SECTION 5.

Sequences

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Sequences
Imagine that a person decides to count his ancestors. He
has two parents, four grandparents, eight great-
grandparents, and so forth, These numbers can be written
in a row as
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128,…
The symbol “…” is called an ellipsis. It is shorthand for
“and so forth.”

To express the pattern of the numbers, suppose that each

is labeled by an integer giving its position in the row.

2
Sequences
The number corresponding to position 1 is 2, which equals
21. The number corresponding to position 2 is 4, which
equals 22.

For positions 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, the corresponding numbers

are 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128, which equal 23, 24, 25, 26, and
27, respectively.

For a general value of k, let Ak be the number of ancestors

in the kth generation back. The pattern of computed values
strongly suggests the following for each k:

3
Sequences

We typically represent a sequence as a set of elements

written in a row. In the sequence denoted

each individual element ak (read “a sub k”) is called a term.

4
Sequences
The k in ak is called a subscript or index, m (which may be
any integer) is the subscript of the initial term, and n
(which must be greater than or equal to m) is the subscript
of the final term. The notation

denotes an infinite sequence. An explicit formula or

general formula for a sequence is a rule that shows how
the values of ak depend on k.

The following example shows that it is possible for two

different formulas to give sequences with the same terms.
5
Example 1 – Finding Terms of Sequences Given by Explicit Formulas

Define sequences a1, a2, a3,… and b2, b3, b4,… by the
following explicit formulas:

Compute the first five terms of both sequences.

Solution:

6
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

As you can see, the first terms of both sequences are

;; in fact, it can be shown that all terms of both
sequences are identical. 7
Summation Notation

8
Summation Notation
Consider again the example in which Ak = 2k represents the
number of ancestors a person has in the kth generation
back. What is the total number of ancestors for the past six
generations?

The answer is

It is convenient to use a shorthand notation to write such

sums.

9
Summation Notation
In 1772 the French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange
introduced the capital Greek letter sigma, , to denote the
word sum (or summation), and defined the summation
notation as follows:

10
Example 4 – Computing Summations
Let a1 = −2, a2 = −1, a3 = 0, a4 = 1, and a5 = 2. Compute the
following:

a. b. c.

Solution:
a.

11
Example 4 – Solution cont’d

b.

c.

12
Summation Notation
Oftentimes, the terms of a summation are expressed using
an explicit formula.

For instance, it is common to see summations such as

13
Example 6 – Changing from Summation Notation to Expanded Form

Write the following summation in expanded form:

Solution:

14
Summation Notation
A more mathematically precise definition of summation,
called a recursive definition, is the following:

If m is any integer, then

When solving problems, it is often useful to rewrite a

summation using the recursive form of the definition, either
by separating off the final term of a summation or by adding
a final term to a summation.
15
Example 9 – Separating Off a Final Term and Adding On a Final Term

a. Rewrite by separating off the final term.

b. Write as a single summation.

Solution:

a.

b.

16
Product Notation

17
Product Notation
The notation for the product of a sequence of numbers is
analogous to the notation for their sum. The Greek capital
letter pi, , denotes a product. For example,

18
Product Notation
A recursive definition for the product notation is the
following: If m is any integer, then

19
Example 11 – Computing Products
Compute the following products:

a.

b.

Solution:
a.

b.
20
Properties of Summations
and Products

21
Properties of Summations and Products
The following theorem states general properties of
summations and products.

22
23
Change of Variable

24
Change of Variable
Observe that

and also that

Hence

This equation illustrates the fact that the symbol used to

represent the index of a summation can be replaced by any
other symbol as long as the replacement is made in each
location where the symbol occurs.
25
Example 13 – Transforming a Sum by a Change of Variable

Transform the following summation by making the specified

change of variable.

summation: change of variable:

Solution:
First calculate the lower and upper limits of the new
summation:

Thus the new sum goes from j = 1 to j = 7.

26
Example 13 – Solution cont’d

Next calculate the general term of the new summation. You

will need to replace each occurrence of k by an expression
in j :

Finally, put the steps together to obtain

27
Factorial and “n Choose r”
Notation

28
Factorial and “n Choose r” Notation
The product of all consecutive integers up to a given
integer occurs so often in mathematics that it is given a
special notation—factorial notation.

