INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

On
CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD AND
BUILDING

UNDERTAKEN
AT
(HPPWD SUB. DIV. JAWALAMUKHI)

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

THE DEGREE OF 7TH SEMESTER

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED TO
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
RAJIV GANDHI GOVT. ENGG. COLLEGE, NAGROTA BAGWAN

SUBMITTED BY
RAMAN KUMAR
14BTD5010472

01/06/2018 to 12/07/2018

RAJIV GANDHI GOVT. ENGG. COLLEGE,

NAGROTA BAGWAN, KANGRA (H.P.)

i
 CONTENTS

Page No.

Acknowledgement i
Certificate ii
Certificate by training Company/Industry//Institute iii
Abstract iv
Weekly progress reports (for each 6 weeks) v-xii
About Company/industry/institute xiii
List of Tables xiv
List of Figures xv
List of Abbreviations xvi
Chapters 1-50
References

Chapter 1-INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction of Roads 1
1.1.1 classification of roads 2
1.2 Building 5
1.2.1 types of buildings 6

Chapter 2- TRAINING ASSIGNMENTS

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Assignment #1 12
2.2.1 Details 13
2.3 Assignment #2 20
2.3.1 Details 21
2.4 Assignment #3 30
2.3.1 Details 32

Chapter 3- CONCLUSIONS 40

Chapter 4- REFERENCES 43

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The industrial training opportunity I had with the Construction cell of Public Works
Department, Jawalamukhi was a great chance for learning and professional
development . Therefore I consider myself a very lucky individual to be a part of the
organization an d to meet so wonderful people and professionals who led me through
this training period. Bearing in the mind the precious I am using the opportunity to
express my deepest gratitude and special thanks to the training in charge Er. Nitin
Choudhary.
Whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped
me to coordinate well in my training period.
It is my radiant sentiment to place on record my best regards and deepest sense of
gratitude to all the faculty members of Civil Engineering Department of my college
for their necessary advice and guidance.
Last but not the least I would like to thank the almighty for his shower of blessing and
my parents for their being my greatest strength through all the odds and also my
friends with whom I shared my day to day experience and received several
suggestions for my betterment.

Place:

Date: RAMAN KUMAR

14BTD5010472
7th sem, Civil Engg. Deptt.
RGGEC, Nagrota Bagwan

iii
 CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have completed six weeks Industrial Training in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of 7th semester in Bachelor of
Technology in Civil Engineering. I did my training in HPPWD Division Dehra at
HPPWD Sub. Division, Jawalamukhi from 1/06/2018 to 12/07/ 2018.

The matter presented in this report has not been submitted by me or anyone
else, for the award of any other degree elsewhere.

Signature of Student
Name- RAMAN KUMAR
Roll No. – 14BTD5010472
Semester – 7th , Year- 4th
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
R.G.G.E.C., Nagrota Bagwan

Training Supervisor

HOD, Civil Engineering Department

Rajiv Gandhi Govt. Engg. College, Nagrota Bagwan, Kangra (H.P.)

Assistant Training and Placement Officer

Civil Engg. Department
RGGEC, Nagrota Bagwan

iv
 ABSTRACT
Road Transport is vital to India's economy. It enables the country's transportation
sector contribute 4.7 percent of India’s gross domestic product, in comparison to
railways that contributed 1 percent, in 2009-2010, despite railways handling of
passenger and pure cargo. Road transport has gained in importance over the years
despite significant barriers and inefficiencies in inter-state freight and passenger
movement compared to railways and air. The government of India considers road
network as critical to the country's development, social integration and security needs
of the country. India's road network carries over 65 percent of its freight and about 85
percent of passenger traffic. Indian road network is administered by various
government authorities, given India's federal form of government. National highways
connect capitals, important places, ports and places of strategic importance of various
states. Though national highways account for only 2% of the total road length, they
carry nearly 1/3 of the total traffic. Flexible pavement is composed of a bituminous
material surface course and underlying base and sub base courses. The bituminous
material is more often asphalt whose viscous nature allows significant plastic
deformation. Most asphalt surfaces are built on a gravel base, although some 'full
depth' asphalt surfaces are built directly on the sub grade. Depending on the
temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix asphalt (HMA),
warm mix asphalt, or cold mix asphalt. Flexible Pavement is so named as the
pavement surface reflects the total deflection
of all subsequent layers due to the traffic load acting upon it. The flexible pavement
design is based on the load distributing characteristics of a layered system. It transmits
load to the sub grade through a combination of layers. Flexible pavement distributes
load over a relatively smaller area of the sub grade beneath. The initial installation
cost of a flexible pavement is quite low which is why this type of pavement is more
commonly seen universally. However, the flexible pavement requires maintenance
and routine repairs every few years. Highway surveys involve the location of
alignments and computation of volumes materials that must be added, removed, or
moved. It initially requires a topographic survey of the site. The goal of most projects
is to minimize the hauling distances of the earth. The end result is a smooth alignment
with smooth transitions from straight to curved sections allowing for safe public
transportation.

WEEKLY PROGRESS REPORT

Week No. Progress
1 On the first week, the honourable SDO sir gave us the

v
 Important introduction about the project and all the limits of
material which are to be used and other important details.
2 On the second week, we went to the site where the village road was
under construction. At the site the removal of dust from WBM with
the help of compressor machine was under process and laying of
bitumen cover was in progress. The work was interrupted by the JE
sir because of there was a thick layer of soil present which was
undesirable for road bitumen to lay on. And after the removal of soil
the work was continued.
3 On the third week, we went to the site where the construction of
library was in progress. There was roof slab was constructed due to
rains the construction was interrupted for 3 days.
4 On the fourth week, we went to same spot and there was hardly and
work so we were monitoring the watering to slab and brick work.
5 On the fifth week, there was resurfacing of MDR road from
Jawalamukhi To Dehra was in progress so be went to there and
closely monitor the aspects of road and laying of bituminous
concrete and learnt very important aspects about the temp.,
thickness of BC layer etc.
6 On the last and final week, the SDO sir and JE sir went along us and
performed the tests on Bituminous concrete so find out the content
of it. And also performed the test on aggregate such sieve analysis
etc.

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 ABOUT HPPWD

The department is engaged in planning, construction and maintenance of roads,

bridges, ropeways and buildings (both residential and non-residential of various Govt.
departments) in the State. The department further executes engineering work on behalf
of Local Bodies, Public Undertakings, Boards & other Institutions under Himachal
Pradesh Government as "Deposit works".

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Details

1 Carriage way width.
2 Camber for different Road surfaces.
3 BIS limit of particle size.
4 Types of aggregate and their original rocks.
5 Size and grading requirements of coarse aggregate for WBM.
6 Marshall test requirement.
7 Reinforcement cover for different structural elements.
8 Time of removal of frame work.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Details

1 Aggregates.
2 Testing of temperature of laying bituminous coarse.
3 Layed bituminous coarse.
4 Equipment used for laying.
5 Excavation.
6 Reinforcement for slab.
7 CBR apparatus.
8 Sand replacement method.
9 Performing sand replacement test on BC.
10,11 Sieve analysis and aggregate weighing.

