Cyclic Response of Unbonded Posttensioned Precast

Columns with Ductile Fiber-Reinforced Concrete

S. L. Billington1 and J. K. Yoon2

Abstract: A precast segmental concrete bridge pier system is being investigated for use in seismic regions. The proposed system uses
unbonded posttensioning 共UBPT兲 to join the precast segments and has the option of using a ductile fiber-reinforced cement-based
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composite 共DRFCC兲 in the precast segments at potential plastic hinging regions. The UBPT is expected to cause minimal residual
displacements and a low amount of hysteretic energy dissipation. The DFRCC material is expected to add hysteretic energy dissipation
and damage tolerance to the system. Small-scale experiments on cantilever columns using the proposed system were conducted. The two
main variables were the material used in the plastic hinging region segment and the depth at which that segment was embedded in the
column foundation. It was found that using DFRCC allowed the system to dissipate more hysteretic energy than traditional concrete up
to drift levels of 3– 6%. Furthermore, DFRCC maintained its integrity better than reinforced concrete under high cyclic tensile-
compressive loads. The embedment depth of the bottom segment affected the extent of microcracking and hysteretic energy dissipation in
the DFRCC. This research suggests that the proposed system may be promising for damage-tolerant structures in seismic regions.
DOI: 10.1061/共ASCE兲1084-0702共2004兲9:4共353兲
CE Database subject headings: Concrete, reinforced; Bridges, piers; Columns; Fiber reinforced materials; Post tensioning; Concrete,
prestressed; Plastic hinges.

Introduction enon in direct tension have been reported by Majumdar 共1970兲,

A significant number of recent earthquakes have caused serious
damage to structures including precast and cast-in-place infra-
structure systems. To ensure postearthquake serviceability, atten-
tion has been drawn to the development and implementation of
innovative materials in new and preexisting structures to improve
their performance under seismic loads. A material with strong
potential for seismic applications is ductile fiber-reinforced
cement-based composites 共DFRCC兲, a class of high-performance
fiber-reinforced cementitious composites 共HPFRCC兲 that exhibits
strain hardening behavior in uniaxial tension. DFRCC is com-
posed of portland cement, water, silica fume or fly ash, fine sand,
and a low percentage by volume 共roughly 2%兲 of randomly ori-
ented polymeric fibers. DFRCC exhibits multiple, fine cracks
upon loading in tension as a result of steady-state cracking 共Li
and Leung 1992兲. DFRCC displays higher tensile ductility, tensile
共strain兲 hardening behavior, and energy dissipation than tradi-
tional concrete and many fiber-reinforced concrete materials 共Fig.
1兲. A review of the micromechanics-based design of the DFRCC
studied here is given in Li 共1998兲. Other fiber-reinforced compos-
ite materials exhibiting ductility and strain hardening phenom-
1
Clare Boothe Luce Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil and Environ-
mental Engineering, Stanford Univ., Stanford, CA 94305.
2
Design Engineer, CH2M Hill Canada, Vancouver BC, Canada V5H
4N2.
Note. Discussion open until December 1, 2004. Separate discussions
must be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing
Editor. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and pos-
sible publication on August 20, 2002; approved on January 12, 2004. This
paper is part of the Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 4, July 1,
2004. ©ASCE, ISSN 1084-0702/2004/4-353–363/$18.00.
Aveston et al. 共1971兲, Kelly 共1972兲, Hannant 共1978兲, and Bal-
aguru and Shah 共1992兲.
In the research presented here, a portion of a proposed seg-
mentally precast concrete bridge pier system that uses vertical
unbonded posttensioning and precast DFRCC segments at high
shear and flexural stress regions is investigated 共Fig. 2兲. The sys-
tem in general is an extension of a posttensioned concrete bridge
pier system previously studied for nonseismic areas 共Billington
et al. 2001兲. The integration of a DFRCC segment into the plastic
hinging regions of the segmentally precast concrete bridge pier
system is expected to result in high energy dissipation and a high
damage tolerance of large cyclic displacements through evenly
spaced microcracking over the DFRCC segment. Only one hinge
segment length was investigated here, whose height was roughly
the width of the segment. To investigate the tolerance of the
DFRCC segments to damage, the only transverse reinforcement
designed for the system is that for shear forces. No additional
reinforcement for concrete confinement was used in the investi-
gation.
Furthermore, in the proposed system there are no reinforcing
bars crossing the precast segment joints. Precast segments not
requiring continuous bonded reinforcement across their joints can
reduce the labor and time for on-site construction of the precast
system. However, without bonded reinforcement crossing the
joints, there is very little hysteretic energy dissipation in the sys-
tem. Therefore, while the system could possibly be used with just
traditional concrete segments, the research presented here inves-
tigates the effect of using DFRCC segments in potential plastic
hinging regions of the columns so as to increase the hysteretic
energy dissipation of the system, through the microcracking of the
DFRCC segment.
With unbonded systems, the tendons can be designed to re-
main elastic at ultimate loads, thus retaining their effective pre-
stress after cyclic loading and allowing minimal residual displace-

