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1 Electron properties
With the development of quantum mechanics and experi-
mental findings (like the two slits difraction of electrons),
it was found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus
could not be fully described as particles, but needed to be
The shapes of the first five atomic orbitals: 1s, 2s, 2pₓ, 2p , and
2p . The colors show the wave function phase. These are graphs explained by the wave-particle duality. In this sense, the
of ψ(x, y, z) functions which depend on the coordinates of one electrons have the following properties:
electron. To see the elongated shape of ψ(x, y, z)2 functions Wave-like properties:
that show probability density more directly, see the graphs of d-
orbitals below.
1. The electrons do not orbit the nucleus in the sense of
a planet orbiting the sun, but instead exist as standing
An atomic orbital is a mathematical function that de- waves. The lowest possible energy an electron can
scribes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or take is therefore analogous to the fundamental fre-
a pair of electrons in an atom.[1] This function can be quency of a wave on a string. Higher energy states
used to calculate the probability of finding any electron are then similar to harmonics of the fundamental
of an atom in any specific region around the atom’s nu- frequency.
cleus. The term may also refer to the physical region or
space where the electron can be calculated to be present, 2. The electrons are never in a single point location, al-
as defined by the particular mathematical form of the though the probability of interacting with the elec-
orbital.[2] tron at a single point can be found from the wave
function of the electron.
Each orbital in an atom is characterized by a unique set of
values of the three quantum numbers n, ℓ, and m, which Particle-like properties:
respectively correspond to the electron’s energy, angular
momentum, and an angular momentum vector compo- 1. There is always an integer number of electrons or-
nent (the magnetic quantum number). Any orbital can be biting the nucleus.
occupied by a maximum of two electrons, each with its
own spin quantum number. The simple names s orbital, 2. Electrons jump between orbitals in a particle-like
p orbital, d orbital and f orbital refer to orbitals with fashion. For example, if a single photon strikes the
angular momentum quantum number ℓ = 0, 1, 2 and 3 electrons, only a single electron changes states in re-
respectively. These names, together with the value of n, sponse to the photon.
are used to describe the electron configurations of atoms. 3. The electrons retain particle like-properties such as:
They are derived from the description by early spectro- each wave state has the same electrical charge as the
scopists of certain series of alkali metal spectroscopic electron particle. Each wave state has a single dis-
lines as sharp, principal, diffuse, and fundamental. Or- crete spin (spin up or spin down).
bitals for ℓ > 3 continue alphabetically, omitting j (g, h,
i, k, ...).[3][4][5] Thus, despite the obvious analogy to planets revolving
Atomic orbitals are the basic building blocks of the around the Sun, electrons cannot be described simply
atomic orbital model (alternatively known as the elec- as solid particles. In addition, atomic orbitals do not
tron cloud or wave mechanics model), a modern frame- closely resemble a planet’s elliptical path in ordinary
work for visualizing the submicroscopic behavior of elec- atoms. A more accurate analogy might be that of a large
trons in matter. In this model the electron cloud of a and often oddly shaped “atmosphere” (the electron), dis-
multi-electron atom may be seen as being built up (in ap- tributed around a relatively tiny planet (the atomic nu-
proximation) in an electron configuration that is a prod- cleus). Atomic orbitals exactly describe the shape of this
uct of simpler hydrogen-like atomic orbitals. The repeat- “atmosphere” only when a single electron is present in an
ing periodicity of the blocks of 2, 6, 10, and 14 elements atom. When more electrons are added to a single atom,
within sections of the periodic table arises naturally from the additional electrons tend to more evenly fill in a vol-
the total number of electrons that occupy a complete set ume of space around the nucleus so that the resulting col-
of s, p, d and f atomic orbitals, respectively. lection (sometimes termed the atom’s “electron cloud”[6] )
1
2 1 ELECTRON PROPERTIES
Although hydrogen-like orbitals are still used as peda- 2.2 Bohr atom
gogical tools, the advent of computers has made STOs
preferable for atoms and diatomic molecules since com- In 1909, Ernest Rutherford discovered that bulk of the
binations of STOs can replace the nodes in hydrogen-like atomic mass was tightly condensed into a nucleus, which
atomic orbital. Gaussians are typically used in molecules was also found to be positively charged. It became clear
with three or more atoms. Although not as accurate by from his analysis in 1911 that the plum pudding model
themselves as STOs, combinations of many Gaussians could not explain atomic structure. Shortly after, in 1913,
can attain the accuracy of hydrogen-like orbitals. Rutherford’s post-doctoral student Niels Bohr proposed
a new model of the atom, wherein electrons orbited the
nucleus with classical periods, but were only permitted
to have discrete values of angular momentum, quantized
in units h/2π.[9] This constraint automatically permitted
2 History only certain values of electron energies. The Bohr model
of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radia-
tion from a ground state (by declaring that there was no
Main article: Atomic theory state below this), and more importantly explained the ori-
gin of spectral lines.