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 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACWB : Asphalt Concrete Bearing Course

BC : Bituminous Concrete

DBM : Dense Bituminous Macadam

GSB : Granular Sub Base

NH : National Highway

NHAI : National Highway Authority Of India

HPPWD : Himachal Pradesh Public Work Department

QC : Quality Control

RCC : Reinforced Concrete Cement

WMM : Wet Mixed Macadam

OMC : Optimum Moisture Content

CBR : California Bearing Ratio

WBM : Water Bound Macadam

IRC : Indian Road Congress

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 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Roads are the key to the development of an economy. A good road network
constitutes the basic infrastructure that accelerates the development process through
connectivity and opening up of the backward regions to trade and investment. Roads
also play a key role in inter-modal transport development establishing links with
airports, railway stations and ports. In addition, they have an important role in
promoting national integration, which is particularly important in a large country like
India. Since independence, there has been a tremendous increase in the volume of
road traffic, both passenger and freight. However, the main road network comprising
of national and state highways has not matched this traffic growth. Much of the
expansion of the road network has been through building the rural roads to provide
connectivity to rural masses, although 50 percent of the villages are still to be
connected with all weather roads. (The main roads have also not kept pace with the
traffic demand in terms of their quality). Despite their importance to the national
economy, the road network in India is grossly inadequate in various respects. The
existing network is inadequate and is unable to handle high traffic density at many
places and has poor riding quality. Road safety is a growing concern in the present day
world. Though India’s vehicular population is just one percent of that of the world,
6% of the world accidents occur in India. The national highways, comprising 2% of
the entire road network in the country, account for nearly 20% of the road accidents.
(Source: - Central Institute of Road Transport). Over 1,25,000 people are killed and
more than 5,00,000 people are injured in the year 2009 in India due to road accidents.
Apart from drivers’ skills and behaviour, lack of knowledge of road safety, general
attitude of the road users, quality and adequacy of the roads are the most important
contributors to such accidents. Prior to the National Highways Development
Programme (NHDP) initiated by the NHAI, almost all National Highways and State
Highways were 2-lane, undivided roads with uneven surface causing traffic
congestion, required more travelling time, unsafe not only during the night time and in
the rainy season by also during the day time. These roads required more fuel, more
travelling time and they also added to the environmental pollution.

xi
The road side amenities which make the journey comfortable such as petrol pumps,
parking places, hotels and restaurants, service roads, toilets, repair shops, weigh
bridges etc. were either missing or inadequately available in an unplanned manner
mainly by the private entrepreneurs. There are various factors which make road safe
and less accident prone, such as smooth surface, 4-laning, dividers, flyovers,
underpasses, bridges, subways, bypasses, speed breakers, signals, signboards, road
markings etc. All these factors also increase the speed and reduce fuel requirement.
But majority of these factors were either missing or available in inadequate number.
Moreover in order to reduce the air and noise pollution, caused by the heavy traffic,
hardly any remedial measure in a planned manner was undertaken. The main reasons
for all above mentioned shortcomings is the inadequacy of funds for maintenance and
improving the quantity and the quality of the road network and ‘development’ of the
National Highways and the State Highways.
To bridge the resource gap and to instil the competitive efficiency, efforts are being
made to associate the private sector with road projects; the Public Private Partnership
(PPP) using the BOT (Build- Operate –Transfer) is introduced to ‘develop’ the roads
and highways in India. The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) was
established in 1995 to implement the National Highways Development Programme
(NHDP) which constitutes 4/6 laning of the Golden Quadrilateral.

1.1.1 Classification Of Roads As Per Nagpur IRC (Nagpur Plan)

National Highways: These are main highways running through the length and
breadth of the country connecting major ports, foreign highways, state capitals, large
industrial and tourist centers etc.

State Highways: These are arterial routes of states linking direct headquarters and
important cities within the state and connecting them with National Highways or
Highways of the neighboring states.

Major District Roads: These are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets, and connecting these with each other or with the main
highways.

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Other District Roads: These are roads serving rural areas of production and
providing them with outlet to market centers, tehsil headquarters, block development
headquarters, or other main roads.

Village Roads: These are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each
other and to the nearest road of higher category.

1.1.2 Elements Of Road Or Geometric features Of Road

The layout and other geometric features of a road have direct influence on the initial
cost of its construction and the efficiency and economy of its use by traffic. The safety
of operation is also significantly affected by geometric design.

The different geometric features of a road are as follows:

1.1.2.1 Road lane width:

It is also termed the right-of-way is the land acquired for road purposes. Desirable
width for National and state Highways is 45 m in open areas in case of plain and
rolling terrain, and 24 m in case of mountainous and steep terrains.

Roadway width: the width of the roadway for single and two lane roads in plain and
rolling terrain is 12mts for National and State highways.

Carriageway width: The total width of the carriageway shall be determined in

relation to the design traffic and capacity of the roadway. The standard width shall be
as indicated below:

Table 1.

Type Of Lane Width

Single lane 3.75mts
Two lane without raised kerbs 7.0mts
Two lanes with raised kerbs 7.5mts
Multi lane pavements width per lane 3.5mts

1.1.2.2 Pavement Camber Or Cross Fall:

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The camber or cross fall on straight sections of roads should be as recommended in
table given below for various types of surfaces. For a given surface type, the steeper
values may be adopted in areas having high intensity of rainfall.

Table 2.

1.1.2.3 Horizontal Alignment:

The horizontal alignment should be fluent and blend well with the surrounding
topography. The curves should be sufficiently long and have suitable transitions to
provide pleasing appearance. Curve length should be at least 150mts or a deflection
angle of 5 degrees, and this should be increased by 30 meters for each one degree
decreases in the deflection angle. For deflection angles less than one degree, no curve
is required to be designed.

1.1.2.4 Horizontal curves and super elevation:

Horizontal curve is a curve with end transitions to provide change in direction to the
centerline of a road. When a vehicle traverses a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force
acts horizontally outwards through the center of gravity of the vehicle. The centrifugal
force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve have a tendency to overturn
the vehicle outwards about the outer wheels and tendency to skid the vehicle laterally,
outwards. In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force, the outer edge of the
pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge thus providing a transverse slope

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throughout the length of the horizontal curve. This transverse inclination to the
pavement surface is called “super elevation or cant or banking.”

Super elevation required on horizontal curves should be calculated from the following
formula:

e = V2/225R

Where,

e= super elevation in meter per meter.

V= speed in km/h.

R= Radius in meters.

1.1.2.5 Vertical alignment:

Vertical Alignment should provide for a smooth longitudinal profile consistent with
category of the road and lay of the terrain. Grade changes should not be frequent as to
cause kinks sand visual discontinuities in the profile. Desirably there should be no
change in grade with in a distance of 150mts.

For plain and rolling terrain 1 in 30 is the ruling gradient and 1 in 15 is Exceptional
gradient.

1.2 Building

A building, or edifice, is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less
permanently in one place, such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of
sizes, shapes, and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide
number of factors, from building materials available, to weather conditions, land
prices, ground conditions, specific uses, and aesthetic reasons. To better understand
the term building compare the list of non building structures.

Buildings serve several societal needs – primarily as shelter from weather, security,
living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A
building as a shelter represents a physical division of the human habitat (a place of
comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that at times may be harsh and harmful).

xv
Ever since the first cave paintings, buildings have also become objects or canvasses of
much artistic expression. In recent years, interest in sustainable planning and building
practices has also become an intentional part of the design process of many new
buildings.

Definition

The word building is both a noun and a verb: the structure itself and the act of making
it. As a noun, a building is 'a structure that has a roof and walls and stands more or
less permanently in one place', "there was a three-storey building on the corner"; "it
was an imposing edifice". In the broadest interpretation a fence or wall is a building.
However, the word structure is used more broadly than building including natural and
man-made formations and does not necessarily have walls. Structure is more likely to
be used for a fence. Sturgis' Dictionary included that "[building] differs from
architecture in excluding all idea of artistic treatment; and it differs from construction
in the idea of excluding scientific or highly skilful treatment." As a verb, building is
the act of construction.

