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REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Oral communication apprehension is defined as a feeling of anxiety or fear that

something bad will happen while communicating orally (Encarta Dictionaries, 2008). Research in

second language learning found that learners’ lack of proficiency in the language is the major

contributor in their anxiety and apprehension. They argue that the most threatening aspect of

foreign language learning is speaking the target language. In Puerto Rico, a study was conducted

by Richmond, McCroskey, McCroskey & Fayer with Puerto Rican learners of English as a second

language. It was discovered that these students were more apprehensive when communicating in

English (L2) compared to using their L1 (Spanish). In addition, their self-perceived competence

and the level of communication apprehension in L2 was significantly correlated (Radzuan and

Kaur, 2010).

Communication is limited, so when one student communicates with the other,

apprehension increases. In a U.S. society, it appears to be a reality that different groups have

little contact with each other. In general, people prefer to be with their own kind (Duffy and Wong,

2000). Some can be affected on being unable to communicate. Many reasons exist for the

inability to communicate. Perhaps the most obvious is that most of us have never been taught

effective communication skills. When we have learned proper skills we continue to function in the

ineffective ruts we create for ourselves (Ven Pelt, 2008).

One type of oral communication apprehension is shyness. If you are shy, you know all

about the excessive anxiety, overwhelming feelings of insecurity, and terrifying symptoms you

feel. Then, greatly magnify these high-anxiety feelings to the point where you constantly stay

focused on how others perceive you instead of focusing on the moment. Shyness causes intense

self-focus, a preoccupation with your thoughts, feelings, and personal reactions. While shyness is

uncomfortable and causes great fixation with what others may think, it also inhibits interpersonal

situations and interferes with pursuing your interpersonal or professional goals (Bruce, 2008).
 In a related study, it is stated that students are unlikely to experience academic or

behavioral problems if they are exposed to a school culture in which students and teachers

respect trust, and support one another and where students have a voice and that their opinions

are heard. Fewer problems are expected because socially cohesive and democratic cultures

instill in students a sense of school membership where they experience feelings of communal

acceptance and belonging and attachment to school life (Vega, et. al., 2009).

Oral communication is usually thought of as either a trait-like or state-like behavior. Trait-

like oral communication apprehension is “characterized by fear or anxiety in all types of oral

interaction, from talking to any individual person to talking to others in a small group to talking a

large number of people”. State-like oral communication apprehension is described as “a normal

anxiety response that most people experience when confronted with oral communication in some

sort or public setting”. Oral communication apprehension can negatively impact one’s learning

experience. In another study, Vician and Davis link oral communication apprehension to

computer anxiety to examine both variables’ impact students in an introductory computing course

(Charlesworth, 2006).

When a student goes to school, he meets students of different cultures. From a chapter

that talks about intercultural communication, it is said that communication skills enable greater

effectiveness in personal and professional life, in a globalized and technologized social context.

Without the ability to communicate, man cannot pass on his accumulated wisdom to the

succeeding generations. So complete is the human reliance on language that it often seems that

language actually determines the possibilities for thought and action in any given culture. Perhaps

we are actually unable to perceive phenomena for which we have no nouns or to engage in

actions for which we have no verbs. When people share a language, they share a condensed,

very flexible set of symbols and meanings. That makes communication possible, at least

communication beyond grunts and hand signals, and provides the basis for symbolic interaction,

along with non-verbal communication and symbols (Vega, et. al., 2009).

In a related study on community media, it emphasizes on students’ voices to be heard,

for some of them creates apprehension when feeling unnoticed. Communication can produce

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development and positive social change. Dialogue may be important, but discursive power is

even more important, as it is a matter not only of speaking but also of being heard and of being

recognized (Mansell and Raboy, 2014).

Oral communication apprehension can also be affected because of students’ emotions.

In a chapter about the learner, it is said that emotion is the on or off switch for learning. Positive

feelings and emotions make the teaching-learning process an exciting and a joyful, fruitful affair.

Negative feelings and emotions make the same process a burden. The mere thought of being

asked to read aloud in class is enough to freeze some learners. Having to take an oral exam,

which require memory reasoning, classifying, synthesizing can lock some learners’ gears.

