WEATHERING AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Weathering - Process which acts at the earth's surface to decompose and breakdown
rocks.

Erosion - The movement of weathered material from the site of weathering. Primary
agent is gravity, but gravity acts in concert with running water.

Types of Weathering

1. Mechanical or Physical - the breakdown of rock material into smaller and smaller
pieces with no change in the chemical composition of the weathered material.
2. Chemical - the breakdown of rocks by chemical agents. Obviously the chief
chemical agent is water which carries dissociated carbonic acid.

Mechanical Weathering

1. Expansion and Contraction - the thermal heating and cooling of rocks causing
expansion and contraction.
2. Frost Action - Water freezes at night and expands because the solid occupies
greater volume. Action wedges the rocks apart. Requires adequate supply of
moisture; moisture must be able to enter rock or soil; and temperature must
move back and forth over freezing point.
3. Exfoliation - process in which curved plates of rock are stripped from a larger
rock mass. Example Half Dome. Exact mechanism uncertain but probably due to
unloading.
4. Other types - Cracking of rocks by plant roots and burrowing animals.

Chemical Weathering

Factors which effect the rate of chemical weathering are:

 Particle size - Smaller the particle size the greater the surface area and hence
the more rapid the weathering
 Composition
 Climate (See Figure)
 Type and amount of vegetation
Chemical Weathering of Rocks

Show Figure and explain formation of carbonic acid

H2O + CO2 ------->> H2CO3

Acid then dissociates and the following happens:

2KAlSi3O8 (feldspar)+ 2H+ + H2O ------->> Al2Si2O5(OH)4 (clay)+ 2K+ + 4SiO2

Weathering of Igneous Minerals

Products of Weathering Figure:

1. Quartz - slow process and largely ineffective. Quartz remains quartz. Grains are
rounded.
2. Feldspar - weathers to clay with the cations Na, Ca, and K going into solution.
Clays that can form include kaolinite (pure aluminum silicate), illite and
montmorillonite. Factors which dictate clay formation are (a) climate; (b) time; (c)
parent material.
 3. Muscovite - Same as above
4. Ferromagnesian minerals - weather to clay plus highly insoluble iron oxides,
essentially varieties of limonite (rust).

Rates of Weathering

Studied by S.S. Goldich (Figure) and found to be inverse of Bowen's Reaction Series.
Why? A function of equilibrium, the higher the temperature of formation of a mineral the
more unstable it is at the earth's surface. Hence olivine weathers the most rapidly.

Soils

Soil - Surficial material that forms due to weathering. Includes an organic component.
Many different soil types. Factors effecting their formation are:

1) Climate

2) Relief

3) Bedrock material

4) Time

Classification of soils varies depending on the classifier. Geologists use a very simple
classification based largely on materials added or removed from the soil during its
formation.

Soil consists of four major zones (horizons) (Figure).

 1. O horizon - Organic layer

2. A horizon - Zone of leaching - Cations

are leached from this horizon by strongly
acid solutions generated in the O horizon

3. B horizon - Zone of Accumulation -

Cations leached out of the A horizon
accumulate here. Horizon consists of
clays, iron and aluminum oxides.
Deposition due to neutralization of acid
solutions.

4. C horizon - Partially decomposed parent

material. Lower most zone.

Soil Types

Pedalfer - Named for the abundance of Al and Fe in the B horizon. Occur in temperate,
humid climates. Lie generally east of the Mississippi River, correspond with 63 cm/yr
rainfall contour.

Pedocal - Named for the accumulation of calcium carbonate in the B horizon.

Characteristic of temperate, dry climates. Lie generally west of Miss River. Poorly
developed A horizon, B horizon is caliche (calcium carbonate).

Laterites - Tropical soils thought to represent the end products of weathering.

Characterized by stark red color and abundance of iron and aluminum oxides and
lesser clay minerals. Requires abundant rainfall.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary Rocks - Layered or stratified rocks formed at or near the earth's surface
in response to the processes of weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition.

