Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Mariah Brashar
Abstract
This paper offers information about the effectiveness of a peer tutoring program in a
Southcentral Alaska Elementary school. This student tutoring study was undertaken with the
intention of improving the reading confidence and skills of students who were reading below
grade level. The researcher posited that students would benefit from the opportunity to read
materials at their own level with younger peers who could authentically benefit from and enjoy
reading those materials. This program consisted of three fourth grade students who were reading
significantly below grade level who were partnered with three first grade students who were
reading on grade level. These six students read together three times a week for three weeks.
Older students were trained as tutors and their progress was measured by increases in reading
Students’ progress in these areas was monitored using observational data, student tutor
interviews, and AIMS web fluency reading passages. The results indicated that peer tutoring had
a moderate positive effect for all three student tutors in all measured areas. The researcher
concluded that a lengthier study involving a larger number of students would likely also yield
positive results.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 3
Introduction
Reading is the most important skill elementary students learn. Students’ ability to read
and comprehend material informs their ability to succeed not only in language arts, but in all
academic areas. Unfortunately, by the intermediate grades, many students have fallen far behind
compound the typical challenges that they might face in all academic fields. Academic
difficulties also influence student behavior. Students who are unable to access material cannot
efficiently engage with classroom activities and are often bored, distracted, and even disruptive.
While peer tutoring has often been used to improve outcomes for tutees, little research
has been done on the benefits for tutors. This peer tutoring case study attempts to provide
The students involved in this study read significantly below grade level and experienced
difficulty in other academic and social areas as a result of this deficiency. These students had few
authentic chances to independently engage with reading material at their own reading level in the
classroom. The researcher attempted to determine if, given more chances to engage with on-level
This research was designed to measure changes in student tutor reading fluency,
Literature Review
Cross-age peer tutoring is a widely used and widely studied technique that aims to
have found peer tutoring to be beneficial for learning new skills, supporting traditional learning,
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 4
and improving students’ self-esteem (Almassaad & Alotaibi, 2012). Cross-age peer tutoring
occurs when students of different ages are paired together for the benefit of one or both parties.
Established research in the field of cross-age peer tutoring has used a wide variety of
methods. While some studies employed qualitative observations and student surveys and
interviews (Almassaad & Alotaibi, 2012), others utilized a more quantitative approach, including
standardized testing results and progress monitoring (Rodriguez, 2013). Most research was
relatively limited in scope, lasting an average of 10 weeks or less (Bowman-Perrot et al., 2013).
Student academic and behavioral performance and improvements were the focus of this
research. This literature review focused on three themes within the study of cross-age peer
tutoring: student attitudes, behavior, and opinions; student benefits; and tutor training.
Examination of the available literature and research on the effects of cross-age peer
tutoring revealed several distinct and repeated themes. The effect of peer tutoring on student
attitudes, behavior, and opinions has been widely studied. Student tutors and tutees involved in
peer tutoring viewed the process positively, regardless of their ability level (Almassaad &
Alotaibi, 2012). Specifically, students with Autism Spectrum Disorder benefited from the
process and were better able to reach Individual Educational Plan (IEP) goals for acceptable
behavior within the school setting (Gillies, 2012). Other research suggested that, while tutees
made academic gains, tutors’ attitudes underwent a positive transformation, even when the scope
Student Benefits
Another commonly studied theme within the canon of research on peer tutoring focused
on benefits across ability level and age. Most, though not all, of the research on cross-age peer
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 5
tutoring was centered around the benefit to younger students in tutoring relationships (Almassaad
& Alotaibi, 2012). Research showed that peer tutoring programs in elementary schools were
associated with improved critical thinking, interpersonal, and conflict resolution skills for both
parties (Gensemer, 2000). Student tutees and tutors both reported improvements in self-esteem
and more positive attitudes toward the subject in which the peer tutoring relationship was
