CH 06 PDF

Chapter 06 - Analyzing Operating Activities
Analyzing Operating Activities
REVIEW
Income is the residual of revenues and gains less expenses and losses. Net income is
measured using the accrual basis of accounting. Accrual accounting recognizes revenues
and gains when earned, and recognizes expenses and losses when incurred. The income
statement (also referred to as statement of operations or earnings) reports net income
during a period of time. This statement also reports income components--revenues,
expenses, gains, and losses. We analyze income and its components to evaluate company
performance, assess risk exposures, and predict amounts, timing, and uncertainty of future
cash flows. While "bottom line" net income frames our analysis, income components
provide pieces of a mosaic revealing the economic portrait of a company. This chapter
examines the analysis and interpretation of income components. We consider current
reporting requirements and their implications for our analysis of income components. We
describe how we might usefully apply analytical adjustments to income components and
related disclosures to better our analysis. We direct special attention to revenue recognition
and the recording of major expenses and costs. Further use and analysis is made of income
components in Part Three of the book.
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OUTLINE
• Income Measurement
Concept of Income
Measuring Accounting Income
Alternative Classification and Income Measures
• Non-recurring items
Extraordinary Items
Discontinued Operations
Accounting Changes
Special Items
• Revenue and Gain Recognition
Guidelines for Revenue Recognition
Uncertainty in Revenue Collection
Revenue When Right of Return Exists
Franchise Revenues
Product Financing Arrangements
Revenue under Contracts
Analysis Implications of Revenue Recognition
• Deferred Charges
Research and Development
Computer Software Expenses
Exploration and Development Costs in Extractive Industries
Supplementary Employee Benefits
Employee Stock Options
Interest Costs
Income Taxes
• Appendix 6A Earnings per Share: Computation and Analysis
• Appendix 6B Economics of Employee Stock Options
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ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES
• Explain the concepts of income measurement and their implications for analysis of
operating activities.
• Describe and analyze the impact of non-recurring items - including extraordinary

items, discontinued segments, accounting changes, and restructuring charges and
write-offs.
• Analyze revenue and expense recognition and its risks for financial analysis.
• Analyze deferred charges, including expenditures for research, development, and

exploration.
• Explain supplementary employee benefits and analyze disclosures for employee

stock options (ESOs)
• Describe and interpret interest costs and the accounting for income taxes.
• Analyze and interpret earnings per share data (Appendix 6A).
• Understand the economics of employee stock options (appendix 6B).
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QUESTIONS
1. The income statement portrays the net results of operations of an enterprise. Since
results are what enterprises are established to achieve and since their value is, in large
measure, determined by the size and quality of these results, it follows that the analyst
attaches great importance to the income statement.
2. Income summarizes in financial terms the operating activities of a company. Income is

the amount of revenues and gains for the period in excess of expenses and losses, all
computed under accrual accounting. Income provides a measure of the change in
shareholder wealth for a period and an indication of a company’s future earning power.
Accounting income differs from cash flows because certain revenues and gains are
recognized in periods before or after cash is received and certain expenses and losses
are recognized in periods before or after cash is paid.
3. Economic income is net cash flows plus the change in the present value of future cash
flows. Another similar concept, the Hicksian concept of income, considers income for
the period to be the amount that can be withdrawn from the company in a period without
changing the net wealth of the company. Hicksian income equals cash flow plus the
change in the fair value of net assets.
4. Accounting income is the excess of revenues and gains over expenses and losses
measured using accrual accounting. As such, revenues (and gains) are recognized
when earned and expenses (losses) are matched against the revenues (and gains).
5. Net income is the excess of the revenues and gains of the company over the expenses
and losses of the company. Net income often is called the “bottom line,” although that is
a misnomer because certain unrealized holding gains and losses are charged directly to
equity and bypass net income. Comprehensive income includes all changes in equity
that result from non-owner transactions (excluding items such as dividends and stock
issuances). Items creating differences between net income and comprehensive income
include unrealized gains and losses on available for sale securities, foreign currency
translation adjustments, minimum pension liability adjustments, and unrealized holding
gains or losses on derivative instruments. Comprehensive income is the ultimate
“bottom line” income number. Continuing income is a measure of net income earned by
ongoing segments of the company. Continuing income differs from net income because
continuing income excludes the income or loss of segments of the company that are to
be discontinued or sold (it also excludes extraordinary items and effects from changes in
accounting principles).
6. Details regarding comprehensive income are reported by the vast majority of companies
in the statement of stockholders’ equity rather than the income statement.
7. Core income is a measure of income that excludes all non-recurring items that are
reported as separate items on the income statement.
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8. Operating income is a measure of firm performance from operating activities. Examples

of operating income include product sales, cost of product sales, and selling, general,
and administrative costs. Non-operating income includes all components of income not
included in operating income. Examples of non-operating income include interest
revenue and interest expense.
9. Operating versus non-operating and recurring versus non-recurring are distinct

dimensions of classifying income. While there is overlap across selected items, these
dimensions reflect different characteristics of business activities. For example, the
interest income and interest expense of most companies recur in net income; hence,
they are included in recurring income. However, these items are non-operating in nature.
Similarly, non-recurring items such as restructuring charge are operating in nature.
10. Accounting standards (APB 30) restricted the use of the "extraordinary" category by
requiring that an extraordinary item be both unusual in nature and infrequent in
occurrence. These attributes are defined as follows:
a. Unusual nature of the underlying event or transaction should possess a high degree
of abnormality and be of a type clearly unrelated to, or only incidentally related to, the
ordinary and typical activities of the entity, taking into account the environment in
which the entity operates.
b. Infrequency of occurrence of the underlying event or transaction should be of a type
that would not reasonably be expected to recur in the foreseeable future, taking into
account the environment in which the entity operates.
Three examples of extraordinary items are:
• Major casualty losses from an event such as an earthquake, flood, or fire.
• A gain or loss from expropriation of property.
• A gain or loss from condemnation of land by eminent domain.
11. To qualify as discontinued operations, the assets and business activities of the divested
segment must be clearly distinguishable from the assets and business activities of the
remaining entity. Accounting and reporting for discontinued operations is two-fold.
First, the income statement for the current and prior two years are restated after
excluding the effects of the discontinued operations from the line items that determine
continuing income. Second, gains or losses pertaining to the discontinued operations
are reported separately, net of related tax effects. An analyst should separate and ignore
discontinued operations in predicting future performance and financial condition.
12. To qualify as a prior period adjustment, an item must meet the following requirements:
• Material in amount.
• Specifically identifiable with the business activities of specific prior periods.
• Not attributable to economic events occurring subsequent to the prior period.
• Dependent primarily on determinations by persons other than management.
• Not reasonably estimable prior to such determination.
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13. Distortions in revenues (gains) and expenses (losses) can arise from several accounting
sources. These include choices in the timing of transactions (such as revenue
recognition and expense matching), selections from the variety of generally accepted
principles and methods available, the introduction of conservative or aggressive
estimates and assumptions, and choices in how revenues, gains, expenses, and losses
are classified and presented in financial statements. Generally, a company wishing to
increase current income at the expense of future income will engage in one or more of
the following practices:
(a) It will choose inventory methods that allow for maximum inventory carrying values
and minimum current charges to cost of goods or services sold.
(b) It will choose depreciation methods and useful lives of property that will result in
minimum current charges as depreciation expense.
(c) It will defer all managed costs to the future such as, for example: pre-operating,
moving, rearrangement and start-up costs, and marketing costs. Such costs would
be carried as deferred charges or included with the costs of other assets such as
property, plant, and equipment.
(d) It will amortize assets and defer costs over the largest possible period. Such assets
include goodwill, leasehold improvements, patents, and copyrights.
(e) It will elect the method requiring the lowest possible pension and other employment
compensation cost accruals.
(f) It will inventory rather than expense administrative costs, taxes, and similar items.
(g) It will choose the most accelerated methods of income recognition such as in the
areas of leasing, franchising, real estate sales, and contracting.
(h) It immediately will recognize as revenue, rather than defer the taking up of benefits,
items such as investment tax credits.
(i) Companies that wish to “manage” the size of accounting income can regulate the
flow of income and expense by means of reserves for future costs and losses.
14. (1) Depreciation

a. Straight Line: This is calculated by taking the salvage value (S) from the original
cost (C) and dividing by the useful life of the asset in question; that is, (C-
S)/(Useful life). Sum-of-Years'-Digits: This depreciation formula is: (C-S) x (X/Y);
where C and S are the same as above, X is the remaining years (that is, if item is
being depreciated over 5 years and this is the first year, then X=5), and Y equals
the "sum-of-years'-digits" (that is, for a 5-year asset, Y=5+4+3+2+1=15).
b. Straight line is easily understood and provides level depreciation and earnings
effects. The sum-of-the-years'-digits gives heavier weight to earlier years and
causes higher depreciation and lower earnings in the early years and lower
depreciation and higher earnings toward the end of the asset's life.
(2) Inventory
a. LIFO (last-in, first-out) method: The LIFO method assumes the inventory
employed are those most recently acquired. FIFO (first-in, first-out) method: The
FIFO method assumes the first inventory items acquired are used first.
b. The effect on earnings depends on whether the economy is in an inflationary or
deflationary period. In times of inflation (the more usual case), LIFO inventory
accounting would result in lower earnings being reported than would be the case
had FIFO been employed.
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c.
(3) Installment sales
a. Accrual method: Assumes income is recognized when the sale is made (earned).
Installment method: Assumes income is recognized only when cash is received
as the various installments come in.
b. The installment method is commonly used for tax purposes while the accrual
method is employed in financial statements. The accrual method would result in
a higher earnings figure being reported than the installment method.
15. Three different types of accounting changes include:

(a) Changes in accounting principle
(b) Changes in accounting estimate
(c) Changes in reporting entity
16. Special items refer to transactions and events that are unusual or infrequent, not both.
These items are reported as separate line items on the income statement before
continuing income. Examples of special items include restructuring charges,
impairments of long-lived assets, and asset write-offs.
17. Special (one-time) charges usually receive less attention by investors because it often is
believed that such charges will not recur in the future. As a result, companies often
include as much operating expense and loss as possible in special charges hoping that
investors will focus on income before special charges that excludes these expenses and
losses. If investors do focus on income before these charges, company value may be
erroneously perceived to be higher than is supported by the fundamentals.
18. Many special charges should be viewed as operating expenses that need to be reflected
in permanent income. Essentially, many special charges are either corrections of
understated past expenses or investments for improved future profitability. As such,
analysts should adjust their income measurements to include special charges in
operating income.
19. The following criteria exemplify the rules that have been established to prevent the
premature anticipation of revenue. Realization is deemed to take place only after the
following conditions have been met:
(a) The earning activities undertaken to create revenue are substantially complete; for
example, no significant effort is necessary to complete the transaction.
(b) In the case of a sale, the risk of ownership has effectively passed to the buyer.
(c) The revenue, as well as the associated expenses, can be measured or estimated with
substantial accuracy.
(d) The revenue recognized should normally result in an increase in cash, receivables, or
marketable securities and, under certain conditions, in an increase in inventories or
other assets, or a decrease in a liability.
(e) The business transactions giving rise to the income should be at arm's-length with
independent parties (that is, not with controlled parties).
(f) The transactions should not be subject to revocation, for example, carrying the right
of return of merchandise sold.
20. SFAS 48 ("Revenue Recognition When Right of Return Exists") specifies that revenue
from sales transactions in which the buyer has a right to return the product should be
recognized at the time of sale only if all of the following conditions are met:
• At the date of sale, the price is substantially fixed or determinable.
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•
• The buyer has paid the seller, or is obligated to pay the seller (not contingent on
resale of the product).
• In the event of theft or physical damage to the product, the buyer's obligation to
the seller would not be changed.
• The buyer acquiring the product for resale has economic substance apart from
that provided by the seller.
• The seller does not have significant obligations for future performance to directly
bring about resale of the product.
• Product returns can be reasonably estimated.
If these conditions are not met, revenue recognition is postponed; if they are met, sales
revenue and cost of sales should be reduced to reflect estimated returns and expected
costs or losses should be accrued. Note: The Statement does not apply to accounting
for revenue in (a) service industries if part or all of the service revenue may be returned
under cancellation privileges granted to the buyer, (b) transactions involving real estate
or leases, or (c) sales transactions in which a customer may return defective goods such
as under warranty provisions.
21. Some of the factors that might impair the ability to predict returns (when right of return
exists in transactions) are: (1) susceptibility to significant external factors, such as
technological obsolescence or swings in market demand, (2) long return privilege
periods, and (3) absence of appropriate historical return experience.
22. SFAS 49 ("Accounting for Product Financing Arrangements") is concerned with the issue
of whether revenue has been earned. A product financing arrangement is an agreement
involving the transfer or sponsored acquisition of inventory that, although it resembles a
sale, is in substance a means of financing inventory through a second party. For
example, if a company transfers inventory to another company in an apparent sale, and
in a related transaction agrees to repurchase the inventory at a later date, the
arrangement may be a product financing arrangement rather than a sale and subsequent
purchase of inventory. If the party bearing the risks and rewards of ownership transfers
inventory to a purchaser, and in a related transaction agrees to repurchase the product
at a specified
price, or guarantees some specified resale price for sales of the product to outside
parties, the arrangement is a product financing arrangement and should be accounted
for as such.
23. The percentage-of-completion method is preferred when estimates of costs to complete

along with estimates of progress toward completion of the contract can be made with
reasonable dependability. A common basis of profit estimation is to record that part of
the estimated total profit that corresponds to the ratio that costs incurred to date bears
to expected total costs. Other methods of estimation of completion can be based on
units completed or on qualified engineering estimates or on units delivered.
The completed-contract method of accounting is preferable where the conditions
inherent in the contract present risks and uncertainties that result in an inability to make
reasonable estimates of costs and completion time. Problems under this method
concern the point at which completion of the contract is deemed to have occurred as
well as the kind of expenses to be deferred. For example, some companies defer all
costs to the completion date, including general and administrative overhead while others
consider such costs as period costs to be expensed as they are incurred.
Under either of the two contract accounting methods, losses (present or anticipated)
must be fully provided for in the period in which the loss first becomes apparent.
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24. The recording of revenue is the first step in the process of income determination and is a
step for which the recognition of any and all revenue depends. The analyst should be
particularly inquisitive about revenue recognition policies and procedures. Some
specific aspects include the following: (1) One element that casts doubt on the validity
of revenue is uncertainty about the ability of the seller to collect the resulting receivable.
Special collection problems exist with respect to installment sales, real estate sales, and
franchise sales. Problems of collection exist, however, in the case of all sales and the
analyst must be alert to them. (2) The analyst must also be alert to the problems related
to the timing of revenue recognition. The present rules generally do not allow for
recognition of profit in advance of sale—such as with increases in market value of
property such as land or equipment, the accretion of values in growing timber, or the
increase in the value of inventories are not recognized in the accounts. As a
consequence, income will not be recorded before sale and the timing of sales is a matter
that lies within the discretion of management. That, in turn, gives management a certain
degree of discretion in the timing of profit recognition. (3) In the area of contract
accounting, the analyst should recognize that the use of the completed contract method
is justified only in cases where reasonable estimates of costs and the degree of
completion are not possible. Yet, some companies consider the choice of method a
matter of discretion. (4) Other alternative methods of taking up revenue, as in the case of
lessors or finance companies, must be fully understood by the analyst before an
evaluation of a company's earnings or a comparison among companies in the same
industry is undertaken.
25. SFAS 2 ("Accounting for Research and Development Costs") offers a simple solution to
the complex problem of accounting for research and development costs. Namely, it
requires that R&D costs be charged to expense when incurred. It defines research and
development activities as follows:
(a) Research activities are aimed at discovery of new knowledge for the development of
a new product or process or in bringing about a significant improvement to an
existing product or process.
(b) Development activities translate the research findings into a plan or design for a new
product or process or a significant improvement to an existing product or process.
R&D specifically excludes routine or periodic alterations to ongoing operations and
market research and testing activities.
The Board recommended the following accounting treatment for R&D costs:
(a) The majority of expenditures incurred in research and development activities as
defined above constitutes the costs of that activity and should be charged to expense
when incurred.
(b) Costs of materials, equipment, and facilities that have alternative future uses (in
research and development projects or otherwise) should be capitalized as tangible
assets.
(c) Intangibles purchased from an external party for R&D use that have alternative future
uses should also be capitalized.
(d) Indirect costs involved in acquiring patents should be capitalized as well.
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Elements of costs that should be identified with R&D activities are:

(a) Costs of materials, equipment, and facilities that are acquired or constructed for a
particular research and development project and purchased intangibles, that have no
alternative future uses (in research and development projects or otherwise).
(b) Costs of materials consumed in research and development activities, the
depreciation of equipment or facilities, and the amortization of intangible assets used
in research and development activities that have alternative future uses.
(c) Salaries and other related costs of personnel engaged in R&D activities.
(d) Costs of services performed by others.
(e) A reasonable allocation of indirect costs. General and administrative costs that are
not clearly related to R&D activities should be excluded.
The specific disclosure requirements as stipulated by SFAS 2 are: (1) for each income
statement presented, the total R&D costs charged to expense is to be disclosed, and (2)
government-regulated companies that defer R&D costs in accordance with the
addendum to SFAS 2 must make certain additional disclosures to that effect.
26. For an analyst to form a reliable opinion on the quality and the future potential value of
research outlays, the analyst needs to know a great deal more than the totals of periodic
research and development outlays. The analyst needs information on (1) the types of
research performed, (2) the outlays by category, (3) the technical feasibility, commercial
viability, and future potential of each project assessed and reevaluated at the time of
each periodic report, and (4) information on a company's success-failure experience in
its several areas of research activity to date. Of course, present disclosure requirements
will not give the analyst such information and it appears that, except in cases of
voluntary disclosure, only the investor or the lender with the necessary clout will be able
to obtain such information. In general, one can assume that the outright expensing of all
research and development outlays will result in more conservative balance sheets and
fewer bad-news surprises stemming from the wholesale write-offs of previously
capitalized research and development outlays. However, the analyst must realize that
along with a lack of knowledge about future potential s/he may also be unaware of the
potential disasters that can befall an enterprise tempted or forced to sink ever greater
amounts of funds into research and development projects whose promise was great but
whose failure is nevertheless inevitable.
27. One of the most common solutions applied by analysts to the complex problem of the
analysis of goodwill is to simply ignore it. That is, they ignore the asset shown on the
balance sheet. Unfortunately, by ignoring goodwill, analysts ignore investments of very
substantial resources in what may often be a company's most important asset. Ignoring
the impact of goodwill impairment losses on reported periodic income is no solution to
the analysis of this complex cost. Even considering the limited amount of information
available to the analyst, it is far better that the analyst understand the effects of
accounting practices in this area on accounting income rather than dismiss them
altogether.
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28.
Goodwill is measured by the excess of cost over the fair market value of tangible net
assets acquired in a transaction accounted for as a purchase. That is the theory of it.
The financial analyst must be alert to the makeup and the method of valuation of the
Goodwill account as well as to the method of its ultimate disposition. One way of
disposing of the Goodwill account, frequently chosen by management, is to write it off at
a time when it would have the least serious impact on the market's judgment of the
company's earnings, for example, at a time of loss or reduced earnings. Under normal
circumstances, goodwill is not indestructible but is rather an asset with a limited useful
life. Still, whatever the advantages of location, market dominance and competitive
stance, sales skill, product acceptance, or other benefits are, they cannot be unaffected
by the passing of time and by changes in the business environment. Thus, the analyst
must assess the carrying amount of goodwill by reference to such evidence of
continuing value as the profitability of units for which the goodwill consideration was
originally paid.
29. The interest cost to a company is the nominal rate paid including, in the case of bonds,
the amortization of any bond discount or premium. A complication arises when
companies issue convertible debt or debt with warrants, thus achieving a nominal debt
coupon cost that is below the cost of similar debt not carrying these features. After trial
pronouncements on the subject and much controversy, APB 14 concluded in the case of
convertible debt that the inseparability of the debt and equity features is such that no
portion of the proceeds from the issuance should be accounted for as attributable to the
conversion feature. In the case of debt issued with stock warrants attached, the
proceeds of the debt attributable to the warrants should be accounted for as paid-in
capital. The corresponding charge is to a debt discount account that must be amortized
over the life of the debt issue thus increasing the effective interest cost.
30. a. SFAS 34 ("Capitalization of Interest Cost") requires capitalization of interest cost as