The term “orbital” was coined by Robert Mulliken in
1932 as an abbreviation for one-electron orbital wave
function.[8] However, the idea that electrons might re-
volve around a compact nucleus with definite angular mo-
mentum was convincingly argued at least 19 years earlier
by Niels Bohr,[9] and the Japanese physicist Hantaro Na-
gaoka published an orbit-based hypothesis for electronic
behavior as early as 1904.[10] Explaining the behavior of
these electron “orbits” was one of the driving forces be-
hind the development of quantum mechanics.[11]
and spectra in atoms. localized to a smaller region in space, the associated com-
With de Broglie's suggestion of the existence of electron pressed wave packet requires a larger and larger range of
matter waves in 1924, and for a short time before the momenta, and thus larger kinetic energy. Thus, the bind-
full 1926 Schrödinger equation treatment of hydrogen- ing energy to contain or trap a particle in a smaller region
like atom, a Bohr electron “wavelength” could be seen to of space, increases without bound, as the region of space
be a function of its momentum, and thus a Bohr orbiting grows smaller. Particles cannot be restricted to a geo-
electron was seen to orbit in a circle at a multiple of its metric point in space, since this would require an infinite
half-wavelength (this physically incorrect Bohr model is particle momentum.
still often taught to beginning students). The Bohr model In chemistry, Schrödinger, Pauling, Mulliken and oth-
for a short time could be seen as a classical model with an ers noted that the consequence of Heisenberg’s relation
additional constraint provided by the 'wavelength' argu- was that the electron, as a wave packet, could not be
ment. However, this period was immediately superseded considered to have an exact location in its orbital. Max
by the full three-dimensional wave mechanics of 1926. Born suggested that the electron’s position needed to be
In our current understanding of physics, the Bohr model described by a probability distribution which was con-
is called a semi-classical model because of its quantiza- nected with finding the electron at some point in the wave-
tion of angular momentum, not primarily because of its function which described its associated wave packet. The
relationship with electron wavelength, which appeared in new quantum mechanics did not give exact results, but
hindsight a dozen years after the Bohr model was pro- only the probabilities for the occurrence of a variety of
posed. possible such results. Heisenberg held that the path of a
The Bohr model was able to explain the emission and ab- moving particle has no meaning if we cannot observe it,
sorption spectra of hydrogen. The energies of electrons in as we cannot with electrons in an atom.
the n = 1, 2, 3, etc. states in the Bohr model match those In the quantum picture of Heisenberg, Schrödinger and
of current physics. However, this did not explain simi- others, the Bohr atom number n for each orbital became
larities between different atoms, as expressed by the pe- known as an n-sphere in a three dimensional atom and
riodic table, such as the fact that helium (two electrons), was pictured as the mean energy of the probability cloud
neon (10 electrons), and argon (18 electrons) exhibit sim- of the electron’s wave packet which surrounded the atom.