Student academic improvement was often moderately large, with students in peer tutoring
relationships having made noticeably greater gains in math and reading than controls (Bowman-
Perrot, Davis, Vannest, Greenwood, & Parker, 2013). Some research indicated that peer tutoring
programs may even double or triple students’ reading fluency levels (Rodriguez, 2013). Cross-
age peer tutoring was most often arranged so there was at least a 3-5 year gap between students’
ages, which facilitated the most auspicious development of the tutee/tutor relationship
(Gensemet, 2000). Larger age gaps were associated with greater gains (Bowman-Perrot et al.,
2013). Several studies suggested that shorter interventions were more effective for increasing
Cooperation, while necessary for human success and survival, has not been widely
emphasized in school (Bennet, 1991). When cooperative work models, of which peer tutoring is
one, have been used, they were beneficial for all genders, skills levels, and ages (Bennet, 1991),
as well as for teacher efficacy (Cardenas, 2017). While some studies have shown that older age-
groups benefited more significantly from peer tutoring (Bowman-Perrot et al., 2013), others
suggested that the key to peer tutoring success lay more within the method’s implementation
than within any one age or ability structure (Cardenas, 2017). Tutor training, organization and
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 6
planning of lessons, and teachers’ scheduled time for training and preparing were key to program
Interestingly, benefits were more limited within the scope of a longer intervention
intervention, usually between 30-45 minutes per week (Bowman-Perrot et al., 2013). The data
suggested that shorter, more flexible interventions, like the focus of this research, were more
The benefits to tutor performance and behavior of cross-age peer tutoring were generally
studied in conjunction with peer-tutoring’s other benefits. Research has found that peer tutoring
of nine- and ten-year-old children in spelling was as beneficial for the tutor as it was for the tutee
(Dineen, Clark, & Risley, 1977). Tutors in peer tutoring relationships were often selected due to
superior academic abilities. However, in cases where tutors were selected based on low-
academic achievement and interest, tutors’ interest and achievement in reading and writing was
Tutor Training
As Cardenas (2017) noted, the research widely indicated that improvements in student
performance were dependent largely on program efficacy. One key element within peer tutoring
programs was tutor training. Depending on the scope of a peer tutoring relationship, tutor
training was simple or complex, brief or ongoing (Gaustad, 1992). Training tutors to use a
“pause, prompt, and praise” teaching strategy was particularly effective (Gensemer, 2000). Peer
tutors also showed more positive results when they were supported throughout the process,
whether through ongoing training or by some other method (Kapil & Melini, 2018).
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 7
The evidence reviewed for this study clearly showed that cross-age peer tutoring was
beneficial for student performance. Both student tutors and tutees experienced improvements in
attitudes, behavior, and performance (Almassad & Alotaibi, 2012). Benefits were seen across age
and ability levels (Bennet, 1991), although students appear to have experienced more profound
increases over shorter periods of time (Rodriguez, 2013). Tutors benefited from the experience
(Dineen et al., 1977). In order for students to experience maximum gains, a peer tutoring
program involved tutor training and ongoing support (Gaustad, 1992). Tutor training that
included a method in which student tutors are taught to pause, prompt, and praise tutees showed
The focus of this research was to determine how low-achieving fourth-grade readers
would improve in attitude and performance when paired with first graders for a three-week
intervention. In light of research, student tutors were trained and monitored for improvement
through interview and progress monitoring. Since most research in this area focused on tutee
gains or the relationship between tutor and tutee gains, this research was needed to supply
information on the academic and behavioral benefits to tutors independent of their tutees.
Peer tutoring was supported by three main educational and developmental theories. The
first of these was Albert Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory (1989), which states that learning
occurs in a social context. The theory highlights the importance of social interactions and their
ability to reinforce learning and behavior. The theory explains how a person’s behavior is
influenced by reciprocal determinism, or the fluid interplay between a person’s actions and the
results of those actions on his or her environment and future behavior. Thus, the positive
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 8
positive way towards reading, according to Social Cognitive Theory. The theory also states that
the modeling of desirable behaviors by competent role models can improve behavior.
