Unit 2-Flat

Theory Of Computation UNIT-II
Regular Expressions and Context Free Grammars: Regular expression formalism- equivalence with finite
automata-regular sets and closure properties- pumping lemma for regular languages- decision algorithms for
regular sets- applications. Context-Free Grammars – derivation trees, , ambiguous and unambiguous grammars-
equivalence of regular grammar and finite automata- Chomsky Normal Forms and Greibach Normal Forms
pumping lemma for Context free languages – applications.
REGULAR SETS
Regular languages can also be defined, from the empty set and from some finite number of singleton sets, by the
operations of union, composition, and Kleene closure. Specifically, consider any alphabet. Then a regular set
over is defined in the following way.
 The empty set Ø, the set {} containing only the empty string, and the set {a} for each symbol a in Σ, are
regular sets.
 If L1 and L2 are regular sets, then so are the union L1 L2, the composition L1L2, and the Kleene closure
L1*.
 No other set is regular.
The Pumping Lemma for Regular Sets
Applications:
o The pumping lemma is a powerful tool for providing and proving certain language is regular or
not.
o It is also useful in the development of algorithms to answer certain questions concerning finite
automata, such as whether the language accepted by a given FA is finite or infinite.
Statement:
Let “L” be a regular set. Then there is a constant n such that if z is any word in L, and |z|≥n. We may
write z=uvw in such a way that |uv|≤n, |v|≥1 and for all i≥0, then uviw is in L.
Proof:
If a language is accepted by a DFA M= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) then it is regular with some particular number of
states, say n. Consider a input of n or more symbols a1a2…..am, m≥n and for i=1,2,…..,m.
Let δ (q0, a1a2…..ai) = qi
It is not possible for each of the n+1 states q0,q1,……qn to be distinct, since there are only different states. This
there are two integers j and k, 0≤j<k≤n, such that qj=qk. The path labeled a1a2….am in the transition diagram of
M. Since j<k, the string aj+1....ak is of length 1.
Aj+1…….ak
a1…….ajak+1………am
q0 qj=qk qm
If qm is in F, that is a1a2……..am is in L(n), then a1a2……..ajak+1ak+2……am is also in L(n).