part of the historical cost of "assets that are constructed or otherwise produced for
an enterprise's own use (including assets constructed or produced for the enterprise
by others for which deposits or progress payments have been made)." Inventory
items that are routinely manufactured or produced in large quantities on a repetitive
basis do not qualify for interest capitalization. The objectives of interest
capitalization, according to the FASB, are (1) to measure more accurately the
acquisition cost of an asset, and (2) to amortize that acquisition cost against
revenues generated by the asset.
b. The amount of interest to be capitalized is based on the entity's actual borrowings

and interest payments. The rate to be used for capitalization may be ascertained in
this order: (1) the rate of specific borrowings associated with the assets and (2) if
borrowings are not specific for the asset, or the asset exceeds specific borrowings
therefore, a weighted average of rates applicable to other appropriate borrowings
may
be used. Alternatively, a company may use a weighted average of rates of all
appropriate borrowings regardless of specific borrowings incurred to finance the
asset.
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c. Interest capitalization is not permitted to exceed total interest costs for any period,
nor is imputing interest cost to equity funds permitted. A company without debt will
have no interest to capitalize. The capitalization period begins when three conditions
are present: (1) expenditures for the asset have been made by the entity, (2) work on
the asset is in progress, and (3) interest cost is being incurred. Interest capitalization
ceases when the asset is ready for its intended use.
31. The intrinsic value of an option is the amount by which the market value of the
underlying security exceeds the option exercise price at the time of measurement. The
fair value of an option is the amount that market participants would be willing to pay
today to purchase the option.
32. The fair value of an option is affected by the exercise price, the current market price, the
risk-free rate of interest, the expected life of the option, the expected volatility of the
stock price, and the expected dividend yield.
33. SFAS 123 requires that the company amortize the fair value of employee stock options
(estimated using various option pricing models) at the grant date over the expected life
of the option. The cumulative amortization of all employee stock options granted in the
past is collectively called the option compensation expense. Until recently, option
compensation expense was not charged to income. However, a recent revision of the
standard, SFAS 123R, requires that the option compensation expense be charged to
income. Compensation expense may be included in various expense categories such as
cost of goods sold, SG&A, R&D etc. based on which area of the company the respective
employee works for.
34. The economic cost of issuing options at the prevailing market price are: (1) the interest
cost, which is that the employee is able to pay for the stock purchase many years later
using the current stock price; and (2) cost of providing an option to exercise, which
arises because the employee can share in the potential upside but is protected from
sharing in the potential downside risk.
35. Option overhang refers to the intrinsic value of outstanding options (both exercisable
and otherwise) as a proportion of the company’s market value. It is a measure of the
value of potential dilution that arises from option grants to employees. It measured by
aggregating the intrinsic value of all outstanding employee stock options, using the
current stock price, and dividing it by the current market capitalization of the company’s
equity.
35. The net income computed on the basis of generally accepted accounting principles (also
known as "book income") is usually not identical to the "taxable income" computed on
the entity's tax return. This is due to two types of difference. Permanent differences
(discussed here) and temporary, or timing, differences. Permanent differences result
from provisions of the tax law under which:
(a) Certain items may be nontaxable—for example, income on tax exempt obligations
and proceeds of life insurance on an officer
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(b)
(c) Certain deductions are not allowed—for example, penalties for filing certain returns,
government fines, and officer life insurance premiums.
(d) Special deductions granted by law—for example, dividend exclusion on dividends
from unconsolidated subsidiaries and from dividends received from other domestic
corporations.
36. The effective tax rate paid by a corporation on its income will vary from the statutory rate
because:
• The basis of carrying property for accounting purposes may differ from that for tax
purposes from reorganizations, business combinations, or other transactions.
• Nonqualified and qualified stock-option plans may result in book-tax differences.
• Certain industries, such as savings and loan associations, shipping lines, and
insurance companies enjoy special tax privileges.
• Up to $100,000 of corporate income is taxed at lower tax rates.
• Certain credits may apply, such as R&D credits and foreign tax credits.
• State and local income taxes, net of federal tax benefit, are included in total tax
expenses.
What makes these differences and factors permanent is the fact that they do not have
any future repercussions on a company's taxable income. Thus, they must be taken into
account when reconciling a company's actual (effective) tax rate to the statutory rate.
37. SFAS 109 ("Accounting for Income Taxes") establishes financial accounting and
reporting standards for the effects of income taxes that result from an enterprise's
activities during the current and preceding years, and requires an asset and liability
approach. SFAS 109 requires that deferred taxes should be determined separately for
each tax-paying component (an individual entity or group of entities that is consolidated
for tax purposes) in each tax jurisdiction. The determination includes the following
procedures:
• Identify the types and amounts of existing temporary differences and the nature
and amount of each type of operating loss and tax credit carry forward, plus the
remaining length of the carry forward period.
• Measure the total deferred tax liability for taxable temporary differences, using the
applicable tax rate.
• Measure the total deferred tax asset for deductible temporary differences and
operating loss carry forwards, using the applicable tax rate.
• Measure deferred tax assets for each type of tax credit carry forward.
• Reduce deferred tax assets by a valuation allowance if based on the weight of
available evidence. It is more likely than not (a likelihood of more than 50 percent)
that some portion or all of the deferred tax assets will not be realized. The
valuation allowance should be sufficient to reduce the deferred tax asset to the
amount that is more likely than not to be realized.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities should be adjusted for the effect of a change in tax
laws or rates. The effect should be included in income from continuing operations for the
period that includes the enactment date.
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38. (a) Revenues or gains are included in taxable income later than they are included in
pretax accounting income.
(b) Expenses or losses are deducted in determining taxable income later than they are
deducted in determining pretax accounting income.
(c) Revenues or gains are included in taxable income earlier than they are included in
pretax accounting income.
(d) Expenses or losses are deducted in determining taxable income earlier than they are
deducted in determining pretax accounting income.
39. The components of the net deferred tax liability or net deferred tax asset recognized in a
company's balance sheet should be disclosed. These include the:
• Total of all deferred tax liabilities.
• Total of all deferred tax assets.
• Total valuation allowance recognized for deferred tax assets.
Additional disclosures include the significant components of income tax expense
attributable to continuing operations for each year presented which include, for example:
• Current tax expense or benefit.
• Deferred tax expense or benefit (exclusive of the effects of other components).
• Investment tax credits.
• Government grants (to the extent recognized as a reduction of income tax expense).
• The benefits of operating loss carry forwards.
• Tax expense that results from allocating certain tax benefits either directly to
contributed capital or to reduce goodwill or other noncurrent intangible assets of an
acquired entity.
• Adjustments of a deferred tax liability or asset for enacted changes in tax laws or
rates or a change in the tax status of the enterprise.
• Adjustments of the beginning-of-year balance of a valuation allowance because of a
change in circumstances that causes a change in judgment about the realizability of
the related deferred tax asset in future years.
Also to be disclosed is a reconciliation between the effective income tax rate and the
statutory federal income tax rate. In addition, the amounts and expiration dates of
operating loss and tax credit carry forwards for tax purposes must be disclosed.
40. (1) One of the flaws remaining in tax allocation procedures is that no recognition is given
to the fact that a future obligation, or loss of benefits, should be discounted rather than
shown at its entire amount as today's tax deferred accounts actually are. The FASB has
reviewed the issue and decided not to address it because of the conceptual and
implementation issues involved. (2) Another flaw is that the Board allowed parent
companies to avoid providing taxes on unremitted earnings of subsidiaries and other
specialized exceptions to the requirements of deferred tax accounting.
41. A The determination of the earnings level of an enterprise, which is relevant to the
purpose of the analyst, is a complex analytical process. The earnings figure can be
converted into a per-share amount that is useful in evaluating the price of the common
stock, its dividend coverage, and the potential effects of dilution. As with any measure,
there are strengths and weaknesses associated with its computation. Thus, the analyst
must have a thorough understanding of the principles that govern the computation of
earnings per share to effectively analyze it and use it in decision making.
6-14
42. A Earnings per share data are used in making investment decisions. They are used in
evaluating the past operating performance of a company and in forming an opinion as to
its future potential. They are commonly presented in prospectuses, proxy material, and
reports to stockholders, and is the only financial statement ratio that is audited. They are
used in the compilation of business earnings data for the press, statistical services, and
other publications. When presented with formal financial statements, they assist the
investor in weighing the significance of a corporation's current net income and of
changes in its net income from period to period in relation to the shares an analyst holds
or may acquire.
Current GAAP regarding EPS conforms to international standards. The analyst must
be aware that basic EPS does not take into account securities that, although not
common stock, are in substance equivalent to common stock. The analyst must take
care to focus on diluted EPS, which intends to show the maximum extent of potential
dilution of current earnings that conversions of securities could create.
43. A Diluted earnings per share is the amount of current earnings per share reflecting the
maximum dilution that would result from conversions, exercises, and other contingent
issuances that individually would decreased earnings per share and in the aggregate
yield a dilutive effect. All such issuances are assumed to have taken place at the
beginning of the period (or at the time the contingency arose, if later).
44. A The amount of any dividends on preferred stock that have been paid (declared) for the
year should be deducted from net income before computing earnings per share.
45. A Yes, if warrants or options are present, an increase in the market price of the common
stock can increase the number of common equivalent shares by decreasing the number
of shares repurchasable under the treasury stock method.
46. A SFAS 128 has a number of flaws and inconsistencies that the analyst must consider in
interpreting EPS data:
(a) The computation of basic EPS completely ignores the potentially dilutive effects of
options and warrants.
(b) There is a basic inconsistency in treating certain securities as the equivalent of
common stock for purposes of computing EPS while not considering them as part of
the stockholders' equity in the balance sheet. Consequently, the analyst will have
difficulty in interrelating reported EPS with the debt-leverage position pertaining to
the same earnings.
(c) Generally, EPS are considered to be a factor influencing stock prices. Whether
options and warrants are dilutive or not depends on the price of the common stock.
Thus we can get a circular effect in that the reporting of EPS may influence the
market price which, in turn, influences EPS. Under these rules earnings may depend
on market prices of the stock rather than only on economic factors within the
enterprise. In the extreme, this suggests that the projection of future EPS requires
not only the projection of earnings levels but also the projection of future market
prices.
47. A (a) Earnings per share data are used in making investment decisions. They are used
in evaluating the past operating performance of a company and in forming an opinion
as to its future potential. They are commonly presented in prospectuses, proxy
material, and reports to stockholders. They are used in the compilation of business
earnings data for the press, statistical services, and other publications. When
6-15
presented with formal financial statements, they assist the investor in weighing the
significance of a corporation's current net income and of changes in its net income
from period to period in relation to the shares an analyst holds or may acquire.
(b) Earnings per common share are not fully relevant to the valuation of preferred stock.
For purposes of preferred stock evaluation, the earnings coverage ratio of preferred
stock is among the most relevant. It measures the number of times preferred
dividends have been earned and, thus, is a measure of the safety of the dividend as
well as the safety of the preferred issue.
6-16
EXERCISES
Exercise 6-1 (25 minutes)
a. Cash xxx
Gain on disposition* xxx
Net assets of discontinued operations xxx
* (A loss on disposition would be recorded as a debit)
b. Income (expense) related to discontinued operations include the operating profit