Another theory that supported the benefits of peer tutoring was Lev Vygotsky’s Social
Constructivist Theory, as explained in Rieber and Robinson (2004), which holds that the learner
is an active constructor of information. Since learners’ experiences and prior knowledge help
them to construct new information, it follows that peer tutoring would provide learners with an
opportunity to generate new knowledge within an egalitarian environment in which tutee and
The third theory that was important when considering peer tutoring was Ainsworth and
Bowlby’s Attachment Theory (1991). Attachment theory discusses the need for individuals to
form secure attachments, or intimate reciprocal bonds, both in infancy and in later life. Secure
relationships have been associated with feelings of high self-worth. Social validation (being
accepted by one’s peer group) also promotes self-esteem and improves motivation for continued
participation in the activities rewarded by positive social interactions (Ainsworth & Bowlby,
1991). This peer tutoring program was intended to provide an opportunity for struggling readers
to have positive social interactions centered around reading, thereby improving their self-esteem
The focus of this research was to determine whether low-achieving fourth-grade readers
would improve in attitude and performance when paired with first graders for a three-week
intervention.
Since most of the research reviewed was focused on tutee gains or the relationship
between tutor and tutee gains, this research was needed to supply information on the academic
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 9
and behavioral benefits to tutors independent of their tutees. To determine how tutors are
impacted, the researcher asked the following question: How does cross-age peer tutoring
between Alaskan fourth and first graders impact the reading-related confidence and fluency of
Research Design
In this study on the effects of cross-age peer tutoring on low-performing readers, I took a
A case study was undertaken to determine the effects of cross-age peer tutoring on the reading
Alaska.
This research addressed the difficulty that low readers face in the classroom: trouble with
confidence, an inability to successfully access reading materials within the context of the
classroom, and the resulting frustration and discouragement that often leads low-achieving
readers to disengage from or fail to become engaged with reading-based classroom activities.
This study was grounded on the assumption that low-fluency readers would benefit if given
opportunities to experience positive interactions with literature at their own level. Such positive
interactions are often inhibited by the teacher-student dynamic, as students feel pressure to
This research was based on Social Cognitive theory and followed an action research
design. Social Cognitive theory states that learning occurs in a social context (Bandura, 1989).
The social surroundings of a student inform his ability to learn, in both positive and negative
ways. For the purposes of this research, student tutors received one-time training in tutoring
techniques and were provided with a younger partner with whom they read over the course of the
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 10
study. Students tutors were tested for fluency, interviewed about attitudes towards reading, and
The focus of this research was to determine whether low-achieving fourth-grade readers
would improve in attitude and performance when paired with first graders for a three-week
intervention. Students met with reading buddies three times weekly for 30 minutes, and student
tutors met once weekly with the instructor for progress monitoring and interviews. Student
tutors’ reading fluency was monitored before, during, and after the intervention. Student tutors
were also interviewed about their attitudes about reading and confidence in their reading abilities
Participants
The participants in this study were three fourth grade Special Education students,
Heather, Eric, and Julian (pseudonyms). They were selected for this study because they had been
identified as significantly below level in reading based on their scores drawn from the Measures
of Academic Progress (MAP) standardized assessment which was delivered to all students within
the school district. All three students had Individual Education Plan (IEP) goals to increase their
reading fluency and comprehension. Peer tutee participants were three first grade students. Peer
tutees were selected based on interest in being partnered with a reading buddy and average or
below average first-grade reading fluency, according to MAP scores. Student tutees were
substituted from a group of six total participants based on absences during the research period.
Student tutors read with the same partner throughout the research, except in the case of an
absence-necessitated substitution.
Training
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 11
Student tutors received one 20-minute training during the first week of the intervention
period. Student training focused on methods for choosing books together, and teaching tutors to
assist their tutees with reading difficult words. The instructor met with the three tutors as a group
and conducted the training by instructing the students on four ways of collaboratively choosing
books (discussion, interest, pre-reading, and appropriate difficulty level) and one method of
assisting fellow readers: pause (wait for the tutee to have time to figure a word out on his or her
own), prompt (give the tutee a helpful hint), and praise (let the tutee know that he or she did well
when he or she successfully identifies a word). The instructor and the student tutors worked as
partners and practiced choosing books and reading together, using the strategies taught. A
Training Protocol.
