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GEOLOGY, October 2016; v. 44; no. 10; p. 1–4 | doi:10.1130/G38024.1 | Published online XX Month 2016
GEOLOGY
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2016 Geological 44 | ofNumber
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800 Plume-focused interpretations relate KBLs DEEP SUBDUCTION AND KIMBERLITES
A to mantle plume activity (Haggerty, 1994; Tors- The remaining interpretation for the observed
vik et al., 2010). This explanation is not sup- age distribution of KBLs is that the concentra-
B 853
600 ported by the geologic record, which shows that tions of volatiles in the upper mantle delivered
Number of kimberlites
the plume record as revealed by large igneous to the base of the lithosphere beneath cratons
provinces and large dike swarms is semicontinu- increased tremendously in the latter part of Earth
400 ous at least from ca. 3.0 Ga, with no obvious history. In this interpretation, the great problem
248 increase with time (Ernst and Buchan, 2002). is where did the fluids come from to rupture the
185 Lithosphere-focused explanations consider lithosphere and allow KBL to erupt? As noted
72
7 30 32 200
that KBLs require thick cratonic lithosphere, here, the only solid Earth processes that are
and that this did not exist until relatively late in capable of delivering large amounts of H2O and
A Pp Mp Np Pz Mz Cz
Earth history. This position is difficult to defend CO2 to the mantle beneath the lithosphere are
2 7 5 9 because it appears that cratons as represented by PT and subduction. Water and carbonate in sub-
0
3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 (Ma) supercontinent assemblages formed early and ducting slabs is sequestered in sediments, oce-
that the oldest cratons have the thickest litho- anic crust, and upper mantle, and these volatiles
Figure 1. Histogram of kimberlite ages based spheres (Artemieva and Mooney, 2002; Rey and are released continuously as the slab descends.
on the compilation of Faure (2006). A: Ages
Coltice, 2008). Hacker (2008) calculated that, at present, 8.4 ×
binned each 500 Ma. B: Ages binned by
geologic eons. A—Archean; Pp—Paleo The fourth explanation focuses on the role 1017 kg/Ma of water (~0.06% of the ocean each
p r ot e r oz o i c ; M p — M e s o p r o t e r o z o i c ; of volatiles in KBL formation, implying a rela- Ma) is subducted beneath 4 GPa (~135 km deep),
Np—Neoproterozoic; Pz—Paleozoic; Mz— tively recent increase in the concentration of although other estimates are significantly lower
Mesoz oic; Cz—Cenozoic. Note the great H2O + CO2 in the sublithospheric mantle as (Parai and Mukhopadhyay, 2012). Subduction
increase in kimberlites in Neoproterozoic and
later time (after 750 Ma). responsible. This is an interesting suggestion zones and the water that these transport to depth
that could explain the age histogram, especially have been linked to some KBLs, specifically an
in tandem with Earth cooling, but what process ~4000-km-long north-south–trending corridor
of preservation or exposure? Specifically, why could be responsible for such an increase in H2O of Cretaceous to Eocene KBL magmatism in
are there are so few pre-Neoproterozoic KBLs? + CO2 in the mantle? The onset of PT and deep northwest Canada that Heaman et al. (2004)
Some scientists think that the age distribution subduction could be responsible, as discussed interpreted to reflect subduction of the Kula-
(Fig. 1) is not representative of what really hap- further here. Farallon plate.