Rock Cycle

All rocks discussed in this class are a part of the rock cycle (Figure).
Sedimentary Cycle (Figure)

Processes

1. Transportation - Transporting medium usually water. More rarely wind or glacial

ice.
2. Deposition - Occurs when energy necessary to transport particles is no longer
available. Deposition due to the gentle settling of mineral grains. Can also be
result of chemical precipitation due to changing conditions.
3. Lithification - Involves several steps. All taken together are termed Diagenesis.

a. Compaction - Squeezing out of water.

b. Cementation - Precipitation of chemical cement from trapped water and
circulating water.
c. Recrystallization - Growth of grains in response to new equilibrium
conditions

Single most important characteristic of sedimentary rocks is layering. Occurs in

response to changes in conditions at the site of deposition. Sedimentary rocks cover
75% of the earth's surface, but amount to only 5% of the outer 10 km.

Origin of Sedimentary Material

  Derived directly from pre-existing rocks. Ex. quartz.
 Derived from weathered products of these rocks. Ex. clay.
 Produced by chemical precipitation. Ex. calcite.

First two processes result in detrital or clastic rocks. Third produces nondetrital or
chemical sedimentary rocks.

Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clay - Important constituent of mudstones and shales, but occurs in minor

amounts in all sedimentary rocks.
2. Quartz - Most abundant constituent of sandstone. In addition to detrital quartz,
free silica can be chemically precipitated as opal, chalcedony and chert.
3. Calcite - Chief constituent of limestone. Precipitates from seawater which is
saturated in both Ca+2 and CO3-2. Small changes in both T and P enough to
cause precipitation. Differs from most compounds in that solubility decreases
with increasing temperature.
4. Others

a. Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 - Most important constituent of dolostone

b. Feldspars - Occur in sedimentary rocks formed by very quick deposition
and burial allowing no time for feldspars to alter to clay.
c. Iron oxides and sulfides - Chemical precipitates dictated by the
environment at the site of deposition.
d. Salts and gypsum - Chemical precipitates occurring in restricted
sedimentary basins under arid climatic conditions. Modern analog is the
Middle East (Red Sea).
e. Volcanic Debris - Glass and other pyroclastic material incorporated into
sediments.

5. Organic Material - Forms coal and gives color to black shales.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Texture - Size, shape and arrangement of particles.

1. Clastic - Formed from broken or fragmented grains (detrital). Rock appears

grainy. Basis of classification of the clastic rocks is the Wentworth Size Scale
which was derived from studies of grain diameters.

Wentworth Size Scale

Boulder >256 mm Conglomerate

 Cobble 64-256 mm

Pebble 2-64 mm

Sand 1/16-2 mm Sandstone

Silt 1/256-1/16 mm Siltstone

Clay <1/256 mm Shale

Conglomerate - Detrital rock made up of more or less rounded fragments, an

appreciable percentage of which are pebble size or larger

Sandstone - Consists primarily of grains in the sand size range. Dominant mineral in
sandstones is always quartz. Further subdivide sandstones based on other minerals
present. Quartz sandstone is 99% quartz. Arkose contains both quartz and feldspar.
Graywacke is a garbage sandstone with quartz, feldspar, mica and rock fragments.
Often has a significant fine-grained component and is poorly sorted.

Siltstone - Rare sedimentary rock composed mostly of silt sized particles. Rare because
dominant mineral is quartz which does not like to get any smaller than sand size. Many
siltstones thought to form by glacial grinding of sand-sized quartz grains.

Shale - Most common of the sedimentary rocks. Composed primarily of clay minerals.
Often tends to split into flat sheets due to the mica-like cleavage of clay minerals.

2. Nonclastic (chemical) - Grains are interlocked through crystallization. Has

igneous appearing texture with very little open space.

Limestone - Formed by the precipitation of calcite from seawater. Most form in marine
environments, but also around hot springs, as a crust in desert soils, and as cave
formation.

Dolostone - Composed of the mineral dolomite. Probably starts life as limestone then is
altered to dolostone by Mg-bearing solutions in arid environments.

Evaporites - Formed by partial to complete evaporation of seawater in enclosed basins.

Forms salts and gypsum.

Organic Rocks - Rocks formed by the accumulation of organic material. Ex. coquina
and chalk.

Coal - Rock composed of lithified plant material.