Observations
Observations occurred during the regularly scheduled What I Need (WIN) time for first
graders (between 2:40-3:20 pm). Time was devoted to picking up first graders from their
classroom, selecting books, and reading; 15 minutes were devoted to student reading.
positive peer interactions between student tutors and tutees. Displays of interest noted were: tutor
comments about the reading material, discussion of the reading material, and verbal connections
made with prior knowledge (as when a student tutor mentioned he or she was reminded of
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 12
something else). Time on task was monitored in three-minute increments depending on whether
or not the student tutor was reading or attending to the reading material. Positive peer
interactions noted were: compliments the tutor gives the tutee, effective prompting (the tutor
successfully assisting the tutee with a difficult word), tutor or tutee smiling or laughing. An
Observation Protocol.
Interviews
activity, reading confidence, and interest in materials read during peer tutoring. Student tutors
questions. The interviews took place at the beginning, middle, and end of the intervention period.
Interviews took place in an empty classroom, where the rest of the intervention was conducted.
This place was chosen because it was empty and thus provided privacy and a quiet atmosphere.
Interview notes were completed directly following interviews. A sample (questions flexed
Interview Protocol.
Pre- and post- fluency reading assessment data were collected using AIMS Web fluency
reading passages before, during, and after the intervention. This data was used to show increases
or decreases in student reading fluency over the period of time of the intervention. Reading speed
was monitored.
Analysis
Internal validity in this study was accomplished through triangulation, the analysis of
multiple sources of qualitative data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). A narrative analysis of
This study took place over three weeks, with a one week break between week one and
week two. Student tutors received one 20-minute training period at 2:20 on March 4th. Student
tutors were trained on how to choose books with their partner and how to employ the pause,
prompt, and praise strategy. Student tutors were monitored for reading fluency using AIMS Web
fluency passages on March 4th, 18th, and 29th at 2:40 pm. Student tutors participated in three, one-
22, 25, 28, 29 between 2:40 and 3:20 pm. Student tutors met with designated first grade peer
tutees on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays between March 4 and March 29 from 2:40 -
3:20 and read together with their partner for no less than 15 minutes. While student tutors read
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 14
with their partners, the researcher observed their interactions and noted tutors’ displays of
interest, time on task, and positive peer interactions. Interview and observational notes were
completed during and immediately following the interview and observation to which they
pertained.
The focus of this research was to determine whether low-achieving fourth-grade readers
would improve in attitude and performance when paired as reading tutors with first graders for a
three-week intervention. The results of this case study showed some variation between the
participants but indicated a moderate positive relationship between the peer tutoring program and
improvements in student tutor attitudes towards reading, student tutor reading confidence, and
The study began with a tutor training in which the three tutors and the researcher
participated. The training focused on helping the tutors assist their tutees with reading and on
showing tutors ways to successfully choose appropriate books with their tutees. The three student
tutors responded cooperatively both in the small group environment and to the suggested
methods. They spent the 20-minute training period working with each other and the researcher to
use key phrases to help determine books in which a partner might be interested. They also
practiced pausing, prompting, and praising one another while reading difficult words.
Throughout the intervention, student tutors repeatedly referred back to the training, particularly
using the phrase “what looks interesting to you?” when choosing books.
Three themes were identified from student interviews and observational data and are
presented from week to week and supported by quotes from student tutor interviews, analysis of
the frequency of positive interactions between student tutors and tutees, the frequency of student
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 15
tutor displays of interest in reading materials, student tutor time on task during peer tutoring
Student tutors’ positive peer interactions, their displays of interest in reading material,
and their reading fluency peaked during the second week. Tutors’ time spent on task varied
slightly from week to week, but engagement in the program remained consistently high.
Despite a dip in all areas measured by reading fluency monitoring and the observational chart
(excepting time on task) during the third week, average overall levels improved slightly over the
course of this research. An overview of data collected throughout the research from
100 93
91
90 86
Average Number of Times Observed
80
70
60
51.3
50 44.6 45
40
30
20
9 8.3
10 4.5 4
0.7 2
0
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Figure 1. Whole group student tutor averages for displays of interest, positive peer interactions,
The first theme identified from the data was that student attitudes towards reading focus
around reading in school and for the purposes of schoolwork. Over the course of the study,
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 16
students mentioned reading for a specific purpose within the school environment more
frequently. As the research progressed, students became more comfortable answering research
questions.