Structural height in technical usage is the height to the highest architectural detail on
building from street-level. Depending on how they are classified, spires and masts
may or may not be included in this height. Spires and masts used as antennas are not
generally included. The definition of a low-rise vs. a high-rise building is a matter of
debate, but generally three storeys or less is considered low-rise.

1.2.1 Types Of Building

Buildings are mainly are of two types:

1. Residential Building
2. Commercial Building

Residential Building:

A residential building is defined as the building which provides more than half of its floor
area for dwelling purposes. In other words, residential building provides sleeping
accommodation with or without cooking or dining or both facilities.

xvi
Commercial Building:

Commercial buildings are buildings that are used for commercial purposes, and
include office buildings, warehouses, and retail buildings (e.g. convenience stores, 'big
box' stores, and shopping malls). In urban locations, a commercial building may
combine functions, such as offices on levels 2-10, with retail on floor 1. When space
allocated to multiple functions is significant, these buildings can be called multi-use.

Local authorities commonly maintain strict regulations on commercial zoning, and

have the authority to designate any zoned area as such; a business must be located in a
commercial area or area zoned at least partially for commerce.

CHAPTER-2

TRAINING ASSIGNMENTS

2.1 Introduction
As I take training from the Government department ‘HPPWD’, there was three
projects were under construction. In which two are related to roads and one was
construction of library at Amb. In road construction project one is construction of
village road from Bharoli Kohala to Majheen which is approximately 17 km. In this
project the laying of bituminous layer over the WBM. The other road project was
laying of new bituminous layer over the old for the purpose of repair of Major District
Road from Jawalamukhi To Dehra. And third one is construction of library. The
library is of three storey.

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2.2 Assignment #1

The first assignment was the construction of road from Bharoli Kohala To Majheen.
The WBM was already constructed, there only laying of surface coating was under
process.

2.2.1 Details

The most important pavement materials are soils, mineral aggregates, bituminous
binders, and stabilizers like lime, cement, etc. Mineral aggregates constitute about 90
percent of total volume of road construction materials used. All roads have to be
founded on soil and are required to make optimum use of the locally available
materials, if it is to be constructed economically. Materials used in the structural
layers of the pavement should be selected based on availability, economy and
previous experience.

Soil as road construction material:

Sub grade soil is an integral part of the road pavement structure as it provides support
to the pavement as its foundation. The main function of the sub grade is to give
adequate support to the pavement and for this the sub grade should possess sufficient
stability under adverse climatic and loading conditions. The formation of wave,
corrugations, rutting and shoving in black top pavements are generally attributed to
poor sub grade conditions. When soil is used in embankment construction, in
addition to stability, incompressibility is also important as differential settlement
may cause failure. Soil is used in its natural form (gravel and sand) or in a
processed form (stabilized layer) for pavement construction. Soil is also used as a
binder in water-bound macadam layers. Soil is therefore, considered as one of the
principal highway materials. The foundation of other cross-drainage structures
(culverts, bridges and retaining walls) rests on soils and their stability depends on the
soil strength, knowledge of soil properties is necessary to select the embankment
material, pavement structure, drainage system and foundation of structures. When a
high embankment rests on soft ground, its stability can be predicted by studying the
properties of soil. Frost action, common in high altitudes, can be taken care of if the
soil properties are well known. Soil consists mainly of minerals matter formed by
the disintegration of rocks, by the action of water, frost, temperature, and pressure or

xviii
by plant or animal life. Based on the individual grain size of the soil particles, soil
have been classified as gravel, sand, silt, and clay.

The BIS gives the following limits of particle size:

Table 3.

Type of aggregate Size(mm)

Gravel 8.0-4.75 mm
Sand coarse 4.75- 2.00 mm
Medium 2.00-0.475 mm
Fine 0.475-0.075 mm
Silt 0.075- 0.002 mm
Clay <0.002mm

Road aggregates:

These have to bear the stresses due to the wheel loads and hence they should possess
sufficient strength to resist crushing. They should be hard enough to resist wear due
to abrasive action of traffic. The aggregates in the pavement are also subjected to
impact hence toughness is another desirable property of aggregates. The stones used
should be durable and resist disintegration due to action of weather, this property is
called soundness.

The following are the most commonly available rocks in India from which road
aggregates can be obtained:

Table 4.

Type of Rock Properties Suitability

Basalt Hard and durable, resistant Good for base courses.
to abrasion, fine grained.
Granite Hard and durable resistant to Very good for bituminous
abrasion, Coarse grained. Courses and WBM.
Limestone Reasonably hard, liable to Good for base course.
polish to a Smooth surface

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 under traffic, fine grained
and high water absorption.
Quartzite Hard, durable but is liable to Good for base course.
be brittle and adhesion to
bitumen is rather poor.
Sand Stone Moderately hard and Good for road bases.
durable, fine to medium
grained.
.

Aggregates may have rounded cubical angular flaky or elongated shape of particles.
The flaky or elongated particles will have less strength and durability hence too flaky
and elongated particles should be avoided. The following are the physical
requirements of coarse aggregates used for WBM as per IS 2386.

Los Angles abrasion value 40 percent (Maximum)

Or
Aggregate impact value 30 percent (Maximum)
Combined flakiness and elongation 30 percent (Maximum)
indices.

Grading requirements: The WBM is carried out in layers. The coarse aggregates for
each layer should confirm to any of (3) grading below. The use of grading no 1 shall
be restricted to sub base courses only.

Table 5.

Size and grading requirements of coarse aggregates for water bound macadam:

Grading No. Thickness and Size range IS sieve Percent by

aggregate per 10 designation weight
sqm passing the
sieve
1 10 mm 1. 90 mm to 125 mm 100
1.21 to 1.13 cums 45 mm 90 mm 90-100

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 63 mm 25-60
45 mm 0-15
22.4 mm 0-5

2 75 mm 63 mm to 90 mm 100
0.91 to 1.01 cums 45 mm 63 mm 90-100
53 mm 25-70
45 mm 0-15
22.4 mm 0-5

3 3 75 mm 53 mm to 63 mm 100
0.91 to 1.07 cums 22.4 mm 53 mm 95-100
45 mm 65-90
22.4 mm 0-10
11.2 mm 0-5

The compacted thickness for a layer with grading no 1 shall be 100 mm while for
layer with other grading i.e. 2&3 shall be 75 mm.

Fig.1

Bituminous courses:

xxi
Bituminous courses of different specifications are laid on WBM/WMM base or
existing BT surface. A PRIME COAT over macadam base at the rate of 6 to 9 kg/10
sqm and TACK COAT of 2 to 3 kg/sqm over existing BT surface shall precede the
bituminous courses. The specification for different classes of BT work varies with
respect to size of aggregates and quantity of bitumen used. The voids in bituminous
surface will be sealed by application of seal coat.

Requirements before laying bituminous courses:

i. Surface should be clean and dry.

ii. There should be no presence of organic or inorganic substances.
iii. The level of DBM layer should be checked before laying bituminous
course and if any error is found, it should be corrected.
iv. Aggregates used should also be clean and dry.
v. Loose soil if present should be scratched out.

xxii
 Fig. 3

Apart from conformity with grading and quality requirements individual ingredients
the mix shall meet the requirements of Marshall test.

Table 6

Minimum stability(kg at 60 degree 820 kg

centigrade)
Flow (mm) 2-4
Compaction level (no of blows) 75 blows on each of two faces of the
specimen.
Percent air voids 3-5
Percent voids in mineral aggregate 8-22
(VMA)

Laying equipment:

The following plants are required for the laying of sub-base:-

i. Motor Grader ii.

ii. Tipper Trucks
iii. Vibratory Roller
iv. Water Tanker

xxiii
 Fig.3

Fig.4

Bituminous concrete wearing course:

General:

The B.C. wearing course is the final layer of the pavement. The material quality shall
meet the requirements of MORTH Technical specifications. The aggregate shall be
surface dry and shall be mixed at 155 degree Celsius to 163 degree Celsius
temperature. The mix material as delivered to the laying site shall be 120 to160
degrees Celsius.