ilar chemical inertness. Modern quantum mechanics ex-
plains this in terms of electron shells and subshells which
can each hold a number of electrons determined by the 3 Orbital names
Pauli exclusion principle. Thus the n = 1 state can hold
one or two electrons, while the n = 2 state can hold up to
Orbitals are given names in the form:
eight electrons in 2s and 2p subshells. In helium, all n = 1
states are fully occupied; the same for n = 1 and n = 2 in
neon. In argon the 3s and 3p subshells are similarly fully y
occupied by eight electrons; quantum mechanics also al- X type
lows a 3d subshell but this is at higher energy than the 3s where X is the energy level corresponding to the principal
and 3p in argon (contrary to the situation in the hydrogen quantum number n, type is a lower-case letter denoting
atom) and remains empty. the shape or subshell of the orbital and it corresponds to
the angular quantum number ℓ, and y is the number of
electrons in that orbital.
2.3 Modern conceptions and connections
For example, the orbital 1s2 (pronounced “one ess two”)
to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Princi- has two electrons and is the lowest energy level (n = 1)
ple and has an angular quantum number of ℓ = 0. In X-ray
notation, the principal quantum number is given a letter
Immediately after Heisenberg discovered his uncertainty associated with it. For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, the letters
relation,[16] it was noted by Bohr that the existence of associated with those numbers are K, L, M, N, O, ... re-
any sort of wave packet implies uncertainty in the wave spectively.
frequency and wavelength, since a spread of frequencies
is needed to create the packet itself.[17] In quantum me-
chanics, where all particle momenta are associated with 4 Hydrogen-like orbitals
waves, it is the formation of such a wave packet which lo-
calizes the wave, and thus the particle, in space. In states
where a quantum mechanical particle is bound, it must Main article: Hydrogen-like atom
be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the
packet and its minimum size implies a spread and mini- The simplest atomic orbitals are those that are calculated
mal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momen- for systems with a single electron, such as the hydrogen
tum and energy. In quantum mechanics, as a particle is atom. An atom of any other element ionized down to a
5.2 Real orbitals 5
single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the or- and a pure spherical harmonic. The quantum numbers,
bitals take the same form. In the Schrödinger equation together with the rules governing their possible values,
for this system of one negative and one positive particle, are as follows:
the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian The principal quantum number n describes the energy of
operator for the energy. They can be obtained analyti- the electron and is always a positive integer. In fact, it can
cally, meaning that the resulting orbitals are products of be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below,
a polynomial series, and exponential and trigonometric large numbers are seldom encountered. Each atom has,
functions. (see hydrogen atom). in general, many orbitals associated with each value of
For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing n; these orbitals together are sometimes called electron
equations can only be solved with the use of methods of shells.
iterative approximation. Orbitals of multi-electron atoms The azimuthal quantum number ℓ describes the orbital
are qualitatively similar to those of hydrogen, and in the angular momentum of each electron and is a non-negative
simplest models, they are taken to have the same form. integer. Within a shell where n is some integer n , ℓ
0
For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical ap- ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation
proximations must be used. 0 ≤ ℓ ≤ n −1 . For instance, the n = 1 shell has only or-
0
A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by bitals with ℓ = 0 , and the n = 2 shell has only orbitals with
unique values of three quantum numbers: n, ℓ, and mℓ. ℓ = 0 , and ℓ = 1 . The set of orbitals associated with a
The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, particular value of ℓ are sometimes collectively called a
and their energies (see below), explain the electron con- subshell.
figuration of the atoms and the periodic table. The magnetic quantum number, mℓ , describes the mag-
The stationary states (quantum states) of the hydrogen- netic moment of an electron in an arbitrary direction, and
like atoms are its atomic orbitals. However, in gen- is also always an integer. Within a subshell where ℓ is
eral, an electron’s behavior is not fully described by a some integer ℓ0 , mℓ ranges thus: −ℓ0 ≤ mℓ ≤ ℓ0 .
single orbital. Electron states are best represented by The above results may be summarized in the following
time-depending “mixtures” (linear combinations) of mul- table. Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values
tiple orbitals. See Linear combination of atomic orbitals of mℓ available in that subshell. Empty cells represent
molecular orbital method. subshells that do not exist.