Interviews. During this research, student tutors repeatedly referred to the utility of reading
when answering interview questions. While the research group spent its time reading books
based on interest, student tutors did not appear to view their participation or adults’ engagement
Week 1.
Adults read “because you are teachers and you read papers and stuff to kids.” Heather
Adults read “because you like to read to the whole class because it helps teachers get
Week 2.
Adults read “so that they can learn new words.” Julian
Adults read “so that they can get smarter and get into college” Eric
Week 3.
Observational Data. Student tutors’ interest levels in reading materials were observed based
on the number of times they made comments about reading materials, had discussions of reading
materials with their partners, and the connections student tutors made between their own lives
and the reading materials. While student tutors did not verbally indicate their personal interest in
reading materials to the researcher during interviews, it was plain from analysis of the increase in
the number of student tutor displays of interest (comments, discussions, and connections) that
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 17
students were personally interested and engaged by certain reading materials, particularly books
with unusual structures such as lift-a-flap books and books that included removable inserts. Two
books that particularly engaged students were Bugs and Slugs, by Judy Tatchell (2004), a lift-a-
flap book, and The Jolly Postman, or Other People’s Letters, by Janet and Allan Ahberg (1986),
a book that includes several inserted and removable “letters”, which were both presented in the
second week of the intervention period. Over the course of this research, the number of times
student tutors commented on, discussed, or drew connections between materials and their own
lives increased. Increases were most notable during the second week, but the students showed
greater interest in both the second and the third week than the first. These increases can be seen
in Figure 2.
J U L I A N 0.3 5 6
STUDENT
HEATHER 0.7 6 2
ERIC 0.7 7 3
The second theme identified was that student reading confidence was relatively high,
although students noted feeling nervous about reading aloud and bored with in-class material (a
sign that they were not able to engage with the material). Student tutors’ ability to read quickly
and accurately influenced the number of positive peer interactions student tutors had with their
tutees, which logically follows as peer interactions were largely instances of student tutors’
assisting their tutees in reading (which they were only able to do if they could read the material
themselves). All student tutors increased the number of words they read accurately per minute
(fluency) in their second week. Eric and Julian decreased slightly from their Week 1 score in the
third week. Heather’s fluency score decreased in Week 3 but remained above her Week 1 score.
I posited that increased reading fluency would improve student tutors’ attitudes towards reading,
which it appeared to do in Week 2 for all student tutors. This trend continued into Week 3 for
Heather.
Interviews. Over the course of the study, students reported more feelings of happiness and
pride in their reading skill in the second week than they did in the first or third. I was pleased and
surprised to observe the overall positivity of these three students, despite the challenges that they
had faced for years as below-level readers. Their resiliency was nothing short of inspiring. The
student tutors were often bored and frustrated, but their self-image was not so damaged by their
Week 1.
When I think of reading I feel “nervous. I think I am kind of a good reader.” Julian
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 19
When I read to myself I feel “bored because it’s not exciting and all you get to do is
read.” Eric
Week 2.
When I think of reading I feel “loud and proud, I don’t know [if I am a good reader], I
When I think of reading “I feel good. I am kind of a good reader. I like to read.” Julian
Week 3.
When I think of reading I feel “Comfortable and calm, I think I am a good reader.”
Heather
When I think of reading “I feel excited, but also frustrated and angry. I think I am a good
reader because I can learn the words [that I don’t know].” Eric
Observational Data. Student tutors’ reading confidence likely affected their ability to be
effective tutors. Throughout the research period, students’ abilities to positively interact with
their tutees through effective tutoring and pro-social displays (such as smiling and laughing)
increased. Student tutors’ most frequent positive interaction with their tutees was successful
prompting. Other frequent interactions included smiling, laughing and praise. While increases in
positive peer interactions were not entirely linear, there was a notably positive trend, especially
when comparing Week 1 to the subsequent weeks of the intervention. These increases can be
seen in Figure 3.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 20
JULIAN 1 5 5
STUDENT
HEATHER 2.3 10 13
ERIC 3 11 8
Figure 3. Student tutors’ positive peer interactions (P.P.I.) with tutees by week.