(loss) recorded prior to sale and the gain (loss) on sale. These are reported net of
applicable tax.
c. When estimating future earning power, the results from discontinued operations
should not be treated as recurring. This is important for an assessment of the
permanent income of a company.
d. Separately reporting discontinued operations allows the analyst to view the

results of operations without the segment that will not be ongoing. As a result,
the analyst can better assess the permanent component of income, for which
results of discontinuing operations will be excluded.
a. By the use of reserves, a company can allocate costs in excess of actual

experience in the current period, based on estimates of additional costs in the
future, or even based on the simple possibility of further costs in the future. Then,
in later periods, actual costs can be written off against the reserve rather than
reported as expenses in the company's income statement for those periods. The
advantage to the company is that earnings trends can be "smoothed," and a
cushion for future earnings can be built up during good economic years for use
during leaner periods. To the extent that stability and predictability of earnings
are market virtues, the company's common stock might be accorded a higher
multiple for these efforts, in effect lowering the cost of capital to the company.
The use of reserves both poses problems for the analyst and conflicts with some
basic accounting principles. These include:
(1) Use of reserves contradicts the matching principle, by which revenues and
related costs should be recognized in the same period.
(2) Reserving for future events (especially contingencies) is obviously subject to
estimate, and accounting should attempt to record quantifiable value as much
as possible.
6-17
Exercise 6-2—continued
(3) The reserving technique makes reported earnings less indicative of

fundamental trends in the company. The effects of the economic cycle are
reduced, making correlation techniques (such as GNP growth vs. EPS growth)
invalid. These reported numbers might mislead the “uninformed” investor. In
contrast to the artificial smoothing referred to earlier, the company's growth
rate may be exaggerated, by over-reserving for losses in a bad year, and
subsequent writing off of the reserve.
It should be noted that a reserve can be properly taken such as when it

recognizes a liability that (1) likely exists in the relatively near future—such as
costs of winding up a plant shutdown with the next year or (2) is subject to
quantification—such as the outright expropriation of net assets in a foreign
country.
b. If the analyst is able to discern the impact of reserves, s/he should exclude the
reserves' impact from accounting income when assessing past trends. Only
operating or normal earnings should be compared over the short-term. However,
over a longer period of time, the losses against which reserves have been taken
should be included. In estimating future earnings, the analyst must carefully
consider the impact of reserves and exclude the impact when forecasting normal
earnings. By doing this, the analyst will have a better understanding of the true
operations of the company. In the valuation of common stock, the analyst must
focus on the sustainable earning power of the company. Thus, earnings may have
to be adjusted upward or downward depending on the degree of abuse of
reserves.
c. Several examples of reserves are cited in the chapter. Also, students often
benefit from a review of business magazines in attempting to identify such
reserves.
(CFA Adapted)
a. A change from the sum-of-the-years'-digits method of depreciation to the

straight-line method for previously recorded assets is a change in accounting
principle. Both the sum-of-the-years'-digits method and the straight-line method
are generally accepted. A change in accounting principle results from adoption
of a generally accepted accounting principle different from the generally accepted
accounting principle used previously for reporting purposes.
6-18
Exercise 6-3—continued
b. A change in the expected service life of an asset arising because of more

experience with the asset is a change in accounting estimate. A change in
accounting estimate occurs because future events and their effects cannot be
perceived with certainty. Estimates are an inherent part of the accounting
process. Therefore, accounting and reporting for certain financial statement
elements requires the exercise of judgment, subject to revision based on
experience.
c. 1. The cumulative effect of a change in accounting principle is the difference

between: (1) the amount of retained earnings at the beginning of the period of
change and (2) the amount of retained earnings that would have been reported
at that date if the new accounting principle had been used in prior periods.
2. FASB 2005 Statement “Accounting Changes and Error Corrections” requires
that effective in 2005, companies should apply the “retrospective approach” to
changes in accounting principle. Thus, all presented periods must be restated
as if the change were in effect during those periods, and any cumulative effect
from periods before those presented is an adjustment to beginning retained
earnings of the earliest period presented.
d. Consistent use of accounting principles from one accounting period to another

enhances the usefulness of financial statements in comparative analysis of
accounting data across time.
e. If a change in accounting principle occurs, the nature and effect of a change in

accounting principle should be disclosed to avoid misleading financial statement
users. There is a presumption that an accounting principle, once adopted, should
not be changed in accounting for events and transactions of a similar type.
f. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. Thus, managerial

discretion is not present, or at least is to a lesser degree. One should examine
the motivations for voluntary accounting changes and assess any earnings
quality impact.
g. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. However, there is

often a window of time for a company to adopt a mandatory accounting change.
If a window exists, management has discretion as to the timing of the adoption.
Thus, the timing of adoption and any accounting ramifications should be
considered. For example, if a manager is going to adopt an accounting change
that includes a large charge, the manager might choose to adopt in a relatively
poor quarter to attempt to potentially conceal or downplay the poor operating
performance.
6-19
Exercise 6-3—concluded
h. Mandatory accounting changes often include the recognition of retroactive

earnings affects. For example, the rules in accounting for other post-employment
benefits require that companies establish a liability for the accrued benefits to
date. This results in a large charge for many companies. Of course, the market
potentially views the charge as largely the fault of accounting rule makers. Thus,
managers have incentive to increase the amount of the charge and use the
bloated liability to increase future earnings.
Comprehensive income computation:*
a. Computation: b. Balance sheet accounts affected:

$1,000,000 Net income (closed to equity)
- 100,000 Unrealized holding loss on available for sale securities
+ 50,000 Foreign currency translation gain
- 25,000 Additional minimum pension liability adjustment
- 12,000 Unrealized holding losses on derivative instruments
$ 913,000 Comprehensive income (component of equity)
* The unexpected return on pension fund assets ($40,000) does not affect net income or
stockholders’ equity in the current period.
6-20
a. The point of sale is the most widely used basis for the timing of revenue
recognition because in most cases it provides the degree of objective evidence
many consider necessary to measure reliably periodic business income. That is,
sales transactions with outsiders represent the point in the revenue generating
process when most of the uncertainty about the final outcome of business
activity has been alleviated. It is also at the point of sale in most cases that
substantially all of the costs of generating revenues are known, and they can at
this point be matched with the revenues generated to produce a reliable
statement of a firm's effort and accomplishment for the period. Any attempt to
measure business income prior to the point of sale would, in the vast majority of
cases, introduce considerably more subjectivity into financial reporting than most
accountants are willing to accept.
b. 1. Though it is recognized that revenue is earned throughout the entire

production process, generally it is not feasible to measure revenue on the
basis of operating activity. It is not feasible because of the absence of suitable
criteria for consistently and objectively arriving at a periodic determination of
the amount of revenue to take up. Also, in most situations the sale is the most
important single step in the earning process. Prior to the sale the amount of
revenue anticipated from the processes of production is merely prospective
revenue; its realization remains to be validated by actual sales. The
accumulation of costs during production does not alone generate revenue;
rather, revenues are earned by the entire process including the actual sales.
Thus, as a general rule the sale cannot be regarded as being an unduly
conservative basis for the timing of revenue recognition. Except in unusual
circumstances, revenue recognition prior to sale would be anticipatory in
nature and unverifiable in amount.
2. To criticize the sales basis as not being sufficiently conservative because

accounts receivable do not represent disposable funds, it is necessary to
assume that collection of receivables is the decisive step in the earning
process and that periodic revenue measurement and, therefore, net income
should depend on the amount of cash generated during the period. This
assumption disregards the fact that the sale usually represents the decisive
factor in the earning process and substitutes for it the administrative function
of managing and collecting receivables. That is, the investment of funds in
receivables should be regarded as a policy designed to increase total
revenues, properly recognized at the point of sale; and the cost of managing
receivables (e.g., bad debts and collection costs) should be matched with the
sales in the proper period. The fact that some revenue adjustments (such as
sales returns) and some expenses (such as bad debts and collection costs)
can occur in a period subsequent to the sale does not detract from the overall
usefulness of the sales basis for the timing of revenue recognition. Both can
be estimated with sufficient accuracy so as not to detract from the reliability
6-21
of reported net income. Thus, in the vast majority of cases for which the sales
basis is used, estimating errors, though unavoidable, will be too immaterial in
amount to warrant deferring revenue recognition to a later point in time.
c. 1. During production. This basis of recognizing revenue is frequently used by

companies whose major source of revenue are long-term construction
projects. For these companies the point of sale is far less significant to the
earning process than is production activity because the sale is assured under
the contract, except of course where performance is not substantially in
accordance with the contract terms. To defer revenue recognition until the
completion of long-term construction projects could impair significantly the
usefulness of the intervening annual financial statements because the volume
of completed contracts during a period is likely to bear no relationship to
production volume. During each year that a project is in process a portion of
the contract price is therefore appropriately recognized as that year's revenue.
The amount of the contract price to be recognized should be proportionate to
the year's production progress on the project. It should be noted that the use
of the production basis in lieu of the sales basis for the timing of revenue
recognition is justifiable only when total profit or loss on the contracts can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy and its ultimate realization is reasonably
assured.
2. When cash is received. The most common application of this basis for the
timing of revenue recognition is in connection with installment sales
contracts. Its use is justified on the grounds that, due to the length of the
collection period, increased risks of default, and higher collection costs, there
is too much uncertainty to warrant revenue recognition until cash is received.
The mere fact that sales are made on an installment contract basis does not
justify using the cash receipts basis of revenue recognition. The justification
for this departure from the sales depends essentially upon an absence of a
reasonably objective basis for estimating the amount of collection costs and
bad debts that will be incurred in later periods. If these expenses can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy, the sales basis should be used.
(AICPA Adapted)
6-22
a. Michael Company should recognize revenue as it performs the work on the