δ(q0,a1……..ajak+1……am)= δ(δ(q0,a1……..aj) ak+1……am)
=δ(qj, ak+1……am) (since δ(q0,a1……..aj)= qj)
= δ(qk, ak+1……am) (since qj= qk)
=qm
which is the final state of the automata to be accepted.
J. Veerendeswari/IT/RGCET Page 1
Hence proved.
Theory Of Computation UNIT-II PROPERTIES OF REGULAR SETS
Property 1:
The regular sets are closed under union, concatenation, and Kleene closure.
Proof:
Let Σ be a finite set of symbols and let L, L1 and L2 be sets of strings from Σ*. The concatenation of L1
and L2, denoted L1L2, is the set {xy| x is in L1and y is in L2}. That is, the strings in L1L2 are formed by choosing a
string L1 and following it by a string in L2, in all possible combinations. Define L0= {ε} and Li=LLi-1 for i≥1. The
Kleene closure of L denoted L*, is the set
L*=∑i=0Li
and the positive closure of L, denoted L+, is the set
L+=∑i=1Li
That is, L* denotes words constructed by concatenating any number of words from L. L+ is the same, but the case
of zero words, whose concatenation is defined to be ε, is excluded. Note that L+ contains ε if and only if L does.
Property 2:
The class of regular sets is closed under complementation. That is, if L is a regular set and L€Σ *, and then
Σ*-L is a regular set.
Proof:
Let L be L (M) for DFA M= (Q, Σ1, δ, q0, F) and L€Σ*. First, we may assume Σ1=Σ, for if there are
symbols in Σ1 not in Σ, we may delete all transitions of M on symbols not in Σ. The fact that L€Σ * assures us that
we shall not thereby change the language of M. If there are symbols in Σ not in Σ1, then none of these symbols
appear in words of L. We may therefore introduce a “dead state” d into M with δ (d, a) = d for all a in Σ and δ (q,
a) = d for all q in Q and a in Σ-Σ1.
Now, to accept Σ*-L, complement the final states of M. That is, let M‟= (Q, Σ1, δ, q0, Q-F). Then M‟
accepts a word w if and only if δ (q0, w) is in Q-F, that is, w is in Σ*-L. Note that it is essential to the proof that M
is deterministic and without ε moves.
Property 3:
The regular sets are closed under intersection.
Proof:
L1∩L2= (L1‟U L2‟)‟, where the overbar denotes complementation with respect to an alphabet including the
alphabets of L1 and L2.Closure under intersection then follows from closure under union and complementation.
It is worth noting that a direct construction of a DFA for the intersection of two regular sets exists. The
construction involves taking the Cartesian product of states, and we sketch the construction as follows:
Let M1= (Q1, Σ, δ1, q1, F1) and M2= (Q2, Σ, δ2, q2, F2) be two deterministic finite automata. Let
M= (Q1* Q2, Σ, δ, [q1, q2], F1* F2)
where for all p1 in Q1, p2 in Q2, and a in Σ,
δ ([p1, p2], a) = [δ1 (p1, a), δ2 (p2, a)]
Property 4:
The class of regular sets is closed under substitution.
Proof:
Let R €Σ* be a regular set and for each a in Σ let Ra€∆* be a regular set. Let f: Σ->∆* be the substitutions
denoting R and Ra. Replace each occurrence of the symbol a in the regular expression R by the regular
expression for Ra. To prove that the resulting regular expression denotes f®, observe that the substitution of a
union, product or closure is the union, product or closure of the substitution. [Thus for example, f (L1 L2) = f
(L1)Uf (L2).] A simple induction on the number of operators in the regular expression completes the proof.
A type of substitution that is of special interest is the homomorphism. A homomorphism h is a
substitution such that h(a) contains a single string for each a. We generally take h(a) to be the string itself, rather
than the set containing that string. It is useful to define the inversehomomorphic image of a language L to be
h-1(L)={λ| h(x) is in L}
We also use, for string w;
h-1(w)={λ| h(w) = w}
Property 5:
The class of regular sets is closed under homomorphism and inverse homomorphism.
Proof:
Closure under homomorphism follows immediately from closure under substitution, since every
homomorphism is a substitution, in which h(a) has one member.
To show closure under inverse homomorphism, let M= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) be a DFA accepting L, and let h be
a homomorphism from ∆ to Σ*. We construct a DFA M‟ that accepts
h-1(L) by reading symbol a in ∆ and simulating M on h(a). Formally, let M‟= (Q, Σ, δ‟, q0, F) and define δ‟(q, a)
for q in Q and a in ∆ to be δ(q, h(a)). Note that h(a) may be long string, or ε, but δ is defined on all strings by
extension. It is easy to show by induction on |x| that δ‟(q0,x)=δ(q,h(x)). Therefore M‟ accepts x if and only if M
accepts h(x). That is,
L(M‟)= h-1(L(M)).
Property 6:
The class of regular sets is closed under quotient with arbitrary sets.
Proof:
Let M= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F) be a finite automaton accepting some regular set R, and let L be an arbitrary
language. The quotient R/L is accepted b a finite automaton M‟= (Q, Σ, δ, q0, F‟), which behaves like M except
that the final states of M‟ are all states q of M such that δ (q0, xy) is in F. Thus M‟ accepts R/L.
CONTEXT FREE GRAMMARS

A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple (V, P, T, S), where
1. V is a finite set called the variables,
2. T is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals,
3. P is a finite set of Productionrules, with each rule being a

variable and a string of variables and terminals, and
4. S is the start symbolε V
Rules to be followed while writing a CFG.
1. A single non terminal should be at LHS
2. Production should be always in the form of LHS  RHS where RHS may be combination
ofnon terminal and terminal symbol.
3. The null derivation can be specified as NT  ε
4. One of the NT should be start symbol.
Any language that can be generated bysome context-free grammar is called a context-free language (CFL).
Derivation
Derivation from S means generation of string ω from S
Types of derivation
1. Left most derivation
The derivation in which the left most non terminal is always replaced at each step (choose
leftmost non terminal in a sentential form )
Example : Given the grammar ( set of productions)
E E + E
E E * E
E id
Obtain the left most derivation for the string id*id
E => E * E => id * E => id * id
2. Right most derivation
The derivation in which the right most non terminal is always replaced at each step (choose
leftmost non terminal in a sentential form)
E E + E
E E * E
E id
Obtain the left most derivation for the string id*id
E => E * E => E * id => id * id
PARSE TREE OR DERIVATION TREE