Student Tutor Reading Fluency (AIMS Web). In addition to interview responses and
observations on positive peer interactions, reading fluency data supports the idea that student
reading confidence might be related to students’ reading ability. Over the course of this research,
Eric and Julian did not increase their reading fluency. In fact, their scores lowered slightly
between Weeks 1 and 3. However, all three student tutors increased in fluency in Week 2.
Heather made a ten-word-per minute increase from Week 1 to Week 3. Her Week 2 reading
fluency score was even more impressive, a fifteen-word gain. Because of Heather’s notable
fluency improvement, the overall average for reading fluency was slightly higher at the
conclusion of the intervention. These improvements and changes can be seen in Figure 4.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 21
60
50
Words Per Minute
40
30
53 56
52 51.3 49
44 44.6 46 47 45
20 39
37
10
0
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3
Student Tutors' Fluency Performance by Week
Figure 4. Student tutor AIMS Web reading fluency scores (words read per minute) by week.
The third theme identified in this study was students’ reluctance to read aloud. Although the
student tutors all reported being hesitant to read aloud during interviews throughout the study,
they remained primarily on task during the intervention period. Despite practicing reading aloud,
Interview. During the research period, students repeatedly referred to their fear of being
made fun of or laughed at for making reading errors. Students worried about how their slowness
might affect the rest of the class and how being corrected might reflect on their social status and
situation within their classroom. The most frequently used word in interview responses to
questions about reading aloud was “nervous.” Students also regularly used the words “shy” and
“scared.” It is important to note that these students are not frequently asked to read aloud in a
whole-class setting.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 22
Week 1.
When I am asked to read aloud I feel “nervous because I could get stuck and people
When I am asked to read aloud I feel “nervous because sometimes I’m scared of reading,
because people might laugh at me when they have to wait [for me to figure out a word].”
Eric
Week 2.
When I am asked to read aloud I feel “scared, nervous, and shy and I don’t like it when
When I am asked to read aloud I feel “nervous that I might mess up.” Julian
Week 3.
When I am asked to read aloud “I feel nervous because I could get stuck.” Heather
When I am asked to read aloud “I feel nervous, shy, [and] pretty scared because I don’t
Observational Data. While students may have felt nervous about reading aloud, they did not
appear to be distracted by those feelings during the intervention periods associated with this
research. Students were able to remain on task for a minimum average of 87 percent of the time.
This indicates that while they felt uncomfortable reading aloud in a whole-group setting, they
were less uncomfortable in a smaller group. It also may show that these below-level readers were
more emotionally comfortable reading to peers below their own reading level. The time that
students spent on task was also affected by their tutee and his or her attendance to the subject and
material at hand. Julian’s partner was the least attentive of the three student tutees that regularly
attended intervention periods. Julian was the most reserved of the student tutors involved in the
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 23
study and generally responded well to his more outgoing, although less focused, partner.
However, as in Week 2, at times this partnership struggled to stay on task. Student tutors’ time
JULIAN 80 60 100
Discussion
This research explored how three low-achieving fourth-grade readers’ attitudes and
performance would change when they were paired with first graders for a three-week
intervention. Like much of the current research on peer mentoring, I used both a qualitative
approach (Almassaad & Alotaibi, 2012) by observing student tutors’ behaviors and interviewing
them before, during, and after the intervention, and some quantitative measures (Rodriguez,
2013) such as progress monitoring. The three students were determined to be far below grade
level (all scoring at a second grade or lower reading level) and had been struggling with the
challenges associated with reading below level throughout the second and third grades.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 24
Despite this, all three students reported positive feelings about their own reading ability
during every interview, showing a level of resiliency that I did not expect. This apparent
resiliency did not translate to reported improvements in reading confidence over the course of the
study. While other research has indicated that student tutoring programs increased self-esteem
towards the subject studied during the tutoring period (Udaka, 2009), my research did not
indicate that there was any notable improvement in student tutors’ feelings about their own
reading abilities, according to interview responses. Since this change, or lack thereof, was
reported using an interview, I suspected that students might have been hesitant to share their
deeper feelings about their abilities. Some method of self-reporting, perhaps through survey,
could have shown more authentic levels of confidence over the course of the intervention.