The quantum number n first appeared in the Bohr model Subshells are usually identified by their n - and ℓ -values.
where it determines the radius of each circular electron n is represented by its numerical value, but ℓ is repre-
orbit. In modern quantum mechanics however, n deter- sented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's’, 1 by
mines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus; 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'. For instance, one may
all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same aver- speak of the subshell with n = 2 and ℓ = 0 as a '2s
age distance. For this reason, orbitals with the same value subshell'.
of n are said to comprise a "shell". Orbitals with the same
value of n and also the same value of ℓ are even more Each electron also has a spin quantum number, s, which
closely related, and are said to comprise a "subshell". describes the spin of each electron (spin up or spin down).
The number s can be +1 ⁄2 or −1 ⁄2 .
The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons
5 Quantum numbers can occupy the same quantum state: every electron in an
atom must have a unique combination of quantum num-
Main article: Quantum number bers.
The above conventions imply a preferred axis (for exam-
Because of the quantum mechanical nature of the elec- ple, the z direction in Cartesian coordinates), and they
trons around a nucleus, atomic orbitals can be uniquely also imply a preferred direction along this preferred axis.
defined by a set of integers known as quantum numbers. Otherwise there would be no sense in distinguishing m
These quantum numbers only occur in certain combina- = +1 from m = −1. As such, the model is most useful
tions of values, and their physical interpretation changes when applied to physical systems that share these sym-
depending on whether real or complex versions of the metries. The Stern–Gerlach experiment — where an
atomic orbitals are employed. atom is exposed to a magnetic field — provides one such
example.[18]
building atomic orbitals out of the product of radial func- an electron can be found, since according to quantum me-
tions and a single spherical harmonic, linear combinations chanics there is a non-zero probability of finding the elec-
of spherical harmonics are typically used, designed so tron (almost) anywhere in space. Instead the diagrams
that the imaginary part of the spherical harmonics can- are approximate representations of boundary or contour
cel out. These real orbitals are the building blocks most surfaces where the probability density | ψ(r, θ, φ) |2 has
commonly shown in orbital visualizations. a constant value, chosen so that there is a certain prob-
In the real hydrogen-like orbitals, for example, n and ability (for example 90%) of finding the electron within
ℓ have the same interpretation and significance as their the contour. Although | ψ |2 as the square of an absolute
value is everywhere non-negative, the sign of the wave
complex counterparts, but m is no longer a good quan-
tum number (though its absolute value is). The orbitals function ψ(r, θ, φ) is often indicated in each subregion
of the orbital picture.
are given new names based on their shape with respect to
a standardized Cartesian basis. The real hydrogen-like p Sometimes the ψ function will be graphed to show its
orbitals are given by the following[19][20][21] phases, rather than the | ψ(r, θ, φ) |2 which shows prob-
ability density but has no phases (which have been lost
in the process of taking the absolute value, since ψ(r, θ,
φ) is a complex number). | ψ(r, θ, φ) |2 orbital graphs
tend to have less spherical, thinner lobes than ψ(r, θ, φ)
pz = p0 graphs, but have the same number of lobes in the same
1 places, and otherwise are recognizable. This article, in
px = √ (p1 + p−1 )
2 order to show wave function phases, shows mostly ψ(r,
θ, φ) graphs.
1
py = √ (p1 − p−1 ) The lobes can be viewed as interference patterns between
i 2
the two counter rotating “m” and "−m" modes, with the
where p0 = Rn ₁ Y₁ ₀, p1 = Rn ₁ Y₁ ₁, and p₋₁ = Rn ₁ Y₁ ₋₁, projection of the orbital onto the xy plane having a res-
are the complex orbitals corresponding to ℓ = 1. onant “m” wavelengths around the circumference. For
each m there are two of these ⟨m⟩+⟨−m⟩ and ⟨m⟩−⟨−m⟩.