Abundance of Sedimentary Rocks (Figure)

Sedimentary Structures (Figure)

A) Structures formed during deposition

1. Bedding - Layering of sedimentary rocks. Each bed represents a homogeneous

set of conditions of sedimentation. New beds indicate new conditions. Most
layering is parallel, but occasionally it is inclined. These inclined layers are cross
beds. Examples of sedimentary environments in which cross beds form are dune
fields and deltas.
2. Graded beds occur when a mass of sediment is deposited rapidly. The bedding
has the coarsest sediment at the bottom and finest at the top. Often found
forming in submarine canyons. A collection of graded beds is termed a turbidite
deposit. Well exposed in many of the sea cliffs along So. Cal. beaches.
3. Ripple Marks - Waves of sand often seen on a beach at low tide and in stream
beds.

a) Current - asymmetrical - Rivers

b) Oscillation - symmetrical - Beaches

4. Mud Cracks - Polygonal-shaped cracks which develop in fine grained sediments

as they dry out. Common in arid environments, such as a desert.

B) Structures formed after deposition

1. Nodule - Irregular, ovoid concentration of mineral matter that differs in

composition from the surrounding sedimentary rock. Long axis of the nodule
usually parallels the bedding plane and seems to prefer certain layers.
2. Concretion - Local concentration of cementing material. Generally round. Usually
consist of calcite, iron oxide or silica. Can exceed 1 meter in diameter. Not
understood how they form.
3. Geode - Roughly spherical structures up to 30 cm in diameter. Outer layer
consists of chalcedony. Inside lined with crystals. Calcite and quartz the most
common.

C) Other features

1. Fossils - Any direct evidence of past life. Examples are dinosaur bones, shells of
marine organisms, plant impressions, etc.

Weathering
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article is about weathering of rocks and minerals. For weathering of polymers, see Polymer
degradation and Weather testing of polymers.
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Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials
through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering occurs in situ, or
"with no movement", and thus should not be confused with erosion, which involves the
movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, wind, and gravity.

Two important classifications of weathering processes exist – physical and chemical weathering.
Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure. The second
classification, chemical weathering, involves the direct effect of atmospheric chemicals or
biologically produced chemicals (also known as biological weathering) in the breakdown of
rocks, soils and minerals.[1] As with many other geological processes the distinction between
weathering and related processes is diffuse.

The materials left over after the rock breaks down combined with organic material creates soil.
The mineral content of the soil is determined by the parent material, thus a soil derived from a
single rock type can often be deficient in one or more minerals for good fertility, while a soil
weathered from a mix of rock types (as in glacial, aeolian or alluvial sediments) often makes
more fertile soil. In addition many of Earth's landforms and landscapes are the result of
weathering processes combined with erosion and redeposition.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Physical weathering
o 1.1 Thermal stress
o 1.2 Frost weathering
o 1.3 Pressure release
o 1.4 Hydraulic action
o 1.5 Salt-crystal growth
o 1.6 Biological weathering
 2 Chemical weathering
o 2.1 Dissolution / Carbonation
o 2.2 Hydration
o 2.3 Hydrolysis on silicates and carbonates
o 2.4 Oxidation
o 2.5 Biological weathering
 3 Building weathering
 4 Gallery
 5 See also
  6 References

[edit] Physical weathering

A natural arch produced by erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz (Jordan)

Physical weathering is the class of processes that causes the disintegration of rocks without
chemical change. The primary process in physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which
clasts and other particles are reduced in size). However, chemical and physical weathering often
go hand in hand.Physical weathering can be occur due to temperature pressure frost etc. For
example, cracks exploited by physical weathering will increase the surface area exposed to
chemical action. Furthermore, the chemical action at minerals in cracks can aid the disintegration
process.

[edit] Thermal stress

Thermal stress weathering (sometimes called insolation weathering)[2] results from expansion or
contraction of rock, caused by temperature changes. Thermal stress weathering comprises two
main types, thermal shock and thermal fatigue. Thermal stress weathering is an important
mechanism in deserts, where there is a large diurnal temperature range, hot in the day and cold at
night.[citation needed] The repeated heating and cooling exerts stress on the outer layers of rocks,
which can cause their outer layers to peel off in thin sheets. Although temperature changes are
the principal driver, moisture can enhance thermal expansion in rock. Forest fires and range fires
are also known to cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders exposed along the ground
surface. Intense, localized heat can rapidly expand a boulder.