Equipments:

Plant required to produce WC shall be:

xxiv
 i. Asphalt Premix Plant
ii. Wheel loader.

Machineries required for laying WC:

i. Tipper Trucks
ii. Asphalt Paver
iii. Tandem Roller
iv. Bitumen Sprayer

Procedure:

Trial mix and trial lay shall be carried out to assess the suitability of the mixing,
laying and compacting plant and to establish the sequence of the laying operation.
Works shall commence on site upon approval and acceptance of the asphalt concrete
wearing course. The surface to receive the Asphalt concrete wearing course shall be
freed of all dirt, loose materials and standing water.

Tack coat of approved bitumen emulsion or cut back shall be applied as per the
specifications on the prepared surface prior to laying of the asphaltic concrete wearing
course. The ACWC shall be plant mixed with bitumen content as established in the
Job Standard Mixture. The approved asphaltic concrete mixture shall be delivered to
site by tipper trucks. To prevent the loss of heat, the mixture shall be covered if
necessary.

The ACWC shall be laid in single layer.

If the said surface is open textured, back casting shall be carried out and the bigger
size aggregates removed before rolling.

At the end of paving operation, the transverse joint shall be feathered down. Vertical
joint shall be provided for the next operation of paving.

Compaction shall be carried out using the specified/equivalent type of compactors and
the rolling pattern shall be as agreed with the Engineer. In our project, every layer was
compacted six times, with first and last compaction, plain and middle four
compactions, with vibrations.

xxv
Rolling shall always commence from the lower end to the higher side of the
carriageway. The minimum rolling temperature shall be 100 degree Celsius. The
surface of the ACWC shall be finished to the grade and line as required to the
drawings within the tolerance limits. On completion of laying and compaction, checks
shall be carried out to verify compliance with the specified requirements.

2.3 Assignment #2

Assignment 2 was the project of construction of library at Amb. The Library is of

three storey.

2.3.1 Details

Sequence of Structure Work:

1) Site Clearance

2) Demarcation of Site

3) Positioning of Central coordinate i.e. (0,0,0) as per grid plan

4) Surveying and layout

5) Excavation

6) Laying of PCC

7) Bar Binding and placement of foundation steel

8) Shuttering and Scaffolding

9) Concreting

10) Electrical and Plumbing

11) Deshuttering

12) Brickwork

13) Doors and windows frames along with lintels

14) Wiring for electrical purposes

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15) Plastering

16) Flooring and tiling work

17) Painting

18) Final Completion and handing over the project

Construction Process And Materials Used:

Site Clearance– The very first step is site clearance which involves removal of grass
and vegetation along with any other objections which might be there in the site
location.

Demarcation of Site– The whole area on which construction is to be done is marked

so as to identify the construction zone. In our project, a plot of 450*350 sq ft was
chosen and the respective marking was done.

Positioning of Central coordinate and layout– The centre point was marked with
the help of a thread and plumb bob as per the grid drawing. With respect to this center
point, all the other points of columns were to be decided so its exact position is very
critical.

Excavation- Excavation was carried out both manually as well as mechanically.

Normally 1-2 earth excavators (JCB’s) were used for excavating the soil. Adequate
precautions are taken to see that the excavation operations do not damage the
adjoining structures. Excavation is carried out providing adequate side slopes and
dressing of excavation bottom.

Fig. 5

xxvii
The soil present beneath the surface was too clayey so it was dumped and was not
used for back filling. The filling is done in layer not exceeding 20 cm layer and than
its compacted. Depth of excavation was 5’4” from Ground Level.

PCC – Plain Cement Concrete - After the process of excavation, laying of plain
cement concrete that is PCC is done. A layer of 4 inches was made in such a manner
that it was not mixed with the soil. It provides a solid base for the raft foundation and
a mix of 1:5:10 that is, 1 part of cement to 5 parts of fine aggregates and 10 parts of
coarse aggregates by volume were used in it. Plain concrete is vibrated to achieve full
compaction. Concrete placed below ground should be protected from falling earth
during and after placing. Concrete placed in ground containing deleterious substances
should be kept free from contact with such a ground and with water draining there
from during placing and for a period of seven days. When joint in a layer of concrete
are unavoidable, and end is sloped at an angle of 30 and junctions of different layers
break joint in laying upper layer of concrete. The lower surface is made rough and
clean watered before upper layer is laid.

Laying of Foundation

At our site, Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large
area, normally the entire area of the structure. Normally raft foundation is used when
large load is to be distributed and it is not possible to provide individual footings due
to space constraints that is they would overlap on each other. Raft foundations have
the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab resists
differential movements between loading positions. They are often needed on soft or
loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the loads over a larger area.

In laying of raft foundation, special care is taken in the reinforcement and construction
of plinth beams and columns. It is the main portion on which ultimately whole of the
structure load is to come. So a slightest error can cause huge problems and therefore
all this is checked and passed by the engineer in charge of the site.

Cement

Portland cement is composed of calcium silicates and aluminate and aluminoferrite It

is obtained by blending predetermined proportions limestone clay and other minerals
xxviii
in small quantities which is pulverized and heated at high temperature – around 1500
deg centigrade to produce ‘clinker’. The clinker is then ground with small quantities
of gypsum to produce a fine powder called Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). When
mixed with water, sand and stone, it combines slowly with the water to form a hard
mass called concrete. Cement is a hygroscopic material meaning that it absorbs
moisture In presence of moisture it undergoes chemical reaction termed as hydration.
Therefore cement remains in good condition as long as it does not come in contact
with moisture. If cement is more than three months old then it should be tested for its
strength before being taken into use.

The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has classified OPC in three different grades The
classification is mainly based on the compressive strength of cement-sand mortar
cubes of face area 50 cm2 composed of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of standard sand by
weight with a water-cement ratio arrived at by a specified procedure. The grades are

(i) 33 grade

(ii) 43 grade

(iii) 53 grade

The grade number indicates the minimum compressive strength of cement sand mortar
in N/mm2 at 28 days, as tested by above mentioned procedure.

Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) is obtained by either intergrinding a pozzolanic

material with clinker and gypsum, or by blending ground pozzolana with Portland
cement. Nowadays good quality fly ash is available from Thermal Power Plants,
which are processed and used in manufacturing of PPC.

Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate for the works should be river gravel or crushed stone .It should be
hard, strong, dense, durable, clean, and free from clay or loamy admixtures or quarry
refuse or vegetable matter. The pieces of aggregates should be cubical, or rounded
shaped and should have granular or crystalline or smooth (but not glossy) non-
powdery surfaces. Aggregates should be properly screened and if necessary washed
clean before use.

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Coarse aggregates containing flat, elongated or flaky pieces or mica should be
rejected. The grading of coarse aggregates should be as per specifications of IS-383.

After 24-hrs immersion in water, a previously dried sample of the coarse aggregate
should not gain in weight more than 5%.

Aggregates should be stored in such a way as to prevent segregation of sizes and

avoid contamination with fines.

Depending upon the coarse aggregate colour, there quality can be determined as:

Black => very good quality

Blue => good

Whitish =>bad quality

Fine Aggregate

Aggregate which is passed through 4.75 IS Sieve is termed as fine aggregate. Fine
aggregate is added to concrete to assist workability and to bring uniformity in mixture.
Usually, the natural river sand is used as fine aggregate. Important thing to be
considered is that fine aggregates should be free from coagulated lumps.

