Project Report on Ecosystem

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A project report on ecosystem. This project report will help you to learn
about: 1. Meaning of Ecosystem 2. Various Terms Used in Ecology and
Their Definition 3. Structural and Functional Attributes 4. Food Chain
and Food-Web 5. Energy-Flow 6. Biogeochemical Cycles 7. Artificial
Ecosystem.
Contents:
1. Project Report on the Meaning of Ecosystem
2. Project Report on Various Terms Used in Ecology and Their Definition
3. Project Report on the Structural and Functional Attributes of an Ecosystem
4. Project Report on Food Chain and Food-Web in Ecosystem
5. Project Report on Energy-Flow in Ecosystem
6. Project Report on the Biogeochemical Cycles (Material Cycles) of Ecosystem
7. Project Report on Artificial Ecosystem

Project Report # 1. Meaning of Ecosystem:

Living organisms cannot live in isolated from their non-living environment
because the latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the former
i.e., there is intersection between a biotic community and its environment to
produce a stable system; a natural self- sufficient unit which is known as an
ecosystem.

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The term ecosystem (‘eco’, the environment; ‘system’, an interacting, inter-

dependent complex) was first given by A. G. Tansley in the 1935. Ecosystem
is the basic functional unit of ecology which consists of the biotic and abiotic
community.
According to Fitze and Patric (1974) a group of organism which interact with
each other also interact with environment. This is called ecosystem.

An ecosystem is, therefore, defined as a natural functional ecological unit

comprising of living organisms (biotic community) and their non-living (abiotic
or physiochemical) environment that interact to form a stable self-supporting
system. A pond, lake, desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common
examples of ecosystem.

Project Report # 2. Various Terms Used in Ecology and

Their Definition:
i. Trophic Levels:
Trophic (trophe, nourishment) literally means feeding. So trophic levels are
the nourishment levels or positions at which species feed. The trophic
structure of an ecosystem is one kind of producer-consumer arrangement.

It may be measured and described either in terms of the standing crop per
unit area or in terms of the energy fixed per unit area per unit time at
successive trophic levels. Trophic structure and trophic function can be shown
graphically by ecological pyramids.

ii. Standing Crop:

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Standing crop is the total number of living organisms or amount of living

material present in different trophic levels. It is a term applicable to both plants
and animals. Standing crop can be expressed in terms of number of
organisms present per unit area or in biomass (organism’s mass present in
unit area).

Biomass is measured either in living weight, dry weight, ash-free weight,

carbon weight, calories or any other convenient units suitable for comparative
studies. Biomass present at any given time should not be confused with
productivity.
iii. Turnover Rate:
Turnover is the ratio of the standing state (amount present) of biotic or abiotic
components to the rate of replacement of the standing state. It relates
structure to function in an ecosystem. If we assume that the biomass of a
forest is 20,000 grams per square meter (g/m2) and the annual growth
increment is 1,000 g, then the ratio 20,000/1,000 or 20/1 can be expressed as
the turnover time or replacement time of 20 years.
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The reciprocal 1/20 being equal to 0.05 is the turnover rate. The turnover time
for phytoplankton in a pond is measured in days rather than years.

iv. Detritus:
The term detritus is obtained from the Latin word deterere meaning to wear
away. It was traditionally used in geology to designate the products of rock
disintegration. ‘Organic detritus’ refers to all the organic matter involved in the
decomposition of dead organisms.

Dissolved organic matter that leaks out of or is extracted by saprotrophs from

both living and dead tissues, are included under the heading of detritus since
it has a similar function. Environmental chemists use shorthand designation
for the two physically different products of decomposition — POM for
particulate organic matter and DOM for dissolved organic matter.

Animals that feed on detritus are known as detritus-feeding animals or

detritivores. Intense activities of microorganisms on detritus often result in
protein enrichment, thus providing a more nutritious food for detritus-feeding
animals.

v. Humus:
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Humus or humic substances are end-products of decomposition that are quite

resistant to further decay and are never found inside cells. They remain for
some time as a structural part of the ecosystem.
Humus is generally referred to the dark, yellow-brown, amorphous or colloidal
substance that is readily visible in soils, sediments and suspended in the
waters of streams and lakes (noticeable particularly in swamp or bog water).
The role of humic substances in ecosystem is not fully understood, but they
do contribute to soil properties favourable for plant growth.

Project Report # 3. Structural and Functional Attributes of

an Ecosystem:
Each ecosystem has two main components:
i. Abiotic components,

ii. Biotic components

i. Abiotic Components:
The non-living environment of an ecosystem factors or the physical
environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the abiotic components. They
have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour and
interrelationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:
Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors:

Which include soil, pH, topography, minerals etc.

It also includes inorganic and organic factors. Inorganic factor includes Ca,
CO2, H2O, N2etc.
Organic Factors:
Protein, carbohydrate, lipids and amino acids.

ii. Biotic Component:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria
and Fungi) that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be
classified into three main groups:
(a) Producers

(b) Consumers

(c) Decomposers or Reducers.

(a) Producers:
The organism which produce food for themselves and for other living
organism known as producer, e.g. All green plant → photosynthetic bacteria.

The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar
energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple
inorganic compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is
known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their own food
they are known as Autotrophs (i. e., auto = self, trophos = feeder).
The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the
producers for their own growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the
plant parts for their future use.

(b) Consumers:
The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
Therefore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as
heterotrophs (i.e., heteros = other, trophos = feeder). They are known as
consumers.

The consumers are of four types, namely.

Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called
herbivores. Example are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary

Carnivores:
The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores.
Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.

Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers.
Examples are Wolves.

Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are
not eaten up by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.

(c) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic
materials of producers (plant) and consumers (animals) for their food and
release to the environment the simple inorganic and organic substances
produced as by-products of their metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic

exchange of materials between the biotic community and the abiotic
environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs
(i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder).

Project Report # 4. Food Chain and Food-Web in

Ecosystem:
Food Chain:
In a food chain each organism eats the smaller organism and is eaten by the
large one. All those organisms which are interlinked with each other through
food together constitute a food chain. The different species in a food chain are
called trophic levels. Each food chain has three main trophic levels-Producers,
Consumers and Decomposers.

In ecosystem green are known as produce because they produce food for
organism. For example, herbivores like deer, goat feed on plants for their
food, i.e. they obtain energy directly from the plants. The herbivores are eaten
by carnivores like lion tiger etc.
In this way energy transferred through a series of organism. Such sequence is
known as food chain and each state of food chain is called trophic level. A
food chain can be defined as food chain is the sequence of organisation in
which energy flows in the form of food from the organism to another organism
through a series of repeated eating and being eaten.

There are three types of food chain:

i. Predator food chain.

ii. Parasitic food chain.

iii. Saprophytic food chain.

Food Web:
Various food chains are often inter-linked at different trophic levels to form a
complex interaction between different species from the point of view of food.
This network like interaction is called the food web.

If any of the intermediate stage of the food-chain is removed, the succeeding

links of the food chain will be affected.

The food web provides more than one alternatives of food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and, therefore, increases their chances of
survival.

The basic nutritional links in an ecosystem are shown in Fig. 1.3.:

Project Report # 5. Energy-Flow in Ecosystem:
To maintain life activities, energy is required. The plants make use of the raw
materials from the environment in the form of water, salts and carbon dioxide
to prepare food, namely starch.

This synthesis is aided by the energy they derive from the sunlight trapped by
the chlorophyll. Thus, energy from the sun enters the living world through
photosynthetic organism and passes on from one organism to another in the
form of food.

The flow of energy through the ecosystem is unidirectional and noncyclic.

This one-way flow of energy is governed by laws of thermodynamics

which state that:
(i) Energy is neither created nor destroyed but may be transferred from one
form to another, and

(ii) During energy transfer there is degradation of energy from a concentrated

form (mechanical, chemical or electrical etc.), to a dispersed form (heat).
Thus, there is a continuous loss of energy within each trophic level from
producer to consumer within an ecosystem.

This is accounted for largely by the energy dissipated as heat during

metabolism of the organisms present in the food chain. It also indicates that
shorter the food chain, greater would be the available food energy and with an
increase in the length of the food chain, there is a corresponding increase in
loss of energy.

Project Report # 6. Biogeochemical Cycles (Material

Cycles) of Ecosystem:
The producers of an ecosystem take up several basic inorganic nutrients from
their non-living environment. These materials get transformed into the bio
mass of the producers. Then they are utilised by the consumer population and
are ultimately returned to the environment with the help of the reducers or
decomposers.

This cyclic exchange of nutrient material between the living organisms and
their non-living environment is called biogeochemical cycle. As indicated by
the name the nutrients circulate through life (bio) and through the earth (geo)
repeatedly (cycle). The biogeochemical (material and nutrient) cycles
conserve the limited sources of raw materials in the environment.

Common Biogeochemical Cycles are:

(i) Water Cycle or Hydrologic Cycle:
In this cycle:
(a) Water from the transpiring plants, oceans, rivers and lakes evaporates into
the atmosphere.

(b) These water vapours subsequently cool and condense to form clouds and
water.
(c) Water returns to the earth as rain and snow.

(ii) Carbon-Cycle:
Most of the carbon dioxide enters the living world through photosynthesis. The
organic compounds synthesised are passed from the producers (green plants)
to the consumers (herbivores and carnivores).

During respiration plants and animals release carbon back to the surrounding
medium as carbon-dioxide. The dead bodies of plants and animals as well as
the body wastes which accumulate carbon compounds are decomposed by
micro-organisms to release carbon dioxide.

Carbon is also recycled during burning of fossil fuels.

(iii) Nitrogen-Cycle:
Nitrogen of the atmosphere is in the elemental from and cannot be used as
such as by living organisms. It has to be “fixed” i.e., combined with other
elements such as hydrogen, carbon or oxygen to become usable for the green
Plants. Nitrogen is continuously entering into the air by the action of
denitrifying bacteria and returning to the cycle through the action of lightening
and electrification.

(iv) Oxygen-Cycle:
Oxygen required for respiration in plants and animals enters the body directly
from the surrounding medium (air to water). Oxygen returns to the
surroundings in the form of Carbon-dioxide or water. It also enters the plant
body as carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis and released in the
form of molecular oxygen as a by-product in the same process for use in
respiration. Thus, the cycle is completed.
Ecosystem is a functional system which in a balanced condition, is self-
sufficient and self-regulating. A balanced ecosystem is essential for the
survival of all living organisms. Organisms at each trophic level in a food chain
are preyed upon by an organism at the next higher trophic level, for example,
herbivores feed on the plants and are in turn eaten by the predators.

If the numbers of herbivores increase in a specific area, there will be a rapid

destruction of the vegetation, which in turn will eventually destroy the
herbivores (due to lack of food). So, the population of herbivores is kept in
check by predators such as lions and tigers.

Through these interactions in the food web, the population of each species is
held in check by the carrying capacity of the environment i.e., the
environment’s ability to provide space and food to the organisms, and the
ecosystem maintains its balance (ecological balance or balance of nature).

The tendency of the biological systems to resist change and to remain in a

state of dynamic equilibrium is known as homeostasis (homeo = same; stasis
= standing).

Generally, the ecosystem are named after the type of organism and
habitat condition, e.g:
(i) Grassland ecosystem (ii) Crop ecosystem

(iii) Forest ecosystem (iv) Desert ecosystem

(v) Aquatic ecosystem (vi) Urban ecosystem

However several ecosystems can be interrelated and sometimes several

small ecosystems (micro ecosystems) form a large ecosystem (macro
ecosystems) for instance,
Project Report # 7. Artificial Ecosystem:

Ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living entities in a space,

connected by a complex web of interactions. Natural ecosystem has evolved
over millions of years manifesting a wide variety of life forms with
complementary interactions and a dynamic equilibrium. Subsequently as the
time passed, man developed intelligence which enabled him to manipulate the
environment for his gain.

The deliberate manipulation of the environment attributes in larger and larger

measures has brought large changes in the ecosystem. The ecosystem
dynamics has deviated from natural trends that existed prior to man and is
losing the equilibrium obtained through evolution and tests of time.

Thus the ecosystem has become fragile facing the threat of collapse, in which
case man has to perish along with them. The time has now come for human
intelligence to take over the management of ecosystems with the objective of
ensuring his happy survival and preserving the biosphere for that purpose.

Characteristics of Artificial Ecosystem:

Artificial ecosystems are likely to have the following characteristics:
i. Diversity will be lesser compared to natural systems. Unfavourable and less
favoured species are likely to taper off slowly.

ii. Whereas the natural systems do not have definite goals and evolved by trial
and error and their survival value, the artificial ecosystem is pragmatic with
well-defined goals. Artificial systems are more fragile and are more vulnerable
of failure due to lack of diversity and strong self-regulatory systems,
characterizing the natural systems.

iii. Artificial ecosystems are more productive from anthropocentric

perspectives. Land yield improved cultivation techniques, cloning techniques,
milk yield with recent animal husbandry practices etc., are examples of
enhancing productivity of natural processes with human intervention.

iv. Artificial ecosystems with further improvements in design can enhance the
sustenance capacity of population in a given space and enable the expansion
of human habitat into oceans, outer space, extra-terrestrial bodies and
subterranean spaces.

v. Artificial ecosystems depend on natural cosmic laws. Man is only a

discoverer but not a maker of natural laws. Here artificial ecosystems are not
contradictions and negations of natural systems. It is only the proportions and
speeds of the ecological interactions that can be meddled with, for man’s
advantage. Hence all the so- called artificial ecosystems are only the semi-
artificial.

The examples of artificial ecosystems are:

Modern cities, Hydroponics (cultivation of plants without soil and sunlight), sky
labs and space ships, camping of South Pole explorers, urban squatter
settlements, poultry, piggeries, zoos, social forests industrial green belts,
mechanized agricultural farms, bio reactors in industry and waste treatment
plants. In all the above artificial ecosystems, most of the inputs, outputs and
interactions are planned or ill-planned by man.