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Power is very important to modern systems. From the smallest sensors, bionic implants,
laptops, consumer products to satellites and oil platforms, it is important to be able to deliver
power means other than classical wires or transmission lines. Wireless transmission is
useful in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, but
interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible some times. In the case
of biological implants, there must be a battery or energy storage element present that can
receive and hold energy. This element takes up valuable space inside a person body. In the
case of satellites, UAVs and oil platforms, solar panels, fuel cells, or combustion engines
are currently used to supply power. Solar panels take up a great deal of weight and bulk in
terms of energy density and must have a tracking system to maximize exposure to the sun.
Fuel cells and combustion cells needs fuel and maintenance to be delivered on site.
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“Schumann” frequencies, facilitating the capture of useful electrical power. Tesla also knew
that the earth could be treated as one big spherical conductor and the ionosphere as another
bigger spherical conductor, so that together they have parallel plates and thus, comprise a
“spherical capacitor.” Dr. Rauscher calculates the capacitance to be about 15,000
microfarads for the complete earth-ionosphere cavity capacitor. W.O. Schumann is credited
for predicting the “self-oscillations” of the conducting sphere of the earth, surrounded by
an air layer and an ionosphere in 1952, without knowing that Tesla had found the earth’s
fundamental frequency fifty years earlier. In comparison to the 3 billion kW available from
the earth system, it is possible to calculate what the
U.S. consumed in electricity. In 2000, about 11 Quads (quadrillion Btu)
were actually used by consumers for electrical needs, which is equal to 3.2 trillion kWh.
Dividing by the 8760 hours in a year, we find that only 360 million kW are needed on site
to power our entire country. This would still leave 2.6 billion kW for the rest of the world!
The really shameful U.S. scandal, unknown to the general public, is that out of the total
electrical power generated using wire transmission (about 31 Quads), a full 2/3 is totally
wasted in “conversion losses.”
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No other energy production system of any kind in the world has so much wastefulness. Instead
of trying to build 2 power plants per week (at 300 MW each) for the next 20 years (only to
have a total of additional 6 trillion kWh available by 2020), as some U.S. government
officials want to do, we simply need to eliminate the 7 trillion kWh of conversion losses in our
present electricity generation modality. Tesla’s wireless transmission of power accomplishes this
goal, better than any distributed generation.
1.3: Historical Revolution of Wireless Power Transmission
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MV. Unfortunately, he failed because the transmitted power was diffused to all directions
with 150 kHz radio waves whose wave length was 21 km.
To concentrate the transmitted power and to increase transmission efficiency, we
have to use higher frequency than that used by Tesla. In 1930s, much progress in generating
high power microwaves, namely 1-10 GHz radio waves, was achieved by invention of the
magnetron and the klystron. After World War II, high power and high efficiency microwave
tubes were advanced by development of radar Technology. We can concentrate a power
to receiver with microwaves. We call the wireless power transmission with microwaves as
microwave power transmission (MPT). Based on the development of the microwave tubes
during the World War II, W. C. Brown started the First MPT research and development in
1960. First of all, he developed a retina, rectifying antenna which he named, for receiving
and rectifying microwaves. The efficiency of the first retina developed in 1963 was 50 %
at output 4WDC and 40% at output 7WDC, respectively.
With the retina, he succeeded in MPT experiments to wire helicopter in 1964 and to free
flied helicopter in 1968 (Fig. 1.3). In 1970s; he tried to increase DC RF transmission RF
DC total efficiency with 2.45 GHz microwave. In 1970, overall DC total efficiency was
only 26.5 % at 39WDC in Marshall Space Flight Centre.
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Fig 1.4: 1sty Ground To Ground MPT Experiment in 1975 At The Venous Site.
In parallel, he and his team succeeded in the largest MPT demonstration in 1975 at the
Venus Site of JPL Goldstone Facility (fig 1.4). Distance between a transmit ting parabolic
antennas, whose diameter was 26m, and a retina array, whose size was 3.4 m x 7.2 m, was
1 mile.
After 1990s, many MPT laboratory and field experiments were carried out in the
world. We often use 2.45 GHz or 5.8 GHz of the ISM band (ISM=Industry, Science, and
Medical) for the MPT system. A Canadian Group demonstrated fuel free airplane flight
experiment with MPT in 1987 which was called SHARP (Stationary High Altitude Relay
Platform) with 2.45 GHz.
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In Japan, there were many field MPT experiments such as fuel free airplane flight
experiment with MPT phased array with 2.411 GHz in 1992, ground to ground MPT
experiment with Power Company and universities in 1994-95.