contract (the percentage-of-completion method) given that the right to revenue is
established and collectibility is reasonably assured. Furthermore, the use of the
percentage-of-completion method avoids distortion of income from period to
period, and it provides for better matching of revenues with the related expenses.
b. Progress billings would be accounted for by increasing Accounts Receivable and

increasing Progress Billings on Contract, a contra asset account that is offset
against the Construction Costs in Progress account. If the Construction Costs in
Progress account exceeds the Progress Billings on Contract account, the two
accounts would be shown in the current assets section of the balance sheet. If
the Progress Billings on Contract account exceeds the Construction Costs in
Progress account, the two accounts would be shown, in most cases, in the
current liabilities section of the balance sheet.
c. The income recognized in the second year of the four-year contract would be
determined as follows:
• First, the estimated total income from the contract would be determined by
deducting the estimated total costs of the contract (the actual costs to date
plus the estimated cost to complete) from the contract price.
• Second, the actual costs to date would be divided by the estimated total
costs of the contract to arrive at a percentage completed, which would be
multiplied by the estimated total income from the contract to arrive at the
total income recognized to date.
• Third, the total income recognized in the second year of the contract would
be determined by deducting the income recognized in the first year of the
contract from the total income recognized to date.
d. Earnings in the second year of the four-year contract would be higher using the
percentage-of-completion method instead of the completed-contract method. This
is because income would be recognized in the second year of the contract using
the percentage-of-completion method, whereas no income would be recognized
in the second year of the contract using the completed-contract method.
6-23
a. Crime Control's revenue recognition practices, while not the most conservative,
conform to GAAP. The important issue is whether lessees will, in fact, continue
for their eight-year terms. Should large cancellations occur, substantial portions
of the revenue recognized in earlier years might have to be reversed in
subsequent years. This would result in distortions of earning power and earning
trends. Thus, a critical issue of this accounting is whether the company provides
adequately for contingencies such as cancellations. Should the pace of newly
written sales-type leases slow, the company's earnings growth may stop or
earnings may even decline.
b. While the tax accounting does provide the company with significant funds from
tax postponement, it does not affect reported results because under GAAP the
company is required to provide for deferred taxes which it is assumed will be
payable in the future.
c. While it is true that the sale of the receivables without recourse would enable the
company to book profits in the year the lease originated, this practice would at
the same time substantially increase the company's tax bill.
a. This revenue recognition issue stirs controversy. Many believe that it is

reasonable for both companies to record offsetting advertising revenues and
advertising expenses from this contract. This is justified in that the transaction
seemingly meets the usual revenue recognition criteria. Opponents of this
treatment worry about uncertainty and completeness of the earning process.
b. Revenues and revenue growth are considered good indicators of future

prospects for Dot.Com (Internet) companies. Accordingly, Internet companies
want to maximize the amount of reported revenues; even if those revenues are
entirely offset with expenses.
c. An analyst should seek to determine the percent of revenues that come from
advertising in such barter transactions versus revenues from cash-paying (or
credit) customers. Some believe that barter-based revenues should be
segregated and viewed in a different light from that of more normal revenues.
This might affect revenue multiples in determining stock price or decisions in
other applications that rely on financial statements. Analysts should adjust their
models according to their beliefs about the relative merits of such revenues.
6-24
a. Some costs are recognized as expenses on the basis of a presumed direct

association with specific revenue. This has been identified both as "associating
cause and effect" and as the "matching concept." Direct cause-and-effect
relations can seldom be conclusively demonstrated, but many costs appear to be
related to particular revenue, and recognizing them as expenses accompanies
recognition of the revenue. Generally, the matching concept requires that the
revenue recognized and the expenses incurred to produce the revenue be given
concurrent periodic recognition in the accounting records. Only if effort is
properly related to accomplishment will the results, called earnings, have useful
significance concerning the efficient utilization of business resources. Thus,
applying the matching principle recognizes the cause-and-effect relationship that
exists between expense and revenue. Examples of expenses that are usually
recognized by associating cause and effect are sales commissions, freight-out on
merchandise sold, and cost of goods sold or services provided.
b. Some costs are assigned as expenses to the current accounting period because
(1) their incurrence during the period provides no discernible future benefits; (2)
they are measures of assets recorded in previous periods from which no future
benefits are expected or can be discerned; (3) they must be incurred each
accounting year, and no buildup of expected future benefits occurs; (4) by their
nature they relate to current revenues even though they cannot be directly
associated with any specific revenues; (5) the amount of cost to be deferred can
be measured only in an arbitrary manner or great uncertainty exists regarding the
realization of future benefits, or both; and (6) uncertainty exists regarding
whether allocating them to current and future periods will serve any useful
purpose. Thus, many costs are called "period costs" and are treated as expenses
in the period incurred because neither do they have a direct relationship with
revenue earned nor can their occurrence be directly shown to give rise to an
asset. The application of this principle of expense recognition results in charging
many costs to expense in the period in which they are paid or accrued for
payment. Examples of costs treated as period expenses would include officers'
salaries, advertising, research and development, and auditors' fees.
c. A cost should be capitalized, that is, treated as an asset, when it is expected that
the asset will produce benefits in future periods. The important concept here is
that the incurrence of the cost has resulted in the acquisition of an asset, a future
service potential. If a cost is incurred that resulted in the acquisition of an asset
from which benefits are not expected beyond the current period, the cost may be
expensed as a measure of the service potential that expired in producing the
current period's revenues. Not only should the incurrence of the cost result in the
acquisition of an asset from which future benefits are expected, but also the cost
should be measurable with a reasonable degree of objectivity, and there should
be reasonable grounds for associating it with the asset acquired. Examples of
costs that should be treated as measures of assets are the costs of merchandise
6-25
on hand at the end of an accounting period, the costs of insurance coverage

relating to future periods, and the costs of self-constructed plant or equipment.
d. In the absence of a direct basis for associating asset cost with revenue, and if the
asset provides benefits for two or more accounting periods, its cost should be
allocated to these periods (as an expense) in a systematic and rational manner.
When it is impractical, or impossible, to find a close cause-and-effect relationship
between revenue and cost, this relationship is often assumed to exist. Therefore,
the asset cost is allocated to the accounting periods by some method. The
allocation method used should appear reasonable to an unbiased observer and
should be followed consistently from period to period. Examples of systematic
and rational allocation of asset cost would include depreciation of fixed assets,
amortization of intangibles, and allocation of rent and insurance.
e. A cost should be treated as a loss when an unfavorable event results from an

activity other than a normal business activity. The matching of losses to specific
revenue should not be attempted because, by definition, they are expired service
potentials not related to revenue produced. That is, losses resulting from
extraneous and exogenous events that are not recurring or anticipated as
necessary in the process of producing revenue. There is no simple way of
identifying a loss, because ascertaining whether a cost should be a loss is often a
matter of judgment. The accounting distinction between an asset, expense, loss,
and prior-period adjustment is not clear-cut. For example, an expense is usually
voluntary, planned, and expected as necessary in the generation of revenue. But
a loss is a measure of the service potential expired that is considered abnormal,
unnecessary, unanticipated, and possibly nonrecurring and is usually not taken
into direct consideration in planning the size of the revenue stream.
(AICPA Adapted)
a. Research and development costs are expensed in the year that they are incurred.
This means R&D costs impact current income dollar for dollar. Also, to the
extent that research and development efforts lead to future revenues, this is a
violation of the matching principle in relating costs to revenues in determining
future income.
b. R&D expenditures at Frontier Biotech decreased substantially in fiscal 2006. As

a result, fiscal 2006 net income is substantially higher. However, this may not be
a good signal for future profitability. To the extent that one has confidence in the
ability of the R&D department at Frontier Biotech, future revenues may be
compromised by management’s decision to curtail research efforts.
6-26
a. Theoretically, presentation in the body of the statement or in the footnotes

should have no influence on the analysis of the financial statements. In practice,
however, footnote disclosures are typically insufficient. In addition, information
is more difficult to overlook when presented in the body of the financial
statements.
b. An analyst would adjust the analysis of financial statements by recasting

expenses and income computations to include the disclosed stock option
expense. In addition, the analyst would recast retained earnings to reflect the
stock option expense (net of tax).
c. Numerous ratios are affected by the accrual versus non-accrual of compensation

expense related to employee stock options. For example, all ratios that include
operating expense, net income, and equity are affected, such as return on equity,
return on net operating assets, net operating profit margin, and operating
expenses as a percent of sales.
a. The plan will be deemed to be compensatory. This is because the stock option
plan is only offered to certain employees and the life of the option is not short.
b. Incent.Com would offer such a lucrative plan to its employees to attract and retain
a talented work force. Human capital is a key asset in technology companies.
c. The grant date is January 1, 2004; Vesting date is January 1, 2009; First exercise
date is January 1, 2009.
d. No, the employee stock options are not “in-the-money” at the grant date. This is
because at the grant date the exercise price is greater than or equal to (not less
than) the market price of the stock.
e. Total compensation cost should be measured at the date of measurement. The

date of measurement is the earliest date that the number of shares and the stock
option price is known—which is January 1, 2004, in this case.
6-27
f. Total compensation cost to be recognized will depend upon the accounting rules
applied. Under APB 25, total compensation cost is $0; computed as the intrinsic
value of the options times the number of shares, or [($20–$20) x 100,000 shares].
Under SFAS 123, the 81,538 options (rounded up) are expected to vest based on
the 4% forfeiture rate. Specifically, 100,000 x 4% = 4,000 options in 2000; 96,000
x 4% = 3,840 options in 2001; 92,160 x 4% = 3,686 options in 2002; 88,474 x 4% =
3,539 options in 2003; and 84,935 x 4% = 3,397 options in 2004. Consequently,
$652,304 in total compensation expense should be recognized (81,538 options x
$8 fair value per option).
g. Compensation cost should be allocated over the service period, years 2004
through 2008.
h. The employee stock option plan transfers wealth from stockholders to employees
by granting potential ownership rights to employees with less than “full buy-in”
to acquire these ownership rights. That is, if existing ownership were diluted via
a normal issuance of shares to investors, contributed capital received from the
investors would be much greater than that received from the exercise price of
stock options.
a. Managers often hold, or expect to hold, stock options. As a result, they will
increase their wealth when the market price of the stock increasing exceeds the
exercise price of stock options they hold. By withholding good news and
selectively releasing bad news before the date that the option’s exercise price is
established, the managers allegedly depress the price of the stock (at least
temporarily) until the exercise price is established.
b. In the analysis of company performance and stock valuation, silence before a