Grading of natural sand or crushed stone i.e. fine aggregates shall be such that not
more than 5 percent shall exceed 5 mm in size, not more than 10% shall IS sieve No.
150 not less than 45% or more than 85% shall pass IS sieve No. 1.18 mm and not less
than 25% or more than 60% shall pass IS sieve No. 600 micron.

Brickwork

Brickwork is masonry done with bricks and mortar and is generally used to build
partition walls. In our site, all the external walls were of concrete and most of the
internal walls were made of bricks. English bond was used and a ration of 1:4 (1
cement: 4 coarse sand) and 1:6 were used depending upon whether the wall is 4.5
inches or 9 inches. The reinforcement shall be 2 nos. M.S. round bars or as indicated.
The diameter of bars was 8mm. The first layer of reinforcement was used at second
course and then at every fourth course of brick work. The bars were properly anchored

xxx
at their ends where the portions and or where these walls join with other walls. The in
laid steel reinforcement was completely embedded in mortar.

Bricks can be of two types. These are:

1) Traditional Bricks-The dimension if traditional bricks vary from 21 cm to 25cm in

length,10 to 13 cm in width and 7.5 cm in height in different parts of country .The
commonly adopted normal size of traditional brick is 23 * 11.5*7.5 cm with a view to
achieve uniformity in size of bricks all over country.

2) Modular Bricks– Indian standard institution has established a standard size of

bricks such a brick is known as a modular brick. The normal size of brick is taken as
20*10*10 cm whereas its actual dimensions are 19*9*9 cm masonry with modular
bricks workout to be cheaper there is saving in the consumption of bricks, mortar and
labour as compared with masonry with traditional bricks.

Strength Of Brick Masonry

The permissible compressive stress in brick masonry depends upon the following
factors:

1. Type and strength of brick.

2. Mix of motor.

3. Size and shape of masonry construction.

The strength of brick masonry depends upon the strength of bricks used in the
masonry construction. The strength of bricks depends upon the nature of soil used for
making and the method adopted for moulding and burning of bricks .since the nature
of soil varies from region to region ,the average strength of bricks varies from as low
as 30kg/sq cm to 150 kg /sq cm the basic compressive stress are different crushing
strength.

There are many checks that can be applied to see the quality of bricks used on the site.
Normally the bricks are tested for Compressive strength, water absorption,
dimensional tolerances and efflorescence. However at small construction sites the
quality of bricks can be assessed based on following, which is prevalent in many sites.

xxxi
• Visual check – Bricks should be well burnt and of uniform size and colour.

• Striking of two bricks together should produce a metallic ringing sound.

• It should have surface so hard that can’t be scratched by the fingernails.

• A good brick should not break if dropped in standing position from one metre above
ground level.

• A good brick shouldn’t absorb moisture of more than 15-20% by weight, when
soaked in water For example; a good brick of 2 kg shouldn’t weigh more than 2.3 to
2.4 kg if immersed in water for 24 hours.

Precautions to be taken in brick masonry work

• Bricks should be soaked in water for adequate period so that the water penetrates

to its full thickness. Normally 6 to 8 hours of wetting is sufficient.

• A systematic bond must be maintained throughout the brickwork. Vertical joints

shouldn’t be continuous but staggered.

• The joint thickness shouldn’t exceed 1 cm. It should be thoroughly filled with the

cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 (Cement: Sand by volume)

• All bricks should be placed on their bed with frogs on top (depression on top of the

brick for providing bond with mortar).

• Thread, plumb bob and spirit level should be used for alignment, verticality and

horizontality of construction.

• Joints should be raked and properly finished with trowel or float, to provide good
bond.

• A maximum of one metre wall height should be constructed in a day.

• Brickwork should be properly cured for at least 10 days

REINFORCEMENT

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Steel reinforcements are used, generally, in the form of bars of circular cross section
in concrete structure. They are like a skeleton in human body. Plain concrete without
steel or any other reinforcement is strong in compression but weak in tension. Steel is
one of the best forms of reinforcements, to take care of those stresses and to
strengthen concrete to bear all kinds of loads

Mild steel bars conforming to IS: 432 (Part I) and Cold-worked steel high strength
deformed bars conforming to IS: 1786 (grade Fe 415 and grade Fe 500, where 415 and
500 indicate yield stresses 415 N/mm2 and 500 N/mm2 respectively) are commonly
used. Grade Fe 415 is being used most commonly nowadays. This has limited the use
of plain mild steel bars because of higher yield stress and bond strength resulting in
saving of steel quantity. Some companies have brought thermo mechanically treated
(TMT) and corrosion resistant steel (CRS) bars with added features.

Bars range in diameter from 6 to 50 mm. Cold-worked steel high strength deformed
bars start from 8 mm diameter. For general house constructions, bars of diameter 6 to
20 mm are used.

Transverse reinforcements are very important. They not only take care of structural
requirements but also help main reinforcements to remain in desired position. They
play a very significant role while abrupt changes or reversal of stresses like
earthquake etc.

They should be closely spaced as per the drawing and properly tied to the
main/longitudinal reinforcement.

Terms Used in Reinforcement Bar-bending-schedule

Bar-bending-schedule is the schedule of reinforcement bars prepared in advance

before cutting and bending of rebars. This schedule contains all details of size, shape
and dimension of rebars to be cut.

Lap length:

Lap length is the length overlap of bars tied to extend the reinforcement length.. Lap
length about 50 times the diameter of the bar is considered safe. Laps of neighboring

xxxiii
bar lengths should be staggered and should not be provided at one level/line. At one
cross section, a maximum of 50% bars should be lapped. In case, required lap length
is not available at junction because of space and other constraints, bars can be joined
with couplers or welded (with correct choice of method of welding).

Anchorage Length:

This is the additional length of steel of one structure required to be inserted in other at
the junction. For example, main bars of beam in column at beam column junction,
column bars in footing etc. The length requirement is similar to the lap length
mentioned in previous question or as per the design instructions

Fig. 6

Cover block:

Cover blocks are placed to prevent the steel rods from touching the shuttering plates
and thereby providing a minimum cover and fix the reinforcements as per the design
drawings. Sometimes it is commonly seen that the cover gets misplaced during the
concreting activity. To prevent this, tying of cover with steel bars using thin steel
wires called binding wires (projected from cover surface and placed during making or

xxxiv
casting of cover blocks) is recommended. Covers should be made of cement sand
mortar (1:3). Ideally, cover should have strength similar to the surrounding concrete,
with the least perimeter so that chances of water to penetrate through periphery will be
minimized. Provision of minimum covers as per the Indian standards for durability of
the whole structure should be ensured.

Shape of the cover blocks could be cubical or cylindrical. However, cover indicates
thickness of the cover block. Normally, cubical cover blocks are used. As a thumb
rule, minimum cover of 2” in footings, 1.5” in columns and 1” for other structures
may be ensured.

Table 7

Structural element Cover to reinforcement (mm)

Footings 40
Columns 40
Slabs 15
Beams 25
Retaining wall 25 for earth face
20 for other face

Things to Note

Reinforcement should be free from loose rust, oil paints, mud etc. it should be cut,
bent and fixed properly. The reinforcement shall be placed and maintained in position
by providing proper cover blocks, spacers, supporting bars, laps etc. Reinforcements
shall be placed and tied such that concrete placement is possible without segregation,
and compaction possible by an immersion vibrator.