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1.5: How Does Wireless Power Work?
The basics of WPT involve the transmission of energy from a transmitter to a receiver via
an oscillating magnetic field. To achieve this, Direct Current (DC) supplied by a power
source, is converted into high frequency AC by specially designed electronics built into the
transmitter. The AC energizes a copper wire coil in the transmitter, which generates a
magnetic field. Once a second (receiver) coil is placed within proximity of the magnetic
field, the field can induce an alternating current in the receiving coil.
Electronics in the receiving device then converts alternating current back into
direct current, which becomes usable power. The diagram FIG. 1.8 simplifies this
process into four key steps.
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Fig. 1.8: Simple Wireless Power Transmission Diagram
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CHAPTER 2
2.2: Magnetism
A fundamental force of nature, which causes certain types of materials to attract or repel each
other. Permanent magnets, like the ones on your refrigerator and the earth‘s magnetic field, are
examples of objects having constant magnetic fields. Oscillating magnetic fields vary with time,
and can be generated by alternating current (AC) flowing on a wire. The strength, direction, and
extent of magnetic fields are often represented and visualized by drawings of the magnetic field
lines.
2.3: Electromagnetism
A term for the interdependence of time varying electric and magnetic fields. For example, it turns
out that an oscillating magnetic field produces an electric field and an oscillating electric field
produces a magnetic field.
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Fig 2.2: B Represents
Magnetic Field When Current Flows Through a Coil.
As electric current, I, flows in a wire, it gives rise to a magnetic field, B, which wraps around
the wire. When the current reverses direction, the magnetic field also reverses its direction.
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Transferring energy to another object. One simple example is a locomotive pulling a train
car the mechanical coupling between the two enables the locomotive to pull the train, and
overcome the forces of friction and inertia that keep the train still and, the train moves.
Magnetic coupling occurs when the magnetic field of one object interacts with a second
object and induces an electric current in or on that object. In this way, electric energy can
be transferred from a power source to a powered device. In contrast to the example of
mechanical coupling given for the train, magnetic coupling does not require any physical
contact between the object generating the energy and the object receiving or capturing that
energy.
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Fig 2.4: WPT Power Source
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CHAPTER 3
Theories on WPT
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"The earth is 4,000 miles radius. Around this conducting earth is an atmosphere. The earth is
a conductor; the atmosphere above is a conductor, only there is a little stratum between the
conducting atmosphere and the conducting earth which is insulating. Now, you realize right
away that if you set up differences of potential at one point, say, you will create in the
media corresponding fluctuations of potential. But, since the distance from the earth's
surface to the conducting atmosphere is minute, as compared with the distance of the
receiver at 4,000 miles, say, you can readily see that the energy cannot travel along this
curve and get there, but will be immediately transformed into conduction currents, and these
currents will travel like currents over a wire with a return. The energy will be recovered
in the circuit, not by a beam that passes along this curve and is reflected and absorbed, but
it will travel by conduction and will be recovered in this way."
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Fig 3.1: Tesla Coil Transformer Wound in the Form of a Flat Spiral. This Is The
Transmitter Form As Described In U.S. Patent 645,576.
On the other hand, Tesla's concept of a global wireless electrical power transmission grid
and telecommunications network based upon energy transmission by means of a spherical
conductor transmission line with an upper three-space model return circuit, while
apparently not practical for power transmission, is feasible, defying no law of physics.
Global wireless energy transmission by means of a spherical conductor “single-wire”
surface wave transmission line and a propagating TM00 mode may also be possible.
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Drawback to induction, however, is the short range. The receiver must be very close to the
transmitter or induction unit in order to inductively couple with it.
FIG 3.2: (Tesla Illuminating Two Exhausted Tubes By Means Of A Powerful, Rapidly
Alternating Electrostatic Field Created Between Two Vertical Metal Sheets
Suspended From The Ceiling On Insulating Cords.)
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I suspend two sheets .each sheet being connected with one of the terminals of the coil, and
their size being carefully determined. An exhausted tube may then be carried in the hand
anywhere between the sheets or placed anywhere, even a certain distance beyond them; it
remains always luminous.” And “In some cases when small amounts of energy are required
the high elevation of the terminals, and more particularly of the receiving- terminal D' may
not be necessary, since, especially when the frequency of the currents is very high, a
sufficient amount of energy may be collected at that terminal by electrostatic induction
from the upper air strata, which are rendered conducting by the active terminal of the
transmitter or through which the currents from the same are conveyed.