grant date might be interpreted as a sign that no significant bad news is known
by the managers (given their incentive to release bad news prior to the date to
establish an exercise price when managers hold stock options). Moreover, an
analyst might expect that good news would be withheld by managers until after
the date that the exercise price of the stock options is established.
6-28
a. Some transactions affect the determination of net income for accounting

purposes in one reporting period and the computation of taxable income and
income taxes payable in a different reporting period. In accordance with the
matching principle, the appropriate income tax expense represents the income
tax consequences of revenues and expenses recognized for accounting purposes
in the current period, whether those income taxes are paid or payable in current,
future, or past periods. Accordingly, a deferred income taxes account is setup to
reflect such timing differences.
b. When depreciation expense for machinery purchased this year is reported using
the MACRS for income tax purposes and the straight-line basis for accounting
purposes, a timing difference arises. Because more depreciation expense is
reported for income tax purposes than for accounting purposes this year, pretax
accounting income is more than taxable income. The difference creates a credit
to deferred income taxes equal to the difference in depreciation multiplied by the
appropriate income tax rate.
When rent revenues received in advance this year are included in this year's
taxable income but as unearned revenues (a current liability) for accounting
purposes, a timing difference arises. Because rent revenues are reported this
year for income tax purposes but not for accounting purposes, pretax accounting
income is less than taxable income. The difference creates a debit to deferred
income taxes equal to the difference in rent revenues multiplied by the
appropriate income tax rate.
c. The income tax effect of the depreciation (timing difference) is classified on the
balance sheet as a noncurrent liability because the asset to which it is related is
noncurrent. The income tax effect of the rent revenues received in advance
(timing difference) is classified on the balance sheet as a current asset because
the liability to which it is related is current. The noncurrent liability and the
current asset should not be netted on the balance sheet because one is current
and one is noncurrent.
On the income statement, the income tax effect of the depreciation (timing
difference) and the rent revenues received in advance (timing difference) should
be netted. This amount is classified as a deferred component of income tax
expense.
6-29
There are at least two earnings targets that are typically relevant for managers and
investors. The first is the consensus earnings expectation of the analyst community.
The second is the earnings in the same quarter of the previous fiscal year. (A third
might be an earnings forecast previously released by management.) Beating these
targets by even a penny is typically viewed as a sign of sustained profit growth and
skilled leadership. This means that companies near these targets will use earnings
management to meet or exceed these targets, even if only by a penny. Accordingly,
earnings increases of $0.01 can be significant when the change pushes earnings
equal to or above relevant earnings targets. Of course, a magnitude or scale issue
can be relevant as well. A $0.01 change in an earnings per share figure that is
approximately $0.05 per share in total can be quite relevant, whereas a $0.01 change
for an earnings per share figure that is approximately $10.00 per share can be
substantially less relevant.
a. The effects of dilutive stock options and warrants are not included in the
computation of the number of shares for basic earnings per share. They are,
however, included in diluted earnings per share computations.
b. The effects of dilutive convertible securities are not included in the computation
of the number of shares for basic earnings per share. They are, however, included
in diluted earnings per share computations.
c. Antidilutive securities are excluded from both basic and diluted earnings per
share.
6-30
a. Basic earnings per share is the amount of earnings attributable to common

shareholders (that is, net income less preferred dividends) divided by the
weighted average number of common shares outstanding for that period.
b. Diluted earnings per share is the amount of current earnings per share that
reflects the maximum dilution that would result from the conversion of all
convertible securities and the exercise of all warrants and options. The
conversion of these securities individually would decrease earnings per share
and in the aggregate would have a dilutive effect. The computation of diluted
earnings per share should be based upon the assumption that all such issued
and issuable shares are outstanding from the beginning of the period, or from
their inception if after the beginning of the period. To summarize, whereas basic
earnings per share does not reflect any securities convertible or exercisable into
common shares, diluted earnings per share includes all such securities and
considers their dilutive effect upon earnings per share, taking into account
necessary adjustments to income resulting from the conversion process.
(CFA Adapted)
1. b. Shares outstanding after the stock dividend are 2 million shares outstanding
entire year + 10% of 2 million shares outstanding for 9/12 of year, OR 2 mill + .2
mill(.75) = 2,150,000 shares.
2. a (potentially dilutive securities are not considered in basic earnings per share)
3. a (warrants are antidilutive because more shares are assumed bought back at the
average market price with the proceeds than were issued)
6-31
PROBLEMS
Problem 6-1 (30 minutes)
The income statements of Disposo Corp. should be shown as follows

Year 8 Year 7
Sales ............................................................................ $775 $600
Costs and expenses .................................................. (657) (576)
Pretax income ............................................................. 118 24
Tax expense ................................................................ (59) (12)
Income from continuing operations ........................ $ 59 $ 12
Discontinued operations:
Operations (net of tax) [a] .................................... (3) 8
Disposal (net of $6 tax) [b] ................................... (6)
Net Income .................................................................. $ 50 $ 20
[a] Represents net income (loss) from operations for Year 7 and for Year 8 until August
15.
[b] Represents:
Loss from operations August 15 to December 31 ....................... $ (1)
Loss on sale of assets (after $5 tax) ............................................. (5)
Total .................................................................................................. $ (6)
The $10 loss and related tax benefit of $5 would still be recorded (anticipated) at
December 31, Year 8 (the asset would be reduced by $10 to market value).
1. a
2 b (40% of revenues and costs are recognized)
3. a
4. d
5 a
6. c
7. d [($120,000/30%) + ($440,000/40%)]
6-32
a. (1) Failing to timely record returned credit card purchases and membership
cancellations: An accounts receivable analysis would be the focal point to
identifying this problem. We would examine for either continual growth in
accounts receivable or unusual (unexplained) write-offs of receivables. Ratios
or techniques that compare cash collections to accounts receivable also
could potentially identify a problem area or fraudulent behavior.
(2) Improperly capitalizing and amortizing expenses related to attracting new

members: This behavior would be difficult to uncover. The key is to
understand the growth in reported intangible assets and deferred charges,
and to assess its reasonableness. Unusual increases should be viewed as a
potential red flag.
(3) Recording fictitious sales: One key to uncovering fictitious sales is to monitor
the joint behavior of sales and accounts receivable, simultaneously.
Increasing sales should not necessarily lead to slower accounts receivable
turnover. Increases in the accounts receivable turnover ratio should be
investigated because this can be caused by, among other factors, the
recognition of fictitious or uncollectible sales.
b. The external auditor must conduct the audit according to generally accepted
auditing standards. The culpability of auditors in a fraud situation varies on a
case by case basis. It is often difficult to detect a fraud if key client personnel are
colluding and conspiring to cover up. However, in this case the fraud was so
widespread that auditor negligence is part of the problem. From an economic
perspective, this question will ultimately be answered via litigation.
6-33
a. Estimation of Depreciation on Tax Returns:

11 10 9
(i) Depreciation expense [162A] ............................. $194.5 $184.1 $175.9
(ii) Depreciation timing difference [128] ................. 5.9 18.6 11.9
(iii) Excess depreciation (divide tax difference
by statutory tax rate [(ii)/34%] ......................... 17.4 54.7 35.0
Depreciation on tax return [(i)+(iii)] ................... $211.9 $238.8 $210.9
b. Identification of Amounts & Sources (combining federal, state and foreign taxes):
11 10 9
1. Earnings before income taxes [26] .......................... $667.4 $179.4 $106.5
2. Expected income tax @ 34% (confirmed by [134]) ... 226.9 61.0 36.2
3. Total income tax expense [27] ................................. 265.9 175.0 93.4
4. Total income tax due * .............................................. 230.4 171.1 161.2
5. Total income tax due and not yet paid [44] ............. 67.7 46.4 30.1
*Includes items [122], [123], and [124].
c. Differences between Effective Tax Rate and Statutory Rate (34%):*

11 % 10 % 9 %
[134] Tax at statutory rate ................................. $226.9 34.0 $ 61.0 34.0 $36.2 34.0
[135] State tax (net of fed benefit) .................... 20.0 3.0 6.6 3.7 3.8 3.6
[136] Nondeductible divestitures, re-
structuring and unusual charges ........... — — 101.4 56.5 51.9 48.7
[137] Nondeductible amortization of
intangibles ................................................. 4.0 0.6 1.6 0.9 1.2 1.1
[138] Foreign earnings not taxed or taxed
at other than statutory rate ...................... (2.0) (0.3) 2.2 1.2 0.2 0.2
[139] Other ........................................................... 16.7 2.5 2.2 1.2 0.1 0.1
Totals .......................................................... $265.6 39.8 $175.0 97.5 $93.4 87.7
*Numbers are computed by multiplying EBIT [26] by applicable percent as given.
d. Campbell can probably deduct for tax purposes only cash actually spent in Year
10 for these charges. If this is so, an estimate of cash spent is (see item [105]):
$339.1 - $301.6 = $37.5; $37.5 / 34% = $110 million
6-34
BIG-DEAL CONSTRUCTION CO.