For any steel reinforcement bar, weight per running meter is equal to d*d/162 Kg,
where d is diameter of the bar in mm. For example, 10 mm diameter bar will weigh
10×10/162 = 0.617 Kg/m

Three types of bars were used in reinforcement of a slab. These include straight bars,
crank bar and an extra bar. The main steel is placed in which the straight steel is
binded first, then the crank steel is placed and extra steel is placed in the end. The

xxxv
extra steel comes over the support while crank is encountered at distance of ¼(1-
distance between the supports) from the surroundings supports.

For providing nominal cover to the steel in beam, cover blocks were used which were
made of concrete and were casted with a thin steel wire in the center which projects
outward. These keep the reinforcement at a distance from bottom of shuttering. For
maintaining the gap between the main steel and the distribution steel, steel chairs are
placed between them.

SHUTTERING AND SCAFFOLDING DEFINITION

The term ‘SHUTTERING’ or ‘FORMWORK’ includes all forms, moulds, sheeting,

shuttering planks, walrus, poles, posts, standards, leizers, V-Heads, struts, and
structure, ties, prights, walling steel rods, bolts, wedges, and all other temporary
supports to the concrete during the process of sheeting.

Form Work:

Forms or moulds or shutters are the receptacles in which concrete is placed, so that it
will have the desired shape or outline when hardened. Once the concrete develops
adequate strength, the forms are removed. Forms are generally made of the materials
like timber, plywood, steel, etc.

Generally camber is provided in the formwork for horizontal members to counteract

the effect of deflection caused due to the weight of reinforcement and concrete placed
over that. A proper lubrication of shuttering plates is also done before the placement
of reinforcement. The oil film sandwiched between concrete and formwork surface
not only helps in easy removal of shuttering but also prevents loss of moisture from
the concrete through absorption and evaporation.

The steel form work was designed and constructed to the shapes, lines and dimensions
shown on the drawings. All forms were sufficiently water tight to prevent leakage of
mortar. Forms were so constructed as to be removable in sections. One side of the
column forms were left open and the open side filled in board by board successively
as the concrete is placed and compacted except when vibrators are used. A key was
made at the end of each casting in concrete columns of appropriate size to give proper
bondings to columns and walls as per relevant IS.

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CLEANING AND TREATMENT OF FORMS

All rubbish, particularly chippings, shavings and saw dust, was removed from the
interior of the forms (steel) before the concrete is placed. The form work in contact
with the concrete was cleaned and thoroughly wetted or treated with an approved
composition to prevent adhesion between form work and concrete. Care was taken
that such approved composition is kept out of contact with the reinforcement.

DESIGN

The form-work should be designed and constructed such that the concrete can be
properly placed and thoroughly compacted to obtain the required shape, position, and
levels subject.

ERECTION OF FORMWORK

The following applies to all formwork:

a) Care should be taken that all formwork is set to plumb and true to line and level.

b) When reinforcement passes through the formwork care should be taken to ensure
close fitting joints against the steel bars so as to avoid loss of fines during the
compaction of concrete.

c) If formwork is held together by bolts or wires, these should be so fixed that no iron
is exposed on surface against which concrete is to be laid.

d) Provision is made in the shuttering for beams, columns and walls for a port hole of
convenient size so that all extraneous materials that may be collected could be
removed just prior to concreting.

e) Formwork is so arranged as to permit removal of forms without jarring the

concrete. Wedges, clamps, and bolts should be used where practicable instead of nails.

f) Surfaces of forms in contact with concrete are oiled with a mould oil of approved
quality. The use of oil, which darkens the surface of the concrete, is not allowed.
Oiling is done before reinforcement is placed and care taken that no oil comes in
contact with the reinforcement while it is placed in position. The formwork is kept

xxxvii
thoroughly wet during concreting and the whole time that it is left in place.
Immediately before concreting is commenced, the formwork is carefully examined to
ensure the following:

a) Removal of all dirt, shavings, sawdust and other refuse by brushing and washing.

b) The tightness of joint between panels of sheathing and between these and any
hardened core.

c) The correct location of tie bars bracing and spacers, and especially connections of

bracing.

d) That all wedges are secured and firm in position.

e) That provision is made for traffic on formwork not to bear directly on

reinforcement steel.

VERTICALITY OF THE STUCTURE

All the outer columns of the frame were checked for plumb by plumb-bob as the work
proceeds to upper floors. Internal columns were checked by taking measurements
from outer row of columns for their exact position. Jack were used to lift the
supporting rods called props.

STRIPPING TIME OR REMOVAL OF FORMWORK

Forms were not struck until the concrete has attained a strength at least twice the
stress to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal of form work.
The strength referred is that of concrete using the same cement and aggregates with
the same proportions and cured under conditions of temperature and moisture similar
to those existing on the work. Where so required, form work was left longer in normal
circumstances

Advertisements Form work was removed in such a manner as would not cause any
shock or vibration that would damage the concrete. Before removal of props, concrete
surface was exposed to ascertain that the concrete has sufficiently hardened. Where
the shape of element is such that form work has re-entrant angles, the form work was
removed as soon as possible after the concrete has set, to avoid shrinkage cracking

xxxviii
occurring due to the restraint imposed. As a guideline, with temperature above 20
degree following time limits should be followed:

Table 8

Structural Component Age

Footings 1 day
Sides of beams, columns, lintels, wall 2 days
Underside of beams spanning less than 14 days
6m
Underside of beams spanning over 6m 21 days
Underside of slabs spanning less than 7 days
4m
Underside of slabs spanning more than 14 days
4m
Flat slab bottom 21 days

2.4 ASSIGNMENT #3

The different tests are performed on the road surfaces and for its material to find out
the material used and used in how much quantity. The tests are also performed to find
out that the contractor used the quantity and quality of appropriate standard and
according to the need of the project.

2.4.1 Details

The different tests performed are as follows:

2.4.1.1 Laboratory test for CBR(California Bearing Ratio):

Objective: To determine the CBR of soils from the re- moulded specimens by
dynamic compaction method in soaked state at laboratory.

CBR: The ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with a
plunger of 50mm diameter at the rate of 1.25mm/minute to the required corresponding
penetration of standard material.

xxxix
Generally the ratio is determined for 2.5mm and 5.0mm penetrations, and where the
ratio at 5.00mm is consistently higher than that at 2.5mm, the ratio at 5.00mm is
considered.

Apparatus: Cylindrical mould , metal rammer, spacer disc, metal weights, perforated
base plate, metal tripod stand, penetration plunger, loading machine with moving
head, sieves, balances, oven , air tight container, tray, trowel, measuring jar.

Procedure:

i. Take a representative sample to be tested, pour it in the form of a heap and divide
into 4 equal parts by quartering method and mix the material in one of the two
diagonals and sieve it through 19mm sieve, the material retained shall be replaced by
the equal amount of passing through 19mm sieve, but retained on 4.75mm sieve,
obtained from the material of the other two diagonals, so that the passing material
shall weigh a minimum of 5500gm.

ii. Place it in a tray and mix with the equal amount of that water required obtaining
OMC.

iii. Note the empty weight of the cylindrical mould to the nearest 1 gm.

iv. Place the mould on a solid base, such as concrete floor or plinth.

v. Make the water mixed soil into 5 equal parts, place the spacer disc in the mould
and a filter paper and place one part into the mould fitted with collar.

vi. Compact the soil with the metal hammer by distributing the 55 blows equally on
the surface of the soil.

vii. Continue this process till the fourth layer, make an impression on the fourth layer
of the compacted soil to a depth of 25mm, so that the next layer will plug into this and
avoid separation of the top layer from the previous while removing the collar.

viii. Add fifth layer and compact it with metal hammer by giving 55 blows. ix.
Remove the collar and also remove the excess soil up to the level exactly equal to the
cylindrical mould by using trowel or spatula. Note the weight of the sample with the
mould to the nearest 1 gm.

xl
x. Reverse the compacted mould, tighten the mould on the base plate, place the
perforated disc with surcharge weights of 5kg on the compacted soil specimen with
the mould and soak it in water for 96hours. Maintain constant water level in the tank
throughout the soaking period.

xi. After the soaking period, take out the mould with the soil specimen from the water
tank and allow it to drain free water collected in the mould, downward for 15 minutes.