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Antenna of a radio to be resonant with the frequency of the station we want to listen to.
Many transformers used in power circuitry and elsewhere are also designed to employ
resonance to enhance the power transmission.
Fig 3.3: Lightening a 60 Watt Bulb Around 2m Away From the Source at MIT
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Emitted power at long ranges. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited
by diffraction. The Raytheon Company did the first successful WPT experiment in 1963. In
this experiment energy was transmitted with a DC-to-DC efficiency of 13%. This company
also demonstrated a microwave-powered helicopter in 1964. The Jet propulsion lab of
NASA carried out an experiment and demonstrated the transfer of 30 kW over a distance
of 1 mile in 1975. They used an antenna array erected at the Goldstone facility. This test
demonstrated the possibilities of wireless power outside the laboratory. Rockwell
International and David Sarnoff Laboratory operated in 1991 a microwave powered rover
at 5.86 GHz. Three kilowatts of power was transmitted and 500 watts was received.
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The best option for power transmission. The combination of receiving and converting unit
is called retina. The retina is a rectifying antenna that is used to directly convert microwave
energy into DC electricity. It is an antenna includes a mesh of dipoles and diodes for
absorbing microwave energy from a transmitter and converting it into electric power. Its
elements are usually arranged in a multi element phased array with a mesh pattern reflector
element to make it directional. The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any beam will spread
(microwave or laser), become weaker, and diffuse over distance. The larger the
transmitter antenna or laser aperture, the tighter the beam and the less it will spread as a
function of distance (and vice versa). Therefore, the system requires large transmitters
and receivers. The used power density of the microwave beam is normally in the order of
100 W/m2. This is relative low compared to the power density of solar radiation on earth
(1000 W/m2) and chosen this way for safety reasons.
Applications
WPT for Space Solar
The largest application for microwave power transmission is space solar power satellites
(SPS). In this application, solar power is captured in space and converted into electricity.
The electricity is converted into microwaves and transmitted to the earth. The microwave
power will be captured with antennas and converted into electric it y. NASA is still
investigating the possibilities of SPS. One of the problems is the high investment cost due
to the space transport. The current rates on the Space Shuttle run between $7,000 and
$11,000 per kilogram of transported material. Recently the idea of Space Solar Power
caught again the public attention e.g. by the Osama transition team and The Economist.
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Power Transfer, Bridging Applications
Using a powerful focused beam in the microwave or laser range long distances can be
covered. There are two methods of wireless power transmission for bridging application.
First is the direct method, from transmitting array to retina. A line of sight is needed and is
therefore limited to short (< 40 km) distances. Above 40 kilometers, huge structures are
needed to compensate for the curvature of the earth. The second method is via a relay
reflector between the transmitter and retina. This reflector needs to be at an altitude that is
visible for both transmitter and retina. Next one bridging applications of WPT are
discussed.
Alaska '21
WPT can be an option for power supply to rural areas. In 1993 was a project presented
about wireless power supply in Alaska. Because of limited infrastructure, hundreds of small
rural communities in Alaska must provide their own electric it y. These systems can be
expensive not standard or just not available. At the moment, the small communities produce
their own power with mainly diesel engines. These produce noise and pollution. Also the
needed fuel has to be transported over long distances. All this results in an electricity price
in excess of $40 /kWh .Cable connections trough water is no option because of ice. With
the help of WPT, the needed power production of the communities can be combined. This
can reduce noise, pollution and transportation of fuel. WPT may be capable of transmitting
electrical energy to Alaska’s remote villages. To investigate these possibilities, a pilot
project was conducted named "Alaska'21”. The system used for the pilot project consisted
of a2.45 GHz phased array design. The distances that should be bridged are between 1 and
15 miles. The status of the project is unknown.
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Safety Issues
Bio-Effects
A general public perception that microwaves are harmful has been a major obstacle for the
acceptance of power transmission with microwaves. A major concern is that the long-term
exposure to low levels of microwaves might be unsafe and even could cause cancer. Since
1950, there have been thousands of papers published about microwave bio-effects. The
scientific research indicates that heating of humans exposed to the radiation is the only
known effect. There are also many claims of low-level non thermal effects, but most of
these are difficult to replicate or show unsatisfying uncertainties. Large robust effects only
occur well above exposure limits existing anywhere in the world. The corresponding
exposure limits listed in IEEE standards at 2.45 or 5.8 GHz are 81.6 W/m2 and 100 W/m2
averaged over 6 minutes, and 16.3 or 38.7 W/m2 averaged over 30 minutes.