pened, and others think it is. Skeptics think that Given the ability of subduction to deliver H2O
there are many more old KBLs that are hidden PLATE TECTONICS AND DEEP and CO2 deep into the mantle, it is worth con-
beneath younger deposits or have been eroded SUBDUCTION sidering the possibility that the increased abun-
(Brown and Valentine, 2013). However, many PT is a unique style of silicate planet convec- dance of KBLs in the past 1 Ga reflects the mas-
cratons have undergone little erosion since tion, whereby rigid shells of lithosphere slide sive injection of H2O and CO2 into the mantle
they stabilized ca. 2.5 Ga; the abundance of over weaker mantle asthenosphere and sink to after PT and deep subduction began (Fig. 2). In
Archean and Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts great depths in the mantle. It is the sinking of this interpretation, there was no PT and no deep
demonstrates that erosion of this crust is gen- oceanic lithosphere in subduction zones that subduction before ca. 1 Ga. The flux of water to
erally modest, so the preponderance of KBLs powers plate motions. Although subduction the mantle was low, mostly delivered by delami-
of similar age, if they exist, should be found by zones are not part of the formal definition of PT, nation and lithospheric drips, so fluid pressure
diligent explorationists. we now know that convergent plate margins are at the top of asthenosphere was mostly low and
The second group of scientists recognizes surficial expressions of subduction zones where the buildup of volatiles needed for KBL erup-
that the age distribution (Fig. 1) may be some- oceanic lithosphere sinks deep into the mantle tions rarely occurred (Fig. 2A). After ca. 1 Ga,
what biased but concludes that it usefully (Stern, 2002). Subducted lithospheric slabs may PT and deep subduction began delivering much
approximates KBL eruption frequency through stagnate just above the 670 km discontinuity more water to the mantle at depths greater than
time. We subscribe to this interpretation, for the or may sink through it, carrying tremendous the base of the cratonic lithosphere, ~250 km.
reasons outlined in the previous paragraph. In amounts of H2O and CO2 (Hacker, 2008). The Evidence that deeply subducted water currently
this case, how can the increase in KBL erup- two concepts, PT and deep subduction, are rises back into the overlying mantle includes a
tions in recent Earth history be explained? We equivalent, so evidence for deep subduction persistent low S-velocity anomaly in the upper
can consider four main groups of explanations: is also evidence for PT. There are surely other mantle (van der Lee et al., 2008). Water and
whole Earth focused, plume focused, litho- ways of delivering such volatiles to the deep carbon dioxide released from the slab infiltrated
sphere focused, and volatile focused. Whole mantle than by subduction. There is no question and permeated upward, perhaps interacting with
Earth explanations identify the cooling of the that water- and carbonate-rich surface materi- carbonated peridotite mantle, generating abun-
Earth as responsible, resulting in more low- als have been recycled deep into the mantle dant H2O-CO2 fluids and eventually becoming
degree melts with time. There is general agree- throughout Earth history (Harrison, 2009), but trapped at the base of the continental lithosphere,
ment that mantle potential temperature has this may have been accomplished by convective increasing fluid pressure there (Fig. 2B). Eventu-
decreased by 150–250 °C since the Archean styles other than PT and subduction, for exam- ally the build-up of fluid pressure broke to the
(Herzberg et al., 2010). Examination of the dis- ple, by heat-pipe tectonics (Moore and Webb, surface as a KBL eruption; in regions of thinner
tribution through time of nephelinites, phono- 2013) and delamination (Bédard 2006). These lithosphere the mixed fluid phase may enhance
lites, and alkali basalts (data from GEOROC; mechanisms are capable of delivering some generation of other low-degree mantle melts,
georoc.mpch-mainz.gwdg.de/) shows that these surface volatiles to sublithospheric depths, but which also seem to have erupted more abun-
are abundant only in the last part of Earth his- the volumes delivered by subduction to mantle dantly in recent Earth history.
tory. The abundance of KBLs may have a similar depths below that sampled by arc magmas (~2 It must be acknowledged that, even if the
explanation, although this does not explain why × 1013 mol/yr; Parai and Mukhopadhyay, 2012) general hypothesis is correct, there are many
they are so enriched in volatiles. are much greater. unanswered questions. Do both H2O and CO2
sub stheno
up from 80 km deep
of a
duc
Asthenosphere rocks are latest Neoproterozoic, implying that
tion phere
Carbonate-rich asthenosphere CO2 and water rich magma
~0.5% melt of garnet peridotite sufficiently cold subduction zone thermal struc-
s
floo with
ds p
hydrous fluids break
down carbonated mantle tures for lawsonite formation did not exist until
arts ater
then (Tsujimori and Ernst, 2014). Jadeitite
w
formation requires hydrous fluid precipitation
Figure 2. Simple explanation of why abundance of kimberlites increased ca. 750 Ma. A: Before or the interaction of fluid and subduction zone
ca. 1 Ga, no plate tectonics and no deep subduction exist. The flux of water to the mantle is metamorphic rocks at high pressures and high
low so fluid pressure at the top of the asthenosphere is low. B: After ca. 1 Ga, plate tectonics
temperatures within the forearc mantle wedge.