Fig.7 CBR Apparatus

2.4.1.2 Flakiness index and elongation index of coarse aggregates:

Aim:

i. To determine the elongation index of the given aggregates.

ii. To determine the flakiness index of the given aggregates.

Apparatus: The apparatus for the shape tests consists of the following:

i. A standard thickness gauge.

ii. A standard length gauge.

iii. IS sieves of sizes 63, 50 40, 31.5, 25, 20, 16, 12.5,10 and 6.3mm.

xli
iv. A balance of capacity 5kg, readable and accurate up to 1 gm.

Theory: The particle shape of aggregates is determined by the percentages of flaky

and elongated particles contained in it. For base course and construction of bituminous
and cement concrete types, the presence of flaky and elongated particles are
considered undesirable as these cause inherent weakness with possibilities of breaking
down under heavy loads. Thus, evaluation of shape of the particles, particularly with
reference to flakiness and elongation is necessary. The Flakiness index of aggregates
is the percentage by weight of particles whose least dimension (thickness) is less than
three- fifths (0.6times) of their mean dimension. This test is not applicable to sizes
smaller than 6.3mm. The Elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by
weight of particles whose greatest dimension (length) is greater than nine-fifths
(1.8times) their mean dimension. This test is not applicable for sizes smaller than
6.3mm.

Procedure:

i. Sieve the sample through the IS sieves (as specified in the table).

ii. Take a minimum of 200 pieces of each fraction to be tested and weigh them.

iii. In order to separate the flaky materials, gauge each fraction for thickness on a
thickness gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions specified in
column (4) of the table for the appropriate size of the material.

iv. Weigh the flaky material passing the gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1 per cent
of the test sample.

v. In order to separate the elongated materials, gauge each fraction for length on a
length gauge. The width of the slot used should be of the dimensions specified in
column (6) of the table for the appropriate size of the material.

vi. Weight the elongated material retained on the gauge to an accuracy of at least 0.1
per cent of the test sample.

Observations:

xlii
 Wt. Of Thickness Wt. Of Length Wt. Of
Size of aggregates fraction gauge aggregate gauge aggregate
consisting size (mm) in each size in each
Passing Retained of atleast fraction (mm) fraction
through on IS 200 passing retained
IS sieve sieve pieces thickness on length
(mm) (mm) (gm) gauges gauge
W (gm) w (gm) x
63 50 0 23.9 0 --- 0
50 40 0 27 0 81.00 0
40 25 0 19.5 0 58 0
32 25 0 16.95 0 --- 0
25 20 2562 13.5 235 40.5 154
20 16 1653 10.8 216 32.4 135
16 13 854 8.55 135 25.5 195
13 10 462 6.75 169 20.20 142
10 6 263 4.89 63 14.7 69

Flakiness Index = (X1+ X2+…..) / (W1 + W2 + ….) X 100

Elongation Index = (Y1 + Y2 + …) / (W1 + W2 + ….) X 100

Result:

i. Flakiness Index = 12.71%

ii. Elongation Index = 10.92%

2.4.1.3 Determination of field density of soil by Sand Replacement Method (IS

2720-28)

Sand replacement test method is used to determine the field density or in-place density
of earth embankments, road fills, sub-grade, sub-base or any of compacted material.
This method serves as base upon which one can accept the density of a compacted

xliii
material to a specified magnitude or to a percentage of maximum unit dry density
determined as proctor.

As we know that moisture content of the soil vary from time to time and hence the
field density also, so we are required to report the test result in terms of dry density. In
order to determine the dry density we must have to examine the moisture content in
the soil by using general method.

Moisture content (%) = m= ((wt. of wet soil – wt of dry soil) / wt of dry soil) x 100
Dry density = (bulk density) / (1 + w)

Apparatus Required:-

 Sand pouring cylinder

 Calibrating
 Metal tray
 Excavating tool
 Balance
 Glass plate
 Metal tray
 Clean uniform sand (1mm pass 600 mirco retain)
 Water content determination apparatus.

Fig. 8 Sand Replacement method

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Theory:-

The dry density of the sample obtained as a result is divided by the proctor test
result i.e. the maximum dry obtained of the sample that can be obtained in the
laboratory by using standard AASHTO compaction test or Modified AASHTO
compaction test and the result is reported as percentage.

The acceptance criteria for these percentages depend on the specification requirements
and generally following rules is followed:

No less than 98% within 150 mm below formation level.

No less than 95% between 150 mm and 1200 mm below formation.
No less than 90% beyond 1200 mm below formation level.

Background:-
As we know density means weight per unit volume or in other words how much mass
is being enclosed in a specific quantum of volume. We can easily determine the mass
of soil by using the physical balance or digital balance, but the problem lies in finding
the volume of the hole dug. This problem is solved with the help of a calibrated sand
whose unit weight or density is already being determined and thus if we could
determine how much weight of calibrated sand is going to rest in the dug hole we
can find the volume of the hole by using following formula;

Volume of dug hole = weight of soil in hole dug / unit weight of calibrated soil

Procedure:-

The standard procedure of this test is being divided in two parts in first part we
will find the unit weight of the standard soil by calibration process described as
follows;

Calibration:-

1. Determine the internal volume of the calibrating container by using the

dimensions as follows;
V = ((Pi) d^2 / 4) x h

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2. Now fill the sand pouring cylinder with the sand to be calibrated within about 10
mm of its top left vacant and then determine the mass of the sand pouring cylinder
along with sand and note it as w1.
3. Now place the sand pouring cylinder on top of calibrating cylinder of known
volume and open the shutter to allow the sand to fall in to the cylinder after no
more sand is falling close the shutter and determine the mass of the calibrating
cylinder filled with sand and note it as W2
4. Now as we also have the weight of the sand in the conical portion of the sand
pouring cylinder, we must subtract the weight of sand that can accumulate within
that conical portion. For that take a flat glass plate and place the sand pouring
cylinder. Open the shutter till no more sand falls and determine the mass of sand in
the conical portion and note it as W3.
5. Now the weight of the sand in the calibrating cylinder is determined as
Wa = W1 – W2 – W3
6. The bulk density of the sand is determined by dividing the mass of sand in the
calibrating cylinder with the volume of the calibrating cylinder.

Fig.6

Determine the dry density of the soil under sample:-

1. Prepare the area of the embankment subject to test, level the top of the soil using
the scrapper tool.

xlvi
2. Place the metal tray on the flat surface, if required insert the nails into the small
holes of the metal tray.
3. Trace the circular hole of the tray on the ground and excavate the soil carefully
without losing any of the soil fragment. Dig a hole of approximately 150 mm in
the ground.
4. Collect all the excavated material in a metal container and clear the hole using a
brush.
5. Determine the mass of this soil as weight of wet soil from hole Ww.
6. Fill the sand pouring cylinder with the calibrated sand and determine its mass as
W1.
7. Place the cylinder directly over the excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out the
cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the shutter when the hole is completely
filled and no further movement of sand is observed.
8. Now weigh the remaining sand in the sand pouring cylinder and note it as w4.
9. Take a sample of the excavated soil in an air tight sampler for the determination of
the water content or moisture content.
10. Volume of the hole is determined by using the unit weight of the calibrated sand
already known.