students did appear to make gains in other areas. The research plan consisted of a training period,
which studies have shown was a key to student tutoring program success (Cardenas, 2017). Like
other studies, this study indicated that training tutors to use a “pause, prompt, and praise”
teaching strategy was particularly effective (Gensemer, 2000). One of the most numerous
positive interactions that was observed during this study consisted of student tutors effectively
employing this strategy. As the study progressed, student tutors became more effective tutors,
prompting and praising their tutees more often. A longer, more ongoing and organized method of
tutor training would likely have benefited the students even more. However, due to the limited
This research’s scope, consisting of only a three-week period, was restrictive. However,
most research reviewed in this area was fairly short term, lasting in general less than 10 weeks
(Bowman-Perrot et al., 2013). Interestingly, a short intervention period potentially had benefits.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 25
The first and second week of this study showed a larger percentage of student improvement than
the third week, and other studies have shown that shorter interventions were more effective for
increasing student progress (Rodriguez, 2013). However, the apparent improvements during the
second week of this research may have been positively influenced by the week-long break
between Week 1 and 2. Perhaps that break enabled the students to return to school with a fresh
attitude and a renewed ability to focus. I assumed the break would complicate the study, but my
mistaken assumption was that it would cause the students’ progress to slow, not to quicken.
However, student tutors’ reading fluency improved by an average of six words per
minute between the first and second weeks. This marked improvement was consistent with
current research, which has found that student academic improvement was often moderately
large, with students in peer tutoring relationships having made noticeably greater gains in
The short intervention period (despite its possible benefits) was a limitation of this study.
It is difficult to determine why certain variations in the data occurred during different weeks of
the research period without a longer period of time to analyze, which would give more context to
extraneous events that may have influenced the data. The decrease in student reading
performance in the third week, for example, may have been influenced by state testing. During
the third week, student tutors spent 3-4 hours engaged in standardized testing during the
mornings of the interventions. Students were visibly mentally and physically fatigued. They lay
their heads down on desks, asked to sleep instead of read, and commented on their exhaustion.
A further limitation of this study was the likelihood that student tutors became familiar
with research questions. Since questions remained the same or very similar from week to week,
this familiarity may have influenced student answers. The interview method was illuminating in
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 26
many ways, often giving me insight into how the students thought about reading as an activity:
notably how focused all three tutors were on the utility of reading rather than the enjoyment of
reading. However, because of the nature of the teacher-student relationship and power dynamic,
where one person (the teacher) holds the majority of the power and authority in almost every
situation, I often wondered if students were reluctant to share their authentic feelings with me out
of a desire to tell me what they thought I wanted to hear. I felt that a method of self-reporting
would have added clarity to this research. Despite these limitations, the findings of this research
indicate that peer mentoring was a positive influence on these students. These findings could be
This research began with these questions: how can I help struggling readers gain
confidence in reading within the classroom setting? More specifically, how does cross-age peer
tutoring between Alaskan fourth and first graders impact the reading-related confidence and
fluency of low-achieving fourth grade students? By pairing three students who were reading
significantly below level with first-grade partners for reading practice, I hoped to instill in them a
sense of their own abilities and a sense of their potential for growth. I also hoped to improve
There was some change effected during the period of my research. Over the course of the
intervention period, I found that students’ reading abilities (as measured by words read per
minute) improved modestly with this practice. Their attitudes towards reading also changed
modestly, as one can see from observational data on students’ displays of interest in reading
materials. Additionally, their confidence also improved modestly, with notable increases in their
abilities to assist, as well as their successes with assisting their tutees throughout the intervention.