The parse tree is the diagrammatic representation of a derivation, which can be defined in the following
way:
A vertex with a label which is a non terminal symbol is a parse tree.
If A → y1y2 … yn is a rule in R, then the treeis a parse tree
EE+E
EE*E
E ( E)
E id
Obtain the left most derivation for the string id*id+id
Left Most Derivation Tree
Right Most Derivation Tree
Example: Consider the following production

S->aB/bA
A->aS/bAA/a
B->bS/aBB/b
for string aaabbabbba find LMD and RMD
Left Most Derivation:
S->aB
->aaBB
->aaaBBB
->aaabBB
->aaabbB
->aaabbaBB
->aaabbabB
->aaabbabbS
->aaabbabbbA
->aaabbabbba
Right Most Derivation:
S->aB
->aaBB
->aaBbS
->aaBbbA
->aaBbba
->aaaBBbba
->aaaBbbba
->aaabSbbba
->aaabbAbbba
->aaabbabbba
SIMPLIFICATION OF CFG
All the grammars are not always optimized. That means grammar may consists of some extra symbol(non
terminal). Having extra symbols unnecessary increases the length of the grammar .simplification of grammar
means reduction of grammar by removing useless symbol.
The properties of the reduced grammar:
1. Each variable (ie non terminal) and each terminal of G appears in the derivation of some word in L.
2. There should not be any production as XY where X and Y arenon terminal
3. If 𝜀is not in the language L then there need not be the production X
Reduced grammar
Removal of useless symbol elimination of production removal of unit production
Removal of useless symbol

Any symbol is useful when it appears on the right hand side in the production rule and generates some
terminal string. If no such derivation exists then it is supposed to be an useless symbol.
A symbol p is useful if there exists some derivation in the following form
S=>aPB
apB=>W
Then p is said to be useful symbol.Where and may be some terminal or non terminal symbol and will help us
to derive certain string w in combination with p.
Example:1
G={V,T,P,S} where V={S,T,X}, T={0,1}

S0T|1T|X|0|1rule 1
T00 - rule 2
Now, in the above CFG the non terminal are S, T, X
To derive some string we have to start from start symbol S
S
0T S0T
000 T00
Thus we can reach to certain string after following these rules
But if SX then there is no further rule as a definition to X. That means there is no point in the rule
SX. hence we can declare that X is a useless symbol. And we can remove this so after removal of this
useless symbol CFG becomes
G=(V,T,P,S) where V={S,T}
T={0,1} and P={S0T|1T|0|1
T00}
S is start symbol
Example:2
Consider the CFG G= {V,T,P,S} where V={S,A,B} T={0,1}
P={SA11B|11A
SB|11
A0
BBB}
solution
Now in the given CFG if we try to derive any string A gives some terminal symbol as 0 but B does not
give any terminal string . By following the rules with B we simply get sample number of B and no
significant string.
Hence we can declare B as useless symbol and can remove the rules associated with it. Hence after
removal of useless symbol we get
S11A|11
A0
Elimination of 𝜀 production
If there is production we can remove it without changing the meaning of the grammar. Thus 𝜀production are not
necessary in a grammar.
Example:1
S0S|1S|𝜀
Then we remove production. But we have to take a care of meaning of CFG. Ie meaning of CFG should
not be get changed if we place S𝜀 in other rules we get S0 when S0S and S𝜀
As well as S1 when S1S and S𝜀
Hence we can rewrite the rules as
S0S|1S|0|1
Thus production is removed.
Example:2
SXYX
X0X|𝜀
Y1Y|𝜀
Now while removing production we are deleting the rules X𝜀 and Y𝜀 to preserve the meaning of CFG we
are actually placing 𝜀 at right hand side wherever X and Y have appeared.
Let us take
SXYX
If first X at right hand side is𝜀
Then SYX
Similarly if last X in RHS =𝜀
Then SXY
If Y= 𝜀 then
SXX
If Y and X are then
SX
SY when both X are replaced by 𝜀
SXY|YX|XX|X|Y
Now let us consider
X0X
If we place 𝜀 at right hand side for X then
X0
X0X|0
Y1Y|1
We can rewrite the CFG with removed 𝜀 production as
SXY|YX|XX|X|Y
X0X|0
Y1Y|1
Removing unit production:

The unit productions are the productions in which one non terminal gives another non terminal.
Eg X Y YZ
Then X,Y and Z are unit productions. To optimize the grammar we need to remove the unit production.
If A->B production we should add a rule A->x1x2x3x4…xn.
Example 1:
S0A|1B\C
A0S|00
B1|A
C01
SOLUTION:
Clearly SC is a unit production. But while removing SC we have to consider what C gives. So, we
can add a rule to S.
S0A\1B|01
Similarly BAis also a unit production so we can modify it as
B1|0S|00
Thus finally we can write CFG without unit production as
S0A|1B|01
A0S|00
B1|0S|00
C01
Example: 2
SA|0C1
AB|01|10
C𝜀 |CD
SOLUTION:
SABis a unit production
C is a null production.
CCD B and D are useless symbol.
Reducing a grammar we have to avoid all the above conditions

Let SAi.e. AB is a useless symbol because B is not defined further more
S01|10
i.e. S01|10|0C1
but C𝜀
hence ultimately S01|10
A but we can remove this production since B is a useless symbol.
Hence A01|10
But the start symbol S01\10
There is no A in the derivation of A so by considering A also as a useless symbol we get final CFG as
S01|10
CHOMSKY NORMAL FORM (CNF)

A Context-Free Grammar „G‟ is in Chomsky Normal Form if every production is of the form
 Non Terminal->Terminal
 Non Terminal-> Non Terminal*Non Terminal
The given CFG should be converted in the above format then we can say that grammar is in CNF. Before
converting the grammar into CNF it should be in reduced form. That means remove all useless symbol, ε
production and unit production from it. Then this reduced grammar is converted into CNF.
For Example:
Consider “G” whose productions are S->AB, A->a, B->b. Then G is in Chomsky Normal Form.
Reduction to Chomsky Normal Form

The steps involved in reduction of CFG to CNF are
Step 1: Elimination of null productions and unit productions.
Let the resultant grammar be G= (VN, Σ, P, S)
Step 2: Elimination of terminals on RHS.
We define G= (VN‟, Σ, P, S‟) where P and VN‟ are constructed as follows:
(i)All the productions in P of the form A->a or A->BC are included in P1. All the variables in VN are
included in VN‟.
(ii) Consider A->X1X2…….Xn with some terminal on RHS of Xi is a terminal say ai, add a new variable
Cai to VN‟ and Ca->αi to P1. In production A->X1X2……Xn, every terminal on RHS is replaced by the
corresponding new variables on the RHS are retained. The resulting production is added to P1. Thus we get G1=
(VN‟, Σ, P1, S).
Step 3: Restricting the number of variables on RHS.
For any production in P1, the RHS consists of either a single terminal or two or more variables. We
define G= (VN‟, Σ, P2, S) as follows:
(i)All productions in P1 are added to P2 if they are in the required form. All the variables in VN‟‟.
(ii) Consider A->A1c1, C1->A2C2, cm-2->Am-1Am and new variables are c1, c2, ….., cm-2.
Example 1:
Find the grammar in CNF equivalent to SaAbB, AaA/a, BbB/b
Step 1:As there are no unit productions or null productions, we need not carry out step 1. We proceed to
step 2.
Step 2: Let G1= (VN‟, {a, b}, P, S) where P1 and VN‟ are constructed.
Add productions A->a, B->b to P1.
Hence S->aAbB ~ (1)

replaced as
a) S->CaACbB
Add new productions Ca->a and Cb->b
b) A->aA becomes
A->CaA
c) B->bB becomes
B->CbB
Step 3:
a) S->CaACbB is converted as
S->CaD1 where
D1->ACbB
Again converted as D1->AD2
where D2->CbB
b) A->CaA
They are already in CNF
c) B->CbB
They are already in CNF
Hence the resultant CNF are
S->CaD1
D1->AD2
D2->CbB
A->CaA
B->CbB
A->a
B->b
Example 2:
Find the CNF equivalent to the grammar S~S/[S∩S]/p/qwhere ~, [, ∩,], p, q are terminals.
Step 1: Consider the Grammar “G”.