Observation & Calculations:-

Volume of calibrating container = V Cm3 = 1000 cm3

Weight of cylinder + sand (before pouring), W1 g = 7476 g
Mean weight of cylinder + sand (after pouring), W2g = 5610 g
Mean weight of sand in cone (of pouring cylinder), W3 g = 436 g
Weight of sand to fill calibrating container Wa = w1 – w2 – w3 g = 1430 g
Bulk density of sand = Gamma b = Wa / v g/cm3 = 1.43

Dry Density:-

Weight of calibrated sand in hole wb = W1 + W3 – W2 = 2302

Volume of hole= Vh = Wb / Unit weight of sand
Dry density of soil= ww / vh
% compaction= (dry density / proctor density ) x 100

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The density of bituminous concrete come out is 7.3 , which is lower than
recommended value.

2.2.4.3 Tests on Coarse and Fine Aggregates

Purpose: To obtain the fineness modulus, density, and voids ratio of fine and coarse
aggregate samples
Materials and Apparatus:
- sample of fine aggregate

- sample of coarse aggregates

- digital weighing scale

- sieve sifter for coarse aggregates

- various cleaning brushes (point and wire).

Procedure:

Part 1: Sieve Analysis of fine aggregate

Step 1: Take 500g sample of fine aggregate (as per CSA code provisions, the
aggregates must be completely dry). This is determined by weighing the material on a
digital scale. Also weigh each sieve of the mechanical sifter, and the pan, and record
the weights.

Step 2: Place the aggregate in the top sieve of the well-cleaned mechanical sifter
(sieves used are # 4, # 8, # 16, # 30, # 50 & # 100). This apparatus is used for shaking
the aggregates (similar to the principle used in a paint-mixing machine) and sieving
them. The mechanical sifter has a bottom pan (to receive the material passing # 100
sieve) and a lid to close the sifter during the test. After placing the lid on the sifter,
agitate the sifter for about 10 minutes.

Step 3: Determine the weight of aggregates that are retained in each of the sieves, by
weighing each of the sieves (along with the retained aggregates), and subtracting the
weight of each sieve. Also record all the weights of aggregates retained in each of the
sieves. To ensure that all materials are collected, clean each sieve carefully using the
proper type of brush. Use the paint brush for the finer sieves, the copper brush for

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intermediate sieves and the steel wire brush for the coarse sieves. Also verify whether
the sum of weights of aggregates, retained in all the sieves, and the bottom pan is
equal to the initial weight of the aggregates taken.

Step 4: Tabulate the data and determine the percent retained in each sieve. From these
values calculate the (cumulative) percentage of material that would have been retained
in the sieve if the whole volume of material was to be sifted in that sieve alone. Then
add the percentage of material retained in all the sieves and divide by 100 to get the
fineness modulus. Also prepare column to determine the cumulative percentage
passing through the sieve to plot the fineness modulus curve (as specified in CSA
23.1).

Step 5: Plot a graph of percent passing by weight vs sieve size, with the limits
specified in CSA standard A23.1 for fine and coarse aggregate sizes superimposed.

Note: (1) All sieves have to be cleaned prior to experiment.

(2) See the sample calculations given at the end of this section

PART 2: Sieve Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Procedure:
Step 1: Take 5000 grams of coarse aggregates by weighing the material in a digital
scale. Weigh each of the clean sieve, along with the bottom pan, and record their
weights.

Step 2: Place the aggregates in the mechanical sifter (sieve sizes used are 1 ½”, 1”,
¾”, ½”, 3/8”, & #4). This apparatus is used for shaking the material (similar to the
principle of a paint-mixing machine) and sieving it.

Step 3: Determine the aggregates that are retained in each individual sieve, as
mentioned earlier in Part I, and record the data. To ensure that all materials are
collected, use the steel brush to clean each sieve.

Step 4: Tabulate the data and determine the percent retained, and the percentage that
would have been retained in each sieve, if that sieve alone was used to sieve the whole
volume. The fineness modulus is obtained by adding the percentage of material
retained in all the sieves and dividing it by 100.

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 Fig.10

Fig. 11

Step 5: Plot a graph of percent passing by weight vs. sieve sizes.

Note: All sieves have to be cleaned prior to experiment.

Part 3: Bulk Density and Voids Ratio of Fine Aggregates

Step 1: Take a bucket (of volume, say, 2.5 litres) and weigh it. Place the aggregates in
the bucket (whose volume is already determined by dividing the weight of the volume

l
of water that is contained in the completely filled bucket by the weight density of
water. In addition, the bucket must be properly dried before placing fine aggregate in
it) to fill 1/3rd its capacity each time. Rod each portion 25 times. The steps are
repeated till the bucket in is filled with fine aggregates. Remove excess aggregate
using the tamping rod as a straight edge.

Step 2: Determine the weight of fine aggregates by weighing the bucket full of
aggregates, and subtracting the weight of empty bucket.

Step 3: Determine the bulk weight density of fine aggregates by dividing the weight
of the aggregates by the volume of the bucket.

Step 4: Also determine the volume of voids in the fine aggregate, using the following
equation.

% voids in fine aggregates =

{[(Sp. Gr. of fine aggregates)*w - bulk density]/[w*(Sp. Gr. of fine aggr.)]}*100

Part 4: Bulk Density and Voids Ratio in Coarse Aggregates

Repeat the procedures given in Part 3 for fine aggregates, and obtain the bulk density
and voids ratio for coarse aggregates.

Part 5: Sample Calculations for Fineness Modulus, Bulk Density and Voids Ratio

1. Sieve analysis of a 1000-g sample of fine aggregates resulted in the following

data. Find the fineness modulus.

Sieve size #4 #8 # 16 # 30 # 50 #
100

Weight 26 130 240 252 210 138

retained (g)

Calculations:

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 Sieve # Weight Percent Percent Percent
retained (g) retained coarser finer

4 26 2.6 2.6

8 130 13.0 15.6

16 240 24.0 39.6

30 252 25.2 64.8

50 210 21.0 85.8

100 138 13.8 99.6

Cumulative =
308

Fineness modulus = 308/100 = 3.08

2. Find the volume of voids in a 3 cubic yards of coarse aggregates, of bulk

density equal to 102 lbs/(cubic feet). The specific gravity of particles is 2.65.

% of Voids = [(SG*W - B)*100]/(SG*W)

Specific gravity, SG = 2.65

Density of water, W = 62.4 lbs/(cu. ft.)

Bulk density, B = 102 lbs/(cu. ft.)

% of voids = [(2.65*62.4 - 102)*100]/(2.65*62.4)= 38.3%

Volume of voids = (38.3/100)*3 = 1.143 cu. Yards = = 1.143*27 = 31 cu. ft.

CHAPTER-3

CONCLUSIONS

As I got training from HPPWD Sub. Div. Jawalamukhi, I have learnt much useful
things. As the major project of the department are focused on road construction and

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repair, so I have learnt more about roads as compared to other. I learn many important
aspects of road such as laying of bitumen, height/depth of cover to road which is
20mm atleast, temperature of laying of bituminous coarse which was 140-150 degree
calcius and the different tests performed on WCB and BC such as sand replacement
method is which used to calculate the density of bitumen in BC and compaction factor
and material used in WBM and the sieve analysis which is used to calculate the
content of proportion of each size aggregate used in road construction to avoid any
corruption in construction.

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 CHAPTER-4

REFERENCES

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road#Construction
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building
 Highway Engg. Book by S.K. Khanna and Justo
 https://civilblog.org/2014/04/02/determination-of-field-density-of-soil-by-
sand-replacement-method-is-2720-part-28/
 www.google.com

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