29
Factorial and “n Choose r” Notation
A recursive definition for factorial is the following: Given
any nonnegative integer n,

The next example illustrates the usefulness of the recursive

definition for making computations.

30
Example 16 – Computing with Factorials

Simplify the following expressions:

a. b.

c. d.

Solution:
a.

b.

31
Example 16 – Solution cont’d

c.

d.

32
Factorial and “n Choose r” Notation
An important use for the factorial notation is in calculating
values of quantities, called n choose r, that occur in many
branches of mathematics, especially those connected with
the study of counting techniques and probability.

Observe that the definition implies that will always be an

integer because it is a number of subsets.
33
Factorial and “n Choose r” Notation
The computational formula:

is also often written as such as nCr, C(n, r), and Cn,r.

The letter C is used because the quantities are also called

combinations. Sometimes they are referred to as binomial
coefficients because of the connection with the binomial
theorem. We’ll look into this later in the course.
34
Example 17 – Computing by Hand

a.

35
Example 17 – Solution cont’d

b.

The fact that 0! = 1 makes this formula computable. It gives

the correct value because a set of size 4 has exactly one
subset of size 4, namely itself.

c.

36
SECTION 5.2

Mathematical Induction I

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

37
Mathematical Induction I

In general, mathematical induction is a method for proving

that a property defined for integers n is true for all values of
n that are greater than or equal to some initial integer.

38
Mathematical Induction I

The validity of proof by mathematical induction is generally

taken as an axiom. That is why it is referred to as the
principle of mathematical induction rather than as a
theorem.
39
Mathematical Induction I
Proving a statement by mathematical induction is a
two-step process. The first step is called the basis step,
and the second step is called the inductive step.

40
Example 1 – Sum of the First n Integers
Use mathematical induction to prove that

Solution:
To construct a proof by induction, you must first identify the
property P(n). In this case, P(n) is the equation

41
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

In the basis step of the proof, you must show that the
property is true for n = 1, or, in other words that P(1) is true.

Now P(1) is obtained by substituting 1 in place of n in P(n).

The left-hand side of P(1) is the sum of all the successive
integers starting at 1 and ending at 1. This is just 1. Thus
P(1) is

42
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Of course, this equation is true because the right-hand side

is

which equals the left-hand side.

In the inductive step, you assume that P(k) is true, for a

particular but arbitrarily chosen integer k with k 1. [This
assumption is the inductive hypothesis.]

43
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

You must then show that P(k + 1) is true. What are P(k)
and P(k + 1)? P(k) is obtained by substituting k for every n
in P(n).

Thus P(k) is

Similarly, P(k + 1) is obtained by substituting the quantity

(k + 1) for every n that appears in P(n).

44
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Thus P(k + 1) is

or, equivalently,

45
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Now the inductive hypothesis is the supposition that P(k) is

true. How can this supposition be used to show that
P(k + 1) is true? P(k + 1) is an equation, and the truth of an
equation can be shown in a variety of ways.

One of the most straightforward is to use the inductive

hypothesis along with algebra and other known facts to
transform separately the left-hand and right-hand sides
until you see that they are the same.

46
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

In this case, the left-hand side of P(k + 1) is

1 + 2 +· · ·+ (k + 1),
which equals
(1 + 2 +· · ·+ k) + (k + 1)

But by substitution from the inductive hypothesis,

47
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

48
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

So the left-hand side of P(k + 1) is .

Now the right-hand side of P(k + 1) is

by multiplying out the numerator.

Thus the two sides of P(k + 1) are equal to each other, and
so the equation P(k + 1) is true.

This discussion is summarized as follows:

49
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Proof (by mathematical induction):

Let the property P(n) be the equation

Show that P(1) is true:

To establish P(1), we must show that

50
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

But the left-hand side of this equation is 1 and the

right-hand side is

also. Hence P(1) is true.