S->~S/[S∩S]/p/q
Since there are no null productions and unit productions we can go for reduction.
Step 2: Consider the production (1),
S->~S
Add new production C1->~
The production S->~S becomes S->C1S
Step 3: Consider the production (2),

S-> [S∩S]
Add new productions C2-> [
C3->∩
C4->]
Now S->C2SC3SC4
S-> C2D1
where D1-> SC3SC4
and D2-> C3SC4
So D1-> SD2
Again D2-> C3SC4
Let D3-> SC4
And hence D2-> C3D3
The resultant CNF productions are
S->C1S
C1->~
S->C2D1
D1->SD2
D2->C3D3
D3->SC4
S->p
S->q
Hence derived.
Note: NT-Terminal T-Terminal
1. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form(CNF)

G:
SaAD
AaB/bAB
Bb
Dd
Solution:
Consider SaAD
The production is of the form NTT*NT*NT
Replace a by Ca. We get, SCaAD
Let D1AD. Then the production becomes SCa D1 which is in CNF.
Now consider AaB
This is of the form NTT*NT
Since Caa, A->aB becomes ACaB which is in CNF.
Let us now consider AbAB.
This production is of the form NTT*NT*NT
Replace b by Cb and AB by D2. We get, ACb D2.
The other two productions Bb and Dd are already in CNF.
Hence the resultant CNF productions are

S->CaD1
D1->AD
A->CaB
A->CbD2.
D2.->AB
B->b
D->d
2. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

G:
SabSb/a/aAb
AbS/aAAb
Solution:
Consider SabSb
This production is of the form NTT*NT*T*NT
Replacing a by Ca and b by Cb we get, SCaCbSCb
This is of the form NTNT*NT*NT*NT.
So we replace CbSCb by D1. Hence the production becomes, SCa D1 which is of the CNF.
(Replace SCbby D to convert D1 into CNF. So D->SCb)
Since Sa is already in CNF we now consider SaAB
The above production is of the form NT->T*NT*T. Replace a by Ca and b by Cb.
So now, SCaACb.Replace ACbby D2 to convert the production to CNF.
The production now becomes SCa D2.
Let us now consider the production AbS. Replacing b by Cb the grammar gets converted into CNF,
ACbS.
The last production to be converted to CNF is AaAAb.
Replacing Ca and b by Cb we get ACaAACb. Let us now consider D3AD2 where
D2ACb.So the production becomes ACa D3 which is in CNF.
D->SCb
D1->CbD
S->CaD1
D2->ACb
S->CaD2
A->CaD3
D3->AD2
D2->ACb
S->a

G:
SASA/bA
A->CbS.
AB/S
BC
D2.->AB
B->b
Solution:
Consider SASA.
D->d
The above production is of the form NTNT*NT*NT
Let D1SA. Replacing SA the production becomes SAD1 which is in CNF.
Now consider SbA. Replace b by Cb in order to convert the production to CNF.
S->bA becomes SCbA.
Consider the productions AB, AS and BC. They can also be written as AεB, AεS, BεC. If we
assume Caε then the productionsbecome ACaB, ACaS, BCaC which are in CNF.
SAD1
D1SA
ACaB
SCbA
ACaS
BCaC