Dam Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Total
Book income 1 $24,000 $ 72,000 $ 24,000 $120,000
Book income 2 37,800 75,600 $ 12,600 126,000
Book income 3 15,000 45,000 75,000 $ 15,000 150,000
a. Total book income $24,000 $124,800 $144,600 $ 87,600 $ 15,000 $396,000
Taxable income 1 $120,000 $120,000
Taxable income 2 $126,000 126,000
Taxable income 3 $150,000 150,000
b. Total taxable Inc. $120,000 $126,000 $150,000 $396,000
Line 4 less Line 8 $24,000 $124,800 $ 24,600 $(38,400) $(135,000)
c. Incr. in def. tax (cr.) $12,000 $ 62,400 $ 12,300

Decr. in def. tax (dr.) $ 19,200 $ 67,500
6-35
STEAD CORPORATION
($ in thousands) Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
a. Income Statement
Sales ............................................................... $10,000 $10,000 $10,000
Expenses * ..................................................... 9,000 9,000 10,400
Income before tax .......................................... $ 1,000 $ 1,000 $ (400)
Tax expense:
Current **.................................................... — 300 500
Deferred...................................................... 500 200 (700)
Total tax expense ...................................... $ 500 $ 500 $ (200)
Net income (loss) .......................................... $ 500 $ 500 $ (200)
* Includes unusual expense of $1,400 in Year 6.

**Taxable income (loss):
Before loss carryforward .................................... $ (400) $ 1,000 $ 1,000
After deducting loss carryforward ..................... — 600 —
Tax due (at 50%)................................................... — 300 500
Note: The timing difference regarding deferred preoperating costs is $1,400 in Year 4.
However, only $1,000 of this amount results in a reduction of Year 4 taxable income (the
remaining $400 becomes a loss carryforward and reduces taxable income in Year 5). The tax
effect (at 50 percent) of these differences is $500 in Year 4 and $200 in Year 5. The entire
timing difference reverses in Year 6.
b. Balance Sheet
Current tax payable ....................................... $ — $ 300 $ 500

Deferred tax payable ..................................... 500 700 —
6-36
Income Statement
Years 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sales ............................................. $50 $80 $120 $100 $200 $400 $500 $600
Cost of sales ................................ 20 30 50 300 50 120 200 250
General and administrative ........ 10 15 20 100 20 30 40 50
Net income before tax................. $20 $35 $50 $(300) $130 $250 $260 $300
Tax expense (refund)*

Current provision ...................... 10 17.5 25 92.5 130 150
Refund from carryback ............. (52.5)
Tax effect of loss carryforward 65 32.5
Total tax expense ........................ $10 $17.5 $25 $(52.5) $65 $125 $130 $150
Income before extraordinary items 10 17.5 25 (247.5) 65 125 130 150
Extraordinary gain (reduction)

of taxes due to carryforward .... 65 32.5
Net income (**)............................. $10 $17.5 $25 $(247.5) $130 $157.5 $130 $150
* Taxable income .................................... $20 $35 $50 $(300) $(65)b $185c $260 $300
Tax due at 50% rate ............................. 10 17.5 25 (52.5)a 0 92.5 130 150
a
Operating loss of $300 carried back to eliminate all taxable income for Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3
and secure refund of $52.5 for total taxes paid during those years.
b
Income for Year 5 of $130 less loss carryforward of $195.
c
Income for Year 6 of $250 less loss carryforward of $65.
** Disclosure: Tax loss carryforwards are $195 at end of Year 4 and $65 at end of Year 5.
Accounting effects [journal entries Dr. (Cr.)]:
Tax expense .................................... 10 17.5 25 (52.5) 65 125 130 150
FIT Receivable ................................ 52.5
FIT Payable ...................................... (10) (17.5) (25) (92.5) (130) (150)
Extraordinary gains ........................ (65) (32.5)
6-37
1. c ($6,500,000 net income / 2,500,000 shares = $2.60)

2. b
Diluted EPS = Adjusted net income
wtd. avg. of + wtd. avg. number
common stock of common shares
outstanding issuable from options
and convertibles
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options, the options
are dilutive. Using treasury stock method for options we obtain:
i. 200,000 shares × $15 = $3,000,000 proceeds
ii. $3,000,000 / 20 average price = 150,000 shares purchased in open market
Thus, 50,000 additional shares would be issued.
Are the convertible bonds dilutive? No. Assuming conversion of bonds, 100,000
additional shares would be issued. The net income adjustment would be:
Interest expense related to bonds ........................... $500,000
Less taxes .................................................................. (200,000)
Increase in net income ............................................. $300,000
Consequently:
EPS = ($6,500,000+$300,000)/(2,500,000+100,000) = $2.62
Diluted EPS = $6,500,000/(2,500,000+50,000) = $2.55

a. Basic EPS Computations:
Basic EPS = $4,000,000 / 3,000,000 shares = $1.33
Diluted EPS Computations:
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options and
warrants, the options and warrants are dilutive. Using treasury stock method:
i. 1,000,000 shares × $15 = $15,000,000 proceeds
ii. $15,000,000 / $20 = 750,000 shares purchased in open market
Diluted EPS = $4,000,000 / 3,250,000 shares = $1.23
b. Basic EPS Computations:

Basic EPS = $3,000,000 / 3,000,000 shares = $1.00
Diluted EPS Computations:
Since average market price of stock exceeds exercise price of options and
warrants, the options and warrants are dilutive. Using treasury stock method:
i. 1,000,000 shares × $15 = $15,000,000 proceeds
Diluted EPS = $3,000,000 / 3,166,667 shares = $0.95
6-38
CASES
Case 6-1 (50 minutes)
a. Balance Sheets and Income Statements with Alternative Revenue Recognition:
Shipment Collection Production b

Balance Sheet
Cash ...................................................... $1,670 $1,670 $1,670 $1,670
Receivables ........................................... 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,800
Inventory, at cost .................................. 700 700 -- --
Inventory, at market ............................. -- -- 900 790c
Total assets ........................................... $4,170 $4,170 $4,370 $4,260
Accrued shipping cost ......................... -- -- $ 20 --

Accrued sales commission ................. $ 180 $ 180 270 $ 180
Deferred income ................................... -- 180a -- --
Invested capital .................................... 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000
Retained earnings ................................ 990 810 1,080 1,080
Total liabilities and equity ................... $4,170 $4,170 $4,370 $4,260
Income Statement
Sales ........................................... $9,900 $8,100 $10,800 $9,900
Costs and expenses:
Cost of goods sold ........................... 7,700 6,300 8,400 7,610d
Selling expense ................................ 990 810 1,080 990
Shipping expense ............................. 220 180 240 220
Net income ............................................ $ 990 $ 810 $ 1,080 $1,080
Notes:
a. Deferred income: Sales is $1,800 less costs of ($1,400 + $180 + $40) = $180.
b. Time of production: Figures can be reflected gross as in left column or net as in right column.
c. Inventory, at net realizable value $790 = $900 less $20 less $90.
d. Cost of goods sold is a "to-balance" figure based on inventory (for example, Beg. $0 plus
purchases $8,400 less End. $790 = COGS $7,610).
6-39
Case 6-1—continued
b. The installment method delays the reporting of revenues and thereby delays the
time for payment of taxes. The time value of money is a major motivation for
delaying cash payments for taxes.
c. Balance Sheet: Some analysts prefer the installment method because it is more
conservative. However, the installment method attempts to value receivables
(less deferred income) at the historical cost of the inventory. It would appear that
the credit analyst should be future-oriented and view receivables at the expected
future cash inflow.
Income Statement: Some analysts prefer the installment method because it is

more conservative. However, this method has two critical weaknesses:
(i) Revenues and profits are not recognized when performance (earning) occurs;
instead, recognition is delayed until cash is collected.
(ii) Selling costs are mismatched (this is most dramatic in a period of rapid
growth or decline in sales).
The installment method does not show economic reality.
6-40
a. Computation of earnings components as a percent of sales

Year 11 Year 10 Year 9
Sales ........................................................................... 100% 100% 100%
Cost of products sold ............................................... 66.0% 68.6% 70.5%
Marketing and selling expenses .............................. 15.4% 15.8% 14.4%
Administrative expenses .......................................... 4.9% 4.7% 4.4%
Research and development expenses .................... 0.9% 0.9% 0.8%
Interest expense ........................................................ 1.9% 1.8% 1.7%
Interest income .......................................................... -0.4% -0.3% -0.7%
Foreign exchange losses, net .................................. 0.0% 0.1% 0.3%
Other expense ........................................................... 0.4% 0.2% 0.6%
Divestitures, restructuring and unusual charges .. 0.0% 5.5% 6.0%
Cost of products (goods) sold has declined in each of the 3 years as a percentage
of sales. This has accounted for most of the change in pre-tax profits as all other
expense categories have remained fairly constant aside from restructuring costs,
which were not present in Year 11.
b. Sales and cost of goods sold are typically the most highly persistent, and
reductions on COGS as a percentage of sales such as we see in this example are
rare. SG&A costs are also typically highly persistent. However, the company
may be able to find ways to cut some of these through operating efficiencies. The
R&D costs are also reasonably persistent. Again, the company can choose to
increase or decrease these, but such a decision can have severe ramifications for
future profitability. Restructuring costs are generally viewed as transitory.
c. Provision for taxes as a percent of earnings before income taxes:

Year 11 = $265.9/$667.4 = 39.8%
Year 10 = $175.0/$179.4 = 97.5%
Year 9 = $93.4/$106.5 = 87.7%
Deviations from the statutory percentage of 35% commonly arise as a result of

expenses that are recognized for financial reporting purposes that are not
deductible for tax purposes. An example is a restructuring charge that must be
recognized when incurred for financial reporting purposes, but cannot be
deducted for tax purposes until paid.
6-41
Case 6-2—concluded
d. Campbell reports $339.1 million and $343.0 million in divestitures, restructuring

and unusual charges in Years 10 and 9, respectively. Restructuring costs
typically include asset write-downs and severance costs. Asset write-downs are
non-cash charges that typically relate to reduced cash flows of those assets that
likely have occurred over several prior years. Severance costs typically relate to
accruals of costs that will not be paid until some future period.
e. Removal of costs relating to depreciable assets will reduce future depreciation

expense. A cost is, therefore, recognized in the current period that would have
been recognized in future periods, thus shifting income from the present into the
future. Similarly, severance costs include the accrual of a liability for future costs.
This liability is reduced in future periods instead of recording an expense, thus
increasing future periods’ profitability.
6-42
1.
BREAK-DOWN OF RESTRUCTURING AND OTHER CHARGES
Charge
Classific Pre- Post- Utilized Balance
Description ation Tax Tax Pre-Tax Pre-Tax
Lease Commitments ........................ Restruc. 81 0 81
Severance/Closing Costs ................ Restruc. 29 4 25
PP&E Write-Down ............................ Restruc. 155 155 0
Other ................................................. Restruc. 29 5 24
Total Restructuring .......................... 294 266 164 130
Change in acctg estimate/legal SG&A 39 39

provision ...........................................
3rd party claims/FTC ........................ SG&A 20 13 20
TOTAL ........................................ 353 279 184 169
Markdown-Clear Excess Inventory CGS 253 179 74
Markdown-Store Closedowns ........ CGS 29 2 27
Inventory Systems Refine/Change CGS 63 57 6

in estimates ......................................
TOTAL ........................................ 345 229 238 107
GRAND TOTAL ................................. 698 508 422 276
6-43
2.
RECAST INCOME STATEMENT AFTER REMOVING CHARGE