Show that for all integers k ≥ 1, if P(k) is true then
P(k + 1) is also true:

[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily

chosen integer k 1.That is:] Suppose that k is any integer
with k 1 such that

51
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must

show that

or, equivalently, that

[We will show that the left-hand side and the right-hand
side of P(k + 1) are equal to the same quantity and thus are
equal to each other.]

52
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

The left-hand side of P(k + 1) is

53
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

And the right-hand side of P(k + 1) is

54
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Thus the two sides of P(k + 1) are equal to the same

quantity and so they are equal to each other. Therefore the
equation P(k + 1) is true [as was to be shown].

[Since we have proved both the basis step and the

inductive step, we conclude that the theorem is true.]

55
Mathematical Induction I

For example, writing expresses the

sum 1 + 2 + 3 +· · ·+ n in closed form.

56
Example 2 – Applying the Formula for the Sum of the First n Integers

Evaluate 2 + 4 + 6 +· · ·+ 500.

57
Mathematical Induction I
In a geometric sequence, each term is obtained from the
preceding one by multiplying by a constant factor.

If the first term is 1 and the constant factor is r, then the

sequence is 1, r, r 2, r 3, . . . , r n, . . . .

The sum of the first n terms of this sequence is given by the

formula

for all integers n 0 and real numbers r not equal to 1.

58
Mathematical Induction I
The expanded form of the formula is

and because r 0 = 1 and r 1 = r, the formula for n 1 can be

rewritten as

59
Mathematical Induction I
r=½
1+½+¼ = ((1/2)3 – 1)/(1/2 – 1)
= (–7/8) / (–1/2)
= (7*2) / 8
= 14 / 8
=7/4

60
Example 3 – Sum of a Geometric Sequence

Prove that , for all integers n 0 and all real

numbers r except 1.

Solution:
In this example the property P(n) is again an equation,
although in this case it contains a real variable r:

61
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Because r can be any real number other than 1, the proof

begins by supposing that r is a particular but arbitrarily
chosen real number not equal to 1.

Then the proof continues by mathematical induction on n,

starting with n = 0.

In the basis step, you must show that P(0) is true; that is,
you show the property is true for n = 0.

62
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

So you substitute 0 for each n in P(n):

In the inductive step, you suppose k is any integer with

k 0 for which P(k) is true; that is, you suppose the
property is true for n = k.

63
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

So you substitute k for each n in P(n):

Then you show that P(k + 1) is true; that is, you show the
property is true for n = k + 1.

So you substitute k + 1 for each n in P(n):

64
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Or, equivalently,

In the inductive step for this proof we use another common

technique for showing that an equation is true:

We start with the left-hand side and transform it

step-by-step into the right-hand side using the inductive
hypothesis together with algebra and other known facts.

65
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Proof (by mathematical induction):

Suppose r is a particular but arbitrarily chosen real number
that is not equal to 1, and let the property P(n) be the
equation

We must show that P(n) is true for all integers n 0. We do

this by mathematical induction on n. 66
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Show that P(0) is true:

To establish P(0), we must show that

The left-hand side of this equation is r 0 = 1 and the

right-hand side is

also because r 1 = r and r 1. Hence P(0) is true.

67
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Show that for all integers k ≥ 0, if P(k) is true then

P(k + 1) is also true:
[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily
chosen integer k 0. That is:]
Let k be any integer with k 0, and suppose that

[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must

show that

68
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

Or, equivalently, that

[We will show that the left-hand side of P(k + 1) equals the
right-hand side.] The left-hand side of P(k + 1) is

69
Example 3 – Solution cont’d

which is the right-hand side of P(k + 1) [as was to be

shown.]
[Since we have proved the basis step and the inductive
step, we conclude that the theorem is true.]
70
A Problem with Trominoes

71
A Problem with Trominoes
A particular type of polyomino, called a tromino, is made up
of three attached squares, which can be of two types:

Call a checkerboard that is formed using m squares on a

side an m × m (“m by m”) checkerboard.

Observe that if one square is removed from a 4 × 4

checkerboard, the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.
72
A Problem with Trominoes
For instance, a covering for one such board is illustrated in
the figure below.

It is a beautiful example of an argument by mathematical

induction.