This low compared to average solar radiation of 1000 W/m2. A clearly relevant bio-
effect is the effect of microwave radiation on birds, the so-called "fried
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Bird effect". Research is done on such effect at 2.45 GHz. The outcome showed slight
thermal effects that probably are welcome in the winter and to be avoided in the summer.
Larger birds tend to experience more heat stress then small birds.
The overall conclusion of bioeffects research is that microwave exposures are
generally harmless except for the case of penetrating exposure to intense fields far above
existing exposure limits.
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CHAPTER 4
Transmitters, Antennas and Receivers
All antennas can be applied for both the MPT system and communication systems, for
example, Yogi Due antenna, horn antenna, parabolic antenna, micro strip antenna,
phased array antenna or any other type of antenna.
To fixed target of the MPT system, we usually select a large parabolic antenna, for
example, in MPT demonstration in 1975 at the Venus Site of JPL Goldstone Facility and in
ground to ground MPT experiment in 1994-95 in Japan. In the fuel free airship light
experiment with MPT in 1995 in Japan, they changed a direction of the parabolic antenna
to chase the moving airship. In some MPT experiments in Japan, the phased array antenna
was adopted to steer a direction of the microwave beam (FIG. 4.1).
All SPS is designed with the phased array antenna.
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Microwave generators/amplifiers. One is a microwave tube (magnetron) and the other is
semiconductor amplifier.
4.3: Magnetron
Magnetron is a crossed field tube in which electrons emitted from the cathode take cyclical
path to the anode. The magnetron is self-oscillatory device in which the anode contains a
resonant RF structure. The magnetron has long history from invention by A. W. Hull in
1921.
The practical and efficient magnetron tube attracted worldwide interest only after
K. Okabe proposed divided anode type magnetron in 1928. Magnetron technologies
received a boost during the World War II, especially with the Japanese Army. The
magnetrons were also useful for microwave ovens. As a result, the magnetron of 500 –
1,000 W is widely in use for microwave ovens in 2.45 GHz, and is a relatively inexpensive
oscillator (below $5). There is a net global capacity of 45.5GW/year for all magnetrons
used in microwave ovens whose production is 50– 55 millions. It was W. C. Brown who
invented a voltage controlled oscillator with a cooker type magnetron in PLL.
After 1980s, semiconductor devices became dominant in microwave world instead of the
microwave tubes. This was driven by advances in mobile phone networks. The
semiconductor device is expected to Expand microwave applications, for example, phased
array and active integrated antenna (AIA), because of its manageability and mass
productivity. After 1990s, some MPT experiments were carried out in Japan with phased
array of semiconductor amplifiers
.
Typical semiconductor devices for microwave circuits are FET (Field Effect
Transistor), HBT (Hetero junction Bipolar Transistor), and HEMT (High Electron Mobility
Transistor). Present materials for the semiconductor devices are Si for lower frequency
below a few GHz and Gas for higher frequency. It is easy to control phase and amplitude
through the microwave circuits with semiconductor devices, for example, amplifiers, phase
shifters, modulators, and so on. Currently, new materials are under development to enable
semiconductor devices yield increased output power and efficiency.
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4.5: Wireless Power Transmission – Receivers and Rectifiers
Point to point MPT system needs a large receiving area with a retina array because one
retina element receives and creates only a few W. Especially for the SPS, we need a
huge retina site and a power network connected to the existing power networks on the
ground. On contrary, there are some MPT applications with one small retina element such
as RF ID.
Efficiency
We classify the MPT efficiency roughly into three stages;
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RF DC Conversion Efficiency
The beam collection efficiency depends on the transmitter and receiver aperture areas, the
wavelength, and the separation distance between the two antennas.
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CHAPTER 5
A corner reflector is most basic retro directive system. The corner reflectors consist
of perpendicular metal sheets, which meet at an apex. Incoming signals are reflected back
in the direction of arrival through multiple reflections off the wall of the reflector. Van Atta
array is also a basic technique of the retro directive system. This array is made up of pairs
of antennas spaced equidistant from the centre of the array, and connected with equal
length transmission lines. The signal received by an antenna is re-radiated by its pair, thus
the order of re-radiating elements are inverted with respect to the centre of the array,
achieving the proper phasing for retro directivity.
One of the characteristics of the MPT is to use more intense microwave than that in wireless
communication systems. Therefore, we have to consider MPT safety for humans.