[edit] Frost weathering

A rock in Abisko, Sweden fractured along existing joints possibly by frost weathering or thermal
stress
This article needs attention from an expert on the subject. See the talk page for details.
WikiProject Geology or the Geology Portal may be able to help recruit an expert. (May
2010)
Main article: Frost weathering

Frost weathering, frost wedging, ice wedging or cryofracturing is the collective name for several
processes where ice is present. This processes include frost shattering, frost-wedging and freeze-
thaw weathering. This type of weathering is common in mountain areas where the temperature is
around the freezing point of water. Certain frost-susceptible soils expand or heave upon freezing
as a result of water migrating via capillary action to grow ice lenses near the freezing front.[3]
This same phenomenon occurs within pore spaces of rocks. The ice accumulations grow larger
as they attract liquid water from the surrounding pores. The ice crystal growth weakens the rocks
which, in time, break up.[4] It is caused by the approximately 10% (9.87) expansion of ice when
water freezes, which can place considerable stress on anything containing the water as it freezes.

Freeze induced weathering action occurs mainly in environments where there is a lot of
moisture, and temperatures frequently fluctuate above and below freezing point, especially in
alpine and periglacial areas. An example of rocks susceptible to frost action is chalk, which has
many pore spaces for the growth of ice crystals. This process can be seen in Dartmoor where it
results in the formation of tors. When water that has entered the joints freezes, the ice formed
strains the walls of the joints and causes the joints to deepen and widen. When the ice thaws,
water can flow further into the rock. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken the rocks which, over
time, break up along the joints into angular pieces. The angular rock fragments gather at the foot
of the slope to form a talus slope (or scree slope). The splitting of rocks along the joints into
blocks is called block disintegration. The blocks of rocks that are detached are of various shapes
depending on rock structure.

[edit] Pressure release

Pressure release could have caused the exfoliated granite sheets shown in the picture.

In pressure release, also known as unloading, overlying materials (not necessarily rocks) are
removed (by erosion, or other processes), which causes underlying rocks to expand and fracture
parallel to the surface. Often the overlying material is heavy, and the underlying rocks
experience high pressure under them, for example, a moving glacier. Pressure release may also
cause exfoliation to occur.

Intrusive igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are formed deep beneath the Earth's surface. They are under
tremendous pressure because of the overlying rock material. When erosion removes the
overlying rock material, these intrusive rocks are exposed and the pressure on them is released.
The outer parts of the rocks then tend to expand. The expansion sets up stresses which cause
fractures parallel to the rock surface to form. Over time, sheets of rock break away from the
exposed rocks along the fractures. Pressure release is also known as "exfoliation" or "sheeting";
these processes result in batholiths and granite domes, an example of which is Dartmoor.

[edit] Hydraulic action

Hydraulic action occurs when water (generally from powerful waves) rushes rapidly into cracks
in the rock face, thus trapping a layer of air at the bottom of the crack, compressing it and
weakening the rock. When the wave retreats, the trapped air is suddenly released with explosive
force.

[edit] Salt-crystal growth

Tafoni at Salt Point State Park, Sonoma County, California.

Salt crystallization, otherwise known as haloclasty, causes disintegration of rocks when saline
(see salinity) solutions seep into cracks and joints in the rocks and evaporate, leaving salt crystals
behind. These salt crystals expand as they are heated up, exerting pressure on the confining rock.

Salt crystallization may also take place when solutions decompose rocks (for example, limestone
and chalk) to form salt solutions of sodium sulfate or sodium carbonate, of which the moisture
evaporates to form their respective salt crystals.

The salts which have proved most effective in disintegrating rocks are sodium sulfate,
magnesium sulfate, and calcium chloride. Some of these salts can expand up to three times or
even more.

It is normally associated with arid climates where strong heating causes strong evaporation and
therefore salt crystallization. It is also common along coasts. An example of salt weathering can
be seen in the honeycombed stones in sea wall. Honeycomb is a type of tafoni, a class of
cavernous rock weathering structures, which likely develop in large part by chemical and
physical salt weathering processes.

[edit] Biological weathering

Living organisms may contribute to mechanical weathering (as well as chemical weathering, see
'biological' weathering below). Lichens and mosses grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and
create a more humid chemical microenvironment. The attachment of these organisms to the rock
surface enhances physical as well as chemical breakdown of the surface microlayer of the rock.
On a larger scale, seedlings sprouting in a crevice and plant roots exert physical pressure as well
as providing a pathway for water and chemical infiltration.