G:
S1A/0B
A1AA/0S/0
B0BB/1S/1
Solution:
Consider S1A. The above production is of the form NTT*NT. In order to convert it to CNF, we
replace 1 by Ca. Upon replacing we get, SCaA which is in CNF.
Now consider S0B. The above production is of the form NTT*NT. In order to convert it to CNF, we
replace 0 by Cb. Upon replacing we get, SCbB which is in CNF.
The next production to be considered is A1AA which is of the form NTT*NT*NT. Let us assume
that D1AA. Also we know Ca1. The production becomes A->CaD1 which is in CNF.
The next production A0S is of the form NTT*NT. We know Cb0. Upon replacing we get, ACbS
which is in CNF. The other production A0 is already in CNF.
Now take into account the production B->0BB which is of the form NTT*NT*NT. Let us assume that
D2BB. Also we know Cb0. The production becomes BCbD2 which is in CNF.
The next production B1S is of the form NTT*NT. We know Ca1. Upon replacing we get, BCaS
which is in CNF. The other production B1 is already in CNF.
Hence the resultant CNF production
S->CaA
S->CbB
D1->AA
A->CaD1
A->CbS
A->0
B->CaS
J. Veerendeswari/IT/RGCETB->0 Page 15
GREIBACH NORMAL FORM (GNF)
A Context-Free Grammar „G‟ is in Greibach Normal Form if every production is of the form
 Aaα where α € VN* and a € Σ
(Non TerminalTerminal*any number of Non Terminals)
 Aa (Non TerminalTerminal)
For Example:
SaAB
AbC
Bb
Cc
are in GNF. begin
for k:=1 to m do
Greibach Normal Form
Algorithm: begin
for j=1 to k-1 do
for each production of the form Ak->Ajα do
begin
for all productions Aj->β do
add production Ak->βα;
remove production Ak->Ajα
end;
for each production of the form Ak->Akα do
begin
add production Bk->α and Bk->α Bk;
remove production Ak->Akα
end;
for each production Ak->β, where β does
not begin with Ak do
add production Ak->β Bk
end
end
Reduction to Greibach Normal Form
Lemma (1):
Let G= (V,P,T, S) be a CFG. Let ABγ be an A-production in P. Let the B-production be
BB1|B2|…..|Bn
Lemma (2):
Let G= (V, Σ, P, S) be a CFG. Let A->Bγ be an A-production be
A->Aα1|….. Aαγ| B1|…..|Bn
then z be a new variable when P1 is defined as:
(i)The set of A-productions in P1 are
A->β1|β2|….|βn
A-> β1z| β2z|…….| βnz
(ii)The set of z-productions in P1 are
z->α1|α2|…|αn
z->α1z|α2z|…|αnz
Example:
Construct Equivalent GNF for the CFG S->AA/a,A->SS/b
Step 1: The given grammar is in CNF. S and A are renamed as A1 and A2.
Hence the productions become A1-> A2 A2/a, A2-> A1 A1/b
There is no need for null production or unit production elimination because the production is
already in CNF.
Step 2:The A1 productions are in the required form. They are A1-> A2 A2/a.
The production A2->b is also in the required form whereas we have to apply lemma 1 to convert
the production A2-> A1A1to the required form. Applying lemma 1 we get,
A2-> A2A2 A1 A2-> aA1
Step 3: We apply lemma 2 to A2 productions as we have A2-> A2A2 A1

Let z2 be a new variable. The resulting productions are
A2-> aA1 A2->b
A2-> aA1z2 A2->bz2
z2->A2 A1 z2 -> A2 A1 z2
Step 4: (i) The A2 productions are A2-> aA1/ b/ aA1z2

(ii)Among the A1 productions we retain A1->a and eliminate A1-> A2A2using lemma 1.
The resulting productions are A1-> aA1 A2/bA2 , A1-> aA1z A2/bz2A2.
The set of all A1-productions is A1->a/ aA1 A2/bA2/ aA1z A2/bz2A2
Step 5: The z2 productions to be modified are z2 -> A2A1 ,z2 -> A2 A1 z2.
Applying lemma 1 we get z2 -> aA1A1/bA1 /aA1z2 A1/ bz2A1
z2-> aA1A1z2/bA1 z2 /aA1z2 A1 z2/ bz2A1 z2
Hence the equivalent grammar is
A1->a/ aA1 A2/bA2/ aA1z A2/bz2A2
A2-> aA1/ b/ aA1z2/ bz2
z2 -> aA1A1/bA1 /aA1z2 A1/ bz2A1 z2
z2-> aA1A1z2/bA1 z2 /aA1z2 A1 z2/ bz2A1 z2
Note: NT-Terminal T-Terminal