73
A Problem with Trominoes

The main insight leading to a proof of this theorem is the

observation that because , when a
board is split in half both vertically and horizontally, each
half side will have length 2k and so each resulting quadrant
will be a checkerboard.

74
A Problem with Trominoes
Proof (by mathematical induction):
Let the property P(n) be the sentence
If any square is removed from a 2n 2n checkerboard,
then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

Show that P(1) is true:

A 21 21 checkerboard just consists of
four squares. If one square is removed,
the remaining squares form an L, which
can be covered by a single L-shaped
tromino, as illustrated in the figure to the
right. Hence P(1) is true.
75
A Problem with Trominoes
Show that for all integers k ≥ 1, if P(k) is true then
P(k + 1) is also true:
[Suppose that P(k) is true for a particular but arbitrarily
chosen integer k 3. That is:]
Let k be any integer such that k 1, and suppose that

If any square is removed from a 2k 2k checkerboard,

then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

76
A Problem with Trominoes
P(k) is the inductive hypothesis.
[We must show that P(k + 1) is true. That is:] We must
show that

If any square is removed from a 2k+1 2k+1 checkerboard,

then the remaining squares can be completely
covered by L-shaped trominoes.

77
A Problem with Trominoes
Consider a 2k+1 2k+1 checkerboard with one square
removed. Divide it into four equal quadrants: Each will
consist of a 2k × 2k checkerboard.

In one of the quadrants, one square will have been

removed, and so, by inductive hypothesis, all the remaining
squares in this quadrant can be completely covered by
L-shaped trominoes.

The other three quadrants meet at the center of the

checkerboard, and the center of the checkerboard serves
as a corner of a square from each of those quadrants.
78
A Problem with Trominoes
An L-shaped tromino can, therefore, be
placed on those three central squares.
This situation is illustrated in the figure
to the right.

By inductive hypothesis, the remaining

squares in each of the three quadrants
can be completely covered by L-shaped
trominoes.

Thus every square in the 2k+1 2k+1 checkerboard except

the one that was removed can be completely covered by
L-shaped trominoes [as was to be shown].
79
80
SECTION 5.4
Strong Mathematical Induction

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

81
 Strong Mathematical Induction

Strong mathematical induction is similar to ordinary

mathematical induction in that it is a technique for
establishing the truth of a sequence of statements about
integers.

Also, a proof by strong mathematical induction consists of a

basis step and an inductive step.

However, the basis step may contain proofs for several

initial values, and in the inductive step the truth of the
predicate P(n) is assumed not just for one value of n but for
all values through k, and then the truth of P(k + 1) is
proved.
82
 Strong Mathematical Induction

83
 Strong Mathematical Induction

Any statement that can be proved with ordinary

mathematical induction can be proved with strong
mathematical induction.

The reason is that given any integer k b, if the truth of

P(k) alone implies the truth of P(k + 1), then certainly the
truth of P(a), P(a + 1), . . . , and P(k) implies the truth of
P(k + 1).

The inductive hypothesis for strong mathematical induction

is at least as strong as the inductive hypothesis for
(standard) mathematical induction.
84
Applying Strong Mathematical Induction
The divisibility-by-a-prime theorem states that any integer
greater than 1 is divisible by a prime number.

We prove this theorem using strong mathematical

induction.

85
Example 1 – Divisibility by a Prime
Prove: Any integer greater than 1 is divisible by a prime
number.

Solution:
The idea for the inductive step is this: If a given integer
greater than 1 is not itself prime, then it is a product of two
smaller positive integers, each of which is greater than 1.

Since you are assuming that each of these smaller integers

is divisible by a prime number, by transitivity of divisibility,
those prime numbers also divide the integer you started
with.
86
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Proof (by strong mathematical induction):

Let the property P(n) be the sentence
n is divisible by a prime number.

Show that P(2) is true:

To establish P(2), we must show that
2 is divisible by a prime number.

But this is true because 2 is divisible by 2 and 2 is a prime

number.

87
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Show that for all integers k 2, if P(i) is true for all

integers i from 2 through k, then P(k + 1) is also true:

Let k be any integer with k 2 and suppose that

i is divisible by a prime number for all integers
i from 2 through k.

We must show that

k + 1 is divisible by a prime number.