[edit] Chemical weathering

Comparison of unweathered (left) and weathered (right) limestone.

Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when water
interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is a gradual
and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface environment. New
or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock. In this the processes of
oxidation and hydrolysis are most important.
The process of mountain block uplift is important in exposing new rock strata to the atmosphere
and moisture, enabling important chemical weathering to occur; significant release occurs of
Ca++ and other minerals into surface waters.[5]

[edit] Dissolution / Carbonation

A pyrite cube has dissolved away from host rock, leaving gold behind

Rainfall is acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the rainwater producing weak
carbonic acid. In unpolluted environments, the rainfall pH is around 5.6. Acid rain occurs when
gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are present in the atmosphere. These oxides
react in the rain water to produce stronger acids and can lower the pH to 4.5 or even 3.0. Sulfur
dioxide, SO2, comes from volcanic eruptions or from fossil fuels, can become sulfuric acid
within rainwater, which can cause solution weathering to the rocks on which it falls.

Some minerals, due to their natural solubility (e.g. evaporites), oxidation potential (iron-rich
minerals, such as pyrite), or instability relative to surficial conditions (see Goldich dissolution
series) will weather through dissolution naturally, even without acidic water.

One of the most well-known solution weathering processes is carbonation, the process in which
atmospheric carbon dioxide leads to solution weathering. Carbonation occurs on rocks which
contain calcium carbonate, such as limestone and chalk. This takes place when rain combines
with carbon dioxide or an organic acid to form a weak carbonic acid which reacts with calcium
carbonate (the limestone) and forms calcium bicarbonate. This process speeds up with a decrease
in temperature, not because low temperatures generally drive reactions faster, but because colder
water holds more dissolved carbon dioxide gas.[citation needed] Carbonation is therefore a large
feature of glacial weathering.

The reactions as follows:

CO2 + H2O => H2CO3

carbon dioxide + water => carbonic acid
H2CO3 + CaCO3 => Ca(HCO3)2
carbonic acid + calcium carbonate => calcium bicarbonate
Carbonation on the surface of well-jointed limestone produces a dissected limestone pavement.
This process is most effective along the joints, widening and deepening them.

[edit] Hydration

Olivine weathering to iddingsite within a mantle xenolith

Mineral hydration is a form of chemical weathering that involves the rigid attachment of H+ and
OH- ions to the atoms and molecules of a mineral.

When rock minerals take up water, the increased volume creates physical stresses within the
rock. For example iron oxides are converted to iron hydroxides and the hydration of anhydrite
forms gypsum.

A freshly broken rock shows differential chemical weathering (probably mostly oxidation)
progressing inward. This piece of sandstone was found in glacial drift near Angelica, New York

[edit] Hydrolysis on silicates and carbonates

Hydrolysis is a chemical weathering process affecting silicate and carbonate minerals. In such
reactions, pure water ionizes slightly and reacts with silicate minerals. An example reaction:

Mg2SiO4 + 4H+ + 4OH- ⇌ 2Mg2+ + 4OH- + H4SiO4

olivine (forsterite) + four ionized water molecules ⇌ ions in solution + silicic acid in
solution

This reaction results in complete dissolution of the original mineral, assuming enough water is
available to drive the reaction. However, the above reaction is to a degree deceptive because pure
water rarely acts as a H+ donor. Carbon dioxide, though, dissolves readily in water forming a
weak acid and H+ donor.

Mg2SiO4 + 4CO2 + 4H2O ⇌ 2Mg2+ + 4HCO3- + H4SiO4

olivine (forsterite) + carbon dioxide + water ⇌ Magnesium and bicarbonate ions in
solution + silicic acid in solution

This hydrolysis reaction is much more common. Carbonic acid is consumed by silicate
weathering, resulting in more alkaline solutions because of the bicarbonate. This is an important
reaction in controlling the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and can affect climate.

Aluminosilicates when subjected to the hydrolysis reaction produce a secondary mineral rather
than simply releasing cations.