For the case where m = 0 the orbital is vertical, counter
6 Shapes of orbitals rotating information is unknown, and the orbital is z-
axis symmetric. For the case where ℓ = 0 there are no
counter rotating modes. There are only radial modes and
the shape is spherically symmetric. For any given n, the
smaller ℓ is, the more radial nodes there are. Loosely
speaking n is energy, ℓ is analogous to eccentricity, and
m is orientation.
Generally speaking, the number n determines the size and
energy of the orbital for a given nucleus: as n increases,
the size of the orbital increases. However, in comparing
different elements, the higher nuclear charge Z of heav-
ier elements causes their orbitals to contract by compar-
ison to lighter ones, so that the overall size of the whole
atom remains very roughly constant, even as the number
of electrons in heavier elements (higher Z) increases.
Also in general terms, ℓ determines an orbital’s shape,
and mℓ its orientation. However, since some orbitals are
described by equations in complex numbers, the shape
sometimes depends on mℓ also. Together, the whole set
of orbitals for a given ℓ and n fill space as symmetrically as
Cross-section of computed hydrogen atom orbital (ψ(r, θ, φ) ) possible, though with increasingly complex sets of lobes
2
these nested shells, at right. The s-orbitals for all n num- The shapes of atomic orbitals in one-electron atom are re-
bers are the only orbitals with an anti-node (a region of lated to 3-dimensional spherical harmonics. These shapes
high wave function density) at the center of the nucleus. are not unique, and any linear combination is valid, like
All other orbitals (p, d, f, etc.) have angular momentum, a transformation to cubic harmonics, in fact it is possible
and thus avoid the nucleus (having a wave node at the to generate sets where all the d’s are the same shape, just
nucleus). like the px, py, and pz are the same shape.[22][23]
The three p-orbitals for n = 2 have the form of two
ellipsoids with a point of tangency at the nucleus (the two-
lobed shape is sometimes referred to as a "dumbbell"— 6.1 Orbitals table
there are two lobes pointing in opposite directions from
each other). The three p-orbitals in each shell are ori- This table shows all orbital configurations for the real
ented at right angles to each other, as determined by their hydrogen-like wave functions up to 7s, and therefore cov-
respective linear combination of values of mℓ. The over- ers the simple electronic configuration for all elements in
all result is a lobe pointing along each direction of the the periodic table up to radium. "ψ" graphs are shown
primary axes. with − and + wave function phases shown in two differ-
ent colors (arbitrarily red and blue). The pz orbital is the
same as the p0 orbital, but the px and py are formed by
taking linear combinations of the p+1 and p−1 orbitals
(which is why they are listed under the m = ±1 label).
Also, the p+1 and p−1 are not the same shape as the p0,
since they are pure spherical harmonics.
dxy dyz dxz
• Mode (2p orbital) The energy sequence of the first 24 subshells (e.g., 1s, 2p,
3d, etc.) is given in the following table. Each cell repre-
• Mode (3p orbital) sents a subshell with n and ℓ given by its row and column
indices, respectively. The number in the cell is the sub-
• Mode (4p orbital)
shell’s position in the sequence. For a linear listing of the
d-type modes subshells in terms of increasing energies in multielectron
atoms, see the section below.
• Mode (3d orbital) Note: empty cells indicate non-existent sublevels, while
numbers in italics indicate sublevels that could exist, but
• Mode (4d orbital)
which do not hold electrons in any element currently
• Mode (5d orbital) known.