1999 1998
Reported Recast Reported
$ % $ % $ %
Net Sales ............................................. 11170 100% 11170 100% 11038 100%
Cost of goods sold ............................ 8191 73.3% 7846 70.2% 7710 69.8%
Gross Profit ........................................ 2979 26.7% 3324 29.8% 3328 30.2%
Selling, general & administrative ..... 2443 21.9% 2384 21.3% 2231 20.2%
Depreciation ....................................... 255 2.3% 255 2.3% 253 2.3%
Restructuring Charge ........................ 294 2.6% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Interest Expense less Income .......... 93 0.8% 93 0.8% 72 0.7%
Earnings before tax ........................... (106) -0.9% 592 5.3% 772 7.0%
Tax Provision ..................................... 26 0.2% 216 1.9% 282 2.6%
Earnings after tax .............................. (132) -1.2% 376 3.4% 490 4.4%
Total Charge ....................................... 508 4.5%
EAT after charge ................................ (132) -1.2% (132) -1.2% 490 4.4%
Cost of goods sold is increasing, resulting in decreasing gross profit. Selling,

general and administrative expense and interest expense are also increasing,
resulting in a decrease in earnings before tax and a 1% drop in net profit margin on
sales.
6-44
3.
Elements of Restructuring Plan and Expected Economic Effects
Expected Economic
Element Description Cost Effects
Store - Close 50 Leases 81 Sales reduction $ 322
Closing international and Severance etc 29 MM, operating loss
9 Toys “R” Us PPE Write down 155 saving $ 5 MM pa
stores that do Markdown 29 2600 employees
Acctg change &
not meet terminated ($ 100-150
legal settlements 39
strategic Total 333
MM pa saving)
profitability Closings: Eliminate
objectives loss making
- Close 31 US stores/focus on more
Kids “R” Us profitable opportunities
stores and Combo Stores: Release
convert 28 working capital, lower
nearby Toys “R” operating costs,
Us stores into increase productivity
combo stores
C3 Plan- - Reformat stores, Markdown 253 $ 580 (24%) reduction in

Store expand product Systems Refined 63 stores inventory
Reformatti lines Total 316
Enhanced customer
ng etc - Supply chain experience
reengineering Higher
productivity/lower
inventory/lower
cost/heightened
flexibility
Consolidati - Consolidate Other 29 Improve SG&A
on of distribution efficiencies
distribution centers/warehou Flatten management
centers ses and increase customer
and admin - Consolidate 6 responsiveness
offices admin offices
Legal - FTC related 3rd 3rd party claims 20
Contingenc party claim
ies
TOTAL 698 Expected savings $ 97
MM pa
6-45
4. The restructuring liability can be purposefully overstated to create a hidden

reserve. This hidden reserve can be used to manage earnings in at least two
ways. First, the company can charge some operating expenses of future
periods to the restructuring liability. Second, the company can reverse a
portion of the charge to create net income in the period of the reversal.
In the case of Toys R Us it is unlikely that it is managing its earnings. Using
charges to manage earnings is a form of “classificatory earnings
management” (see Chapter 2). However, by burying various elements of the
charge in different line items the very purpose of the charge, i.e., inducing
users to ignore the entire charge is lost. Therefore it is not likely that the
purpose of the restructuring charge was earnings management.
5. The following adjustments would be made to the financial statements to

recast the restructuring charge as an investment to create future cost savings.
First, the charge is recorded as an asset and amortized over 10 years.
Second, 20x8 income is increased by reversing the charge. Income in fiscal
20x9 and the next 10 years will then be reduced by a pro-rata amount of the
“investment.”
6. The relative success of restructuring activities can and must be assessed.

The company should report higher return on assets and higher return on
equity. Also, the company should report substantially lower costs such as
selling and administrative costs. These costs should also decrease as a
percentage of sales.
a. Basic Earnings Per Share Computations:

Basic EPS = $1,500,000 / 900,000 shares = $1.67
Diluted Earnings Per Share Computations:

The warrants are dilutive since the average market price of common stock ($13)
exceeds the exercise price of the warrants ($10).
i. 900,000 shares x $10 = $9,000,000 proceeds
“As if” EPS = $1,500,000/(900,000+207,693) = $1.35
Are the subordinated convertible debentures dilutive? Yes. Assuming

conversion, a total of 500,000 ($9,000,000/$18) additional common shares would
be issued at June 30, Year 1. The net income adjustment would be:
Interest expense for debentures .................... $270,000
Less taxes ........................................................ (135,000)
Increase in net income .................................... $135,000
6-46
“As if” EPS = ($1,500,000+$135,000)/(900,000+250,000) = $1.42

Consequently:
Diluted EPS = ($1,500,000+$135,000)/(900,000+207,693+250,000) = $1.20
b. Interest expense (Year 2):

Debentures ($9,000,000 x 6%) ........................... $540,000
Term loan: ($3,000,000 x 7%)/2 ......................... 105,000
($2,500,000 x 7%)/2 .......................... 87,500
Interest expense ................................................. $732,500
Earnings before interest and taxes (Year 2):

Net income .......................................................... $1,500,000
Taxes (50%) ......................................................... 1,500,000
Interest expense ................................................. 500,000
Earnings before interest and taxes .................. $3,000,000
Times interest earned = $3,500,000/$732,500 = 4.78

I. a. Basic EPS = [$285,000- ($2.40 x 10,000 shares)] / 90,000 shares = $2.90
b. Diluted EPS:
Are the convertible bonds dilutive? Yes. Assuming conversion, the net income
adjustment would be:
Interest expense for debentures .................................... $80,000

Less taxes ......................................................................... (40,000)
Increase in net income .................................................... $40,000
“As if” EPS = ($285,000+$40,000)/(90,000+30,000) = $2.71

Is the convertible preferred dilutive? Yes. Assuming conversion:
“As if” EPS = $285,000/(90,000+20,000) = $2.59
Diluted EPS = ($285,000+$40,000)/(90,000+30,000+20,000 shares) = $2.32
II. Computation of Basic Earnings Per Share:

Weighted average shares outstanding during Year 6:
January 1 ............................................. 10,000 sh. 1 yr. 10,000 sh.

July 1 ................................................... 2,000 sh. 1/2 yr. 1,000 sh.
11,000 sh.
Basic EPS = ($10,000 - $1,000) / 11,000 shares = $0.82
6-47

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Chapter 06 - Analyzing Operating Activities

Analyzing Operating Activities

• Describe and analyze the impact of non-recurring items - including extraordinary

• Analyze deferred charges, including expenditures for research, development, and

• Explain supplementary employee benefits and analyze disclosures for employee

• Analyze and interpret earnings per share data (Appendix 6A).

• Understand the economics of employee stock options (appendix 6B).

2. Income summarizes in financial terms the operating activities of a company. Income is

8. Operating income is a measure of firm performance from operating activities. Examples

9. Operating versus non-operating and recurring versus non-recurring are distinct

14. (1) Depreciation

15. Three different types of accounting changes include:

23. The percentage-of-completion method is preferred when estimates of costs to complete

Elements of costs that should be identified with R&D activities are:

30. a. SFAS 34 ("Capitalization of Interest Cost") requires capitalization of interest cost as

b. The amount of interest to be capitalized is based on the entity's actual borrowings

Exercise 6-1 (25 minutes)

b. Income (expense) related to discontinued operations include the operating profit

d. Separately reporting discontinued operations allows the analyst to view the

Exercise 6-2 (30 minutes)

a. By the use of reserves, a company can allocate costs in excess of actual

(3) The reserving technique makes reported earnings less indicative of

It should be noted that a reserve can be properly taken such as when it

Exercise 6-3 (35 minutes)

a. A change from the sum-of-the-years'-digits method of depreciation to the

b. A change in the expected service life of an asset arising because of more

c. 1. The cumulative effect of a change in accounting principle is the difference

d. Consistent use of accounting principles from one accounting period to another

e. If a change in accounting principle occurs, the nature and effect of a change in

f. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. Thus, managerial

g. Mandatory accounting changes are largely non-discretionary. However, there is

h. Mandatory accounting changes often include the recognition of retroactive

Exercise 6-4 (20 minutes)

Comprehensive income computation:*

a. Computation: b. Balance sheet accounts affected:

Exercise 6-5 (30 minutes)

b. 1. Though it is recognized that revenue is earned throughout the entire

2. To criticize the sales basis as not being sufficiently conservative because

c. 1. During production. This basis of recognizing revenue is frequently used by

Exercise 6-6 (25 minutes)

a. Michael Company should recognize revenue as it performs the work on the

b. Progress billings would be accounted for by increasing Accounts Receivable and

Exercise 6-7 (15 minutes)

Exercise 6-8 (20 minutes)

a. This revenue recognition issue stirs controversy. Many believe that it is

b. Revenues and revenue growth are considered good indicators of future

Exercise 6-9 (30 minutes)

a. Some costs are recognized as expenses on the basis of a presumed direct

on hand at the end of an accounting period, the costs of insurance coverage

e. A cost should be treated as a loss when an unfavorable event results from an

Exercise 6-10 (15 minutes)

b. R&D expenditures at Frontier Biotech decreased substantially in fiscal 2006. As

Exercise 6-11 (15 minutes)

a. Theoretically, presentation in the body of the statement or in the footnotes

b. An analyst would adjust the analysis of financial statements by recasting

c. Numerous ratios are affected by the accrual versus non-accrual of compensation

Exercise 6-12 (40 minutes)

e. Total compensation cost should be measured at the date of measurement. The

Exercise 6-13 (15 minutes)

b. In the analysis of company performance and stock valuation, silence before a

Exercise 6-14 (20 minutes)

a. Some transactions affect the determination of net income for accounting

Exercise 6-15 (15 minutes)