2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2CO3 + 9H2O ⇌ Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4H4SiO4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3-

Orthoclase (aluminosilicate feldspar) + carbonic acid + water ⇌ Kaolinite (a clay
mineral) + silicic acid in solution + potassium and bicarbonate ions in solution

[edit] Oxidation

Oxidized pyrite cubes

Within the weathering environment chemical oxidation of a variety of metals occurs. The most
commonly observed is the oxidation of Fe2+ (iron) and combination with oxygen and water to
form Fe3+ hydroxides and oxides such as goethite, limonite, and hematite. This gives the affected
rocks a reddish-brown coloration on the surface which crumbles easily and weakens the rock.
This process is better known as 'rusting', though it is distinct from the rusting of metallic iron.
Many other metallic ores and minerals oxidize and hydrate to produce colored deposits, such as
chalcopyrites or CuFeS2 oxidizing to copper hydroxide and iron oxides.

[edit] Biological weathering

A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic
compounds, i.e. moss on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral weathering can also be initiated
and/or accelerated by soil microorganisms.
Biological weathering of lava by lichen, La Palma.

The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e.
organic acids, siderophores) and of acidifying molecules (i.e. protons, organic acids) by plants so
as to break down aluminium and iron containing compounds in the soils beneath them. Decaying
remains of dead plants in soil may form organic acids which, when dissolved in water, cause
chemical weathering.[citation needed] Extreme release of chelating compounds can easily affect
surrounding rocks and soils, and may lead to podsolisation of soils.

The symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi associated with tree root systems can release inorganic
nutrients from minerals such as apatite or biotite and transfer these nutrients to the trees, thus
contributing to tree nutrition.[6] It was also recently evidenced that bacterial communities can
impact mineral stability leading to the release of inorganic nutrients.[7] To date a large range of
bacterial strains or communities from diverse genera have been reported to be able to colonize
mineral surfaces and/or to weather minerals, and for some of them a plant growth promoting
effect was demonstrated.[8] The demonstrated or hypothesised mechanisms used by bacteria to
weather minerals include several oxidoreduction and dissolution reactions as well as the
production of weathering agents, such as protons, organic acids and chelating molecules.

[edit] Building weathering

Buildings made of any stone, brick or concrete are susceptible to the same weathering agents as
any exposed rock surface. Also statues, monuments and ornamental stonework can be badly
damaged by natural weathering processes. This is accelerated in areas severely affected by acid
rain.

[edit] Gallery


 The surface pattern on this pedestal rock is honeycomb weathering, caused by salt
crystallisation. This example is at Yehliu, Taiwan.

Salt weathering of building stone on the island of Gozo, Malta

Salt weathering of sandstone near Qobustan, Azerbaijan.

This Permian sandstone wall near Sedona, Arizona, USA has weathered into a small
alcove.

[edit] See also

Look up weathering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

 Aeolian processes
 Biorhexistasy
 Case hardening of rocks
 Decomposition
 Environmental chamber
 Eluvium
 Erosion
  Pedogenesis
 Soil production function
 Space weathering
 Spheroidal weathering
 Weather testing of polymers
 Weathering steel

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Weathering

[edit] References
1. ^ http://facstaff.gpc.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/weather.htm
2. ^ Hall, K. The role of thermal stress fatigue in the breakdown of rock in cold regions,
Geomorphology, 1999.
3. ^ Taber, Stephen (1930), "The mechanics of frost heaving", Journal of Geology 38: 303–
317, http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-
bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA247424&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
4. ^ Goudie, A.S.; Viles H. (2008). "5: Weathering Processses and Forms". In Burt T.P.,
Chorley R.J., Brunsden D., Cox N.J. & Goudie A.S.. Quaternary and Recent Processes
and Forms. Landforms or the Development of Gemorphology. 4. Geological Society.
pp. 129–164. ISBN 1862392498, 9781862392496.
http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wg0Rl7dY5ZYC&pg=PA137&dq=frost-
shattering&ei=IMwWS5q7CaWGzASK34j7Dw#v=onepage&q=frost-
shattering&f=false. Retrieved 2009-12-02.
5. ^ C.Michael Hogan. 2010. Calcium. ed. A.Jorgenson and C.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of
Earth, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington DC
6. ^ Landeweert, R. Hoffland, E., Finlay, R.D., Kuyper, T.W., van Breemen, N., 2001
Linking plants to rock, ectomycorrhizal fungi mobilize nutrients from minerals. Trends
Ecol. Evol. 16, 248–253.
7. ^ Calvaruso, C., Turpault, M-P., Frey-Klett, P., 2006. Root-associated bacteria contribute
to mineral weathering and to mineral nutrition in trees, A budgeting analysis. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 72:1258–1266.
8. ^ Uroz, S., Calvaruso, C., Turpault, M-P, Frey-Klett, P., 2009a The microbial weathering
of soil minerals, Ecology, actors and mechanisms. Trends in Microbiol. 17:378–387.
2. Chemical Weathering

3.
4. These images don't link to other pages, but they are at sufficiently high resolutions for
power point.
 Different effects of chemical weathering according
to
rock type: limestone in foreground; granite in left
background, Vermont.

5.
Honeycomb weathering from dissolution of
Granite corestone produced by hydrolysis
cement
of surrounding rock.
in sandstone, Oregon.

Weathering rind in granite produced

Soil profile in grassland, Colorado. primarily by
oxidation.

Abrasion
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
Abrasion is the work that sediment particles do against each other, mostly in rivers (as in this example
from Nevada's Truckee River) and at the beach.

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Block Weathering
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
Blocks are boulders being born by mechanical weathering. Several different processes cause solid rock
to begin breaking down at Earth's surface. (more below)

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Cavernous Weathering
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
Roccia Dell'Orso, "Bear Rock," is a large outcrop on Sardinia with deep tafoni, or large weathering
cavities, sculpting it. (more below)

4 of 12
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olluvium
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
Whereas alluvium is sediment that has been handled by running water, colluvium has not. (more below)

5 of 12
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rus
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
Grus is a residue formed by weathering of granitic rocks. Mineral grains are gently teased apart to form
clean gravel. (more below)

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Frost Heave
Mechanical or Physical Weathering Gallery
The mechanical action of frost has lifted the soil around the pebbles in this sediment deposit. Frost
heave is a widespread form of cryoturbation.

7 of 12
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What Are Five Examples of Chemical
Weathering?
X

April Godwin
April Godwin has been a professional writer since 2003. She has written online content for
several websites and has written copy and voiced advertisements for Nisqually Radio. She has a
Bachelor of Arts degree in English literature and a certificate in editing, both from the University
of Washington.
By April Godwin, eHow Contributor

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Over time, chemical weathering can dramatically change the Earth's landscape. It transforms
rock chemically by changing its mineral makeup. The results can be visually stunning and
sometimes lead to dangerous conditions. Here are five examples of chemical weathering.

1. Caves

o Cave formed by weathering Image by Flickr.com, courtesy of

Rene Ehrhardt

Most caves are formed through chemical weathering. When minerals are
dissolved and washed away, cracks are left behind, and, over extended periods of
time, the cracks can expand to form caves and cave systems.

2. Stalactites

o Stalactites meet stalagmites to form columns Image by

Flickr.com, courtesy of Cristian Bortes

When mineral-rich water comes through the roof of a cave and drips, it leaves a
mineral deposit behind. Over time, the deposits build up and form a narrow,
hollow tube called a stalactite.

3. Stalagmites

o Stalactites drip to form stalagmites Image by Flickr.com, courtesy

of Cristian Bortes
 When mineral-rich water drips from stalactites and then falls to the cave floor, it
leaves a mineral deposit. As the water continues to drip, a round or cone-shaped
mineral mound will form on the floor. This mound is called a stalagmite.

4. Sinkholes
o When underground rock decays as a result of chemical weathering, it can cause
the ground to collapse, creating a sinkhole.

Rusting

o Rusting metal Image by Flickr.com, courtesy of Ville Miettinen

Oxidation is an effect of chemical weathering. When iron and other metallic

elements are exposed to moisture, they oxidize, or rust.

Read more: What Are Five Examples of Chemical Weathering? | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/facts_5627796_five-examples-chemical-
weathering_.html#ixzz1YWdnEemy

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[hide]v · d · eTypes and processes of weathering

Chemical
Biological · Carbonation · Hydrolysis · Mineral hydration · Oxidation
weathering
Physical Abrasion · Corrasion · Frost weathering · Haloclasty · Thermal fatigue · Thermal
weathering shock
Related
Erosion · Fracture · Geomorphology · Rock · Space weathering
topics
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