8.1 Relativistic effects 9
8 Electron placement and the peri- rows (called 'periods’), numbered starting with 1 at the
top. The presently known elements occupy seven periods.
odic table If a certain period has number i, it consists of elements
whose outermost electrons fall in the ith shell. Niels Bohr
was the first to propose (1923) that the periodicity in the
properties of the elements might be explained by the pe-
1K2 s
riodic filling of the electron energy levels, resulting in the
2L8 s p
electronic structure of the atom.[25]
3M18 s p d
1s 2p 3d 4f
4N32 s p d f The periodic table may also be divided into several num-
5O 50
s p d f g
bered rectangular 'blocks'. The elements belonging to
6P72 s p d f g h
a given block have this common feature: their highest-
7Q98 s p d f g h i
2 6 10 14 18 22 26
energy electrons all belong to the same ℓ-state (but the
s p d f g h i
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n associated with that ℓ-state depends upon the period).
σ s-s σ p-p p-p
For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-
1s22 2s242p6103s2123p6184s 220 3d10
30 4p365s 384d485p546s56 4f 705d806p867s885f 1026d1127p118
6 2 10 6 2 14 10 6 2 14 10 6
block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively
belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the
Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals 3s subshell.
(left) is arranged by increasing energy (see Madelung rule). Note
The following is the order for filling the “subshell” or-
that atomic orbits are functions of three variables (two angles,
and the distance r from the nucleus). These images are faithful
bitals, which also gives the order of the “blocks” in the
to the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely repre- periodic table:
sentative of the orbital as a whole.
1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s,
4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p
s electrons, which move at relativistic velocities as they corresponding with the exact energy difference between
penetrate the screening electrons near the core of high-Z said states.
atoms. This relativistic increase in momentum for high Consider two states of the hydrogen atom:
speed electrons causes a corresponding decrease in wave-
length and contraction of 6s orbitals relative to 5d or- State 1) n = 1, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0 and s = +1 ⁄2
bitals (by comparison to corresponding s and d electrons State 2) n = 2, ℓ = 0, mℓ = 0 and s = +1 ⁄2
in lighter elements in the same column of the periodic ta-
ble); this results in 6s valence electrons becoming lowered By quantum theory, state 1 has a fixed energy of E 1 , and
in energy. state 2 has a fixed energy of E 2 . Now, what would happen
if an electron in state 1 were to move to state 2? For this
Examples of significant physical outcomes of this ef- to happen, the electron would need to gain an energy of
fect include the lowered melting temperature of mercury exactly E 2 − E 1 . If the electron receives energy that is less
(which results from 6s electrons not being available than or greater than this value, it cannot jump from state
for metal bonding) and the golden color of gold and 1 to state 2. Now, suppose we irradiate the atom with a
caesium (which results from narrowing of 6s to 5d tran- broad-spectrum of light. Photons that reach the atom that
sition energy to the point that visible light begins to be have an energy of exactly E 2 − E 1 will be absorbed by
absorbed).[26] the electron in state 1, and that electron will jump to state
In the Bohr Model, an n = 1 electron has a velocity given 2. However, photons that are greater or lower in energy
by v = Zαc , where Z is the atomic number, α is the cannot be absorbed by the electron, because the electron
fine-structure constant, and c is the speed of light. In can only jump to one of the orbitals, it cannot jump to a
non-relativistic quantum mechanics, therefore, any atom state between orbitals. The result is that only photons of
with an atomic number greater than 137 would require a specific frequency will be absorbed by the atom. This
its 1s electrons to be traveling faster than the speed of creates a line in the spectrum, known as an absorption
light. Even in the Dirac equation, which accounts for line, which corresponds to the energy difference between
relativistic effects, the wavefunction of the electron for states 1 and 2.
atoms with Z > 137 is oscillatory and unbounded. The The atomic orbital model thus predicts line spectra, which
significance of element 137, also known as untriseptium, are observed experimentally. This is one of the main val-
was first pointed out by the physicist Richard Feynman. idations of the atomic orbital model.