In general, effect of atmosphere on microwaves is quite small. There are absorption and
scatter by air, rain, and irregularity of air refraction ratio. In 2.45 GHz
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and 5.8 GHz, the absorption by water vapor and oxygen Dominate the effect in the air.
Especially, it is enough to consider only absorption by the oxygen in the microwave
frequency. It is approximately 0.007 dB/km. In the SPS case, the amount of total
absorption through the air from space is approximately 0.035 dB.
When microwaves from SPS propagate through ionosphere plasmas, some interaction
between microwaves and the ionosphere plasmas occurs. It is well known that refraction,
Faraday rotation, scintillation, and absorption occur between weak microwave used for
satellite communication and the plasmas. However, influence on the MPT system is
negligible. It is nonlinear interaction between intense microwave and the space plasmas that
we have to investigate before the commercial SPS. We theoretically predict that the
following may occur: heating of the plasmas, plasma hall effect, thermal self-focusing effect
of the microwave beam, and three wave interactions and excitation of electrostatic waves in
MHz bands. These interactions don’t occur in existent satellite communication systems
because microwave power is very weak.
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CHAPTER 6
6.1: Applications
WPT wireless power transfer technology can be applied in a wide variety of applications
and environments. The ability of our technology to transfer power safely, efficiently, and
over distance can improve products by making them more convenient, reliable, and
environmentally friendly. WPT technology can be used to provide:
When all the power a device needs is provided wirelessly, and no batteries are required.
This mode is for a device that is always used within range of its WPT power source. When a
device with rechargeable batteries charges itself while still in use or at rest, without requiring
a power cord or battery replacement. This mode is for a mobile device that may be used
both in and out of range of its WPT power source.
Consumer Electronics
6.2: Industrial
Direct wireless power and communication interconnections across rotating and moving
joints (robots, packaging machinery, assembly machinery, machine tools) … eliminating
costly and failure prone wiring. Direct wireless power and communication interconnections
at points of use in harsh environments (drilling, mining, underwater, etc.) … where it is
impractical or impossible to run wires.
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Wireless sensors and actuators, eliminating the need for expensive power wiring or battery
replacement and disposal.
6.3: Transportation
Automatic wireless charging for existing electric vehicle classes: golf carts, industrial
vehicles. Automatic wireless charging for future hybrid and all electric passenger and
commercial vehicles, at home, in parking garages, at fleet depots, and at remote kiosks.
Direct wireless power interconnections to replace costly vehicle wiring harnesses and slip
rings.
Other Applications
There are so many advantages with this WPT concept, some of those are:
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i) During the rains and after natural disasters it is often hard to manage the cables and
towers .by using WPT technology this problem can be eliminated.
j) The transmission and distribution loss associated with traditional electricity grids
can be overcome.
k) Today two words are ruling the world “efficiency” and “speed”. These two words
have become the base for the development in the technology.
l) The electricity generation using microwaves is more environments friendly.
Moreover it does not involve any emission of carbon gases.
m) The monthly electricity bills using conventional electricity supply can be cut to very
low.
n) Use of battery for charging electrical and electronics devices can totally be
eliminated.
The body really responds strongly to electric fields, which is why you can cook
a chicken in a microwave. But it doesn't respond to magnetic fields. As far as we know the
body has almost zero response to magnetic fields in terms of the amount of power it
absorbs." Evidence of the safety of magnetic fields is illustrated by the widespread
acceptance and safety of household magnetic induction cook tops. Through proprietary
design of the WPT source, electric fields are almost completely contained within the source.
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Risk to people or animals. Limits for human exposure to magnetic fields are set by
regulatory bodies such as the FCC, ICNIRP, and are based on broad scientific and
medical consensus.
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CONCLUSION
Today we do live in the “wireless age”, in which the air that we breathe probably contains
more information than oxygen. However, this is also an age where mobile phones, MP3
players, laptop computers and domestic robots exist alongside old-fashioned power
wires and bulky batteries. Unlike information, electrical energy is still physically confined
to these borderline anachronistic appliances. Overcoming these last obstacles would
finally make this a truly wireless world.
Transfer of power via microwaves has long been the focus of study and
experimentation. In the early 1900s, Nikola Tesla experimented with transmission of
power wirelessly, through microwaves. His work, however, was largely left
unimplemented, as his experiments were vastly ahead of their time and the technology did
not yet exist to make WPT via microwaves feasible. Advances in wireless technologies
since Tesla, however, have made possible that which was not in the early 20th century.
Described in this section are the details of those technologies behind MPT as a mechanism
for WPT.
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REFERENCES
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