88
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Case 1 (k + 1 is prime): In this case k + 1 is divisible by a

prime number, namely itself.

Case 2 (k + 1 is not prime): In this case k + 1 = ab where

a and b are integers with 1 < a < k + 1 and 1 < b < k + 1.

Thus, in particular, 2 a k, and so by inductive

hypothesis, a is divisible by a prime number p.

In addition because k + 1 = ab, we have that k + 1 is

divisible by a.

89
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Hence, since k + 1 is divisible by a and a is divisible by p,

by transitivity of divisibility, k + 1 is divisible by the prime
number p.

Therefore, regardless of whether k + 1 is prime or not, it is

divisible by a prime number [as was to be shown].

[Since we have proved both the basis and the inductive

step of the strong mathematical induction, we conclude that
the given statement is true.]

90
Applying Strong Mathematical Induction
Strong mathematical induction makes possible a proof of
the fact used frequently in computer science that every
positive integer n has a unique binary integer
representation.

Where integers less than n have unique representations as

sums of powers of 2, the unique representation for n as a
sum of powers of 2 can be obtained by taking the
representation for n/2 and multiplying it by 2 if n is even;
else the representation for n-1 and adding 1 if n is odd. 91
92
SECTION 5.6
Defining Sequences
Recursively

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

93
Defining Sequences Recursively
A sequence can be defined in a variety of different ways.

One informal way is to write the first few terms with the
expectation that the general pattern will be obvious.

We might say, for instance, “consider the sequence

3, 5, 7, . . ..” Unfortunately, misunderstandings can occur
when this approach is used.

The next term of the sequence could be 9 if we mean a

sequence of odd integers, or it could be 11 if we mean the
sequence of odd prime numbers.
94
Defining Sequences Recursively
The second way to define a sequence is to give an explicit
formula for its nth term.
For example, a sequence a0, a1, a2 . . . can be specified by
writing

The advantage of defining a sequence by such an explicit

formula is that each term of the sequence is uniquely
determined and can be computed in a fixed, finite number
of steps, by substitution.

95
Defining Sequences Recursively
The third way to define a sequence is to use recursion.

This requires giving both an equation, called a recurrence

relation, that defines each later term in the sequence by
reference to earlier terms and also one or more initial
values for the sequence.

96
Example 1 – Computing Terms of a Recursively Defined Sequence

Define a sequence c0, c1, c2, . . . recursively as follows: For

all integers k 2,

Find c2, c3, and c4.

Solution:

97
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

98
Examples of Recursively Defined Sequences

Recursion is one of the central ideas of computer science.

To solve a problem recursively means to find a way to

break it down into smaller subproblems each having the
same form as the original problem—and to do this in such
a way that when the process is repeated many times, the
last of the subproblems are small and easy to solve and the
solutions of the subproblems can be woven together to
form a solution to the original problem.

99
Example 5 – The Tower of Hanoi
In 1883 a French mathematician, Édouard Lucas, invented
a puzzle that he called The Tower of Hanoi (La Tour
D’Hanoï).

The puzzle consisted of eight disks of wood with holes in

their centers, which were piled in order of decreasing size
on one pole in a row of three. Those who played the game
were supposed to move all the disks one by one from one
pole to another, never placing a larger disk on top of a
smaller one.

100
Example 5 – The Tower of Hanoi cont’d

The puzzle offered a prize of ten thousand francs (about

$34,000 US today) to anyone who could move a tower of
64 disks by hand while following the rules of the game.
(See Figure 5.6.2) Assuming that you transferred the disks
as efficiently as possible, how many moves would be
required to win the prize?

Figure 5.6.2
101
Example 5 – Solution
An elegant and efficient way to solve this problem is to
think recursively.

Suppose that you, somehow or other, have found the most

efficient way possible to transfer a tower of k – 1 disks one
by one from one pole to another, obeying the restriction
that you never place a larger disk on top of a smaller one.

What is the most efficient way to transfer a tower of k disks

from one pole to another?

102
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

•The answer is sketched in Figure 5.6.3, where pole A is

the initial pole and pole C is the target pole, and is
described as follows:

Initial Position Position after Transferring k – 1 Disks from A to B

(a) (b)
Moves for the Tower of Hanoi
Figure 5.6.3

103
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Position after Moving the Bottom Disk from A to C Position after Transferring k – 1 Disks from B to C
(c) (d)
Moves for the Tower of Hanoi
Figure 5.6.3

Step 1: Transfer the top k – 1 disks from pole A to pole B.

If k > 2, execution of this step will require a
number of moves of individual disks among the
three poles. But the point of thinking recursively is
not to get caught up in imagining the details of how
those moves will occur.
104
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Step 2: Move the bottom disk from pole A to pole C.

Step 3: Transfer the top k – 1 disks from pole B to pole C.

(Again, if k > 2, execution of this step will require
more than one move.)

To see that this sequence of moves is most efficient,

observe that to move the bottom disk of a stack of k disks
from one pole to another, you must first transfer the top
k – 1 disks to a third pole to get them out of the way.

105
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Thus transferring the stack of k disks from pole A to pole C

requires at least two transfers of the top k – 1 disks:

one to transfer them off the bottom disk to free the bottom
disk so that it can be moved and another to transfer them
back on top of the bottom disk after the bottom disk has
been moved to pole C.

106
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Thus the minimum sequence of moves must include going

from the initial position (a) to position (b) to position (c) to
position (d).

It follows that

For each integer n 1, let

107
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Note that the numbers mn are independent of the labeling

of the poles; it takes the same minimum number of moves
to transfer n disks from pole A to pole C as to transfer
n disks from pole A to pole B, for example.

Also the values of mn are independent of the number of

larger disks that may lie below the top n, provided these
remain stationary while the top n are moved.

Because the disks on the bottom are all larger than the
ones on the top, the top disks can be moved from pole to
pole as though the bottom disks were not present.
108
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Going from position (a) to position (b) requires mk – 1 moves,

going from position (b) to position (c) requires just one
move, and going from position (c) to position (d) requires
mk – 1 moves.

By substitution into equation (5.6.1), therefore,

The initial condition, or base, of this recursion is found by

using the definition of the sequence.
109
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Because just one move is needed to move one disk from

one pole to another,

Hence the complete recursive specification of the

sequence m1, m2, m3, . . . is as follows:
For all integers k 2,

110
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

Here is a computation of the next five terms of the

sequence:

Going back to the legend, suppose the priests work rapidly

and move one disk every second.

Then the time from the beginning of creation to the end of

the world would be m64 seconds. 111
Example 5 – Solution cont’d

We can compute m64 on a calculator.

The approximate result is

which is obtained by the estimate of

seconds in a year (figuring 365.25 days in a year to take

leap years into account). Surprisingly, this figure is close to
some scientific estimates of the life of the universe!
112
Recursive Definitions of Sum and Product

Addition and multiplication are called binary operations

because only two numbers can be added or multiplied at a
time. Careful definitions of sums and products of more than
two numbers use recursion.

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Recursive Definitions of Sum and Product

The effect of these definitions is to specify an order in

which sums and products of more than two numbers are
computed. For example,

The recursive definitions are used with mathematical

induction to establish various properties of general finite
sums and products.

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Example 9 – A Sum of Sums
Prove that for any positive integer n, if a1, a2, . . . , an and
b1, b2, . . . , bn are real numbers, then

Solution:
The proof is by mathematical induction. Let the property
P(n) be the equation

115
Example 9 – Solution cont’d

We must show that P(n) is true for all integers n 0.We do

this by mathematical induction on n.

Show that P(1) is true: To establish P(1), we must show

that

But

Hence P(1) is true.

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Example 9 – Solution cont’d

Show that for all integers k ≥ 1, if P(k) is true then

P(k + 1) is also true: Suppose a1, a2, . . . , ak, ak + 1 and b1,
b2, . . . , bk, bk + 1 are real numbers and that for some k 1

We must show that

[We will show that the left-hand side of this equation equals
the right-hand side.]

117
Example 9 – Solution cont’d

But the left-hand side of the equation is

118
Example 9 – Solution cont’d

which equals the right-hand side of the equation. [This is

what was to be shown.]

119