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363


Fig. 1. Uniaxial tensile response of cement-based materials
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ments. Theoretically, systems with unbonded post-tensioning
exhibit nonlinear-elastic response and have a lower hysteretic en-
ergy dissipation capacity than systems with bonded posttension-
ing. Previous experimental and analytical research has shown that
unbonded posttensioned systems actually ensure some hysteretic
energy dissipation 共through concrete cracking and crushing兲 and,
as expected, do reduce residual displacements 共e.g., Priestley and
MacRae 1996; Ikeda 1998; and Kwan and Billington 2003兲.
To investigate the behavior of the proposed bridge pier system,
a small-scale experimental testing program and numerical model-
ing was conducted. This paper discusses the experimental pro-
gram. The main objectives of the experimental research were to
compare DFRCC’s material properties with those of traditional
reinforced concrete under cyclic loading, to assess DFRCC’s per-
formance as compared to traditional reinforced concrete when
integrated into bridge pier columns, and to provide data for the
development of DFRCC material models to facilitate numerical
simulations of the proposed system with reasonable accuracy.
This research was exploratory in nature and focused on charac-
terizing the behavior of the proposed system and the capabilities
of DFRCC.
Small-scale columns were constructed and tested to failure to
evaluate segmental joint types and locations necessary to achieve
plastic hinging and distributed cracking in the DFRCC segment as
opposed to localized opening of the segmental joints prior to any
distributed cracking in the DFRCC segment. The test results re-
ported here were used to calibrate nonlinear finite-element models
of the pier 共Billington and Yoon 2003兲 and to design and test
large-scale experiments for a related research project 共Rouse and
Billington 2003兲.
Fig. 2. Proposed segmentally precast concrete bridge pier system
354 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363
Background
Previous related research includes investigations of other bridge
pier systems that use prestressing, precast concrete wall systems
that use unbonded posttensioning, and structural subassemblages
that use fiber-reinforced concrete including DFRCC. Ito et al.
共1997兲 studied a set of columns with varying amounts of vertical
mild reinforcing steel and unbonded posttensioning under cyclic
loading. Mander and Cheng 共1997兲 investigated the use of un-
bonded posttensioning in a bridge pier system to restrain lateral
displacements during seismic loading. Sritharan et al. 共1999兲 in-
vestigated the use of bonded prestressing in bridge pier cap beams
to reduce required joint reinforcement while maintaining joint
performance. Unbonded posttensioned precast wall systems have
also recently been investigated 共Perez et al. 2002; Kurama and
Shen 2004兲. Furthermore, a number of studies have been con-
ducted on the use of unbonded posttensioning in precast concrete
frame systems for seismic resistance 共e.g., Cheok et al. 1993,
1998; Priestley and MacRae 1996; Morgen and Kurama 2004兲.
The system proposed here is to use the ductile fiber-reinforced
composite, DFRCC, in plastic hinging regions of segmentally
precast bridge piers without additional transverse confinement
steel. Related research using other types of fiber-reinforced con-
crete includes the work of Naaman et al. 共1987兲 and Soubra et al.
共1991, 1993兲 wherein cast-in-place fiber-reinforced concrete
beam joints were investigated to connect precast beam and col-
umn elements. Henager 共1977兲 and Ramey 共1984兲 investigated
the use of cast-in-place steel fiber-reinforced concrete without ad-
ditional confinement steel in joint regions of cast-in-place con-
crete frames. Mishra and Li 共1995兲 investigated the use of
DFRCC in plastic hinging regions of beams that were part of
cast-in-place beam-column joint subassemblies. Krstulovic-Opara
共1999兲 has also proposed the use of slurry infiltrated concrete
共SIFCON兲 plastic hinging regions in beams for a frame assembly.
The research presented here differs from previous research in that
the application is for bridge piers, all of the elements of the piers
are precast segmentally, the DFRCC material uses polymeric fi-
bers only 共not steel兲, and the precast segments are connected by
unbonded posttensioning with either match-cast or thin ‘‘loose-
fit’’ 共cast-in-place兲 joints, typical of segmental construction.
Research on related applications of DFRCC to structural de-
sign and retrofit includes cyclic testing of short span DFRCC
beams and shear joint connecting panels 共Kanda et al. 1998兲 as
well as cyclic testing of Ohno-type shear beams using DFRCC
共Fukuyama et al. 1999兲. Parra-Montesinos and Wight 共2000兲 in-
vestigated the use of DFRCC in exterior frame joints of rein-
forced concrete column-to-steel beam connections without trans-
verse reinforcement in the joints. Finally, experiments on
cantilever beams reinforced with mild reinforcing steel and with
fiber-reinforced polymer 共FRP兲 bars were presented by Fischer
and Li 共2002, 2003兲. The linear elastic behavior of the FRP rein-
forcement allowed very small residual displacements at drift lev-
els up to 5%. Similar behavior is expected of unbonded postten-
sioning while it remains in its elastic range under cyclic loading.
Experimental Program
To measure and to observe the behavior of the proposed bridge
pier system under cyclic loading, a laboratory testing program
was conducted. Bridge columns at a scale of roughly 1/6 of a
prototype were designed. A total number of seven fixed-end can-
tilever column specimens were fabricated and tested: four short

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Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of test specimens
columns and three tall columns. One column of each height set
consisted of only concrete segments, while the others included
one DFRCC segment per specimen. Each specimen represented
half the height of an actual bridge column that would experience
reverse curvature under lateral load.
The objectives of the laboratory testing program were
• To understand the global response of unbonded posttensioned
rectangular concrete columns;
• To compare the differences in overall performance between
columns with a reinforced DFRCC hinge-region segment and
columns with a reinforced concrete hinge-region segment,
both with shear reinforcement but no additional confinement
steel;
• To investigate the cyclic response of columns with two aspect
ratios; and
• To study the effect of the hinge segment embedment into the
foundation on hysteretic energy dissipation.
Test Specimens
Seven specimens with a 200⫻200 mm cross section were tested
under quasi-static cyclic lateral loading to failure. The short and
tall specimens were 380 and 685 mm from the point of fixity to
the loading point, respectively. Fig. 3 shows a schematic diagram
of the test specimens with the labeling notation defined. There
was a traditional reinforced concrete specimen for each height
group to compare the response of traditional concrete specimens
with specimens having a DFRCC segment. The remaining speci-
mens represented either an upper or lower hinge region in a
bridge pier 共Fig. 2兲 with the DFRCC segment located in the hinge
region just above the fixity. Joints between segments were either
match-cast and epoxy-filled or cast ‘‘loose-fit’’ 共not match-cast兲
and filled with an epoxy grout. An epoxy grout was selected for
testing for the loose-fit joint, as it would add durability to the
system.
A companion to specimen SFrc38, labeled SFrc38m 共Fig. 3兲
had the top joint of the DFRCC segment match-cast and the bot-
tom joint loose-fit. The two specimens performed almost identi-
cally, and it was concluded that the type of joint at these locations
was not an influencing parameter for the investigated aspect ratios
共Yoon and Billington 2002兲. Thus, the different joint types for the
various specimens shown in Fig. 3 were not expected to affect the
experimental results within each height group. Results from
specimen SFrc38m are given in Yoon and Billington 共2002兲.
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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363
Fig. 4. Reinforcement layout of specimens
The key variable between the two DFRCC specimens in each
height group was the depth of that segment’s embedment into the
fixity. The DFRCC segments were always hinge region segments
and had 152 mm of a DFRCC segment exposed to cyclic loading.
One DFRCC specimen in each height group had the bottom in-
terface 76 mm below the fixity 共SFrc76 and TFrc76兲. All other
specimens in each height group had the bottom interface 38 mm
below the fixity. The fixity was assumed to begin at the top of the
stiff angles shown in Fig. 3. In practice, such an embedment
would require a pocket in either the foundation cap or the pier
cap, in which the column segment would be grouted into place
共‘‘embedded’’兲 共Fig. 2兲.
The 38 mm depth below the fixity was not expected to provide
enough depth for the mild steel within the segment to develop its
yield strength and facilitate considerable spreading of cracking
over the DFRCC segments. However the 76 mm depth below the
fixity was expected to provide adequate development length for
the longitudinal mild reinforcement within the segment, assuming
that the stiff angles provided confinement to the developing bars.
The column capacity was the same for each specimen, and the
design was a roughly 1/6th scale design of a circular bridge col-
umn design for the Santa Monica Viaduct in California 共Sritharan
et al. 1996兲. For simplicity in fabrication, rectangular columns
were used in this study rather than circular columns, as in the
prototype. The specimens were designed as columns with tradi-
tional concrete without considering differing properties of the
DFRCC.
Each column had four unbonded 9.5-mm-diameter seven-wire
strands and four 6.35-mm-diameter mild reinforcing bars in each
corner. The longitudinal mild reinforcement terminated roughly
25 mm from the top and bottom of each segment. The design
moment capacity for an assumed concrete strength of 35 MPa
was estimated as 25.8 kN-m by taking 80% of the calculated
capacity for a column with bonded prestressing 共Nilson 1987兲.
The column was designed to be partially prestressed with a pre-
stressing force of 156 kN. An external axial load of 44.5 kN,
representing dead load, was added to the prestressing force. The
column was only partially prestressed in anticipation that the