Element 137 is sometimes informally called feynmanium
(symbol Fy) . However, Feynman’s approximation fails The atomic orbital model is nevertheless an approxima-
to predict the exact critical value of Z due to the non- tion to the full quantum theory, which only recognizes
point-charge nature of the nucleus and very small orbital many electron states. The predictions of line spectra are
radius of inner electrons, resulting in a potential seen by qualitatively useful but are not quantitatively accurate for
inner electrons which is effectively less than Z. The crit- atoms and ions other than those containing only one elec-
ical Z value which makes the atom unstable with regard tron.
to high-field breakdown of the vacuum and production of
electron-positron pairs, does not occur until Z is about
173. These conditions are not seen except transiently in 10 See also
collisions of very heavy nuclei such as lead or uranium
in accelerators, where such electron-positron production • 3D hydrogen orbitals on Wikimedia Commons
from these effects has been claimed to be observed. See
Extension of the periodic table beyond the seventh pe- • Atomic electron configuration table
riod.
• Condensed matter physics
There are no nodes in relativistic orbital densities, al-
though individual components of the wavefunction will • Electron configuration
have nodes.[27]
• Energy level
• Hund’s rules
9 Transitions between orbitals • Molecular orbital
11 References [17] Bohr, Niels (April 1928). “The Quantum Postulate and
the Recent Development of Atomic Theory”. Nature
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[9] Bohr, Niels (1913). “On the Constitution of Atoms Bibcode:1940JChPh...8..188K. doi:10.1063/1.1750628.
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Bibcode:1914Natur..93..268N. doi:10.1038/093268a0. [24] Cazenave, Lions, T., P.; Lions, P. L. (1982). “Orbital sta-
bility of standing waves for some nonlinear Schrödinger
[10] Nagaoka, Hantaro (May 1904). “Kinetics of a System of equations”. Communications in Mathematical Physics
Particles illustrating the Line and the Band Spectrum and 85 (4): 549–561. Bibcode:1982CMaPh..85..549C.
the Phenomena of Radioactivity”. Philosophical Magazine doi:10.1007/BF01403504.
7 (41): 445–455. doi:10.1080/14786440409463141.
[11] Bryson, Bill (2003). A Short History of Nearly Everything. [25] Bohr, Niels (1923). "Über die Anwendung der
Broadway Books. pp. 141–143. ISBN 0-7679-0818-X. Quantumtheorie auf den Atombau. I”. Zeitschrift
für Physik 13: 117. Bibcode:1923ZPhy...13..117B.
[12] Thomson, J. J. (1897). “Cathode rays”. doi:10.1007/BF01328209.
Philosophical Magazine 44 (269): 293.
doi:10.1080/14786449708621070. [26] Lower, Stephen. “Primer on Quantum Theory of the
Atom”.
[13] Thomson, J. J. (1904). “On the Structure of the Atom:
an Investigation of the Stability and Periods of Oscilla- [27] Szabo, Attila (1969). “Contour diagrams for relativistic
tion of a number of Corpuscles arranged at equal intervals orbitals”. Journal of Chemical Education 46 (10): 678.
around the Circumference of a Circle; with Application of Bibcode:1969JChEd..46..678S. doi:10.1021/ed046p678.
the Results to the Theory of Atomic Structure” (extract
of paper). Philosophical Magazine Series 6 7 (39): 237.
doi:10.1080/14786440409463107.
12 Further reading
[14] Rhodes, Richard (1995). The Making of the Atomic Bomb.
Simon & Schuster. pp. 50–51. ISBN 978-0-684-81378-
3. • Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2003). Modern
Physics (4 ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and
[15] Nagaoka, Hantaro (May 1904). “Kinetics of a System of Company. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0.
Particles illustrating the Line and the Band Spectrum and
the Phenomena of Radioactivity”. Philosophical Magazine • Scerri, Eric (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story
7: 446. and Its Significance. New York: Oxford University
[16] Heisenberg, W. (March 1927). "Über den an- Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.
schaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kine-
matik und Mechanik”. Zeitschrift für Physik A 43 • Levine, Ira (2000). Quantum Chemistry. Upper
(3–4): 172–198. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-
doi:10.1007/BF01397280. 13-685512-1.
12 13 EXTERNAL LINKS
13 External links
• Guide to atomic orbitals
14.2 Images
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14 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES