of induction heating;

 Heat treatment: Hardening, tempering, stress relieving, annealing, normalizing,

sintering, etc.
 Mass heating: Biller, bar and rod heating, slab and boom heating, strip and plate
heating, wire and cable heating, tube and pipe heating, slug heating, etc.
 Special applications: Joining, brazing, soldering, bonding, shrink fitting, seam
and full body annealing, banding and shaping, sealing coating and plating.
 Industrial applications: Electricity generation and distribution, automobile
industry, appliances (HVAC), sharp cutting tools, diamond abrasive tools.

Every method has its own advantages and disadvantages depending upon application.
However, use of electromagnetic induction heating process has been more popular than
any other method. Process is used in many industries with aid of automation to achieve
good quality. Induction heating process used widely because it has following advantages
over other processes;

 Time saving: It transfers more energy per square millimeter than any other
method. Production rate is higher due to rapid heat transfer with precision.
 Localized heating: Heating of specific areas is possible with this method, unlike
furnaces. It reduces stress concentration in heated part because calculated heat is

37
 transferred into specific location only. Part is not separated from its assembly for
heating so it also saves time.
 Consistency: It is possible to automate the induction heating process to perform
controlled heating cycles of parts over and over again through defining parameters
like cycle time, temperature etc.
 Better controllability: Operator can visually analyze whole induction heating
process because no flames are involved. It is useful when process is operated
manually.
 Better working conditions: Since no flames are involved, it is comfortable
process. It is quiet and clean process, so operator can work for long shifts without
straining or damaging his eyes.

2.12 Basics of PLC

The PLC gets information from various sensors and input devices after which the data is
processed and then an output is given based on pre-programmed parameters.
A PLC machine checks and records time-based entities depending on the inputs and
outputs, such as machine productivity or operating temperature, automatic controlling,
cause warning alarms if a machine malfunctions, and many more. The PLC is an
adaptive, flexible and dynamic control solution for any control system. Fig 12 shows
basic block diagram for PLC circuit design.

The four main parts of all PLCs are; Input Module, Program Module, Output Module,
and Housekeeping. These modules perform their own functions continuously without any
delayed output.

1) Input Module:
Perceives signals from all the sensors and input devices and forwards it to the Central
Processing Unit.
2) PLC Hub (CPU):
Receives data from the input module and processes it according to the logical
program created.
3) Output Module:

38
 Controls the hardware according to the logical output signals the CPU has created.
4) Housekeeping
This includes communications with programming terminals,
internal diagnostics

2 2.10.1 PLC Programming Languages

There are five main languages that are used to create programmable logics for the PLC
machine:

1. Ladder Logic(LI)
2. Structured Text((ST)
3. Functional Block Diagram(FBD)
4. Instruction List(IL)
5. Sequential function chart (IL)

Figure 16: Basic block diagram of PLC circuit

39
 CHAPTER 3

FILLER METAL SELECTION

3.1 Objective

Selection of Brazing filler metals using different brazing parameters.

3.2 Apparatus

 Induction Heater.
 Chemical flux.
 Diamond segments.
 Carbon steel blades.
 Brazing filler metals.
 Strength testing machine.

3.3 Materials

S.No Part Name Material Data Sheet

1 Rod Carbon Steel Not available
2 Diamond Alloy containing diamond dust Not available
Segment particles and metal matrix (iron,
copper, chromium, magnese)
3 BAg-6 Silver based, chromium free Attached in Annexure-
filler metal 1-1
4 ER-308 Copper based filler metal Attached in Annexure-
1-2
5 ER-309 Copper based filler metal Attached in Annexure-
1-3
6 ER-316 Copper based filler metal Attached in Annexure-
1-4
7 United Silver based, rich chromium Not provided by United
Diamond Tool filler metal Diamond Tools (Pvt)
Filler Metal Ltd.
Table 7: List of materials and their properties used in filler metals selection experiments

40
3.4 Theory:

There are many joining or assembly operations where welding may not be the best
choice. Perhaps the heat of welding is objectionable, the materials possess poor weld
ability, welding is too expensive, or the joint involves thin or dissimilar materials. In such
cases low temperature joining methods may be preferred. These include brazing,
soldering, adhesive joining, and the use of mechanical fasteners. In brazing and soldering,
the metal surfaces are cleaned, the components assembled or fixture, and a low melting
point nonferrous metal is then melted, drawn into the space between the two solid
surfaces by capillary action, and allowed to solidify. Adhesive bonding utilizes a
nonmetallic filler material (often a polymerizable resin) to fill the space between the
surfaces to be joined. Brazing is a welding process that is used to join two pieces of base
metal using melted filler which flows across the joint. When the filler metal cools, it
creates a solid weld between the two pieces of metal. The process of brazing is similar in
nature to that of soldering, and brazing forms a very strong welded joint which tends to
be stronger than either of the base metals on their own. Brazing allows welders to create
a strong weld and does not cause the base metals to melt or lose their shape while the
process is being completed. The process of brazing is commonly used when the welder
needs to create a joint that is invisible to the naked eye, yet strong enough to hold up in a
variety of temperatures. Joints that are created using the brazing technique are often
pliable and can withstand jolts and twisting.

3.5 Apparatus setup:

Automated induction brazing machine was used for this experimentation. It was provided
by United Diamond Tools (Pvt) Ltd, I-10, Islamabad. Induction heater is mounted on an
automated brazing machine capable of manufacturing different diamond cutters including
diamond blades and core diamond bits.

41
Automated diamond saw blade brazing strength tester is used for this experiment,
supplied by UDT (Pvt) Ltd. It is capable of testing brazed segments at high applied force.

Figure 17: Saw blade joint strength tester automatic machine.

Figure 18: Automated induction brazing machine setup.

3.6 Procedure:

We have five different brazing filler metals which includes BAg-6, ER-308, ER-309, ER-
316 and UDTFM (United diamond tool filler metal). The diamond segment have 20mm
height, 4mm thickness and 50mm length. All the filler metals are available in rod shapes.

42
  Convert these filler metals into 3mm thick sheet.
 Cut these filler sheets to the same size of segments.
 Apply chemical flux on to the filler sheets.
 Place the blade in the holder and turn on the machine.
 Put the segments on the top of blade just under the woking coil of
induction heater by feeding mechanism.
 Now first heat the filler metal slowly and note the heating time and
temperature
 This time heat the filler metal rapidly and note the heating time and
temperature.
 Now after segments are brazed with the blades , then do a strength check
test.
 Repeat this experiment for all the filler metals.

Figure 19: Circular blade mounted on strength tester machine after brazing. 2s and 2f,
labelled on blade, shows Bag-6 slow and fast brazing respectively.

Figure 20: View showing filler metal rod at left side, and drawn 0.3mm sheets at right.

43
3.7 Observations & calculations:

Frequency Range: 30-90 KHz

Strength tester range: 0-22 N

Heating time(s) Brazing Brazing

Filler
Sr. Thickness temperature temperature
metals
No. (mm) (°C) for slow (°C) for rapid
Rapid Slow heating heating

1 ER-309 0.3 10 21 _ _

2 BAg-6 0.3 11 21 490 500

3 ER-316 0.3 14 25 _ _

4 ER-308 0.3 13 22 _ _

5 UDTFM 0.3 10 12 330 300

Table 8: Summary of results of filler metal selection experiment.

3.8 Result:

By performing this experiment, we conclude that only BAg-6 and UDT filler metals are
successfully brazed with blade and diamond segments. All other filler metals are not able
to brazed as in some cases filler metal doesn’t even melt up to 600°C as it was the
maximum range of the electric induction brazing machine and the diamond segments
because after this temperature it may change the properties of the segment also. The two
filler metals which are selected then go through the strength testing machine which has
the range up to 22N . both BAg-6 and UDT filler metal also passed the strength test and
does not fail up to 22N force. So BAg-6 and UDT filler metal are selected.

44
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 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction
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 http://www.efd-induction.com
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 Handbook of Induction Heating by Valery Rudnev
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 General Brazing Guidelines by National Certified Pipe Welding Bureau, US
 The impact of brazing parameters by Andrzej PIECZARA.
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