1. Let us convert to Greibach normal form the grammar
G= ({A1, A2, A3}, {a, b}, P, A1), where P consists of the following:
A1->A2A3
A2->A3A1/b
A3->A1A2/a
Solution:
Step 1: Since the right-hand side of the productions for A1 and A2 start with terminals or highest-
numbered variables, we begin with the production A3->A2A3 is the only production with A1 on the left.
The resultant set of productions is: A1->A2A3
A2->A3A1/b
A3->A2A3A2/a
Since the right side of the production A3->A2A3A2 begins with a lower-numbered variable, we substitute
for the first occurrence of A2 both A3A1 and b. Thus A3->A2A3A2
is replaced by A3->A3A1A3A2 and A3->bA3A2. The new set is
A1->A2A3
A2->A3A1/b
A3-> A3A1A3A2 / bA3A2/a
We now apply lemma 2 to the productions
A3-> A3A1A3A2 / bA3A2/a
Let z2 be a new variable. The resulting productions are
A1->A2A3
A2->A3A1/b
A3->bA3A2z2/az2/ bA3A2/a
z2-> A1A3A2 / A1A3A2z2
Step 2: Now all the productions with A3 on the left have right-hand sides that start with terminals. These
are used to replace A3 in the productions A2->A3A1 and then the productions with A2 on the left are used
to replace A2 in the production A1->A2A3. The result is the following.
A3->bA3A2z2 A3->bA3A2
A3->az2 A3->a
A2->bA3A2z2A1 A2->bA3A2A1
A2->az2A1 A2->aA1
A2->b
A1->bA3A2z2A1A3 A1->bA3A2A1A3
A1->b z2A1A3 A1->b A1A3
A1->bA3
z2-> A1A3A2 z2-> A1A3A2z2
Step 3:The two z2productionsare converted to proper form, resulting in 10 more productions. That is, the
productions
z2-> A1A3A2 z2-> A1A3A2z2
are altered by substituting the right side of each of the five productions with A1 on the left for the first
occurrences of A1. Thus z2-> A1A3A2 becomes
z2->bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2 z2->az2A1A3A3A2
z2-> bA3A3A2 z2-> bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2
z2-> aA1A3A3A2
The other production for z2 is replaced similarly. The final set of productions is
A3->bA3A2z2 A3->bA3A2
A3->az2 A3->a
A2->bA3A2z2A1 A2->bA3A2A1
A2->az2A1 A2->aA1
A2->b
A1->bA3A2z2A1A3 A1->bA3A2A1A3
A1->b z2A1A3 A1->b A1A3
A1->bA3
z2-> bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2 z2-> bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2
z2-> az2A1A3A3A2z2 z2-> az2A1A3A3A2
z2-> bA3A3A2z2 z2-> bA3A3A2
z2-> bA3A2A1A3 A3A2z2 z2-> bA3A2A1A3 A3A2
z2-> aA1A3A3A2z2 z2-> aA1A3A3A2
AMBIGUOUS AND UNAMBIGUOUS GRAMMARS

Ambiguous Grammar: If the production contains more than one derivation or derivation tree then it is termed
as an ambiguous grammar.
For example consider the production, S->S+S/S*S/a/bWe have to derive the string a+a*b
The derivation is as follows:
S->S+S
->S+S*S
->a+a*b
Hence derived.
The same string can also be derived in the following manner
S->S*S
->S+S*S
->a+a*b
Hence from the above two derivations it is obvious that the string can be derived from more than one derivation.
Therefore it is known as ambiguous grammar.
Unambiguous Grammar: If the production contains exactly one derivation or one derivation tree then it is
termed as an unambiguous grammar.
Consider an example:
S->a/abSb/aAb
A->bS/aAAb, the word to be derived is W=abab
Derivation:
S->abSb
->abab
Hence derived.
Now consider
S->aAb
->abSb
->ababSbb
->ababbbb
S->abSb
->ababSbb
->ababbbb
A->aAAb
->abSbSb
->ababab
A->bS
->ba
From the above derivations it is obvious that the string abab can have only one derivation. Hence the grammar
can be termed as an unambiguous grammar.
THE MYHILL-NERODE THEROEM :ALGORITHM
Begin
for p in F and q in Q-F do mark (p,q);

for each pair of distinct states (p,q) in F*F
or (Q-F)*(Q-F) do
if for some input a,(δ(p,a), δ(q,a)) is
marked then
begin
Mark(p,q)
recursively mark all unmarked pairs on the
list for (p,q) and on the lists of the other
pairs that are marked at this step.
end
else
for all input symbols a do
Put(p,q) on the list for ,(δ(p,a), δ(q,a))
unless δ(p,a)= δ(q,a)
end
PROCEDURE FOR MINIMIZATION OF AUTOMATA:

1. Write down all the states of DFA.
2. Divide all the states by accepting states and non- accepting states (Q10 AND Q2O =Q- Q10) Which
Contains Final State S= Q10 U Q2O.
3. By using transition again divide the state and find the transition in number of same group.
4. Repeat the same procedure until there is no possibility to divide.
5. Finally take one representative from each group in transition table substitute representative for other
states in same group for transition.
1 o 1
1 EXAMPLE: Construct Minimal DFA 1 o o
o o o
a b 1 c d e f g h
o
o 1 1
1
Let DFA have a grammer, M= (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F)

Where, Q={a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
∑={0,1}
Initial state= a
Final state= d
Class A= contains final state A={d}
Class B= contains the states other than the final state B={a,b,c,e,f,g,h}
Transition table for all classes.
For class A
A
d
O A
For class B 1 B
B a b c e f g h
0 B B A A B B B
1 B B B B B B A
For class C={c,e}
Class D={h}
B a b f g
0 B B C B
1 B C C B
For Class B
B a g
0 E E
1 B B
Class E={b,f}
Class B={a,g}
For Class C
C c e
0 A A
1 E E
For Class D
D h
0 B
1 A
For Class E
E b f
0 B B
1 C C
Reduced Transition diagram
O 1
1 0
B
A
C
0 0 1
1 0 1
D E

Unit 2-Flat

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Unit 2-Flat

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Theory Of Computation UNIT-II

If qm is in F, that is a1a2……..am is in L(n), then a1a2……..ajak+1ak+2……am is also in L(n).

Theory Of Computation UNIT-II PROPERTIES OF REGULAR SETS

CONTEXT FREE GRAMMARS

1. V is a finite set called the variables,

2. T is a finite set, disjoint from V, called the terminals,

3. P is a finite set of Productionrules, with each rule being a

4. S is the start symbolε V

PARSE TREE OR DERIVATION TREE

Right Most Derivation Tree

Example: Consider the following production

Removal of useless symbol

G={V,T,P,S} where V={S,T,X}, T={0,1}

To derive some string we have to start from start symbol S

Removing unit production:

Reducing a grammar we have to avoid all the above conditions

CHOMSKY NORMAL FORM (CNF)

Reduction to Chomsky Normal Form

Hence S->aAbB ~ (1)

Step 1: Consider the Grammar “G”.

Step 3: Consider the production (2),

Note: NT-Terminal T-Terminal

1. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form(CNF)

Hence the resultant CNF productions are

2. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

Hence the resultant CNF productions are

3. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

Hence the resultant CNF productions are

4. Convert the following grammar to Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)

GREIBACH NORMAL FORM (GNF)

Step 3: We apply lemma 2 to A2 productions as we have A2-> A2A2 A1

Step 4: (i) The A2 productions are A2-> aA1/ b/ aA1z2

Note: NT-Terminal T-Terminal

A1->b z2A1A3 A1->b A1A3

z2-> bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2 z2-> bA3A2z2A1A3 A3A2

z2-> az2A1A3A3A2z2 z2-> az2A1A3A3A2

z2-> bA3A3A2z2 z2-> bA3A3A2

z2-> bA3A2A1A3 A3A2z2 z2-> bA3A2A1A3 A3A2

z2-> aA1A3A3A2z2 z2-> aA1A3A3A2

AMBIGUOUS AND UNAMBIGUOUS GRAMMARS

THE MYHILL-NERODE THEROEM :ALGORITHM

for p in F and q in Q-F do mark (p,q);

PROCEDURE FOR MINIMIZATION OF AUTOMATA:

Let DFA have a grammer, M= (Q, ∑, δ, q0, F)

Transition table for all classes.

For class C={c,e}

Reduced Transition diagram

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