DFRCC would provide better crack control than traditional con-
crete under the service moment of 10.5 kN-m. Minimum shear
stirrups were used and seismic details such as additional trans-
verse reinforcement for concrete confinement were not included.
A question in the research was whether the DFRCC material
would be adequately confined on its own. Shear keys were de-
signed for the match cast interfaces. Fig. 4 shows the detailed
reinforcement and shear key layout for the typical cross section of
a specimen.
The DFRCC mix design used for this study is given in Table 1,
and the material properties used for the designs are given in
 Table 1. Mix Design for Ductile Fiber-Reinforced Concrete-Based Table 3. Material Properties for Steel Reinforcement
Composite Design Measured Measured
Mix DFRCCa yield yield ultimate
Diameter strength strengtha strength
Water-to-cementitious material ratio 0.35 Type 共mm兲 共MPa兲 共MPa兲 共MPa兲
Type I portland cement 共PC兲 共kg兲 1,284
Silica fume 共SF兲 共kg兲 141 Deformed bar 4.2 414 393 442
Water 共W兲 共kg兲 497 6.4 414 469 676
Spectra 900 fiber 共kg兲b 19 Seven-wire 9.5 1,587 1,760 2,000
Superplasticizer 共cc兲c 22 posttensioning
a strand 共GR270兲
Per cubic meter. a
b Values determined using 0.2% offset method.
Fiber makes up 2% of mix volume.
c
Per kg of cementitious material.
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Tables 2 and 3. For this study, a DFRCC without fine aggregate
was used. The mix could be replaced with an alternate, more
economical mix design that uses fly ash, fine sand, and less su-
perplasticizer 共Kesner et al. 2003兲. Furthermore, the fibers used
here could be replaced with a polyvinyl alcohol fiber that cur-
rently costs roughly $2.00 per pound.
Fabrication and Testing
A schematic diagram of the test setup is shown in Fig. 5. Stiff
bracing angles were used to provide base fixity. The fixed angles
were 255 mm high and were joined together horizontally by six
pretensioned rods, providing 6.2 MPa of compression across the
fixed segment. The pretensioning prevented gaps from forming
between the specimen and the stiff base angles. The angles were
bolted to the base testing beam with pretensioned bolts. A numeri-
cal study on the effect of using this base fixity as opposed to using
a concrete foundation block is given in Yoon and Billington
共2002兲.
The loading point of each column was connected to the actua-
tor with a pin connection. The pin support at the column end was
necessary to replicate an inflection point, given that the specimens
represented half of a bridge column that would experience reverse
curvature.
The specimens were constructed in several steps to facilitate
having match-cast and loose-fit joints. PVC ducts were used for
the prestressing ducts. All of the concrete and DFRCC segments
were wet cured for 14 days in a saturated lime bath. After 14
days, the segments were left exposed at room temperature until
they were assembled and tested.
The loose-fit joints of the specimens were assembled several
weeks prior to testing. The epoxy grout mix for the loose-fit joints
consisted of one part oven-dried sand and one part high strength,
high modulus epoxy by volume, with a maximum compressive
strength at the time of testing estimated as 48.3 MPa. These loose
fit joints were moist cured under pressure for 24 hours and with-
out pressure for an additional six days.
The bottom segments of each specimen were set within the
stiff angles of the test frame using hydrostone. The specimens
were then completely assembled by joining the match cast joints.
One day prior to testing, the match-cast joints were filled with the
high strength, high modulus epoxy 共no sand兲 and, using the inter-
nal posttensioning, a contact pressure of 0.28 MPa for a minimum
of 3– 4 hours was applied across the match-cast joint of the seg-
ments. While the match-cast joint was curing, the fixed connec-
tion at the base of the specimen was pretensioned. The strands
were then prestressed and the measuring instruments were in-
stalled.
In each test, a total of 24 measurements were taken for one
actuator load; one actuator displacement; three rotational mea-
surements; four tendon forces; four shear stirrup strains; four base
bolt loads across the fixed joint; and seven linear variable differ-
ential transducers 共LVDTs兲 and/or string potentiometers for trans-
lational displacements. The LVDTs and string potentiometers
were located at the top four corners and along the height of the
north side of the specimens to measure lateral displacements. The
drift of the specimen was then defined as the displacement at the
height of the loading point divided by the distance from the top of
the stiff base angles 共point of fixity兲 to the loading point. The
displacement at the height of the actuator was the average dis-
placement as measured by the two potentiometers on the north
face.

Table 2. Compressive Strength of Concrete and Engineered Cemen-

titious Composite
Design Measured average Measured average
compressive concrete compressive DFRCC compressive
strength strength strength
Specimen 共MPa兲 共MPa兲 共MPa兲
SCon38 35 49.0 —
SFrc38 35 47.6 48.3
SFrc76 35 63.5 46.2
TCon38 35 47.6 —
TFrc38 35 48.3 46.9
TFrc76 35 47.6 47.6
Fig. 5. Test setup
Note: DFRCC⫽ductiole fiber-reinforced concrete-based composite.

356 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363

 Fig. 6. Loading scheme
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The specimens were tested under cyclic loading up to failure,

which involved 12–13 cycles per specimen. Fig. 6 shows the Fig. 7. Cracking behavior of short specimens
general cyclic loading scheme used for the experiments. The first
three cycles for the short specimens and the first two cycles for
More cracking was apparent in all of the columns having a
the tall specimens were load-controlled until a first crack was
DFRCC hinge region segment as compared to the columns with
visible on each side. The remaining cycles were displacement-
the concrete hinge region segment in the same height group.
controlled up to ⫾10% and up to ⫾16% drift for the short and the
For the short specimens, the concrete specimen, SCon38, not
tall specimens, respectively. After these drifts were applied and
surprisingly, formed one crack where deformation localized im-
released, all of the specimens were loaded in one direction until
mediately, and this was the only crack in the column. Specimen
failure or until the maximum stroke of the actuator was reached.
SFrc38 formed multiple cracks up to roughly 3% drift. At 3%
Failure was considered to be fracturing of the posttensioning steel
drift, crack localization 共i.e., dominant crack opening兲 occurred
strands accompanied by a significant drop in load-carrying capac-
near the fixity 共just below the top of the angle兲 above the match
ity and/or excessive crushing of concrete as observed visually.
cast joint and below the bonded mild reinforcement within the
DFRCC segment. Specimen SFrc76 exhibited more multiple
Experimental Results cracking in the DFRCC segment than the corresponding segment
in Specimen SFrc38. However, a base crack also formed in a
The measurements and observations made for and during the test-
similar location to that of SFrc38 at roughly 3% drift.
ing included material property data, cracking behavior, load-
Each short column’s condition after reaching its maximum
displacement response at various heights along the specimen, pre-
drift is also shown in Fig. 7. The maximum drift reached in each
stressed tendon load changes, shear stirrup strains, and base bolt
direction of loading is indicated in the figure. Specimen SCon38
load changes. Material properties, cracking behavior, and load-
showed permanent damage in that the cover had spalled off and
displacement 共load-drift兲 response are reported in detail here. A
the prestressing ducts and mild reinforcement were exposed. This
full description of all test results, including a detailed discussion
response was expected, in that there was no transverse confine-
of prestressed tendon load changes, is given in Yoon and Billing-
ment steel added to the required shear reinforcement. There was
ton 共2002兲.
no spalling in either of the short columns with DFRCC segments,
which also did not have additional confinement steel. Rather, or-
Material Properties
thogonal cracking was apparent on the surface of the DFRCC
Compressive cylinder tests 共6 –9 for each batch兲 were performed segments, which was due to flexural tension 共horizontal cracks兲
within ⫾3 days of column testing to determine basic material and flexural compression 共lateral expansion cracks兲. The DFRCC
properties for the concrete and DFRCC. Table 2 shows the aver-
age values measured among the cylinders tested for each batch.
Three samples of all utilized deformed steel bar sizes and strands
were also tested to determine their respective yield and ultimate
strengths. The average measured values along with the assumed
design values for the steel are given in Table 3. The higher yield
strength measured for the posttensioning strand was not expected
to significantly affect the peak loads reached in the experiments.
The columns were designed for their ultimate moment without
yielding of the unbonded posttensioning tendons. However, the
higher compressive strength for the concrete and DFRCC than
that assumed for the design would increase the expected ultimate
capacity on the order of 15%, as will be discussed further in the
Global Response section.

Cracking and Crushing Behavior

The cracking patterns at 1% drift, 4% drift, and failure for the
Fig. 8. Cracking behavior of tall specimens
short and tall specimens are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively.

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363

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Fig. 9. Load versus drift response of the short specimens
provided its own confinement and maintained its integrity without
the need for additional transverse reinforcement. Ultimately, the
response of columns with a DRFCC region without confinement
reinforcement should be compared to a traditional reinforced con-
crete column that has seismic details. Such a comparison was
recently made in large-scale experiments 共Rouse and Billington
2003兲.
In the tall specimens 共Fig. 8兲, two flexural cracks appeared
initially in the all-concrete specimen, TCon38. However, the base
crack quickly localized with no propagation of the other crack
and no new cracks forming. Specimen TFrc38 exhibited multiple
cracking with a base crack localizing at roughly 4% drift. Speci-
men TFrc76 exhibited the most multiple cracking in the DFRCC
segment and did not form a localized base crack until roughly 6%
drift.
Each tall column’s condition after reaching its maximum drift
is shown in Fig. 8, with the maximum drift reached in each di-
rection of loading indicated in the figure. Specimen TCon38
showed significant permanent damage with spalling and exposed
prestressing ducts and mild reinforcement. As with the short col-
358 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363
umns, there was no spalling in either of the tall columns with
DFRCC segments. Again, orthogonal cracking was apparent in
the high tension-compression regions of the DFRCC segments.
Global Response
Figs. 9 and 10 give the load versus drift response of the short and
tall column experiments, respectively. Figs. 9共a–c兲 and 10共a–c兲
give the load-drift response at low drift levels 共⬍4%兲 and Figs.
9共d–f兲 and 10共d–f兲 give the full load-drift response.
Table 4 shows the maximum external moments applied to each
specimen as well as a comparison with the predicted capacities
using the measured compressive strength of the concrete and
DFRCC. A reduced elastic modulus for the column was consid-
ered to account for the DFRCC segment’s modulus of elasticity,
which is roughly half that of a concrete with similar compressive
strength; see Kesner et al. 共2003兲. Note that the predicted capaci-
ties using the measured concrete strength are roughly 15% higher
than the design moment 共25.8 kN-m兲.
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Fig. 10. Load versus drift response of the tall specimens

Also shown in Table 4 are the calculated internal resisting
moments of the columns when considering only the measured
tendon force and corresponding compression zone as observed in
the experiments 共i.e., the uncracked zone on the compression
side兲. The internal moment arm was estimated from a rectangular
compressive stress block taken as a portion of the compression
zone. The contribution of the mild steel in the segments was
ignored for these calculations.
The applied moments carried by the columns with a larger
embedment of the DFRCC segment 共SFrc76 and TFrc76兲 were 18
and 27% higher than the predicted capacities for the short and tall
column, respectively. The applied moments in these columns
were also 19 and 34% higher than the estimated 共measured兲 in-
ternal resistance. For the specimens with the smaller 共38 mm兲
embedment of the hinge region segment 共SCon38, SFrc38,
TCon38, and TFrc38兲, the applied moments carried were 8 –11%