and deep subduction deliver water to the deep mantle. Upward-infiltrating water interacts
with carbonated peridotite mantle, generating abundant H2O-CO2 fluids and increasing fluid Taken together, the geologic record of large-
pressure at the top of the asthenosphere. Eventually build-up of fluid pressure breaks to the scale petrotectonic indicators supports the
surface as a kimberlite eruption. hypothesis that the recent increase in KBLs
reflects the beginning of PT and sustained deep
subduction in Neoproterozoic time.
in KBLs have the same origin? Are both derived Figure 3 compares three different types of
from deeply subducted slabs, or does this mixed PT indicators: mantle fluids, seafloor spreading, CONCLUSIONS
phase reflect destabilization of preexisting man- and products of subduction zone metamorphism. We summarized evidence that the high vola-
tle carbonate by water rising from subducted KBL abundance monitors mantle fluid concen- tile contents of KBLs reflect addition of water
slabs (as shown in Fig. 2B)? How long after trations (Fig. 3A). Ophiolites are direct indica- and carbon dioxide to the mantle by deep sub-
PT and deep subduction began did it take for tors of seafloor spreading and PT. A few ca. 1.9 duction and showed how the KBL record can
fluids to be subducted to depth, be released from Ga ophiolites are known, possibly indicating be used to help constrain when sustained deep
the slab and rise through the mantle to the base an abortive phase of Paleoproterozoic proto-PT, subduction first began. It is a low-fidelity record
of the continental lithosphere and reach con- but abundant ophiolites began to appear ca. 1.0 because of the long time needed between the
centrations sufficient to cause a KBL eruption? Ga (Fig. 3B). Four different and direct indica- start of deep subduction and increased KBL
Although this is an unknown, it likely requires tors of uniquely cool subduction zone thermal eruption frequency. Recognition that the modern
time spans of hundreds of millions of years. For environments are all metamorphic rocks, not episode of PT and deep subduction began in the
example, it would take a minimum of ~100 Ma easily removed by erosion (Fig. 3C). Blueschists Neoproterozoic opens the door to considering
for the Farallon slab at a nominal rate of 50 mm/ are fragments of oceanic crust and sediments magmatic and tectonic styles of the pre-PT era,
yr to move 5000 km and reach a position 660 km metamorphosed 30–60 km deep under unusually an exciting research topic that we are only start-
beneath the U.S. east coast. The time it would cool conditions only found in subduction zones. ing to consider. It may also provide some new
take for fluids to move from the subducted slab
through the mantle and concentrate in sufficient
quantities to break through the lithosphere could A Kimberlites 300
also be tens to hundreds of millions of years. 200
Archean Paleoproterozoic Mesoproterozoic Neoproterozoic Phanerozoic
100
COMPARISON WITH OTHER PLATE
TECTONIC INDICATORS
B Ophiolites
Number of occurrences
If we seriously consider KBLs as a PT indi- 20
beginning of PT activity and massive increase 3000 2700 2400 2100 1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 (Ma)
in fluid budget of sublithospheric mantle due
to the onset of deep subduction, there should Figure 3. Age histograms for distinctive plate tectonic and subduction indicators for the past
3 Ga of Earth history (modified after Stern et al., 2013). A: Mantle volatile indicators, from
be confirmation from the geologic record. We kimberlite age distribution of Figure 1. B: Seafloor-spreading indicator of ophiolites. Age dis
argue here that, although there is clear evidence tribution of ophiolites is from Dilek (2003) for those until 1040 Ma, plus minor Paleoproterozoic
of deep recycling very early in Earth history and ophiolites. C: Subduction zone indicators are all distinctive metamorphic rocks, i.e., blue
that Earth was tectonically and magmatically schists and glaucophane-bearing eclogites, coesite- or diamond-bearing ultrahigh-pressure
(UHP) metamorphic rocks, lawsonite-bearing metamorphic rocks, and jadeitites. The ages of
very active throughout the Precambrian, most of blueschists are from Tsujimori and Ernst (2014), those of UHP metamorphic belts are from
the large-scale (the size of terranes) PT indica- Liou et al. (2014), those of lawsonite-bearing metamorphic rocks are from Tsujimori and Ernst
tors first appeared in the Neoproterozoic (Fig. 3). (2014), and those of jadeitites are from Harlow et al. (2015).