Unfortunately, in many of today’s classrooms, we see learners whose intellectual energies and

capacities are drained by negative emotional states (Corpuz and Salandanan, 2013). It can be

reduced by the effectiveness of communication. Effective patterns of communication allow the

people to fulfill needs and avoid misunderstandings (Van Pelt, 2008).

This study is based on the point that oral communication apprehension may also vary

due to students’ verbal-linguistic intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. According to

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory, when a student has verbal-linguistic intelligence, he is

sensitive to sounds, meanings, structures and styles of language, has inclination to speaking,

writing, listening and reading, and has the ability to speak effectively (such as teacher, religious

leader, politician) or write effectively (poet, journalist, novelist, copywriter, editor). When a student

has interpersonal intelligence, he is sensitive to body language, moods, voice, feelings, has

inclination to noticing and responding to other people’s feelings and personalities and has the

ability to work with people (administrators, managers, consultants, teachers) and help people

identify and overcome problems (therapists, psychologists) (Corpuz and Salandanan, 2013).

Oral communication apprehension is everywhere. We live in times of anxiety. We

naturally feel some stress before a test, a performance, or a job interview. And a healthy fear of

danger helps us to avoid harm (Jehovah’s Witnesses, 2015). It can also be affected by the

learning environment of the students. The learning environment is a product of the physical,

psychological as well as social atmosphere created by the interaction between teacher and the

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learners and among the learners themselves. How much learning will take place depends

ultimately on the learner. Whether or not he or she develops his potentials as a genius to the

fullest is ultimately up to him or her (Corpuz and Salandanan, 2013).

Oral communication apprehension can also be traced back on linguistic philosophy. If a

teacher teaches using this philosophy, they use it to develop the communication skills of the

learner because the ability to articulate, to voice out the meaning and values of things that one

obtains from his or her experience of life and the world is the very essence of man. Learners

should be taught to communicate clearly – how to send clear, concise messages and how to

receive and correctly understand messages sent. There is need to help learners expand their

vocabularies to enhance their communication skills (Bilbao, et. al., 2012).

On globalization’s viewpoint in connection to communication in reducing students’

apprehension, it is stated that globalization finds its greater impact on education. Due to the

advent of globalization, the ways people think, study and learn have changed tremendously. The

effects of globalization on education can be seen in the rapid developments in technology and

communications, changes within learning systems, the changing roles of students and teachers,

and major concern on lifelong learning. Global education develops skills such as critical and

creative thinking, problem solving, conflict resolution, and communication skills (Lucido, 2012).

It is not just students’ responsibility why their oral communication apprehension rises; it is

also how the teachers approach them. Teachers are like portaitures that display expression,

personality, and mood. They are subjects students look at with gaze of interest. They should keep

their students’ abilities, capabilities, needs, and interests in mind. In order to lessen students’

apprehension, they should also project a positive disposition to make the students comfortable

and the teacher approachable as not to intimidate those who need help. This is to help students

achieve their goals, model in their life what they expect the students to develop, and inspire them

to do their best (Idaosos, 2013).

When students interact with one another, it is well established that good teacher-student

relationships are an important aspect of classroom life. Teacher actions that are viewed by

students as positive and supportive of them are consistently found to correlate with student

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motivation and achievement. It also emphasizes efficiency in moving students through

progressive sequences of instructional objectives, and it was thought that this process would

unfold best if students were as similar as possible. Good student-student relationships are also

important conditions if students are to be active and successful learners (Good and Brophy,

2008).

In a related study conducted in Ohio, it has been concluded that students’ self-report to

communication effectiveness would be positively associated with positive student outcomes.

Students who reported engaging in more interaction involvement in the classroom also reported

receiving higher grades (Frymier, 2005).

To further evaluate the oral communication apprehension of the high school students,

this study will assess the oral communication apprehension of the students according to what

type of communication they engage in. By analyzing the communication apprehension levels of

the students, their future performance in the classroom can be better assessed.

Speaking skills is defined as the ability to speak well (Encarta Dictionaries, 2008). It

involves communicating with one another. For effective communication, some of the essential

interaction skills needed by students are that they should be able to direct the dialogue with one

another, comment immediately on what another speaker has just said, disagree with or challenge

another speaker’s statement, should not have to be invited to speak or speak when there is a

short silence indicating the end of someone else’s turn, interpret one another to include an

opinion or question, and finally use appropriate paralinguistic features. Lam and Wong in a

related study, conclude that learners should also exhibit appropriate cooperative behavior and

peer support to compensate for the ineffective use of interaction strategies due to limited

language proficiency (Lourdunathan and Menon, 2014).

Speaking skills is done through communication. In an article on English proficiency,

earning a degree and keeping up with the required skills are not just what it takes to be a

bankable employee; one needs to communicate effectively. We need to continue to brush up our

English language skills in order to reclaim the Philippines’ pride of being a provider of world-class

labor force (Tormes, 2008). Some students do improve their speaking skills until they become

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perfect of it. The pursuit of excellence is a conscious choice. They strain themselves to maintain a

flawless image. The will to excel is a reasoned-but-flexible desire to perform competently. Failure

to do so does not generate self-hatred. Perfectionism is a compulsion (Cannon, 2012).

Speaking skills are also affected by cognitive and appetitive aspects. The exercise of

these cognitive and appetitive powers with which every learner is fundamentally equipped varies

from learner to learner on account of his or her ability, aptitude, interest, home background, and

attitude. In other words, the cognitive and appetitive powers are common to all learners. They

differ, however, in the quality of the demonstration of these powers as a result of their different

abilities, aptitudes, interests, home background and attitudes and values (Corpuz and

Salandanan, 2013).

It is also important to know how speaking skills take place. The act of communication in

most settings involves the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning. That is, a

person wishes to express an idea to someone else and does so. The other person must

understand both the message and the intent of the message. Sometimes interpretation is partial,

and some negotiation is needed (Lee and Vanpatten, 2003). In a case of Japanese learners of

English, they possess different motivation toward learning English. This leads to varying response

using the language. Fluency, complexity, and accuracy are also measured (Kondo, 2010).

When one speaks, one utters. In order to explain what can go wrong with statements we

cannot just concentrate on the proposition involved as has been done traditionally. We must

consider the total situation in which the utterance is issued if we are to see the parallel between

statements and performative utterances, and how each can go wrong. So the total speech-act in

the speech-situation is emerging from logic piecemeal as important in special cases: and thus we

are assimilating the supposed constative utterance to the performative (Malmkjaer, 2004).

Speaking skills can be found in a students’ intellect, ability, and interests. By his or her

intellect, the learner can engage in cognitive processes such as forming ideas or concepts,

reasoning out and making judgment. The learners’ native ability dictates the prospects of success

in any purposeful activity. As learners they differ in the way they observe and interpret

happenings in their surroundings. In terms of interest, a classroom set-up could offer centers of

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interest to give learners an opportunity to develop interests in many things (Corpuz and

Salandanan, 2013).

Speaking can also be based on language learning. In a study conducted in U.S.A., it is

stated that not only is it intuitive to many people that anxiety negatively influences language

learning, it is logical because anxiety has been found to interfere with many types of learning.

Thus, with the development of distinct situation-specific measures of language anxiety, the issue

of appropriate anxiety measurement seemed to be resolved (Horwitz, 2001).

A students’ speaking skills can be improved by the help of teachings. In a related

literature cited, is said that teachers in the schools continue to enrich the students’ experiences at

home, thus strengthening the valuable, personal traits and characteristics initially developed

(Bilbao, et. al., 2012).

Students also improve their speaking skills by learning together. In a study on students’

interactions, it is stated that students’ learning together can be hopeful in addressing key

curricular goals and can allow for students to actively teach one another. Students learn by

collaborating with peers in pairs and small groups and by interacting with them during class

discussion. Diversity in students’ backgrounds and viewpoints is an asset. Thus, heterogeneous

classes and groups would be preferable to homogeneous ones. Small-group formats also hold

potential for contributing to students’ sense of belonging and community, which may enhance

commitment to schooling (Good and Brophy, 2008).

Speaking skills also adapts a principle in learning. According to Horne and Pine’s

Principles of Learning, learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated

by the learner. The process of learning is primarily controlled by the learner and not by the

teacher. Learning is not only a function of what a teacher does to, or says to, or provides for a

learner. More significantly, learning has to do with something which happens in the unique world

of the learner. It flourishes in a situation in which teaching is seen as a facilitating process that

assists people to explore and discover the personal meaning of events for them (Corpuz and

Salandanan, 2013).

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