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 27
Interested educators might appreciate that peer tutoring allows students to interact with
one another without adult intervention, freeing up more teacher time for small group or
individual activities. Students also get a chance to be in a role of authority, which can bring out
an assertive side of them that lays dormant in the typical construct of the classroom. Distracted
students may be more able to focus in small-group settings where they play a role of authority.
Information on the benefits of peer tutoring are available in many forms. The results of
this study might be helpful to other teachers at this school, especially as a response to questions
and concerns about helping struggling readers. The methods used and information gathered
might be useful to teachers who are considering implementing a similar plan within their
classrooms, either on a small scale like the scale of this study or on a larger scale.
The data collected during this intervention can be used to justify the continuation of a
peer tutoring program. It may also be used to encourage this practice in other contexts
The questions that started this research are not yet fully answered. A longer study with
more participants might garner a broader data set that could potentially be more easily
generalized to other students and situations. Some of the benefits of peer tutoring discovered
during this research went beyond the scope of my questions into the realm of benefits to
classroom management, inter-personal skills, and school community building. Questions and
research addressing change in attitudes towards these three areas during a peer tutoring program
may be illuminating.
Despite the modest nature of the results of this study, the benefits of peer tutoring seem to
justify its continuation. I believe that many students would benefit from engaging with younger
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 28
students as mentors, in reading and in other subject areas. This is a program that I plan to
References
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engage-students-as-readers/helping-students-choose-books-for-reading-pleasure
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CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 32
Appendix A
Tutor Training
Discuss: How can you choose a book that you and your first-grade buddy will both find
interesting?
Strategies:
The Goldilocks strategy — is this book too easy, too hard, or, just right? (National Library of
The five-finger rule — identifying the number of difficult words on a page, so the reader can
evaluate if the text is at the right level. (National Library of New Zealand, 2019)
I PICK: I look at a book, Purpose, Interest, Comprehend, Know all the words. (National Library
Questions to ask yourself and your first-grade buddy when choosing a book together:
Is it something you might know something about or already be interested in from other stuff you
know?
Read the first page or two, is it easy enough to read, too hard? Too easy?
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 33
2. Methods for helping your first-grade buddy read (pause, prompt, praise):
When your buddy doesn’t know a word, don’t just tell him or her as soon as you figure it out:
pause. Give him or her time to think, then if he or she doesn’t figure it out after you’ve paused,
give them a hint, like the first letter sound or any other prompt. When your buddy figures out a
hard word, make sure you tell him or her how well he or she did! Give lots of praise, it makes
Partner tutors with each other and with the instructor and practice methods for choosing books
Appendix B
Observation Chart
Minute 1-3 Minute 4-6 Minute 7-9 Minute 10-12 Minute 13-15
Displays of
Interest
Time on
Task
Positive
Peer
Interactions
Observational Code:
Displays of interest:
C: Comments (this is interesting, funny, etc.)
D: Discussion (What does that mean? How did that happen? Etc. Including responses)
P: Prior knowledge (mentions something he/she knows that connects with topic)
Time on Task:
Y: Yes, reading or discussing read material
N: No, not reading or attending to reading material
Positive Peer Interactions:
CP: Complement (Praise, good job, etc.)
EP: Effective prompt (starts with, sounds like, leads to correct identification of word)
S: Smiling
L: Laughing
CROSS-AGE PEER TUTORING: IMPACT ON TUTORS’ READING 35
Appendix C
Sample Interview
3. Why do you think people, like adults, enjoy reading? Do your parents read at home?
4. When you read, what makes you enjoy it? If you don’t enjoy it, what makes you not enjoy it?
7. Do you think you are a good reader? Why do you think so?
9. When you’re reading to yourself, do you feel frustrated, happy, interested, bored? If so, why?
11. What is the last book you read? Why did you read this book?
12. Was this book interesting? If so, how? If not, why not?
13. Did this book remind you of anything in your own life? If so, what? If not, did it remind you
14. Would you recommend this book to someone else? Why or why not?
15. When you pick your next book to read, how will you do it?