Table 4. Maximum Moment Carried by Test Specimens

Maximum applied Measured internal
Maximum applied moment, Design moment, Measured tendon resisting moment,
lateral load Percent drift Mu Mn forcea M u,i
Specimen 共kN兲 at maximum load 共kN-m兲 共kN-m兲 M u /M n 共kN兲 共kN-m兲 M u /M u,i
SCon38 84.7 8 32.3 29.9 1.08 187 29.4 1.07
SFrc38 87.0 13 33.2 29.8 1.11 192 30.5 1.07
SFrc76 91.0 6 34.7 29.3 1.18 183 28.5 1.19
TCon38 46.5 6 31.9 29.6 1.08 181 28.2 1.09
TFrc38 47.0 15 32.3 29.5 1.09 191 30.6 1.04
TFrc76 54.9 6 37.6 29.6 1.27 176 27.4 1.34
a
At maximum applied lateral load.

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J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363

 higher than the predicted capacities and 4 –9% higher than the
estimated 共measured兲 internal resisting moments.
The measured internal moments shown in Table 4 for speci-
mens SFrc76 and TFrc76 were considerably lower than the actual
applied moment. This indicates that the internal mild steel within
the DFRCC segments was contributing to the resistance of the
specimens. A contribution of the mild steel to the ultimate resis-
tance of the columns was anticipated, due to the embedment of
the segment into the point of fixity at the base of the column. The
maximum resisting moment that the reinforcing steel could pro-
vide if yielded would lie approximately between 5 and 8 kN-m
共with and without strain hardening, respectively兲. Based on these
calculations, the embedded steel in both SFrc76 and TFrc76 ap-
pears to have yielded, with higher steel strains 共and stresses兲
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reached in TFrc76.
In all cases except for specimen SCon38, the end of the test
was marked by the actuator stroke being exceeded. Due to the use
of different actuators, the maximum drift reached by the speci-
mens varied between 13.5 and 16% for the short columns and
between 16 and 30% for the tall columns. Testing of specimen
SCon38 was stopped at 13% drift when one of the tendon wires
fractured. The only other specimen that experienced tendon frac-
turing was TFrc76, wherein one tendon wire fractured at 11.5%
drift in one direction and a different tendon had wire fractures at
11.5 and 26% drift in the opposite direction. All wire fractures
occurred near the top wedge anchors of the posttensioning.
The proportional limit of the posttensioned tendons was
reached between 4 and 6% drift in all specimens. Yielding
stresses in the tendons, as defined by the material tests, were
reached by drifts of roughly 9%. In all cases of prestressing strand
wires fracturing, a slight drop in load-carrying capacity of the
column was observed. Strength degradation was between 3 and Fig. 11. Comparison of energy dissipation
10% after peak loads were reached and when the loading was
stopped for all specimens. There was one exception with speci-
men TFrc76, which lost roughly 20% of its peak capacity after
tendon wires fractured. ing of the DFRCC or crushing of the concrete, both in the hinge
It is important to note that the dead load was applied through segment, as well as yielding of the posttensioning tendons.
additional prestressing; therefore, any second-order moments due TFrc38 dissipated more energy than TCon38 up to 4% drift, at
to the axial load at large drifts was not accurately applied in this which time the base crack of TFrc38 started localizing. TFrc76
experimental setup. It could be expected that, with second-order consistently dissipated more energy than TCon38 throughout the
effects, failures including more tendon wire fractures and con- test, with the relative increase being largest around 4% drift. This
crete crushing would have occurred sooner in the specimens. large difference in energy dissipation is attributed to the yielding
of the reinforcing steel within the bottom segment of TFRc76.
Energy Dissipation The relative amount of additional energy dissipated by TFrc76
over TCon38 decreased at 6% drift, when TFrc76’s base crack
One of the objectives of this research was to determine whether localized. In general, after base crack localization, the difference
integrating ductile fiber reinforced concrete, such as DFRCC, into in energy dissipation rates between the tall concrete specimen and
hinging regions of unbonded posttensioned bridge pier systems the tall specimens with DFRCC decreased. At very high drifts
increases energy dissipation over traditional reinforced concrete. 共beyond 10%兲, a relatively large amount of energy dissipation
The energy dissipation for each specimen was estimated by cal- was seen in the concrete specimens due to crushing of the con-
culating the area enclosed by the hysteretic loops for each cycle crete and yielding of the posttensioning steel.
of each specimen 关details in Yoon and Billington 共2002兲兴.
Fig. 11 shows the energy dissipation relative to the concrete
Residual Displacements
specimen in the short and tall experiments. SFrc38 and SFrc76
dissipated more energy than SCon38 up to 3% drift, at which time A potential advantage of the bridge pier system examined here is
a base crack in each short DFRCC specimen started localizing. At the reduction of postearthquake residual displacements below
higher drifts, the difference in the amount of energy dissipation of those of conventional reinforced concrete. Residual drifts can be
each cycle between the short concrete specimen and the short seen on the x-axis of the load-drift response 共Figs. 9 and 10兲 after
DFRCC specimens reduced significantly. After crack localization, each cycle. All of the unbonded post-tensioned specimens here
new cracks were not able to form; thus, the specimen dissipated showed small residual drifts. For instance, after a drift of 4% was
no additional energy through cracking. Instead, the upper seg- reached, the residual drifts were consistently less than 0.2%. By
ments above the base cracks moved as a rigid body. Additional comparison, after a 3.5– 4% drift demand in cyclic experiments of
energy dissipation was eventually achieved through lateral crack- reinforced concrete columns having similar aspect and axial load

360 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004

J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363

 ratios as the experiments reported here, residual drifts between 1
and 2% were observed 共Wight and Sozen 1973; Lynn et al. 1996;
Matamoros 1999兲.
At drift levels below 4%, the residual displacement was higher
in the specimens with DFRCC than in the all-concrete specimens.
Each concrete specimen exhibited lower residual displacement
because, after their cracks localized at 1% drift, only the tendons
were carrying the tensile load and these tendons were still in their
elastic region. When unloaded, the specimen could return close to
its original center position, as it only needed to close one crack.
The specimens with DFRCC still carried tensile load after 1%
drift and had new cracks initiating and propagating. When un-
loaded, the need to close multiple cracks caused slightly higher
residual displacements as compared to the concrete specimens.
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However, again, the residual displacements for all of the speci-
mens were less than 0.2% drift.
At the 8% drift cycle and beyond, the residual displacement
for the concrete and DFRCC specimens were very similar at
around 1% residual drift. At this point, all of the specimens had
formed localized cracks and the tendons were close to yielding;
thus, all of the specimens exhibited similar residual displace-
ments.
Further Discussion
Influence of Ductile Fiber-Reinforced Cement-Based
Composite versus Concrete in Hinge Region
The influence of DFRCC and concrete in the hinge region is seen
by comparing specimens SCon38 with SFrc38 and specimens
TCon38 with TFrc38, which all had the same embedment depth
of the hinge segment. The initial stiffnesses of the short and tall
concrete specimens were 18 – 49% higher than the short and tall
DFRCC specimens, respectively. The difference in initial stiffness
is attributed to the DFRCC not containing coarse or fine aggre-
gate. The modulus of elasticity of the DFRCC used here is
roughly half that of a similar strength concrete.
The DFRCC specimens were slightly stronger than the con-
crete specimens. The concrete specimens carried load only
through the compression region and the prestressing tendons. The
DFRCC specimens carried the load through the compression re-
gion, prestressing tendons, and a small amount of tension in the
cracked DFRCC until roughly 8% drift, when the fibers had com-
pletely debonded.
Comparing the amount of dissipated energy, the DFRCC
specimens dissipated more energy than the concrete specimens
through initiating and propagating more cracks before crack lo-
calization at the base. The DFRCC contribution to increased en-
ergy dissipation was primarily at lower drifts 共⬍3%兲. The residual
displacements of the DFRCC specimens were up to about 4 times
greater 共although still very small兲 than those of the concrete
specimens at drift levels up to 3%, as discussed previously.
Influence of Embedment Depth of Ductile Fiber-
Reinforced Cement-Based Composite Segments
The influence of the depth of an embedded DFRCC segment
below the fixity is seen by comparing specimens SFrc38 with
SFrc76 and specimens TFrc38 with TFrc76. No significant differ-
ences in initial stiffness and residual displacements 共after 3%
drift兲 were observed between the DFRCC specimens with differ-
ent embedment depths. However, the peak loads at each drift
JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004 / 361
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363
level of SFrc76 and TFrc76 were significantly higher than those
for SFrc38 and TFrc38, respectively. The increase in strength was
due to the larger embedment of the segments, which facilitated
carrying more tensile load in both the DFRCC and the mild rein-
forcement within that segment. The specimens with a larger em-
bedment 共SFrc76 and TFrc76兲 also reached higher drifts before a
single dominant crack formed. As a result, more microcracking
occurred in the DFRCC segments of the tall columns than in the
short columns.
The short and tall specimens with the more deeply embedded
DFRCC segments also dissipated more energy than the less em-
bedded DFRCC segments. The differences in overall hysteretic
energy dissipation between the short and tall specimens with
DFRCC hinge segments are primarily attributed to yielding of the
mild steel, which had adequate development length within the 76
mm embedded segments.
Influence of Aspect Ratio
The influence of the different aspect ratios 共i.e., height/section
depth兲 can be seen by comparing specimens SCon38 and
TCon38, specimens SFrc38 and TFrc38, and specimens SFrc76
and TFrc76. The tall specimens exhibited more flexure-dominant
behavior overall as compared to the short specimens, as evi-
denced by the amount of flexural cracking, but no strong differ-
ences were observed. The aspect ratios were 1.9 and 3.4, neither
of which would be expected to be heavily flexure-dominated.
The most apparent differences between the two different
height groups appeared in their crack patterns and the timing of
crack localization. Only one dominant crack formed near the fix-
ity in the hinging region of SCon38. However, multiple cracks
appeared in the hinging region of TCon38. Throughout testing,
the tall DFRCC specimens showed more cracks over the DFRCC
segments as compared with the short DFRCC specimens. In all
cases, the hinge region segments of the tall specimens were ex-
posed to higher flexural stresses throughout testing than were the
short specimens; this was because all of the columns were de-
signed for the same capacity. With an equal base moment, the
moment gradient is lower in the tall columns, thus exposing the
base segment to higher flexural stresses than in the short column.
While multiple cracking was expected in the DFRCC segments,
the mild reinforcement in the tall concrete specimen was able to
redistribute stress to initiate more multiple cracks. This did not
occur in the short concrete specimens.
At low drift levels 共less than 3%兲 the short DFRCC specimens
improved energy dissipation more than the tall DFRCC speci-
mens when compared with their corresponding concrete speci-
mens. The relative percentage of DFRCC within the height of the
short specimens was higher than that of the tall specimens. This
allowed the short DFRCC specimens to dissipate relatively higher
energy as compared with the tall specimens.
Conclusions
The use of precast DFRCC segments in designated plastic hinge
regions in a bridge pier system with unbonded posttensioning was
investigated experimentally under cyclic load. A small-scale test
program was conducted wherein four short and three tall speci-
mens were tested to study the use of unbonded posttensioning and
the use of DFRCC’s unique ductile and tensile strain-hardening
characteristics to improve the cyclic performance of the proposed
bridge pier system. The major findings were
 • All of the unbonded posttensioned columns studied here
reached drift levels of roughly 9% before posttensioning yield-
ing occurred. Second-order effects were not taken into account
in the testing. Prior to yielding of the posttensioning, all of the
specimens exhibited minimal residual displacements 共⬍1%兲.
• Columns with DFRCC in their hinge regions exhibited more
distributed, fine cracking and reached higher peak loads at
each drift cycle than their corresponding all-concrete speci-
mens.
• Columns with DFRCC in their hinge regions dissipated more
energy up to drifts between 3 and 6% than their corresponding
specimens with only concrete. The drifts of 3– 6% represented
the drifts at which deformation localized to a single base ten-
sile crack in the specimens with DFRCC, as opposed to having
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continued, distributed microcracking.
• The taller, slender columns with DFRCC in the hinge regions
exhibited more multiple cracking than their corresponding
shorter, stockier columns.
• The short and tall specimens with DFRCC segments that were
more embedded 共76 mm兲 below the point of fixity exhibited
increased energy dissipation and experienced delayed localiza-
tion of base cracks when compared to the short and tall speci-
mens with DFRCC segments having less embedment 共38 mm兲.
The mild steel within the 76 mm embedded segment was able
to develop close to or beyond its yield strength, whereas that
within the 38 mm embedded segment was not.
• DFRCC maintained its integrity considerably better than the
normal concrete under high compressive loads without the use
of transverse confinement steel beyond what was required for
shear strength. The DFRCC material did not spall up to the
end of testing.
In general, the use of unbonded posttensioning—and, in par-
ticular, the combination of unbonded posttensioning with the duc-
tile, damage-tolerant DFRCC in the plastic hinging regions—was
shown to be a potentially promising system for cyclically loaded
bridge columns. To understand more fully the behavior of this
bridge pier system using DFRCC, a larger-scale testing program
is necessary. While the same exact mix for the DFRCC would be
used at a large scale 共eliminating size effects from mix constitu-
ents, for instance兲, size effects may still be an issue due to fabri-
cation and resulting internal flaws in the DFRCC. In a larger-scale
testing program, more accurate application of dead load to the
structural system is recommended to include second-order mo-
ments at larger drift levels. In addition, fabricating full-height
columns will give more accurate data on column behavior, be-
cause the correct unbonded prestressing tendon length could be
used. A large-scale testing project on this bridge pier system was
recently completed 共Rouse and Billington 2003兲.
Design tools are needed for unbonded posttensioned columns
to facilitate the application of such systems in practice, particu-
larly for cyclic and seismic loads. Such tools should account for
the properties of DFRCC that vary from traditional concrete 共e.g.,
stress-strain behavior兲. Finally, the durability of unbonded post-
tensioned systems needs to be researched. The use of fiber-
reinforced polymer strand could be a durable option, because it is
desirable to design the posttensioning to maintain a linear elastic
response.
Acknowledgments
This research was sponsored by the National Science Foundation
under grant CMS-9984127. Additional financial support from the
362 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / JULY/AUGUST 2004
J. Bridge Eng., 2004, 9(4): 353-363
Concrete Research Council of the American Concrete Institute,
Synthetic Industries, and Cornell University is gratefully ac-
knowledged. The writers would like to thank Tim Bond, manager
of the George Winter Laboratory at Cornell University, graduate
research assistants Keith Kesner and Matt Rouse, and the numer-
ous undergraduate research assistants for their assistance. Finally,
discussions with Professors Li, Naaman, Parra-Montesinos, and
Wight from the University of Michigan at the outset of this re-
search are gratefully acknowledged.
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