Rice Application PDF

RCE
Volume I
PRODUCTION
Second Edition
EDITED BY
Bor S. Luh
University of California, Davis
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Copyright © 1991 by Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by V an N ostrand Reinhold in 1991
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1991
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 90-21387

ISBN 978-1-4899-3756-8 ISBN 978-1-4899-3754-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-3754-4
Ali rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be repro-
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rice/edited by Bor S. Luh.-2nd ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: Rice-production and utilization. cl980 (1 v.) "An AVI book."
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Production-v. 2. Utilization.
ISBN 978-1-4899-3756-8
1. Rice. 2. Rice-Utilization. 1. Luh, Bor Shiun, 1916-
11. Rice-production and utilization.
SB19l.R5R443 1991 90-21387
633' .18-dc20 CIP
CONTRIBUTORS
D. E. BAYER, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Botany, University of

California, Davis, California
C. C. BOWLING, M. S. Professor of Entomology, Emeritus, Texas
Agricultural Research and Extension Center, The Texas A & M Univer-
sity, Beaumont, Texas
TE-TZU CHANG, Ph.D., Geneticist and Leader, Genetic Resources Pro-
gram, International Rice Research Institute, Los Bafios, Laguna, Philip-
pines
ROBERT R. COGBURN, M.S., Research Entomologist, Rice Research
Center, South Region, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beaumont,
Texas
SURAJIT K. DE DATTA, Ph.D., Agronomist and Head, Agronomy De-
partment, International Rice Research Institute, Los Bafios, Laguna,
Philippines
CHENG-CHANG LI, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Agronomy, Na-
tional Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.
SHIN L U, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Food Science, Cereal Labora-
tory, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan, R.O.C.
BOR S. LUH, Ph.D., Food Technologist, Department of Food Science
and Technology, University of California, Davis, California
iii
iv CONTRIBUTORS
T. W. MEW, Ph.D., Head, Plant Pathology Department, International

Rice Research Institute, Los Bafios, Laguna, Philippines
DUANE S. MIKKELSEN, Ph.D., Professor of Agronomy, Department
of Agronomy and Range Science, University of California, Davis, Cali-
fornia
BENITO S. VERGARA, Ph.D., Plant Physiologist, Plant Physiology De-
partment, International Rice Research Institute, Los Banos, Laguna,
Philippines
JAMES I. WADSWORTH, Ph.D., Chemical Engineer, Food Products
Research, Engineering and Development Laboratory, Southern Re-
gional Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, New Orleans,
Louisiana
C. Y. WANG, Ph.D., Nabisco Brands, Inc., 100 Deforest Avenue East,
Hanover, New Jersey
M. 0. WAY, Ph.D., Texas Agricultural Research and Extension Center,
The Texas A & M University, Beaumont, Texas
PREFACE
Rice is one of the principal cereals used by the world's inhabitants. The
hope for improved nourishment of the world's population depends on
the development of better rice varieties and improved methods for rice
production and utilization.
During the past four decades, interest in rice research and production
has increased in many countries. The development of new and better
varieties by the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines and
other rice research institutes has stimulated numerous research stations to
test the performance of these varieties in many countries under different
climates, soil properties, cultural practices, and environmental conditions.
The methods of harvesting, handling, drying, and milling rough rice have
improved as a result of research efforts by the engineers and the rice
milling industries.
The first edition of Rice: Production and Utilization was published in
1980. This second edition presents the recent developments and progress
made by the researchers, the industries, and various experiment stations.
Because of the large amounts of literature available in recent years on
rice production and utilization, this edition is divided into two volumes,
Volume 1: Production and Volume II: Utilization.
It is hoped that the books will be useful to rice researchers, processors,
and people interested in rice production and utilization. Those studying
v
vi PREFACE
the agronomy of rice plants, especially the genetics, breeding, cultivation,

diseases, and insects that attack both the rice plant and the stored grain,
will find this edition helpful in their search for new knowledge.
A new chapter on weed management, written by Dr. Davis E. Bayer,
presents useful information in dealing with the weed problem in rice pro-
duction.
Harvesting, drying, and milling of rough rice are important procedures
for successful handling of rice grains. Methods related to these procedures
are presented in Chapter 9 of Volume I. Dr. James I. Wadsworth of
the Southern Regional Research Center, USDA-ARS, has contributed an
excellent Chapter 10 on rice milling. The physical and chemical properties
of rice caryopsis are presented in Chapter 11 of Volume I. The utilization
aspects of the rice cereals are presented in Volume II.
I acknowledge the excellent cooperation of the contributors to this
edition, who have generously provided their knowledge, experience, and
time to the readers. Many friends have provided information and offered
assistance in preparing and editing the contents. I wish to thank them all
for their kindness and assistance. The California Rice Growers Association
of Sacramento, California, and colleagues in the University of Califor-
nia-Davis Departments of Food Science and Technology and of Agron-
omy and Range Science helped greatly in completing the editing of this
edition. I appreciate the assistance of Geyun Tang, Dr. Mei C. Huang,
Dr. GinguoHu, Dr. Pran N. Vohra, ProfessorWu Wang, Patricia I. Bailey,
Mary Miranda, Diane King, Susan Torguson, Karen Jo Hunter, Carol
Cooper, Clara Robison, and Arlene Hamamoto who have worked tire-
lessly in editing, proofreading, and preparing the manuscripts.
The encouragment and advice of Dr. R. L. Merson and Dr. Duane S.
Mikkelsen in revising Rice are greatly appreciated.
Davis, California B.S. Luh

CONTENTS
Preface v
1 Overview and Prospects of Rice Production 1

Te-Tzu Chang and Bor S. Luh
2 Rice Plant Growth and Development 13

Benito S. Vergara
3 Genetics and Breeding 23

Te-Tzu Chang and Cheng-Chang Li
4 Rice Culture 103

Duane S. Mikkelsen and Surajit K. De Datta
5 Rice Diseases 187

T. W. Mew
6 Insect Pests of Rice 237

M. 0. Way and C. C. Bowling
vii
viii I CONTENTS
7 Insect Pests of Stored Rice 269

Robert R. Cogburn
8 Weed Management 287

D. E. Bayer
9 Harvest, Drying, and Storage of Rough Rice 311

C. Y. Wang and Bor S. Luh
10 Milling 347
James I. Wadsworth
11 Properties of the Rice Caryopsis 389

Shin Lu and Bor S. Luh
Index 421
RICE
Volume II
UTILIZATION
RCE
Volume II
UTILIZATION
Second Edition
EDITED BY
Bor S. Luh
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

CONTRIBUTORS
S. BARBER, Ph.D., Director, Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de

Alimentos, CSIC, Valencia 46010, Spain
C. BENEDITO DE BARBER, Ph.D., Cereal and Proteaginous Labora-
tory, Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos, CSIC, Valen-
cia 46010, Spain
HELEN CHOW, M.S., Department of Plant Biology, University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, California
BENITO 0. DE LUMEN, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of
Nutritional Science, University of California, Berkeley, California
F. HSIEH, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Agricultural Engi-
neering, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri
EDWARD J. HSU, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Biology, University
of Missouri, Kansas City, Missouri
CHUAN KAO, Ph.D., Chemist, USDA-FGIS, P. 0. Box 20285, Kansas
City, Missouri
YUAN-KU ANG LIU, Ph.D., Research Enzymologist, RJR Nabisco Inc.,
Del Monte Corporation Research Center, 205 N. Wiget Lane, Walnut
Creek, California
BOR S. LUH, Ph.D., Food Technologist, Department of Food Science
and Technology, University of California, Davis, California
v
vi CONTRIBUTORS
ROBERT R. MICKUS, Director, Research and Product Development,

Rice Growers Association of California, P.O. Box 958, Sacramento,
California
H. H. WANG, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Agricultural Chemistry,
National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
B. D. WEBB, Ph.D., Research Chemist, Rice Quality Laboratory, South
Region, Rice Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Texas
A & M University, Beaumont, Texas
PREFACE
During the 10 years that have passed since the first edition of Rice: Produc-
tion and Utilization was published in 1980, much new information on
processing and utilization of rice cereal has appeared in the literature.
There is an urgent need for revision of the Rice book, especially since the
first edition is out of print. The objective of the revision is to update the
book and present pertinent, useful information to the readers.
Because of the large volume of literature on the subject, the new
edition will be split into two separate volumes: Volume I: Production and
Volume II: Utilization. The contributors to both volumes have worked in
their respective fields of study for 10 to 35 years. They are thoroughly
experienced and productive in their research work.
Volume I emphasizes plant growth, genetics and breeding, culture,
rice plant diseases, insect pests of rice, weed management, harvest, drying
and storage, milling, and properties of rice caryopsis.
The 15 chapters of Volume II cover rice flours in baking, rice enrich-
ment, parboiled rice, rice quality and grades, quick-cooking rice, canning,
freezing and freeze-drying, rice breakfast cereals and baby foods, fer-
mented rice products, rice snack foods, rice vinegar, rice hulls, rice oil,
and rice bran. A chapter on the nutritional quality of rice endosperm is
also presented.
vii
viii PREFACE
Persons interested in the production and utilization of rice cereal will

find the new edition helpful and informative. Those in the rice-processing
industries will find new ideas for developing rice products, convenience
foods, breakfast cereals, baby foods, and new extrusion technology as
applied to rice products. By-products from rice milling, such as rice bran,
rice oil, and rice hulls, will bring greater returns to rice growers and
processors. Chemical and physical properties of rice kernels, as well as
their nutritive values, are presented in detail. These will be of great value
to researchers, food and cereal scientists, and those in new product devel-
opment.
I thank Dr. R. L. Merson of the Department of Food Science and
Technology; Dr. Charles V. Moore, of the Davis-based University of
California Center for Cooperatives; and Robert R. Mickus, of the Rice
Growers Association of California, for their valuable suggestions in the
revision of this book. I am indebted to Dr. Duane S. Mikkelsen, of the
University of California at Davis Department of Agronomy and Range
Science; Dr. David E. Bayer, of the University of California Davis Depart-
ment of Botany; Dr. B. D. Webb, of the Rice Research Center, Beaumont,
Texas; Dr. B. 0. de Lumen, of the University of California at Berkeley;
Maura M. Bean, of USDA-ARS; Dr. Te T. Chang, of IRRI, Manila,
Philippines; Professor Wu Wang, of Wuxi Institute of Light Industry,
Wuxi, China; and Dr. J. I. Wadsworth, of USDA-ARS, New Orleans,
Louisiana, for their many kinds of encouragement and help. The assistance
of Geyun Tang, Dr. Mei C. Huang, Dr. Ginguo Hu, Dr. Pran N. Vohra,
P. J. Bailey, Mary Miranda, Diane King, Karen Jo Hunter, and Arlene
Hamamoto in preparing and proofreading the manuscripts is greatly ap-
preciated.
Davis, California B.S. Luh

CONTENTS
Preface
1 Introduction 1
Bor S. Luh
2 Ri~e Flours in Baking 9

Bor S. Luh and Yuan-Kuang Liu
3 Rice Enrichment with Vitamins and Amino Acids 35

Robert R. Mickus and Bor S. Luh
4 Parboiled Rice 51
Bor S. Luh and Robert R. Mickus
5 Rice Quality and Grades 89

B. D. Webb
6 Quick-Cooking Rice 121

Bor S. Luh
7 Canning, Freezing, and Freeze-Drying 147

Bor S. Luh
ix
X I CONTENTS
8 Breakfast Rice Cereals and Baby Foods 1n

F. Hsieh and Bor S. Luh
9 Fermented Rice Products 195

H. H. Wang
10 Rice Snack Foods 225

F. Hsieh and Bor S. Luh
11 Ric~Vinegar Through Acetification of Rice Wine 251

Edward J. Hsu
12 Rice Hulls 269

Bor S. Luh
13 Rice Oil 295

Chuan Kao and Bor S. Luh
14 Rice Bran: Chemistry and Technology 313

Bor S. Luh, S. Barber, and C. Benedito de Barber
15 Nutritional Quality of Rice Endosperm 363

Benito 0. de Lumen and Helen Chow
Index 397
1
Overview and Prospects of Rice
Production
Te-Tzu Chang
International Rice Research Institute
Bor S. Luh
The first chapter in the 1980 edition of this book, entitled "Rice in its
temporal and spatial perspectives" (Lu and Chang 1980) has provided
considerable detail on crop history, world production, and supply and
demand up to 1978. Subsequent years saw a continuing trend in the spread
of the high-yielding varieties (HYVs), rise in grain yield, increase in world
production, and expansion in consumption and international trade. This
chapter highlights such changes during the past decade. Rice statistics
were based mainly on the Food and Agriculture Organization's World
Crop and Livestock Statistics (F AO 1987), Quarterly Bulletins of Statistics
(FAO 1988 and 1989), and the World Rice Statistics 1987 of the Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute (IRRI 1988).
RICE PRODUCTION
World Production
Global rice production hovered between a high of 484.9 million tons of
rough rice in 1988 and 377.3 million tons in 1979. The production trend
from 1979 to 1988 was marked by three distinct periods: a relatively steady
climb from 1979 through 1986, a marked decline in 1987, and a marked
2 RICE: PRODUCTION
Paddy production ( MUiion tons) Yield (t /ha)

GOOr---------------------,3.5
480
Yield 3
~--···· ..... ··
·······......·· .········
2.5
.... ······
Area
(Million ho)
2
160
·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-.,.---·-·-·-·-- 1.5
Area
260 0.5
240
~o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~o
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1988
Year
Figure 1-1. Trends in world paddy production, area, and yield, 1965-88. (Reprinted
with permission from FAO 1987, 1988, and IRRI 1988.)
increase in 1988. The rate of increase in production during this decade

(2.8% per year) was slightly lower than that of the previous decade (about
3.1% annually), even though the harvested area increased by 3.47 million
ha from 1979 to 1988. The decline during 1987 was mainly attributable to
adverse weather conditions in many rice-growing countries-a spattering
of drought and flood over wide areas. Asia experienced a drought in 1982
as well, but the impact was smaller (Fig. 1-1).
Production in Southern and Southeastern Asia

Production in southern and southeastern Asia showed three distinct
climbs: 1980 and 1981, 1983 to 1985, and 1988 (Fig. 1-2). Growth rate over
the decade averaged 4.1% yearly. Meanwhile, the harvested area leveled
off at about 83.4 million ha.
Among major producing countries in the region, Thailand maintained
a steady growth of about 4.3% per year from 1979 to 1985. India posted
an even more impressive gain of 7.1% in the same period, but production
dropped significantly in 1987. Burma has shown a significant and steady
rise since 1980. Indonesia steadily grew by more than 5.2% yearly from
OVERVIEW AND PROSPECTS OF RICE PRODUCTION 3
Milon tons
260
14·n..--.,__-.....-
IOO'---_.__ ___._ _.......__......_ _...._______.._ _....__..........
1979 'eo 'al '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 1988

Year
Figure 1-2. Paddy production in world, south-southeast Asia, and China, 1979-88.
(Reprinted with permission from IRRI 1988.)
1979 onward, following increased government subsidies and improved

production practices. Bangladesh averaged a 2% annual growth rate. Ne-
pal showed gains of slightly above 3%. Pakistan grew at 0.4%. The Philip-
pines attained self-sufficiency in 1978 but production declined during
1982-84 due to drought spells and other economic factors. Production
rose again in 1985 following a recovery in harvested area.
Production in Eastern Asia

Production in China began to rise significantly after 1970 and climbed more
steeply during 1982-84. The marked growth was achieved mainly through
higher grain yields stemming from the increased use of quick-acting nitro-
gen fertilizers, widespread use of hybrid rice, and changes in the commune
system.
Japan showed a decline in production during 1980-82. A small recov-
ery to mid-1970 levels followed.
The Republic of Korea (South Korea) made dramatic gains in 1976
when the semidwarf Tong-il variety and other interracial hybrid varieties
4 RICE: PRODUCTION
were released. The trend was sustained until 1979. Production was se-
verely cut in 1980 when cool weather and blast epidemics pushed the
production level back to that of the 1960s.
Production of North and Central America

The United States remains the principal producer in this region, contribut-
ing more than 70% of the crop. Production in the United States has been
on a continuous rise since postwar years, reaching an all-time high of 8.3
million metric tons in 1981. Production then declined, stabilizing at a level
around six million metric tons.
Production of South America

South America ranks third in the world as a rice-producing region. Brazil
remained the largest producer in South America and showed an annual
gain of about 5%, mainly from its vast upland areas. Colombia ranks as
the second largest producer, though its production leveled off after 1978.
Peru ranks as the third largest producer, having made a large jump in 1981
and maintained the gains in subsequent years.
Production in Other Regions

Africa produced 8.5 million metric tons in 1979 and attained 10.1 million
metric tons in 1987. Madagascar and Egypt are the ranking producers,
contributing 2.3 million metric tons each in 1987.
Australia produced between 0.6 and 0.7 million metric tons per year.
The total production remained rather stable during the 1980s.
The U.S.S.R. produced between 2.4 and 2.9 million metric tons during
the period. Significant growth was made during the mid-1970s and main-
tained in the following decade.
The Balance Sheet

Between 1951 and 1988 the broad regions of Asia, Africa, and South
America tripled their rice production. However, a rapid growth in human
population and increased per capita rice consumption have canceled most
of the real gains. Other factors contributing to the fluctuations in produc-
tion are weather, governmental price policies, import/export control, na-
tional agricultural research, and fertilizer prices.
The major rice-producing countries may be grouped into four cate-
gories:
1. traditional importers, such as Bangladesh, Malaysia, Madagascar,

Sri Lanka, and many African countries
2. shifters, such as Indonesia, South Korea, the Philippines, and

Vietnam
3. self-sufficient since the mid 1960s, such as Brazil, China (up to
1988), India (since 1978), and Pakistan.
4. net exporters, such as Australia, Burma, Thailand, and the United
States
RICE ECOSYSTEMS AND GRAIN YIELD
The peak in world rice production of about 484.9 million metric tons
attained in 1988 was largely achieved by Asian countries (91.29%) where
44% of the ricelands belongs to the irrigated-wetland (lowland) ecosystem,
either fully or partially irrigated. The cultivars were mainly the semidwarf
varieties and hybrid rices (grown only in China) which filled more than 70
million ha of Asian riceland. Another 27% belong to the shallow rainfed-
wetland category, where water supply and drainage range from nearly
adequate (as in Indonesia and the Philippines) to highly variable and
haphazardous (east India, Bangladesh, Indochina, and Thailand). Deepwa-
ter rice culture (exceeding 0.5 m in depth) and tidal wetland occupied
about 9% of the Asian riceland, while rainfed-dryland (upland) rice culture
followed closely at 8%. Table 1-1 shows the relative importance of the five
ecosystems in 1985 with projections for 2000.
The regional distribution of world rice production is depicted in Fig.
1-3. The United States produced about 1.4% of the world's rice but exclu-
sively under irrigation. South America produced 3.9%, of which dryland
culture (62%) was more important than irrigated and rainfed-wetland
Table 1-1. HaNested Area, Rough Rice Production, and Yield in 37 Major Rice-
Producing Developing Countries, by Ecosystem: 1985 and
Projections for 2000
PRODUCTION YIELD
Contribution
AREA (1985) (1985) (T/HA)
to Produc-
Million Million tion in 2000
Ecosystem ha % % 1985 2000 (%)
Irrigated wetland 67 49 313 72 4.7 5.8 57
Rainfed-wetland 40 29 84 19 2.1 2.9 29
Dryland (upland) 18 13 21 5 2.2 1.6 4
Deepwater/tidal wetland 13 9 19 4 1.5 2.1 10
TOTAL 138 100 437 100 3.2
Source: International Rice Research Institute (1989).
t/ha = metric tons per hectare
6 RICE: PRODUCTION
Africa _ __
(2.2%)
South Asia
(23.5%) East Asia
(45.4%)
Sou1heast Asia
(22.2%)
Figure 1-3. Regional distribution of rice production (c. 300 million MT milled rice),
1987. (Reprinted with permission from IRRI 1989.)
cultures (38%). Likewise, dryland culture in Africa (46%) shared a nearly

equal importance with wetland cultures (51%) in production, although the
dryland rice area was larger (about 60% in western Africa) but yielded less
(about 0.9 t/ha).
The annual growth rates in grain yield varied greatly from country to
country. Much of the growth was related to (1) the expansion in irrigated
areas planted to the HYVs (Dalrymple 1986), (2) governmental subsidy
and pricing policy (Herdt and Capule 1983; Barker et al. 1985; IRRI 1985,
1987; Chang 1988), and (3) weather and pest incidences (Chang 1988). On
the world average, the growth rate in grain yield during 1979-88 (2.6%)
was slightly higher than that of 1969-78 (2.0%).
During years unaffected by adverse weather or serious pest epidemics,
rice yield in a given area of irrigated culture was largely determined by
price incentive and the availability of chemical fertilizers. High yields
were sustained when government support of varying forms was provided.
Examples may be found in Japan, northern India, the United States,
the Philippines (1973-83), and Indonesia (1980-88). On the other hand,
OVERVIEW AND PROSPECTS OF RICE PRODUCTION I 7
t/ha
Ctm
3 A\lpplnes
... ·········
...····
······
o~~~~~ .... .. ....

~ ~ ~~~
1960 1970 197!5 1980 1985 1988

Year
Figure 1·4. Yield trends in north India, east India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and
China, 1960-88. (Reprinted with permission from T. T. Chang 1988.)
extreme excesses or deficits in water regimes suppress grain yields. In-

stances may be found in the waterlogged east of Indi~. the deepwater areas
of Bangladesh and Thailand, and the dryland areas of the world (Chang
1988). The yield trends in Fig. 1-4 show such contrasts.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
The rice traded in international markets during the decade (about 4% of

world production) ranged between 11.8 and 12.7 million metric tons, which
may appear relatively small when compared to wheat. However, the total
volume represented more than a 20% increase over the previous decade
and nearly doubled th~ volume of the late 1950s. Asia remained the largest
8 RICE: PRODUCTION
importing region, followed by Africa (over three million metric tons in

1985-86), Europe (two million metric tons in 1980-84), and South America
(1.6 million metric tons in 1986). Africa showed the most striking rise in
imports-the 1985-86 figures tripled those of the early 1970s and scored
a 60% increase over that of 1978.
Thailand remained as the number one exporter during the decade
(2.8-4.8 million metric tons), followed by the United States (2.3-3.1 mil-
lion metric tons), China (0.7-1.4 million metric tons), Pakistan (0.7-1.3
million metric tons), Burma and Italy (between 0.5 and 0.8 million metric
tons), and Australia, Uruguay, and Japan (between 0.1 and 0.7 million
metric tons).
Among importing countries, Indonesia ranked first (1979-83), fol-
lowed by Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, the U.S.S.R., Senegal, and the Ivory
Coast. Brazil showed highly variable imports during the period. The
Republic of Korea made the largest import in a single year: 2.58
million metric tons in 1981. Saudi Arabia has been a major importer
since 1981. Several African nations sharply cut back their imports after
1985.
The international market price showed a rapid drop following the 1974
peak (U.S.$542 for 5% broken Thai white rice) and was stable during
1978-81. A sharp decline began in 1982 and continued until the second
half of 1987 when rice price rallied. The average real price was slightly
over U.S.$200 in 1988 (Fig.1-5).
During 1986-87, when there was a surplus on the world market and
the price was at an all-time low, trade relationships among the exporting
countries (United States, Thailand, and Australia) became strained, and a
trade war between the United States on one side, and several Asian
countries, on the other, loomed. However, the widespread drought of 1987
in southern and southeastern Asia and the erratic monsoon weather of
1988 in Bangladesh and parts of India and China have greatly reduced the
reserve stocks to an all-time low, and world rice price rallied. Such is the
volatility of the international rice market.
UTILIZATION
The world's 5 billion people of today are generally better fed than the 4
billion in 1974: world population grew 1. 75% a year while the agricultural
production index and cereal yield grew 2.20 and 2.50%, respectively (WRI
1986). However, because rice can support more people per hectare of land
(Lu and Chang 1980), expansion in rice cultivation is usually accompanied
by a higher rate of population growth (Chang 1987).
The human population in the developing world has grown from 2.305
1000
/······· ..;/,. ...
......
400 800
/':......
·-.../
..,i
600
t . .·
200
..··
,...····r
/ .....
:
I l
l
~
100 200
1971 1989
Year
Figure 1-5. Trends in world rough rice (paddy) production al')d real price of rice,
1951-89. (Reprinted with permission from FAO 1988; IRRI 1988.)
billion in 1965 to 3.836 billion in 1988. About 40% of the masses depends
on rice as the primary caloric source. As population increases at a faster
rate in the developing countries than in the developed world, the share of
rice for meeting future food needs in the developing world will continue
to increase.
OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE
While world rice production has been rising at a rate nearly parallel to that
of the human population and no serious food shortage or famine was
experienced in the producing countries, the foundations of a sound and
stable rice economy have yet to be established in terms of (1) a higher
potential yield on rice farms, (2) lower production costs, (3) government
action in pricing policy, subsidy, land reform and infrastructure develop-
ment, and (4) a cushion against the short-term effects in surplus/deficit.
Since only 4% of the rice produced is traded on the international market,
10 RICE: PRODUCTION
factors such as domestic consumption and fluctuations in production

and price exert a vast influence on consumers, both within and out-
side a producing country. Stability in production and an equitable
price are equally important in raising the supply to meet an increasing
demand.
The importance of rice as the number one staple in the developing
countries will grow as the human population increases at a higher rate in
such countries as compared to the developed world. By the year 2000 rice
will be the chief source of energy for about 40% of the world's people,
thereby surpassing wheat. With a projected world population of more than
6 billion by the year 2000, 100 million metric tons of grain will be needed
to meet the demand. The need to produce an additional 1. 7% per year on
a worldwide basis and 2.1% per year by Asian countries up to year 2020,
with a limited growth in riceland area, will pose the greatest challenge
for rice researchers and allied workers in this century. Meanwhile, the
sustainability ofriceland to provide stable production is equally imperative
(Chang 1988; IRRI 1989).
Meanwhile, the improvement in human nutrition and equity in food
distribution remain as two unresolved problems in many developing coun-
tries. Uncontrolled expansion or mismanagement in rice cultivation also
present hazards to environmental quality. The combined efforts of all
sectors of society will be needed to meet the great challenges lying ahead
(Chang 1988).
REFERENCES
Barker, R., R. W. Herdt, and B. Rose. 1985. The Rice Economy ofAsia. Resources
for the Future, Washington, D.C.
Chang, T. T. 1987. The impact of rice on human civilization and population
expansion. Interdisciplinary Sci. Rev., 12(1):63-9.
Chang, T. T. 1988. Sharing the benefits of bioproduction with the developing
world. Paper presented at the Int. Union of Biological Sci. 23rd General
Assembly, Oct. 18-20, 1988, Canberra, Australia.
Dalrymple, D. G. 1986. Development and Spread of High-Yielding Rice Varieties
in Developing Countries. USAID, Washington, D.C.
Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO). 1987. World Crop and Livestock Statis-
tics, 1948-85. Rome, Italy.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 1988. Quart. Bull. Statistics 1(3).
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 1989. Quart. Bull. Statistics 2(1).
Herdt, R. W., and C. Capule. 1983. Adoption, Spread and Production Impact
of Modern Rice Varieties in Asia. Int. Rice Res. Inst. (IRRI), Los Banos,
Philippines.
Int. Rice Res. In st. (IRRI). 1985. International Rice Research: 25 Years ofPartner-
ship. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
IRRI. 1987. IRRI Strategic Planning Committee Report. IRRI, Los Banos,
Philippines.
IRRI. 1988. World Rice Statistics 1987. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
IRRI. 1989. IRRI Toward 2000 and Beyond. IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
Lu, J. J., and T. T. Chang. 1980. Rice in its temporal and spatial perspectives. In
Rice: Production and Utilization, edited by B.S. Luh, l-74. Westport, CT:
AVI.
World Res. Inst. (WRI). 1986. New York: Basic Books.
2
Rice Plant Growth and
Development
Benito S. Vergara
The life cycle of the rice plant is generally 100 to 210 days; the mode falls
between 110 and 150 days. In temperate climates, the average duration
from sowing to harvest is about 130 to 150 days. Cultivars with growth
duration of 150 to 210 days are usually photoperiod sensitive and planted
in the deepwater areas. Temperature and day length are the two environ-
mental factors affecting the development of the rice plant, which can be
divided into three main phases (Vergara 1970):
vegetative phase-from seed germination to panicle initiation

reproductive phase-from panicle initiation to anthesis
ripening phase-from anthesis to full maturity
These main phases overlap each other within a rice hill or a rice crop.
Physiologically, ripening does not begin until 3 weeks after fertilization.
Figure 2-1 illustrates the growth behavior in the tropics of a cultivar
(IRS) maturing in 120 days compared with one (Peta) maturing in 150
days. Reproductive (35 days) and ripening phases (25-35 days) are fairly
constant for these cultivars in the tropics. The difference in total growth
duration is in the vegetative phase, whose length may be inherent or
dependent on the sensitivity of the cultivar to day length and temperature
(Vergara 1970; Vergara and Chang 1976).
13
14 RICE: PRODUCTION
120- Day var iety

/-----------------
,/ , I 1
~1 I '
-c:
0
/
a: /
/
/
Days from sowing 10 harvest 120 days
150-Day variety
-
/
/
/
/
/
I :. /
01 /
/
"iii /
I:. /
/
c0 /
/
/
il:
/
/
Days from sowing 10 harvest 150 days
c
0
a> '; ; ...
-o
.!:.' E
"'>
Q)
c ... 0
oo
a.. ..... I
I I
I
ReproducTive
VegeTative Phose Phose Ripening Phose
85 days 35 days 30 days
RICE PlANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 15
The growth duration ofiR8 may extend to 180 to 200 days in temperate
areas or at high altitudes in the tropics. Low temperature affects mainly
the vegetative and ripening phases. Ripening may be prolonged from 25
to 30 days in the tropics to as long as 60 days in temperate regions.
VEGETATIVE PHASE
Seedling growth varies from 0 to 90 days, depending upon the method of

sowing. Rice can be sown directly onto dry land or broadcast onto puddled
soil or soil prepared dry but flooded with 10 em of water. It can be sown
on a dry or wet bed nursery and then transplanted 20 to 70 days later, or
grown in a special dapog nursery and transplanted after 11 days. Some-
times rice is sown on a wet bed nursery, transplanted to a bigger wet bed
nursery a month later, and retransplanted to the main field after another
month (double transplanting).
Transplanting is still common in Asia although direct seeding, com-
monly practiced in the United States is becoming popular.
Tillering
The production of tillers and leaves are the main visible changes during
the vegetative phase. In the tropics, the maximum tiller number is reached
40 to 60 days after transplanting, depending on the cultivar, plant spacing,
and fertility level. In temperate areas, where seeds are drilled or broadcast
densely, tillering ability is not as important, and the maximum tiller number
stage (one or three tillers) is reached within 30 days after seedling emer-
gence.
The maximum tiller stage is usually followed by a decrease in tillers
per unit area. The tiller number may decrease as much as 60% in some
tropical cultivars or as low as 10% in the high-yielding temperate and
tropical culti vars.
Tiller number and the resulting panicle number per unit area are the
main components of grain yield.
Leafing
Leaves are produced on the main culm at an average of one per week
but can be modified by environmental factors. The interval between leaf
production is shorter during early growth stage (4-5 days) and longer at
later stages (8-9 days). Cultivars differ in the number of leaves on the
16 RICE: PRODUCTION
IRS PETA
Figure 2-2. Variation in number of leaves on main culm.
main culm (Fig. 2-2). High yielding cultivars in the tropics have 14 to 18
leaves, similar to most of the temperate cultivars. Low temperature and
long days increase the number ofleaves produced before panicle initiation.
The longest leaf on the main culm is the fifth leaf from the top (Fig. 2-
3); it develops before panicle initiation. Succeeding leaves are generally
smaller. Upper leaves have a longer life than lower leaves.
REPRODUCTIVE PHASE
Panicle Initiation
The reproductive phase may begin before, at about the same time as, or
after the maximum tiller number is reached. The reproductive phase is
marked by the initiation of the panicle primordium and its development.
In the tropics, panicle initiation occurs approximately 70 to 75 days
RICE PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 17
Panicle
formation Flowering
to t 60t
t t
80
60 Days .after 10
50
SOWing
t
E
~ 40
.s::
c.
-
c
~ 30
0
OJ
...J
20
10
•
I
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Leaf
number
Dead leaves at the time Greel" leaves

of flowering (0 -1 OJ of flowering
Figure 2-3. Leaf development.
before maturity. This period varies more in temperate areas where low
temperature can lengthen the ripening period.
For photoperiod-sensitive cultivars planted during the regular season,
panicle initiation, panicle emergence, and anthesis occur uniformly.
Within 5 days after initial heading, exsertion of panicles is complete.
Photoperiod-insensitive cultivars take longer to reach 100% heading.
The young panicle becomes visible to the unaided eye 10 to 13 days
after initiation. At this stage, it is 1 to 2 mm long with a fuzzy or spongy
tip. This marks the beginning of the booting stage as the developing panicle
causes the flag leaf sheath to swell. As panicle development continues,
the spikelets become distinguishable.
Internode Elongation
The internode elongation stage differs by cultivar. With the early-maturing
cultivars, elongation usually begins after panicle initiation. Panicle emer-
gence, however, will not proceed until the internode elongates. In late-
maturing cultivars (more than 150 days), internode elongation may begin
before the reproductive phase.
18 RICE: PRODUCTION
Figure 2-4. Spikelet anthesis.
Heading Stage
Complete emergence of the panicle from the flag leaf sheath occurs within
24 h. Some panicles exsert earlier than others, so 5 to 15 days may be
required for heading of most of the tillers in transplanted rice. In densely
broadcast rice, 100% heading may occur in a shorter time. Low tempera-
ture may result in incomplete exsertion of the panicle, especially in tropical
lowland cultivars, because the last internode fails to elongate.
Anthesis occurs a day after panicle emergence, with the protrusion of
the first dehiscing anthers in the terminal spikelets on the panicle branches.
Anthesis of all the spikelets on a panicle may be completed in 7 days (Fig.
2-4). An thesis usually starts at the top of the panicle. Cultivars with large
panicles show the highest percentage of unfilled spikelets on the lower
third of the panicle.
RICE PlANT GRO\IVTH AND DEVELOPMENT 19
On a clear day, anthesis starts between 1000 and 1400 h, or even earlier
on warm days. Cold or humid days will delay anthesis for several days.
Rice is generally self-pollinated.
RIPENING PHASE
Ripening is the phase from heading to maturity. It may take 25 to 35 days

in the tropics or 30 to 60 days in temperate areas. Grain development is a
continuous process, and the grain undergoes distinct changes before it
matures fully (Fig. 2-5).
The consistency of the caryopsis (the starchy portion of the grain) is
at first watery; later it turns milky, then into soft dough, and finally, into
hard dough.
The individual grain is mature when the caryopsis is fully developed
and is hard, clear, and free from greenish tint. The crop is considered ripe
when more than 90% of the grains in the panicles are fully ripened.
Seven days are needed for all the spikelets in a panicle to open; full
maturity for the whole panicle does not occur until30 days after anthesis.
Again, several extra days are needed for all grains to ripen because panicle
exsertion occurs over several days.
As the grain ripens, the bottom leaves senesce and turn yellow. In
Anther 2 3 4 5 6 7
Opening
8 9 10 12 14 21 30 Days
Milk Dough Fully
Stage Stage Ripe
Figure 2-5. Grain development.
20 RICE: PRODUCTION
some cultivars, the culm and upper leaves may remain green even after
the grains have ripened.
Low temperature increases the ripening period of rice grain and is
thought to be partially responsible for the heavier and more fully filled
grains of rice crops in temperate areas.
Under favorable moisture and fertility, new tillers, which constitute
the ratoon crop, may grow from the stubble of harvested plants. Ratooning
is not popular in the tropics because virus disease often occurs.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Rice is classified into indica,japonica, andjavanica types. Japonica-culti-

vars from the United States, Korea, Japan, and some European coun-
tries-generally tolerate low temperature. In the mountainous regions of
the tropics, indica types with some degree of cold tolerance are also
planted.
The adverse effects of low temperature are low germination, leaf
discoloration, stunting, incomplete panicle exsertion, increased degener-
ated spikelets, failure in anthesis, increased spikelet sterility, increased
grain shattering, and delayed heading.
Low temperature at the panicle initiation stage and at anthesis is most
damaging to grain yields. Low temperatures generally reported in the
literature range from 13 to 2l°C.
High day temperatures (35-40°C) experienced in rice areas in Iran,
Egypt, and India, can also harm the rice plant. High temperatures during
the vegetative stage can result in reduced tillering and degeneration of
young leaf tips. During panicle initiation and formation, high temperature
can reduce the number of spikelets and degenerate those that are formed.
High temperature at flowering causes high spikelet sterility and is most
damaging to rice.
Attempts to determine optimum temperatures for germination, seed-
ling growth, tillering, panicle initiation and development, anther de-
hiscence, and ripening have generally not been especially useful. Optimum
temperatures vary not only by cultivar but with the plant status before the
temperature regime. Having the optimum temperature for certain growth
phases of the rice plant probably is not necessary for obtaining high grain
yields. For example, the optimum temperature for leaf area production
may result in heavy mutual shading at an early stage of growth and actually
reduce grain yields.
Although low temperature slows the translocation of carbohydrates,
it lowers respiratory consumption of carbohydrates, and the prolonged
ripening phase results in more filled spikelets. Temperatures lower than
RICE PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 21
the critical 20°C, however, may result in imperfect grains; a "notched

belly" develops (Nagata and Kobayashi 1957).
Generally, rice grains shatter easily from the panicle and grain dor-
mancy is shorter when the temperatures during ripening are low (Vergara
and Visperas 1971).
The better rice cultivars have a higher harvest index (grain yield/total
dry matter produced). At lower temperatures, the higher harvest index
could account for higher yields in temperate areas. In the tropics, the rice
plant produces more straw than grain.
High temperature accelerates grain ripening, resulting in prematurity.
The main result is the inability of the spikelet to serve as a sink (Aimi et
al. 1959; Nagata et al. 1966; Bhattacharya 1970). Prematurity may result
in partially chalky and milk-white kernels and thicker bran and aleurone
layers (Nagata and Ebata 1960; Nagata et al. 1961, 1966).
EFFECT OF PHOTOPERIOD ON DEVELOPMENT
The main effect of day length on the rice plant is on panicle initiation and
development. Traditional cultivars are generally photoperiod-sensitive
and are classified as short-day plants.
Most recent tropical cultivars have been bred to be photoperiod-
insensitive. Their growth duration remains nearly constant when they
are planted. Photoperiod insensitivity also increases adaptability. These
cultivars can be planted at different latitudes without much change in
growth duration unless temperature becomes a limiting factor.
Photoperiod-sensitive cultivars are still grown in areas where water
remains on the field for long periods because of natural flooding. The rice
plant does not initiate the panicle primordium until the floodwater recedes,
insuring harvest when the water level is low or the field is almost dry.
Photoperiod sensitivity gives these cultivars their necessary growth dura-
tion of 150 to 200 days.
REFERENCES
Aimi, R., H. Sawamura, and S. Konno. 1959. Physiological studies on the mecha-
nism of crop plants. The effect of the temperature upon the behavior of
carbohydrates and some related enzymes during the ripening of the rice plant.
Proc. Crop Sci. Soc. Japan. 27: 405-7. (Japanese with English summary.)
Bhattacharya, B. 1970. Effects of various ranges of day and night temperatures at
the ripening period on the grain production in rice plants. J. Faculty Agricul-
ture Kyushu Univ. 16: 85-140.
Nagato, K., and M. Ebata. 1960. Effects of temperature in the ripening periods
22 RICE: PRODUCTION
upon the development and qualities of lowland rice kernels. Proc. Crop Sci.
Soc. Japan. 28:275-8. (Japanese with English summary.)
Nagato, K., M. Ebata, and Y. Kishi. 1966. Effects of high temperature during
ripening period on the qualities of Indica rice. Proc. Crop Sci. Soc. Japan.
35:239-44. (Japanese with English summary.)
Nagato, K., M. Ebata, andY. Kono. 1961. On the adaptability of rice cultivars to
high temperature in the ripening periods. Proc. Crop Sci. Soc. Japan.
29:337-40. (Japanese with English summary.)
Nagato, K., andY. Kobayashi. 1957. Studies on the occurrence of notched-belly
kernels (Dogire-mai) in rice plants. Proc. Crop Sci. Soc. Japan. 26:13-14.
Vergara, B.S. 1970. Plant growth and development. In Rice Production Manual.
Univ. of the Philippines, Laguna.
Vergara, B.S., and T. T. Chang. 1976. The flowering response of the rice plant to
photoperiod: A review of the literature. Int. Rice Res. lnst. Tech. Bull. 8. Los
Banos, Philippines.
Vergara, B. S., and R. M. Visperas. 1971. Effect of temperature on the physiology
and morphology of the rice plant. Int. Rice Res. In st., Los Banos, Philippines.
3
Genetics and Breeding
Te-Tzu Chang
Cheng-Chang Li
National Chung-Hsing University
The spectacular rise in rice production in the years following World War
II, mainly in Asia, stemmed from expanded irrigation areas, the increased
use of fertilizers, effective control of pests, double rice cropping, and the
widespread adoption of improved genetic materials. The combined use of
high-yielding varieties (HYVs) and nitrogen fertilizers has made possible
the expression of high yield in irrigated areas. These two components have
contributed about one-half of the increased rice production in southern
and southeastern Asia since the late 1960s. Varieties of short growth
duration that are insensitive to the photoperiod have allowed year-round
planting and multiple cropping. During the same period, the United States
tripled its rice production.
The adoption of semidwarf HYV s triggered the beginning of the ''Green
Revolution" among rice farmers in tropical Asia beginning in 1967-68. China
also turned to the semidwarfs. The development of hybrid rice in China since
the early 1970s has set off a second Green Revolution in that country.
GENETICS
Genetic diversity and genetic information provide the foundation for all
sound and efficient plant breeding programs. The first genetical study on
23
24 RICE: PRODUCTION
rice was probably made by Van der Stok (c. 1908). Since then, over a
thousand publications on inheritance studies have appeared in the rice
literature, dealing largely with Mendelian analyses. Only a relatively small
proportion of the papers dealt with traits of economic importance (see
Chang 1966). It remained for the simply inherited recessive gene (sd 1) in
the Chinese semidwarfs to provide rice breeders with the impetus to
achieve unprecedented progress in rice breeding. The cytoplasmic male
sterility found in a Chinese wild rice plant fueled further yield increases.
Among the cereals, the diverse and rich rice germplasm has seen the
greatest exploitation by man.
Morphologic Traits
Pigmentation of plant parts
The most frequently studied subject has been the inheritance of anthocya-
nin pigments on different plant parts, although the color manifestations
are of secondary economic importance. Rice cultivars vary greatly in
pigmentation, distribution, and intensity, thus providing a fascinating array
of materials for taxonomic or genetical studies. Anthocyanin pigments can
be found in all the vegetative organs and several floral parts but not in the
embryo or endosperm.
The genetic control of anthocyanin pigments consists of a complemen-
tary gene system of three basic genes (C, A, and P-) and the occasional
participation of an inhibitor gene. In tropical varieties other modifying
genes may also operate. In the C-A-P- gene system, Cis the basic gene
for chromogen production, A controls the conversion of chromogen into
anthocyanin, and P- (to be specified asP, Pau, Pg, Pin, PI, Pta, Pig, Pr,
Prp, Ps, Psh, Pu, Px, or Pw) determines the site or sites at which the
pigments will appear. Multiple alleles and different dominance levels have
been found in the C, A, and PI loci. Inhibitors for P, PI, and Pta have been
identified. The gene for apiculus color (P) has been helpful in analyzing
the inheritance of pigmentation in other vegetative organs (Nagao 1951).
The complexity of pigmentation patterns in Japanese testers has been
described in the earlier edition of this chapter (Chang and Li 1980) and
updated by Kinoshita (1986).
The pleiotropic effect is shown by the P and PI genes. For instance,
PI also affects pigment distribution in the leaf sheath, pulvinus, auricles,
ligule, internode, node, and rachis.
The color of the different layers of seedcoat can be affected by different
genes or sets of genes: Rc and Rd in complementary fashion; C, A, and
Prp; p[w and C.
The probable number of genes controlling the pigmentation expression
in the various organs may vary from two to seven. Among the morphologi-
GENETICS AND BREEDING 25
cally diverse varieties of India, as many as 11 genes may be involved in

the color segregation of three crosses (see Chang 1964).
Several nonanthocyanin pigments control hull colors. A gold hull is
inherited as a simple recessive (gh), a white hull as a single dominant (Wh).
In the presence of Gh, the Hm, Hi, Hg, and Hf alleles confer other dark
hull colors. Brown furrows on glumes are controlled by a single dominant,
Bf; brown spots on glumes are due to Bf; and a black hull by complemen-
tary genes, Bha and Bhb (USDA 1963).
Pubescence
Pubescence on the surface of leaf blades and hull is dominant to glabrous
(gl) (Ramiah and Rao 1953; Jodon 1955). However, some varieties may
have hairs on the blade surface, while the glume surfaces are smooth. A
smooth hull is a desirable trait in mechanically harvested and processed
rice. It has been incorporated into all varieties grown in the southern
United States (Adair et al. 1973).
Dwarfs and semidwarfs

Dwarfs characterized by shortened internodes and undersized grains are
generally controlled by single recessive genes (d), but independent genes
(d 1, d2 , etc.) govern different types (Jones 1933; Nagao 1951). Double
dwarfs or intermediate types may be obtained from dwarf x dwarf crosses
(Akemine 1925). In one case, a single dominant controls the dwarf
character (Sugimoto 1923). Most dwarfs respond to gibberellic acid. The
discrete monogenic inheritance of the Japanese dwarfs was expressed
when they were crossed with Japanese cultivars (cvs.) of intermediate
height, but such segregation may not be found in crosses with tall varieties
of the tropics (Loresto and Chang 1978). From crosses of tall indica x
Japanese dwarfs and of tall indica cvs. x Japanese cvs., it appears that
the dwarfs carried another recessive inhibitor for short height (i-1) which
was also present in the background of the Japanese cultivars (Loresto and
Chang 1978). On the other hand, an intermediate statured tropical variety
such as Baok may also carry a dominant inhibitor to tall height, I-T
(Balakrishna Rao et al. 1972).
Intermediate statured dwarfs with normal panicles and grains were
frequently found in irradiated progenies, mostly under monogenic control.
The genetic control of agronomically useful semidwarfs will be discussed
in the section on quantitative traits in this chapter. Updated lists of dwarfs
and semidwarfs may be found in the Rice Genetics Newsletter (vol. 3,
1986).
26 RICE: PRODUCTION
Awning
Different genetic postulates have been made to interpret the inheritance
of awning when parents not only differ in awn length but on the presence
of awns on different parts of the panicle. In Japanese varieties, from one
to three genes (An 1, An 2 , and An 3) with cumulative effect could be involved
in varying degrees of awning (Nagao and Takahashi 1942), as follows:
long or full awn An 1 An 2 An 3 or An 1 An 2 an 3

medium awn An 1 an 2 An 3 or An 1 an 2 an 3
short awn an 1 An 2 An 3 or an 1 An 2 an 3
tip awn an 1 An 2 An 3 or an 1 An 2 an 3
awnless an 1 an 2 an 3
In Chinese varieties, F 2 ratibs of 3 : 1, 9 : 7, and 15 : 1 have been re-

ported (Kuang et al. 1946).
Panicles
Compact or dense panicles behaved as a single dominant (Dn) over lax or
normal panicles, while in other studies lax panicles (Lx) were dominant
over normal panicles (USDA 1963). In some studies, F 2 ratios of9: 7, with
the dense panicle either dominant or recessive, have been reported (Ghose
et al. 1960). Spreading panicle branches (spr) behaved as a recessive to
the nonspreading type (USDA 1963).
Grains
A round or extremely short spikelet (Rk) has been reported to be dominant
over the slightly longer oval type (Ramiah and Rao 1953) involving one
gene (Chao 1928) or as many as four complementary genes (Kadam and
D'Cruz 1960). A large-grained mutant behaved as a simple recessive to
the normal (Ramiah and Rao 1953). Extreme variants such as minute (Mi)
and long grains (Lk-f) are inherited in a Mendelian manner (Takeda in
IRRI 1990c). Wide and continuous variations in the grain dimensions
of commercial varieties suggest that grain size and shape are complex
quantitative traits.
Other traits controlled by Mendelian genes

Genetic information on many other morphologic mutants or variants of
largely academic interest were summarized in Table 3.1 of the earlier
edition of this work (Chang and Li 1980). Descriptions of such mutant
traits are given by Chang and Bardenas (1965). Periodic updatings of
gene symbols and related genetic stocks are given in the Rice Genetics
Newsletter (1984 and onward).
Quantitative Traits
Plant stature
Evidence of quantitative inheritance may be detected in nearly all of the
traits that have economic importance. However, traits of a quantitative
nature have not received sufficient attention from rice researchers. On the
other hand, several truly quantitative traits have been oversimplified as
qualitative or oligogenic cases of inheritance.
Ikeno (1919; see Ramiah 1933) was probably the first rice worker to
recognize the quantitative nature of plant height in one of his crosses.
Ramiah (1933) also found both oligogenic and continuous segregations for
plant height from different crosses. Genetical studies after the 1950s were
aided by biometrical techniques in the interpretation of quantitative data.
Plant stature is such an important trait because it is related to the
harvest index, growth duration, nitrogen responsiveness, and lodging re-
sistance. The short culm length of the Chinese semidwarfs (elm in the
tropics) is primarily controlled by one pair of recessive alleles (sd 1) which
expresses potently in crosses with tall tropical varieties such as Peta
(Chang et al. 1965; Shen et al. 1965; Aquino and Jennings 1966). The
quantitative and rather complex nature of semidwarfism is indicated by:
1. an incomplete dominance of tallness in the F 1 hybrid,

2. a varying number of modifiers (minor genes of extremely unequal or
oppositional effect) affecting the expression of the major recessive
gene in sister selections homozygous for the sd 1 alleles,
3. some other crosses involving moderately tall and semidwarf par-
ents which have failed to produce the F 2 ratio of3 tall: I semidwarf,
indicating the interaction between sd 1 and other genes in the back-
ground of the tall parents.
The recessive gene in the Peta/1-geo-tze cross, however, showed a

high heritability estimate of 71 to 84% (Chang et al. 1965). The recessive
nature of the semidwarfing gene not only facilitates the selection for true
breeding F 2 plants, but also aids in recovering the desired combination of
semidwarfism with erect leaves, high tillering, and early maturity (see
Chang and Tagumpay 1970).
Intercrosses of hundreds of short-statured accessions in the IRRI
germ plasm collection and the analysis of parental, F 1, and F 2 data have
led to the following findings:
28 RICE: PRODUCTION
1. A great majority of the semidwarfs share the sd 1 locus. A high

proportion of induced mutants also involved this readily mutable
locus.
2. The sd 1 gene is a compound-complex locus and shows fine struc-
ture of pseudo-alleles, i.e., certain semidwarf/semidwarf crosses
may yield a small number of tall or intermediate-statured F2 recom-
binants. The F 2 data suggest that when the sd 1 alleles are in the
trans arrangement, they may result in tall progenies (Chang et al.
1985).
Between parents that do not differ markedly in height, polymeric

genes or polygenes determine the differences in plant height. In such
crosses, tall height generally showed partial dominance to short stature.
Plant height and growth duration are positively correlated in intermediate
to tall genotypes (see Chang and Li 1980 for citations).
Lodging resistance
Path analysis of lodging resistance in different vanettes and crosses
showed the significant contributions to straw strength from plant height,
leafsheath wrapping of the lower internodes, the length of the two basal
internodes, and the cross-sectional area of culm tissue at the basal in-
ternodes. Plant height ranks as the primary causal factor. In a tall/dwarf
cross, height was negatively correlated with the lodging resistance factor
(cLr) of the culms (r = -0. 71); however, in a tall/intermediate-tall cross,
the correlation between height and cLr decreased to an r value of -0.58
(Chang 1967). Information on character association in the above crosses
was summarized by Chang and Vergara (1972).
Plant type
The component traits that make up a plant type are culm length, tiller
number, culm angle, culm stiffness, leaf dimensions and angles at various
growth stages, and panicle characteristics (length, weight, density, etc.).
These traits affect the stand geometry under different spacing and fertilizer
levels and determine nitrogen responsiveness, harvest index, and grain
yield. The HYVs of the tropics combine 100-cm height (or slightly less),
high tillering capacity, erect and sturdy culms, moderately short and erect
leaves of medium width, moderately heavy grains (3 g/100 or over) and a
high harvest index (c. 0.5). See Chandler (1969) and Yoshida et al. (1972)
for detailed discussion. The plant type of tall traditional varieties is con-
trasted with that of the HYV s in Fig. 3-1.
The angle of the lower leaves in crosses involving parents of con-
trasting plant types turns out to be a dynamic trait in that the angles of F 1
I I'
Figure 3-1. Contrasting plant 1ypes. Lett: Traditional varie1y with long and droopy
leaves, tall weak stems, late maturrty, susceptibili1y to lodging when
heavily fertilized, and low yield potential. Right: Semidwart varie1y with
high tillering abili1y, short erect leaves, early maturi1y, stiff culms, respon-
siveness to high nitrogen rates. and high yield potential.
plants are predominantly droopy at the juvenile stage, but the leaf angles
of F 2 plants attain a nearly normal distribution at heading, with slightly
more erect leaf progenies in the F 2 populations (see Chang and Vergara
1972). In several crosses, the horizontal flag leaves show partial dominance
to erect ones (Chang and Vergara 1972). In the progenies of a tall/semi-
dwarf cross, erect flag leaves in semidwarf lines show the largest correla-
tion value with grain yield; in intermediate and tall lines , erect leaves
below the flag leaf are associated with higher yield levels (Chang and
Tagumpay 1970).
Leaf length, leaf width, and total leaf area show nearly normal distribu-
tion in some crosses but also indicate complex gene interactions in other
crosses (Kawano and Takahashi 1969; Chang and Vergara 1972).
Tiller number and panicle number are positively correlated, although
the ratio of panicles to tillers may vary among cultivars and is subject to
30 RICE: PRODUCTION
environmental influence. The quantitative nature of tillering ability was

indicated by the early studies of Ramiah and Rao (1953). The number of
panicles per plant has been shown to be largely controlled by additive
gene action. High panicle number is partially dominant to a low count (Wu
1968; Li and Chang 1970; Li 1975). Maternal effect on panicle number has
been reported by Wu (1968).
In diallel crosses, the panicle number is controlled by both additive
and dominance effects. High panicle number is partially dominant to a low
count. However, different parental arrays vary in the order of dominance
and different parents carry unequal proportions of dominant and recessive
alleles (Wu 1968; Li and Chang 1970; Li 1975).
Differences in panicle length are largely controlled by additive gene
action with dominance at some loci. Long panicles are partially dominant
to short ones (Wu 1968; Li and Chang 1970; Li, 1975). Panicle length shows
positive correlation with plant height and growth duration (Chandraratna
1964; Chang et al. 1973).
The number of primary branches on a panicle appears to be partly
controlled by additive genes, but it is also affected by complex gene
interactions (Wu 1968).
The number of spikelets on a panicle partly determines the density of
the panicle. The additive effect and partial dominance confers a high
spikelet number in diallel crosses. The direction of dominance varies from
cross to cross (Li and Chang 1970; Li 1975). In some Indian varieties, lax
panicles are monogenically dominant to compact ones (Parnell et al. 1922;
Ramiah 1930), while other crosses show F 2 ratios of 9 lax:7 compact and
7 lax:9 compact (Ghose et al. 1960).
Panicle exsertion varies from completely enclosed to partly enclosed
and from exserted to fully exserted (see Chang and Bardenas 1965). The
extreme types of poor exsertion may be controlled by three recessive
genes (Sethie et al. 1937). Continuous variation due to polygenes appears
more plausible in other crosses (Ramiah 1932).
Grain characteristics
Grain dimensions are traits of economic importance, but genetical studies
related to size and shape are rather limited in number and scope. Genetic
postulates on grain length vary from monogenic (Chao 1928; Ramiah and
Parthasarathy 1933), digenic (Bollich 1957), trigenic (Ramiah and Partha-
sarathy 1933), to essentially polygenic inheritance (Jones et al. 1935; Mori-
naga et al. 1943; Mitra 1962; Somrith et al. 1979). Dave (1939) obtained
the following order of dominance when discrete segregation patterns were
observed: long > medium > short > very short, although in other cases,
short was dominant to long (USDA 1963). In the case of polygenic inheri-
tance, both additive and dominance effects are detected (Somrith et a!.
1979), although the direction of dominance varies from one cross to an-
other (Jones et a!. 1935; Somrith et a!. 1979).
Grain width shows polygenic (Ramiah and Parthasarathy 1933; Jones
et a!. 1935) or polymeric (three to five genes) inheritance with narrow
spikelet partially dominant over broad spikelet (Bollich 1957).
Grain shape is expressed by the ratio of length to width. The ratio
showed essentially normal distribution in three crosses (Nakata and Jack-
son 1973; Somrith eta!. 1979). Long grain and slender shape are frequently
correlated (Ramiah and Parthasarathy 1933; Somrith eta!. 1979), although
exceptions are also known (Sakai and Pinto 1959).
Grain thickness also appear to be under polygenic control (Nakata
and Jackson 1973).
Grain weight (estimated by the total weight of 100 grains) shows an
essentially normal distribution in the F 2 generation (Chandraratna and
Sakai 1960; Somrith eta!. 1979) and partial dominance with both unequal
potency and additive effect (Li and Chou 1986), although some degree of
nonallelic interaction effect has been detected (Somrith eta!. 1979; Li and
Chou 1986). The maternal influence on grain weight has been reported
(Chandraratna and Sakai 1960; Somrith et a!. 1979). Large grain size
is positively correlated with seedling vigor, alpha amylase activity, and
seedling respiration rate (Lee eta!. 1986; Chen et a!. 1986).
Heritability estimates and character associations

Heritability estimates of economic traits based on F 2 or subsequent genera-
tions show the following decreasing order in magnitude: number of days
from seeding to heading (range: 53-95%), spikelet length (7-91%), plant
height (32-93%), panicle length (25-84%), spikelet width (8-69%), grain
weight (40-60%), number of grains per panicle (24-33%), panicle weight
(18-35%), panicles per plant (9-72%), tillers per plant (10-35%), and grain
yield per plant (8-22%) (see Chang and Li 1980 for citations).
An increasing number of research papers dealing with heritability
estimates and character associations has recently appeared. The findings
vary considerably among experiments. It may be cautioned here that, for
estimating heritability, the data should come from crosses evaluated in
replicated trials and not from cultivars alone, so that the environmental
impact can also be assessed. Some of the reported character associations
were poorly chosen because the function of one trait was physiologically
related to that of the other. Moreover, the findings vary considerably from
one cross to another because of divergent genetic backgrounds of the
32 RICE: PRODUCTION
parents. The researcher should select the parents for crossing with a
thorough understanding of the contributing factors, and the reader should
approach all papers with this caution in mind.
Growth Characteristics and Ecological Adaptation

Growth duration
Rice cultivars vary greatly in their growth duration and reactions to
changes in day length and temperature. The growth duration of a cultivar
not only determines its suitability in a particular crop season at a given
location but also affects its range of adaptiveness at different locations.
The description of earliness or lateness is not as biologically meaningful
as the characterization of the components of growth duration: the basic
vegetative phase (BVP), the photoperiod-sensitive phase (PSP), and the
optimum photoperiod at which the shortest growth duration in a photo-
period-sensitive genotype is obtained (see Chandraratna 1964; Vergara
and Chang 1985). By studying diverse germplasm under controlled photo-
periods, varieties may be categorized as completely insensitive, essentially
insensitive, weakly sensitive, and strongly sensitive (see Chang and Verg-
ara 1971; Vergara and Chang 1985).
In crosses between insensitive parents differing markedly in BVP,
the F 1 plants frequently show dominance or overdominance of earliness
because a series of dominant Ef genes control short BVP. The polymeric
Ef series may range from one gene to several genes and are cumulative
but unequal in effect (Chang et al. 1969). They belong to the anisomeric
class of Grant (1964) which shows cumulative action and differential
strength. The Efgenes may explain the monogenic (Hector 1922; Ramiah
1933) or multigenic control of heading date with earliness partially domi-
nant to lateness (Jones 1928; Kudo 1968; Khaleque and Eunus 1975). By
using isogenic lines, the Ef(or E) locus is found to be complex, involving
the dominant E allele, its recessive alleles, and other recessive alleles of
contrasting effect (If) (Tsai 1986).
The anisomeric Ef genes may also account for some of the continuous
distribution in the F 2 population which is markedly skewed toward the
early-maturing parent. In crosses involving parents differing little in
growth duration, the F 2 distributions appear essentially normal, indicating
additive gene action of many minor genes or polygenes (see Chang and Li
1980 for references).
In other crosses where photoperiodic reactions of the parents were
not determined, lateness is dominant to earliness. The F 2 distribution may
be 3late:l early or 9late:7 early (Ramiah 1933; Jones 1933). Although the
late flowering (Lf) gene or genes have been postulated to explain such F 2
segregation, the probable role of the photoperiod-sensitive gene (Se) or

genes cannot be entirely ignored.
Strong photoperiod sensitivity is controlled by one (Se) or two (Se 1
and Se 2) dominant genes (Chandraratna 1955; Kuriyama 1965; Chang et
al. 1969). TheSe genes have potent expression in that panicle initiation is
completely suppressed under long day length in spite of a short BVP as
long as the prevailing day length has not reached the critical photoperiod
(the lower limit of photoperiod at which panicle initiation will be triggered);
i.e., Se is epistatic to the Efgenes under a long photoperiod. Moreover,
an inhibitor (i-Se) may suppress the action of Se and produce an F 2 ratio
of9 sensitive:? insensitive (Chang et al. 1969). In crosses between sensitive
parents, a short critical photoperiod is dominant to a long one. Likewise,
a short optimum photoperiod appears to be dominant to a long one (Li
1970). An association between a long PSP and a short BVP and between
a short optimum photoperiod and a short critical photoperiod showed up
in several F 2 populations (Chang et al. 1969; Li 1970). In other crosses
involving distantly related parents, the F 2 ratios were reversed as 1 (sensi-
tive):3 (insensitive) or 1:15 in several crosses, suggesting the recessive
nature of photoperiod sensitivity. The complicating effects of temperature
response (Sampath and Seshu 1961) and different seeding dates may have
been involved in these crosses. The difficulty of studying photoperiod
reaction under a changing natural day length has been pointed out by
Chang et al. (1969).
In strongly sensitive/weakly sensitive crosses, the strong photoperiod
response appears to be dominant to the weak reaction in the F 1 and F 2
plants. In the F 2 populations, the strong photoperiodicity behaves as a
single dominant to the weak response. A few insensitive F 2 plants have
also been found, however (IRRI 1975).
Variable F 2 segregation patterns appear in weakly sensitive/insensi-
tive crosses. Although the distribution is continuous and the short-PSP
plants predominate in all four crosses, transgressive segregation for long
PSP is obtained in all crosses. A few strongly sensitive progenies were
recovered in one cross (Lin 1972; Chang and Oka 1976). On the other
hand, the segregation for BVP essentially follows the anisomeric type of
Ef gene action (Lin 1972).
Response to temperatures
While the partitioning of the growth duration into BVP and PSP under
controlled photoperiods can account for the diverse array of previous
findings on growth duration (Chang et al. 1969), the complicating effect of
temperature responses cannot be ignored. It is known that tropical varie-
ties can be retarded during the vegetative growth phase or during panicle
34 RICE: PRODUCTION
initiation if cool temperatures prevail. Varieties of the temperate zone may

show a greatly shortened vegetative growth phase and a shorter panicle
development phase if high temperatures occur at the juvenile stage.
A complex of six genes was proposed by Puke (1955) to explain
the segregation for photoperiod and temperature responses in Japanese
varieties. Late-maturing varieties have all six pairs of dominant alleles,
medium-late ones have five, and early ones have four. One of the photo-
period-sensitive genes appears to be linked with a gene for red apiculus.
However, Puke did not demonstrate the specific effect of the individual
genes. Controlled environments are needed to elucidate photoperiod by
temperature interactions (Chang and Oka 1976).
From an early-maturing variety of northern China, a modifier gene rna
is found to promote flower initiation under low temperatures in the first
crop season in Taiwan. Under higher temperatures in the second crop
season, this gene interacts with a basic gene for earliness (E) in further
reducing the vegetative growth period. Another modifier rnb (at the same
locus as rna) found in an early-maturing variety of northern Japan shows
almost the same effect on flower initiation. That rna and rnb are isoalleles
with slightly different effects is demonstrated by comparing isogenic lines
carrying those genes. The E locus could be a compound locus located on
the eighth linkage group of the Japanese testers (Tsai 1976).
The growth responses of rice varieties to low temperatures at specific
growth stages and the adverse effects are
I. the period from germination to seedling establishment-poor ger-

mination and stunted seedlings
2. the period from seedling establishment to panicle initiation-slow
seedling growth or reduced vigor and leaf discoloration
3. the period from panicle initiation to ripening-stunting, poor tiller-
ing, partial panicle exsertion, degenerated panicle tips, and spikelet
sterility; or delayed heading with irregular maturity (see IRRI 1976;
IRRI, 1979b)
Germinability under cool temperature (15°C, 59°F) is governed by four

or more dominant genes. These genes are linked with wx, d2, d6 , and 1-Bf
(Sasaki et al. 1973). In Japanese varieties, two or more dominant genes
control tolerance to low air temperatures (19°C, 66.2°F, or slightly below)
at the meiotic phase (Sakai and Shimazaki 1948). Tolerance to cool water
temperatures (18°C, 64.4°F, or slightly below) is controlled by four or more
dominant genes that have unequal potencies and unequal additive effect
(Toriyama and Futsuhara 1960; Li and Rutger 1980). Genetic correlation
of seedling vigor under cool temperatures with earliness and large seed
size has been indicated, but these traits were not correlated with adult
plant height (Li and Rutger 1980). Heritability estimates of cool tolerance
both at seedling stage (Erickson 1968; Li and Rutger 1980) and at panicle
initiation period (Futsuhara and Toriyama 1971) are high.
Growth habit
The lazy or ageotropic growth habit is inherited as a single recessive, Ia
(Jones and Adair 1938; Ramiah and Rao 1953). In other crosses, the erect
habit (er) is recessive to spreading (USDA 1963). Again, a continuous
range of variation in the culm angle and the growth stage at which the
prostration of the lower internodes begins to occur may be found among
cultivars and their hybrid progenies.
Grain shattering
The shattering of grains from the panicle is more pronounced in the wild
species, the indica race of 0. sativa, and the African rices (0. glaberrima)
than in the upland varieties,javanica and sinica (or japonica) races of 0.
sativa. In crosses between a wild strain and a cultivar, shattering was
controlled by one or two dominant genes, Sh (Ramiah and Rao 1953).
Because the degree of shattering varies continuously among cultivars, it
is not surprising to find that one report by Jones (1933) indicated the
monogenic and dominant nature of shattering in one cross, while in another
cross, difficult threshing (Th) in Japanese varieties was dominant over
easy shattering. A multigenic interpretation appears more plausible (Sethi
et al. 1937; Sakai and Niles 1957; Takahashi 1964).
The shedding character is associated with the relative degree of devel-
opment of the abscission layer between the spikelet and the pedicel.
Shedding appeared to be inversely associated with the thickness of cell
walls in the abscission layer (Nagai 1958). Shattering is generally more
serious in the dry season than in the wet season or when lowland varieties
are grown in upland culture.
Grain dormancy
Grain dormancy is essential to cultivars that mature during the raining
season. Dormancy in Japanese varieties is reported to be controlled by
two complementary genes, and high permeability of testa to water by
another gene, Sg (Takahashi 1962). In other studies, seed dormancy in
Indian varieties appears to be a dominant trait governed by a number of
genes. Determination of grain dormancy at several intervals following
harvest led to the finding that a varying number of anisomeric genes (Sdr)
control the strength and duration of dormancy (Chang and Yen 1969;
Chang and Tagumpay 1973). The contribution of the hull component to
36 RICE: PRODUCTION
dormancy appears to be controlled by one dominant gene or two comple-

mentary genes; modifiers may also be involved. The effect of pericarp
dormancy may be independent of the hull factor in tropical varieties (Seshu
and Sorrells 1986). Grain dormancy is not genetically correlated with
growth duration, although superficial character association in diverse culti-
vars has led to the postulate that early-maturing rices have no dormancy
(see Chang and Tagumpay 1973). Diffusible inhibitors from the hull of
tropical varieties that confer dormancy have been identified, consisting
mainly of nonanoic acid, or in combination with other short-chained satu-
rated fatty acids (IRRI 1988a).
Tolerance to excess water

Adaptation to deepwater or floating ability is essentially the ability of the
submerged internodes of a cultivar to elongate rapidly or to produce tillers
at the higher nodes or both. Earlier studies in India led to the postulate
that two complementary recessive genes, dw 1 and dw 2 , conferred floating
ability (Ramiah and Ramaswami 1941). Studies in Thailand also indicated
that floating ability is a recessive trait. Strong elongation ability is associ-
ated with tall plant stature but not with photoperiod sensitivity (Precha-
chart and Jackson, 1975). A recent study using 20-day-old seedlings indi-
cates the action of a dominant gene (E[) for the floating characteristic.
When El is combined with the tall height gene (Sd 1) for adult plants in a
complementary manner, the trait is fully expressed in the tall and elongat-
ing varieties (Thakur and HilleRisLambers 1989).
Tolerance to plant submergence under floodwater is also a desirable
trait in monsoonal Asia. Varieties tolerant to submergence do not neces-
sarily have good elongation ability. The two traits appear to be independent
of each other (IRRI 1976a). Both internode elongation ability and submer-
gence tolerance appear to be complex traits (see IRRI 1982). In an 8 x
8 diallel cross, tolerance to submergence was marked by additive and
dominance effects (Haque et al. 1989).
Resistance to water deficit

Drought resistance in dryland (upland) culture has been identified as a
complex and growth stage-specific trait largely associated with a deep and
thick root system, enhanced ability to retain tissue turgor under water
stress, high cuticular resistance and stomatal resistance to water loss,
plasticity in leaf rolling and unrolling, and early maturity (Chang and
Loresto 1986).
In the roots of mature plants, high root number is generally dominant
to low; thick roots behave as a dominant trait in some crosses and a
recessive trait in others. Maximum root length is a dominant trait in crosses
between dryland varieties but shows recessiveness when a semidwarf

parent is involved. All the root characters indicate multigenic control.
Positive correlation is obtained between the deep-and-thick root system
and the tall height, low tillering, and long-panicle plant type (see Chang et
al. 1986). A larger number of xylem vessels and greater xylem vessel
areas are associated with thicker roots. A high xylem vessel number is a
dominant trait with moderately high heritability and is positively associ-
ated with root length (Bashar et al. 1990).
The root pulling resistance (the vertical force required to pull a plant
from the soil) is also an expression of a strong root system and is related
to field drought resistance. Genetic studies indicate F 1 heterosis in all
three crosses involving high/high, low/high, or intermediate/intermediate
combination. Dominant and additive alleles generally govern root pulling
resistance. Heritability was rather low (39-47%), however (Ekanayake et
al. 1985).
Disease Resistance
Disease problems have been greatly increased by the recent practice of
intensive rice cultivation in irrigated areas and compounded by continuous
multiple cropping. Padwick's 1950 book on rice diseases listed 24 parasitic
diseases and did not include a single virus disease. The roster of diseases
grew to 65 in the mid-1980s and included five viruses (see Chang 1984).
Under the tropical climate, pathogens do not necessarily go through the
primary and secondary cycles of infection and, therefore, inoculum builds
up rapidly.
Because of the large number of research publications, the known
genes for host resistance to major diseases are summarized below in genic
formulas. Recent reviews have been provided by Khush and Virmani
(1985) and Ou (1985).
1. Bacterial blight: Xa-1, Xa-2, Xa-3, and Xa-kg in Japanese varie-
ties; Xa-3, Xa-4, xa-5, Xa-6 (allelic to Xa-3), Xa-7, xa-8, xa-9(?),
Xa-10, Xa-11, Xa-12, xa-13, Xa-14, Xa-16, Xa-17, and Xa-18 in
tropical varieties (also see Sidhu et al. 1978; Ogawa and Yama-
moto 1986; Rice Genetics Newsletter 1989).
2. Bacterial leaf streak: one to three genes.
3. Blast: Pi 1, Pi2 , Pi 11 , Pi 12 , and Pi 13 with additive effect; Pi-a, Pi-b,
Pi-i, Pi-k, Pi-t, Pi-ta, and Pi-z in Japanese varieties; Pi22 , Pi 25 for
seedling reactions; one to three dominant genes for neck reaction,
two of which also control seedling resistance; one major gene and
minor genes or additive genes for field resistance (see Kiyosawa et
al. 1975; IRRI 1979). Field resistance (partial resistance) indicated
polygenic control (Lin 1986; Wang et al. 1989).
38 RICE: PRODUCTION
4. Cercospora leaf spots: Ce; duplicate genes (Ce 1, Ce 2).

5. Grassy stunt virus biotype 1: Gsv (from 0. nivara).
6. Brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzae): He or he.
7. Hoja blanca virus: one dominant gene (Hbv).
8. Sheath blight: one dominant gene (probably multigenic).
9. Stem rot: Sc 1 and/or Sc 2•
10. Stripe virus: two complementary genes (St 1 and St 2) or St3 •
11. Tungro virus: probably multigenic.
12. Black streak dwarf virus: Bsv.
13. Yellow dwarf virus: Ydv.
The foregoing information is based largely on host reactions and,

therefore, only indicates the varietal genotypes. Little is known about the
gene or genes for pathogenecity in the pathogen. The situation in rice is
rather unfortunate because the gene-for-gene hypothesis of pathogen-host
interaction (Flor 1956) has been demonstrated to have wide application in
crop plants. Until recently, only Japanese plant pathologists have probed
into the frequency of virulence genes in the blast fungus by postulating on
the gene-for-gene scheme (see Kiyosawa et al. 1984).
Now two loci for virulence (Pos-3 and -4) have been identified in the
blast fungus (Leung et al. 1988). An a virulence gene (avr-1 0) corresponding
to the Xa-10 resistance gene to bacterial blight in the host has been cloned
(Kelemu and Leach 1990).
The spherical form of the rice tungro virus is now known to contain
single-stranded RNA; the bacilliform virus consists of double-stranded
DNA. The spherical form serves as a carrier for the bacilliform (IRRI
1989a). Such a phenomenon further complicates genetic studies of tungro
resistance, because plant response to the virus is confounded with host
reaction to the insect vector.
The disease resistance genes enumerated above are mostly major
genes (oligogenes) that confer the vertical type of resistance. Therefore,
it is not surprising that, when the pathogen is inherently diverse in compo-
sition and given the opportunity of being selected by the resistance genes
in the host, a new pathotype will readily emerge, predominate, and become
virulent on the formerly resistant host. The breakdown of the blast resis-
tance genes under the vertical category ("true resistance") has been well
documented in Japan (see Ezuka 1979). The contrasting type of resistance,
horizontal resistance, has been much discussed but not yet found in rice.
Rice pathologists are now searching for a more durable type of resistance,
called "field" or "partial" resistance (Ezuka 1979; Bonman and Mackill
1988). Field resistance is largely under polygenic control. The two types
of resistance may be combined (see Ezuka 1979).
To cope with the rapid shifts in pathogenic populations following the
sequential release of resistant varieties based on major genes and of related

parentage, various remedial schemes have been proposed: pyramiding of
major genes, gene deployment, varietal mixtures, multiline varieties, and
composite varieties. Additional information on these approaches may be
found in IRRI (1979a) and Buddenhagen (1983). The approaches may
also apply to the brown planthopper (Saxena 1989) and other genetically
variable insects.
Insect Resistance
In parallel to the diseases, destructive insects have also proliferated in
both number and incidence under intensive cultivation and continuous
monoculture of rice in irrigated areas. Insects that were little known 20
to 30 years ago, such as the brown planthopper and the whitebacked
planthopper, have evolved into major threats. The leaf-sucking insects of
this group are also vectors of destructive virus diseases. On the other
hand, the striped stemborer has become less prevalent with the widespread
adoption of the semidwarfs.
The research on insect resistance in rice cultivars is an exciting area
of scientific progress. The genetic findings based on Mendelian analysis of
genes in the host are again summarized by the insect pests involved.
Recent reviews are provided by Pathak (1977), Khush (1984a), papers in
the Rice Genetics Newsletter (1986, 1988), and Kaneda (1988).
1. Brown planthopper: Bph-1, 1-Bph-1, bph-2, Bph-3, bph-4, bph-5,

Bph-6, bph-7, bph-8, and Bph-9 for the respective biotypes
2. Gall midge: one dominant gene (Gm-1, Gm-2); three recessive
genes
3. Green leafhopper: Glh-1, Glh-2, Glh-3, glh-4, Glh-5, Glh-6, Glh-7,
and Glh-8
4. Stemborers: one dominant or a few genes (Sb); a single recessive
gene; complex inheritance
5. Stem maggots: a single gene without dominance
6. White backed planthopper: Wbph-1, Wbph-2, Wbph-3, wbph-4, and
Wbph-5.
7. Zigzag planthopper: Zlh-1, Zlh-2, and Zlh-3.
An understanding of host resistance to insect pests requires a knowl-

edge of the biochemical and physiologic mechanisms involved. Helpful
reviews have been provided by Pathak and Saxena (1980), Heinrichs et
al. (1985), and Saxena and Barrion (1988).
Because the vertical resistance is largely involved in rice breeding and
resistant varieties are sequential releases of relateq parentage, varietal
40 RICE: PRODUCTION
breakdown to either disease or insect has been repeatedly experienced in

rice (see Chang 1984, 1990; Hibino 1987; Dahal et al. 1990).
Grain Quality and Nutritive Value

The physical aspects of grain quality have been discussed under morpho-
logic and quantitative traits. The milling and cooking characteristics are
complex and have not been sufficiently researched in relation to their
economic importance. Background information may be found in a recent
monograph, Rice: Chemistry and Technology (Juliano 1985).
The proportion of the two starch fractions in the endosperm starch is
a principal component of the cohesiveness (stickiness vs. dryness) of the
cooked rice. The linear amylose fraction varies from zero to 30% or above,
while the remainder is the branched amylopectin. Glutinous or waxy starch
having zero or negligible amylose is generally interpreted as under the
control of a recessive gene (wx), but the locus has been shown to have
ultra-fine structure (Li et al. 1965). Two mutant alleles (Wxa and Wxb) have
been identified, and they act in the cis arrangement (Sano 1984). Wxa
appears to be more efficient than Wxb in producing Wx protein. The
wild relatives of 0. sativa have Wxa only (Sano et al. 1986). Because
the endosperm is triploid, a range of amylose contents could be found
in hybrids according to the dosage effect of the wx alleles (Okuno
1978).
In crosses between nonwaxy parents (15-30% amylose), high amylose
content is generally postulated as under the control of a major dominant
gene and several modifiers (Seetharaman 1959; Bollich and Webb 1973;
Somrith et al. 1979). However, different crosses yielded variable results,
partly because the parents themselves showed a continuous variation in
amylose content. An environmental effect on amylose content has also
been observed (see Juliano 1985).
Chalkiness of the endosperm, expressed as white belly, white center,
or white back, affects the percentage of whole milled kernels (head rice)
and the physical appearance and quality of the milled rice. The maternal
influence on chalkiness has been reported (Xu and Shen 1988). White belly
and white center are generally attributed to a single recessive gene, wb
and we, respectively. However, in other studies, white belly is reported
to be a dominant character. Later studies suggest that multiple genes and
genotype-environment interaction were more likely the controlling factors
(see Chang and Li 1980). Chalky spots are more frequently associated with
bold grains rather than slender kernels. Among F 2 plants, additive effects
appear to be a major genetic component (Somrith et al. 1979).
Endosperm mutations such as dull (du), floury (flo), shrunken (shr),
and sugary (su) have been described (see Satoh and Amana 1987). Their
direct use in rice processing remains to be determined.
Aroma in cooked rice adds market value to the product. The scent
may also be detected in leaf tissues around heading time. Scent is generally
inherited as a single dominant (Sk) (see USDA 1963), although the comple-
mentary action of two dominant genes has been proposed (Tripathi and
Rao 1979). The volatile aromatic component has been identified as 2-
acetyl-1-pyrroline (Buttery et al. 1982), which was not detected in earlier
studies. Leaf aroma has been ascribed to the complementary action of
three dominant genes (Singh and Mani 1987).
Cooking temperature and duration are indicated by the gelatinizing
temperature of the starch fraction, which is in turn assessed by the spread-
ing of the milled rice kernel in a weak alkali solution. The inheritance of
gelatinizing temperatures presents an intriguing picture: high values often
predominate among hybrid progenies in high/low and high/intermediate
crosses. Intermediate values might not breed true in F3 lines. Low values
are not found in high/intermediate crosses. Interpretations for such segre-
gating behavior range from a few major genes and modifiers to additive
gene action and complex gene interactions (Kahlon 1965; Stansel 1966;
Somrith et al. 1979). Genotypic association between high amylose and
high gelatinization temperature has been observed in several instances
(Kudo 1968; Ghose and Govindaswamy 1972; McKenzie and Rutger
1983).
Another aspect of cooking quality, the softness of cooked rice, is also
indirectly assessed by the gel consistency (or viscosity) of cooked starch
powder. In hard/soft gel crosses, F 2 segregation indicates the role of a
dominant gene and several modifiers in conferring hard consistency (see
Chang and Li 1980). Another study indicated an additive gene effect
(Zaman et al. 1985). When all three types (hard, medium, and soft gel) are
involved, the order of dominance is hard> medium> soft, and the difference
between two adjacent classes is largely under monogenic control.
The genetic control of brown rice protein content has received consid-
erable attention. Low protein content appears to be dominant to high
(Erickson 1969; HilleRisLambers et al. 1973; Chang and Lin 1974). Diallel
analysis indicates dominance at some loci, epistasis expressed as over-
dominance or complementary gene action, and an unequal distribution of
dominant and recessive alleles. The maternal effect and metaxenia were
observed in the triploid endosperm. Both dominance and additive effects
are noted in F 2 and F 3 data (Chang and Lin 1974). The triploid nature of
endosperm starch prohibits a precise genetic interpretation. The heritabil-
ity estimates for protein content are rather low, probably resulting from
genotype x environment interactions. High protein content tends to be
42 RICE: PRODUCTION
associated with early heading and light grains (HilleRisLambers et al.

1973) and a darker color in milled rice. Protein content and grain yield
tend to be negatively correlated (see Juliano, 1985).
Linkage Groups
During the 1940s and 1950s, Indian, Japanese, and U.S. geneticists worked
independently on the linkage groups of rice, and information from three
sources was summarized by Jodon (USDA 1963). However, the groups
were mostly incomplete and not integrated. The first trial to develop the
12linkage groups in Japanese rices Gaponica race) was published by Nagao
and Takahashi (1963) and Takahashi (1964), although some groups were
represented by only two genes. Misro et al. (1966) later presented linkage
maps for indica testers. Further efforts were made by Kinoshita (1976)
and, cytologically, by Iwata and Omura (1984) and Iwata et al. (1984). Due
to differences in the gene complexes of the two ecogeographic races and
the scarcity of identical marker genes in the two races, it was not possible
to establish 12 groups common to both races. A side-by-side comparison
of the two schemes and including three sources was illustrated by Chang
and Li (1980). The contrast in pigmentation genes between Indian and
Japanese interpretations was given by Kinoshita (1986). The most recent
version of Japanese efforts is shown by Kinoshita (1986, 1987).
With the aid of primary trisomies and reciprocal translocations of
Nishimura (1961), Khush et al. (1984) were able to reconcile to a large
extent the relationship among various systems of numbering chromo-
somes, trisomies, linkage groups, and marker genes and arrive at a revised
scheme of 12 linkage groups (also see Khush and Singh 1986). The 12
linkage groups of Nagao and Takahashi (1963) were assigned to nine
chromosomes. However, Japanese workers have disputed the ''complete''
correspondence between the linkage groups of indica andjaponica marker
genes on the grounds of incomplete cytological agreement (Kinoshita 1986;
Iwata 1986). Uncertainties still exist in relating the extra chromosome in
several Triplo lines to numbered chromosomes and variable descendants
of the primary trisomies in Khush's Triplo series have given rise to tertiary
trisomies (Wu and Chung 1988; Kurata 1988). At the 1990 Rice Genetics
Symposium, a committee met and agreed on a new system of numbering
chromosome numbers and related these numbers to the linkage groups
(see Rice Genetics Newsletter 1990).
CYTOGENETICS
Cytogenetical studies on the rice plant had a late start. The 24-chromosome
complement of 0. sativa was first reported by Kuwada in 1909. Because
of their small size and a deficiency of distinct morphologic markers, rice
chromosomes did not appeal to many cytogeneticists. As a result, cytologi-

cal studies were rather few and are unrelated to genetic markers. It became
the area of genome analysis that interested several teams of rice cytogenet-
icists for nearly two decades after World War II (see Chang 1964). In
recent years, only a few rice cytogeneticists have remained active.
Chromosome Number and Karyotype

Chromosome number
Diploid species in the genus Oryza have 24 chromosomes while the other
group has the tetraploid complement. The 22 species are divided as follows
(see Chang 1985a):
1. diploid species (2n = 2x = 24): australiensis, barthii, brachyantha,

eichingeri, glaberrima, granulata, glumaepatula, longistaminata,
meridionalis, meyeriana, nivara, officina/is, rufipogon, and sativa
2. tetraploid species (2n = 4x = 48): alta, grandiglumis, latifolia,
longiglumis, minuta, punctata, and ridleyi
The chromosome number of 0. schlecteri is unknown since seeds or

plants of this taxon are not available. 0. eichingeri has been reported as
a tetraploid, probably on a mistaken specimen; similarly, diploid punctata
is not likely.
Karyotype
The karyotype of 0. sativa has been more frequently studied than that of
other species in the genus. Pathak (1940) first described the morphology
of 24 chromosomes as eight median and 16 submedian or subterminal.
Varying descriptions based on haploid plants of different varieties were
given by Japanese and Chinese workers (see Chang 1964). Hu (1964)
reported the chromosomes of Taichung 65 distributed as three median,
seven submedian, and two subterminal. Shastry et al. (1960) and Dolores
et al. (1979) also described three median, seven submedian, and two
subtelocentric chromosomes. Kurata (1986) interpreted the karyotype as
five median (metacentric), five submedian, and two subtelocentric. While
Shastry (1964) and Kurata (1986) described similar karyotypes for different
species, other workers have reported considerable variation among Asian
cultivars in the distribution of different chromosome types (see Hu 1964;
Dolores et al. 1979; Rice Genetics Newsletter 1988). Chromosome arms
of the cultivated species tend to be more symmetrical than those of the
wild species (Shastry 1964).
44 RICE: PRODUCTION
Aberrant meiotic behavior

Asynaptic plants have been found in nature and among X-rayed progenies.
Meiosis is marked by a failure of the homologous chromosomes to synapse
at prophase or metaphase, formation of univalents, and irregular distribu-
tion of chromosomes at anaphase. Chiamata per bivalent are reduced;
univalents split to form laggards; supernumery spindles appear; and the
gametes abort. Highly sterile panicles are found in asynaptic plants. The
aberrant behavior is inherited as a single recessive (as) or controlled by
one of two duplicate genes (see Chang 1964).
Desynapsis is also found in irradiated material. The separation of
chromosomes begins at diplotene, and univalents appear at diakinesis and
metaphase. The high seed sterility associated with desynapsis is inherited
as a single recessive gene, ds (see Chang 1964).
Chromosome aberrants
Among the many forms of chromosome aberrants, chromosome inter-
changes appearing as semisterile plants are the most common form. Quad-
rivalent formation, "pairs" ofbivalents, and rod- or ring-shaped bivalents
are frequently found. "Open" (adjacent) or "zigzag" (alternate) forms of
ring configuration are observed. Pollen fertility is lowered in a ring of six
chromosomes or two rings of four chromosomes each (see Chang 1964).
Reciprocal translocation homozygotes were isolated by test crosses
between fertile progenies of translocation heterozygotes and the untreated
original variety (Nishimura and Kurakami 1952; Oka et al. 1953; Hsieh
1961). Such translocation homozygotes do not differ markedly in pheno-
typic appearance from their original strain and appear homogeneous in
various agronomic traits (Hsieh et al. 1962).
Intercrosses between reciprocal translocation homozygotes would
yield information on the different chromosomes involved in various trans-
location lines (Nishimura 1961; Hsieh 1961). By treating single transloca-
tion homozygotes with X-rays, followed by test crosses, double transloca-
tion homozygotes have been obtained (Huang 1961).
Genome Analysis
Intense studies on the pairing behavior of interspecific hybrids during
meiosis were made by workers in Japan, Taiwan, and the United States
from the mid-1950s to the next decade. These studies led to the identifica-
tion of six basic genomes and several subgenomes in the genus Oryza, as
follows:
1. Genome A: AA for sativa, nivara, ru.fipogon and their weed race,

0. sativa f. spontanea; A 1A 1 (formerly AbAb) for longistaminata
(formerly barthii); NN for glaberrima and barthii (formerly brevi-

ligulata) and their weed race (0. stapfii);and AgPNP for glumaepa-
tula (formerly AcuAcu for 0. cubensis).
Thus, the A, N, Ag, and NP subgenomes form the different
primary gene-pools of Harlan and de Wet (1971). Crosses between
subgenomes and gene transfer can be made but with some difficulty.
2. Genome C: CC for officina/is and eichingeri.
3. Genomes Band C: BBCC for minuta and punctata.
4. Genomes C and D: CCDD for alta, grandiglumis, and latifolia.
5. Genome E: EE for australiensis.
6. Genome F: FF for brachyantha.
The transfer of genes from the above genomes to the cultivars is

possible but with difficulty because these are in the secondary gene pool
of Harlan and de Wet (1971).
Resumes on genome analysis of a classic nature may be found in Rice
Genetics and Cytogenetics (IRRI 1964) and Chang (1964). Summaries on
the chromosome pairing and fertility of interspecific hybrids were com-
piled by Chang (1964). The reader should watch out for various synonyms
given to the wild species by different authors over a period of time.
Repetitive DNA sequences have shown promise in studying genomes
and their diversification. Sequences specific to the AA, CC, EE, and FF
genomes have been reported by Zhao et al. (1989).
Variations in Chromosome Numbers and Meiotic Behavior

Haploids
Haploid plants appear spontaneously in nature, in X-rayed progenies, or
in the progenies of hybrids. The haploid plants are reduced in the size of
every part in varying proportions. Tiller number, leaf blade, plant height,
spikelet number, panicle length, and pollen mother cells are also affected.
Haploid plants are completely sterile unless pollinated by normal pollen
from diploid plants (see Chang 1964).
Haploids have recently assumed a new role as the initial product of
anther or pollen calli raised from tissue culture. By doubling the chromo-
somes with colchicine treatment, a homozygous diploid plant is readily
obtained by regeneration.
Triploids
Autotriploid plants are found in nature or from irradiated progenies. The
triploid plant is more vigorous than a normal diploid, producing broad
leaves, stout tillers, and large floral plants. Their fertility is generally low
46 RICE: PRODUCTION
(0-24%). Progenies of autotriploid plants often carry 2n + 1 and 2n + 2

chromosomes (see Khush 1975).
Allotriploids can be obtained with difficulty by crossing a diploid with
a tetraploid. Crosses in a reciprocal manner can produce some triploids.
The pairing behavior in triploids shows a mode of ten trivalents, two
bivalents, and two univalents. Other forms of nonhomologous pairing led
to 8III + 6II or lOIII + 3II (Ramanujam 1937; Hu and Ho 1963).
Tetraploids
Autotetraploid plants either occur in nature or result from artificial induc-

tion of chromosome doubling. High temperature treatment is also used to
produce tetraploids. Tetraploid plants show gigas effects but a concurrent
reduction in plant stature, rachis length, and spikelet number per panicle.
Seed fertility is generally low (less than 35%). The plants are more tolerant
to gamma-ray radiation (see Chang 1964).
Meiosis in autotetraploids shows eight to nine tetravalents and the
remaining chromosomes are bivalents or univalents (Morinaga and Fuku-
shima 1937). Allotetraploids can be readily obtained and show heterosis.
During meiosis, the F 1 hybrids produce fewer quadrivalents and univa-
lents, and the anaphasic movement of chromosomes is more regular than
in autotetraploids. The hybrids are generally more fertile, but fertility and
quadrivalent/univalent frequency show no correlation (Oka et al. 1954).
The tetraploid plants and hybrids show typical tetragenic segregation
of Mendelian characters but are inferior to the diploids in agronomic
aspects (see Chang 1964).
Aneup/oids
Aneuploid plants also appear spontaneously in nature. By crossing trip-
loids with diploids, aneuploids of 24 + x types have been obtained. Pri-
mary trisomies are thus obtained, and they have been studied by many
workers. The first set of 12 primary trisomies was obtained by Hu (1968).
The trisomic plants are marked by short stature, delays in heading, varia-
tion in panicle and spikelet size, and low seedset. All the trisomies can be
transmitted to the next generation by selfing at an average rate of 36.7%
on the female side (Khush et al. 1984; Misra et al. 1986).
Other workers such as Iwata et al. (1970), Khan and Rutger (1973),
and Khush and Misra (1983) also produced complete sets of primary
trisomies but it remained for Khush et al. (1984) to use the whole set for
linkage analysis.
Monosomics have been reported from a chimera] plant and from
crosses. However, monosomics are rarely transmitted to the progenies
because rice is basically a diploid plant. Monosomics can be tolerated only

in the sporophyte but not in the gametophyte (see Khush 1975).
Chromosome Maps
The 12 linkage groups of Nagao and Takahashi (1963) agreed with the
haploid chromosome number of rice plants. Trisomies and reciprocal
translocations have been used to establish the relationship between the
chromosomes and the linkage groups and complete association was eluci-
dated in Japanese testers (Iwata and Omura 1984; Iwata et al. 1984) at
about the same time as in Indica markers (Khush et al. 1984). The relation-
ship among chromosomes (via reciprocal translocations), trisomies, and
linkage groups was summarized by Iwata (1986). However, the three
approaches were independent of one another.
While rice workers present at the 1985 Rice Genetics Symposium
agreed to follow the karyotype analysis proposed by Shastry et al. (1960)
and obtained from pachytene chromosomes, the numbering systems for
the 12 chromosomes by different workers are based on different criteria:
reciprocal translocations, trisomies, and somatic chromosomes. Five of
the chromosomes bear few markers. Iwata et al. (1984) and Khush and
Singh (1986) attempted to associate the linkage groups with the numbering
of chromosomes. However, a committee was formed to arrive at a com-
mon scheme (Rice Genetics Newsletter 1986, 1988). It was even difficult
to reconcile chromosome measurements by different workers (Oka and
Wu 1988). Some of the indica and japonica testers appear to differ in their
respective linkage groups which adds to the problem of consolidating
chromosome maps and linkage groups. Finally, at the 1990 Rice Genetics
Symposium a uniform system of numbering rice chromosomes was agreed
on, and the association between chromosome and linkage group was pro-
vided (see Rice Genetics Newsletter 1990).
lntervarietal Hybrid Sterility

When plants of different ecogeographic races, or even within a race but
rather distantly related, are crossed, the F 1 hybrids and subsequent proge-
nies often show varying degrees of pollen and embryo sac sterility. Such
a lack of sexual affinity among varieties also produces a host of other
expressions: hybrid inviability, F 1 weakness, aberrant segregation, and
restricted recombinations. To the breeders, intervarietal hybrid sterility
poses a serious restriction in making wide crosses. It is also the phenome-
non of hybrid sterility that led Japanese workers (Kato et al. 1928; Kato
et al. 1930) to propose the existence of two subspecies, indica andjapon-
ica, in common rice.
Three interpretations have been offered by various workers to explain
48 RICE: PRODUCTION
the variable phenomena: chromosomal, genic, and cytoplasmic-genic. Be-

cause pairing in the F 1 hybrids is essentially normal, cytologists generally
ascribed sterility to small structural differences in the chromosomes of the
parents. "Cryptic structural hybridity" was a term often used to explain
incomplete pairing or univalents, quadrivalent formation, bridges with or
without fragments, and heteromorphic bivalents which were indicative of
deletions, translocations, and inversions (Hsieh 1957; Yao et al. 1958;
Henderson et al. 1959; Shastry and Misra 1961). However, later studies
involving many crosses showed that, while such chromosomal aberrations
were observed in partial or highly sterile hybrids and F 2 plants, the frequen-
cies were too low and often disproportional to the degree of sterility.
Moreover, many parents themselves also showed a variety of such aberra-
tions. The evidence did not rule out the chromosomal differences, but the
probable role of genic imbalance appeared predominant (see Engle et al.
1969; Dolores et al. 1979). Moreover, the genic control of chromosomal
behavior is also well-known in cereals.
The genic hypothesis on F 1 sterility is largely the duplicate gametic
development genes (s 1 and s2) which cause gametic death when both
recessives alleles are present (Oka 1957). Backcrossing experiments con-
firmed the action of such duplicate gametic lethals (Oka 1974). A series of
genes (s 1 to s5) that contributes to the sterility in interspecific crosses
between 0. sativa and 0. glaberrima has been identified. These represent
sporo-gametophytic interactions (Sano 1984; Sato et al. 1987).
Other genic hypotheses were related to the sporophytic development
of the hybrids: hybrid inviability and weakness. Dominant lethals were
proposed to account for the weakness of certain F 1 plants. Either duplicate
genes in certain recessive combinations or complementary recessive le-
thals were suggested by Oka and coworkers (see Oka 1964) to explain
vegetative breakdowns in F 2 plants. Lines breeding true for semisterility
can be obtained (see Chang 1964).
Several varieties of diverse origin (bulu, aus, and indica/japonica hy-
brids) were found to produce high F 1 fertility with both indica andjaponica
varieties and these were called widely compatible varieties (WCVs) by
Ikehashi and Araki (1987). Studies on one of the WCVs, Penuh Baru II,
suggest that multiple alleles at the wide-compatibility locus, S-5n, control
female gamete fertility in the F 1 hybrids rather than the duplicate gametic
lethal genes (Ikehashi and Araki 1987).
Differences in fertility between reciprocal crosses of intervarietal or
interspecific hybrids have been observed in many instances. A lower
fertility is often found when a wild relative such as 0. sativa f. spontanea
is used as the female parent (see Chang 1964). In the case of cultivars,
the first usable cytoplasmic male-sterile (ems) source was obtained from
Chinsurah Boro II!Taichung 65 (Shinjo and Omura 1966). Four other boro
varieties also have ems cytoplasm. Fertility restoring genes are found in
many slender-grained varieties (Shinjo 1972). The economically significant
Wild Abortive (W A) ems cytoplasm of China comes from a wild source
(0. sativa f. spontanea) found on Hainan Island. A large number of restor-
ers for theW A type have been found. The commercially important source
in China consists of two sporophytic restorers, but F 2 segregations sug-
gests a variable gene effect of different restorer parents (Li and Yuan 1986;
Virmani et al. 1986). An updated listing of ems sources can be found in
the Rice Genetics Newsletter (1988).
Cytoplasmic Inheritance
Traits under the control of cytoplasmic elements have not received their
share of attention and critical analysis in rice research. Other than a
small number of maternally affected traits discussed under grain weight
(Chandraratna and Sakai 1960), plant height in interspecific crosses
(Dolores, unpublished) and protein content (Chang and Lin 1974), the only
notable activities have been focused on the ems sources and fertility-
restoring genes. In addition to the Chinsurah Boro II and WA sterile
cytoplasms, other sources have been identified: Gambiaca, Taichung Na-
tive 1, Lead, 0. rujipogon, 0. sativa f. spontanea, ARC 13829-26, and
others (see Virmani et al. 1986; Virmani and Shinjyo 1988).
To isolate a purely cytoplasmic effect, a long series of backcrosses to
both parents should be made to develop substitution (of chromosomes)
lines in an alien cytoplasm, as it was done in wheat. However, the diploid
nature of 0. sativa does not tolerate such drastic manipulation.
Recent attempts in determining gene sequences have led to a better
understanding of chloroplast genes and mitochondrial genes (Wu et al.
1986; Hirai and Ishibashi 1986). The structure of chloroplast DNA and
its physical map have been characterized (Hirai and Sugiura 1988). The
chloroplast DNA contains the genetic code for some enzymes involved in
photosynthesis, but the cytoplasmic components remain to be explored.
Plasmidlike mitochondrial (mt) DNA associated with ems have been re-
ported (Yamaguchi and Kakiuchi 1983; Wang et al. 1987; Kadowaki et
al. 1988); the DNAs differ between sativa and glaberrima cytoplasms
(Sakamoto et al. 1990).
A biometrical treatment of cytoplasmic inheritance in autogamous
plants has been provided by Sakai et al. (1961) which was related to
the study on grain weight (Chandraratna and Sakai 1960). Occasional
biparental inheritance of chloroplast DNA has been reported (Second et
al. 1989).
50 RICE: PRODUCTION
Molecular Cytogenetics
Molecular genetics in rice had a late start. DNA sequencing of rice genes
has been mainly carried out by Wu et al. (1986), whose focus is on nuclear,
chloroplast, and mitochondrial genes. The study includes wild species.
Genome-specific sequences have been characterized and cloned (Zhao et
al. 1989). These genome-type-specific repetitive sequences are useful as
hybridization probes in classifying unknown species of wild or domesti-
cated rice and in studying genome evolution at the molecular level (Zhao
et al. 1989). At IRRI, molecular techniques have been applied to transfer
and isolate disease resistance genes (mainly blast and bacterial blight) from
wild rices (see IRRI 1990a). Under a Rockefeller Foundation Project on
rice biotechnology, a number of laboratories in both developed and devel-
oping countries are actively pursuing the gene sequencing, genome charac-
terization, and molecular techniques. Meanwhile, a team at Cornell Uni-
versity is developing an RFLP map in rice to measure and partition genetic
variations and to link RFLP markers with known genes (see McCouch et
al. 1988; IRRI 1990c).
BREEDING
Recorded history may not mention man's earliest efforts to improve the
rice plant. However, long before the advent of science, men (or, more
likely, women) undoubtedly had made good use of natural variousness in
the crop and its wild relatives, spontaneous mutations, natural hybrids,
and introductions from foreign lands. Historical notes on rice breeding
may be found in the earlier edition (Chang and Li 1980). Expansion of the
rice growing area and increase in grain yield are frequently accompanied
by a concurrent growth in human population and migration (Chang 1987).
Significant increases in rice yield through the adoption of improved
varieties were invariably associated with improved irrigation facilities, use
of chemical fertilizers and other agricultural chemicals, better cultural
practices and pest management, and favorable prices. Instances of such a
combined package of technological improvements have been documented
by Shen (1964), Herdt and Capule (1983), Barker et al. (1985), and Chang
(1988).
Breeding for higher yield has been the common goal in all national
agricultural research systems (NARS) of major rice-growing countries.
The most dramatic advances in national yield during the past decade were
made in China and Indonesia (see Chapter 1).
According to recent Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statis-
tics, the high-yielding countries of the world continue to be Australia,
Japan, the Republic of Korea, Democratic People's Republic of Korea,

Spain, and the United States. The high yields attained in southern Europe,
Australia, and northern California may be partly attributed to the oasislike
environment of the crop season: intense solar radiation, long day length
in summer months, moderately low night temperatures, abundance of
irrigation water, low relative humidity, and minimum incidence of diseases
and insects. Another common feature is the long grain-filling period of the
predominant cultivars which leads to heavy grains.
On the other hand, yields in most Asian countries in the tropics still
average less than 3 t/ha in spite of the rapid diffusion of the HYVs. The
causes for the low yield during the monsoon season in this region of great
genetic diversity are high proportion of rainfed land, fickleness of the
monsoon weather, poor water control (deficit or excess), poor or adverse
soils, low inputs of agricultural chemicals, poor control of biotic stresses
(insects, diseases, weeds, rats, and birds), and inadequate postharvest
operations. Chang (1988) has recently provided a detailed assessment of
the impact of the new technology on rice production in the developing
countries.
Conservation, Evaluation, and Use of Rice Germplasm

The success of improving a major crop inevitably rests on the breadth and
depth of the genetic basis from which research and breeding emanate. The
recent Green Revolution in rice and wheat production is a unique example
of exploiting diverse germplasm.
The genetic resources of rice are remarkably rich, comprising about
120,000 cultivars in the two cultigens (0. sativa and 0. glaberrima) and
numerous populations of20 wild species. The 22 valid species in the genus
Oryza are widely scattered over Africa, Asia, Australia, major islands of
Oceania, and Central and South America. Their great antiquity may be
traced back to the Gondwana supercontinent which fractured during the
early Cretaceous period about 130 million years ago. So far, six genomes
(sets of homologous chromosomes) have been identified from 16 species
studied. Both diploid and tetraploid species coexist in Africa, Asia, and
South America (see Chang 1985a).
The numerous cultivars of 0. sativa may be grouped into three ecogeo-
graphic races: indica of the tropics and subtropics, sinica (or japonica)
of the temperate zone, and javanica of Indonesia and dryland areas of
Southeast Asia. Varying degrees of incompatibility exists in crosses be-
tween races and within a race (see Chang and Li 1980; Chang 1989d).
The genetic diversity found in 0. sativa is unusually rich because (1)
its cultivation in India and China dates back more than 7000 years, (2) its
diversification was aided by wide dispersal following human migration and
52 RICE: PRODUCTION
cultivation, which covers an unparalleled ecogeographic spread from 53°N

to 40°S latitude, and (3) further differentiation resulted from natural and
artificial selection following dispersal in diverse water-soil regimes (wet-
land, deepwater, tidal swamps, and dryland) and by human preference
and selection for grain quality (see Chang 1976a, 1976b, 1985a, 1989a).
Much of the rich spectrum of genetic variability could still be found
in farmers' fields until the rapid spread of the HYVs in the early 1970s.
However, the bulk of the rice germplasm had been collected by the NARS
before the 1960s, followed by a massive collection campaign coordinated
by IRRI during 1972-83. Nearly 50,000 seed samples were collectedjointly
in Asia and Africa by the national centers concerned, one or more of the
international agricultural research centers (International Rice Research
Institute [IRRI] IITA, WARDA, and IBPGR) and other centers with out-
reach programs (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
IRAT, ORSTOM, and agencies in Japan). IRRI's recent collection efforts
have been directed to the exploration and acquisition of primitive cultivars
and wild species in hitherto inaccessible areas (see Chang 1989b).
The base collection of85,000 accessions is housed at IRRI, while other
large collections of partly duplicated composition are preserved in China,
India, Japan, and the United States, and at the IITA (see Chang et al. 1989).
National genebanks such as those in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Republic of
Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar (formerly Burma), Pakistan, Sri Lanka,
Taiwan, and Thailand also hold sizeable collections of their indigenous
germplasm. Among the major crops of the world, rice has the strongest
network of germplasm conservation and exchange (see Chang et al. 1982;
Chang et al. 1989).
Systematic evaluation of the rich and unimproved germplasm began
at IRRI in 1962 (see Chang et al. 1975) and was intensified and accelerated
under the Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Program of IRRI
beginning in 1974 (see Brady 1975). Evaluation is an essential bridge
between conservation and use.
The wide dissemination of both unimproved and improved germ plasm
from IRRI to major producing countries started in the early 1960s (see
Chang 1972; Beachell et al. 1972). A worldwide scheme of exchanging and
evaluating elite germplasm began in 1975 with the establishment of the
International Rice Testing Program (IRTP) which expanded from yield
nurseries to specialized nurseries dealing with specific ecoedaphic or biotic
stresses. During a 14-year period, more than 77 entries have been named
and released in other countries (Seshu et al. 1989).
Under the multi- and interdisciplinary evaluation and research pro-
gram, numerous sources of resistance to pests and tolerance to ecological
stresses have been identified (see Chang et al. 1982; Ou 1985; Heinrichs
et al. 1985; Chang 1985b; annual reports ofiRRI). These useful traits have
been extensively used in the IRRI breeding program (see Khush 1984a)
and in national programs (see Harahap et al. 1982; Chang 1985a; Hargrove
et al. 1988; IRRI 1989b). Among different geographic areas of the world,
India has furnished the most significant sources of resistance to diseases
and insects. Tolerance to adverse soil factors came from West Africa,
southern Asia, and South America. Some of the wild rices have been
shown to have resistance to multiple pests (see Chang 1989c).
In economic terms, the returns from conserving, evaluating, and using
the diverse germplasm have been multiplied many times by the benefits
derived from the useful genes in the collections (Chang et al. 1975; Chang
et al. 1982a; Chang 1984, 1985a). Outstanding examples of such benefits
are the control of grassy stunt virus biotype 1 by the Gsv gene in 0. nivara,
the control of brown planthopper biotypes by the Bph and bph genes, the
suppression of the striped stemborer by many semidwarf varieties, and
partial control of the tungro virus by the resistance gene to its vector
(Glh 1), the green leafhopper (see Khush 1984a; Khush and Virmani 1985;
Chang 1989c). Indian germplasm has also provided local breeders with
sources of useful genes (see Sharma et al. 1988). On the other hand, the
genes for pest resistance were largely of the vertical type and are prone
to being overcome by new or different biotypes or pathotypes (see the
sections on disease resistance and insect resistance).
The benefits of systematic evaluation are not confined to dramatic
progress in rice breeding. By working with exotic or large segments of
germplasm, rice researchers were able to advance the scope of their re-
search which led to exciting findings and even more refined research
(Chang 1985c, 1989b). A fuller elucidation of the physiological mechanisms
involved in drought resistance and their genetical control has been derived
from in-depth studies with a broad spectrum of germ plasm (see Chang et al.
1982; Chang and Loresto 1986b). These advances have certainly brought
research on tropical rice problems to new heights. However, breeding for
the more complex traits, which are under multi- or polygenic control, is a
longer and more torturous undertaking than dealing with simply inherited
traits.
Over the past three decades, the International Rice Germplasm Center
(IRGC) at IRRI has supplied rice researchers all over the world with
more than 700,000 seed samples and frequently with related technical
information. The free supply of seed has fueled rice research and breeding
in all the major producing countries and stimulated collaborative projects.
Among major food crops, the rice germ plasm is indeed the most intensively
and extensively exploited gene pool for economic use. The IRGC has also
returned entire national collections to several Asian countries and one
African nation when the local collection was lost or no longer viable.
Moreover, the IRGC staff also serve as consultants toN ARS on gene bank
54 RICE: PRODUCTION
design and provide training courses to genebank staff. These efforts have
demonstrated the usefulness of a large base collection (Chang 1989c) and
won the recognition of IRGC as a model for other genebanks (Frankel
1975; IBPGR 1978; Anon. 1987). The free provision of seed to all kinds
of users has affirmed the IRGC's custodial role in making available the
enormous genetic potential in the rice germplasm as a common biological
heritage of mankind.
Breeding for High Yield and Wide Adaptiveness

The early efforts in breeding for high yield and wide adaptiveness across
crop seasons in both the sinica ("keng" or Ponlai) type and the indica
(' 'hsien' ') type had their beginnings in Taiwan. Information on this ap-
proach, which not only confers nitrogen responsiveness but also adaptive-
ness across crop seasons and wide geographic areas, has been described
by Chang (1961, 1967), Huang et al. (1972), and Dalrymple (1986). The
high-yielding plant type for the tropics was first envisaged in the Ponlai
varieties of Taiwan (Jennings 1964; Tanaka 1965; Beachell and Jennings
1965), but it turned out to be the semidwarf indicas (derivatives of Dee-
geo-woo-gen such as Taichung Native 1 and IRS) that set the pace for the
Green Revolution to begin in the Asian tropics (see Chandler 1968; Pal
1972; Chang 1979a). The semidwarfs are better adapted to the tropics
because of their vegetative vigor, strong roots, high tillering ability, short
and stiff culms, easy threshability, and weak grain dormancy, whereas the
Ponlai varieties are deficient in grain dormancy, moderate in tillering
ability, and highly susceptible to virus diseases.
Discussions on the genetic basis of wide adaptiveness were provided
by Chang (1967) and Chang and Vergara (1972), and the contributory
factors of photoperiod insensitivity, long basic vegetative phase, and low
thermo-sensitivity were later reconfirmed in international adaptation trials
(Kikuchi et al. 1975), regional trials inside India (Seshu et al. 1974), and
international nursery trials (IRRI, 1980; Seshu et al. 1989).
Physiological traits that confer high yield were discussed by Yoshida
et al. (1972). The physiological and genetical interpretations were com-
bined in Table 3-1 (Chang and Li 1980).
During the past two decades, the preceding interpretations have stood
the test of time and remained valid. Dramatic advances attained in China
and the United States also revolved around the semidwarf plant type. On
the other hand, as rice cultivation gradually turns from transplanting to
direct seeding and from manual cutting and threshing to combine harvest-
ing, cultivars of basically similar plant type but with lower tillering ability
may be more advantageous in providing uniform maturation among pani-
cles within a plant. The matter oflarge panicles and heavy grains vs. many
Table 3-1. Plant Characteristics Associated with High Yielding Potential in

Wetland Rice
Physiological,
Desirable Ecological Genetical Control,
Plant Part Characteristics Contribution Correlations
Leaf Erect Increases sun-lit Erectness recessive
leaf area, permitting to droopiness, but
even distribution of erectness largely
incident light; associated with
decreases the load semidwarfism; erect
of raindrops on leaf leaves correlated
surface with high yields
Short, small Associated with Polygenic control of
erectness; even leaf length, leaf
distribution of area; broad leaf
leaves in a canopy dominant to narrow
Thick Associated with
erectness, higher
photosynthetic rate
Culm, leafsheath Short, thick culms; Provide lodging One recessive gene,
tight leafsheaths resistance, nitrogen modifiers control
responsiveness shortness; culm
length correlated
with panicle length
Tiller Upright, compact Permits light Multigenic control
penetration into in most crosses;
canopy upright tillers
associated with
semidwarfism
High tillering Adaptive to various High tillering a
spacings; dominant trait;
compensating for largely additive
missing hills; effect; some
permits faster leaf dominance effect;
expansion in associated with
transplanted crop semidwarfism
Panicle High fertility at high Allow high doses of Associated with
nitrogen rates nitrogen semidwarfism,
responsiveness relatively short
panicles
High harvest index Associated with Multigenic control;
high grain yield negatively
correlated with
growth duration;
associated with
early and sustained
growth vigor
56 RICE: PRODUCTION
panicles and medium-sized grains is also an area being re-examined by

plant physiologists and rice breeders.
Breeding for Unfavorable Ralnfed Environments

Discussions in Chapter 1 and this chapter amply show that the past accom-
plishments in production and yield increases have been largely derived
from irrigated areas and, to a much less extent, more favorable rainfed-
wetland areas where the improved production technology also applies
well. The relative contributions of the irrigated ecosystem and the three
rainfed ecosystems (wetland, dry- or upland, and deepwater/tidal
swamps) to total rice production in the past and IRRI's projections for
year 2000 are briefly discussed in Chapter 1. Details may be found in IRRI
(1989c).
The yield constraints in the rainfed ecosystems are
1. low soil fertility, often combined with one or more adverse soil
factors, such as high acidity in dryland soils and tidal swamps and
salinity in swamps
2. damages due to serious deficit or excess of water or one alternating
with the other under fickle monsoon weather
3. chronic diseases and insects peculiar to the ecosystem concerned,
such as blast in upland rice and stemborers and stem nematode in
deepwater rice
4. heavy weed infestation in rainfed-wetland and upland cultures
5. low solar radiation intensity in the wet season
6. a lack of rice varieties that have an improved yield potential but
require low production inputs
A combination of these constraints has long depressed rice yields

in rainfed areas. Alternate choice of food crops for the deepwater or
waterlogged areas is ruled out by the lack of other flood-tolerant food
crops. Rice farmers have been obliged to grow rice at a subsistence level.
Although rice is a poor man's crop, the plant's aerenchyma tissues in the
leaf sheath and culm transport air into the roots and root zone, making
microbial nitrogen-fixation in a flooded soil possible. Such a unique situa-
tion has helped rice farmers to obtain about one ton of yield without
nitrogen fertilizers. On the other hand, many traditional dryland rices of
Southeast Asia and West Africa combine deep, thick roots with plasticity
in leaf rolling and unrolling which confer the avoidance mechanism of
drought resistance (Chang et al. 1982). Such features are indeed remark-
able for a semiaquatic plant species.
Breeding for tolerance to adverse environments is complicated by a
number of character associations, the co-adapted complexes, which confer

high levels of tolerance but are difficult to manipulate genetically by hy-
bridization and selection. These tightly linked traits are probably products
of millenia of natural and artificial selection in special ecological niches.
Examples are
1. Tall plant stature and tolerances to low temperatures, drought

(through deep and thick roots), or deepwater (through internode
elongation ability)
2. Long growth duration or photoperiod sensitivity with tolerance to
deepwater and the ability to recover from drought or adverse soil
factors in waterlogged areas
3. Extremely short growth duration and the escape mechanism of
drought resistance
4. A low-yielding potential contributed by long and weak culms, low
tillering, or low grain number per square meter of land correlated
with the foregoing tolerance mechanisms or attributes. A low har-
vest index (below 0.4) is common to these cultivars.
Therefore, past efforts to improve the rice cultivars in perennially

depressed production areas have made little impact on rice yields. The
traditional germ plasm having the co-adapted complexes continues to domi-
nate the riceland. Moreover, rice experiment stations in these areas are
usually poorly designed, inadequately supported, and understaffed (see
Chang et al. 1982). Breeding and agronomic evaluation are limited to one
cycle a year in most rainfed areas.
To have an impact on unfavorable environments, rice research will
require better characterization and fuller understanding of the ecosystems
concerned in both biological and socioeconomic terms, more intensive
interdisciplinary collaboration, broader evaluation and use of germplasm,
more in-depth research on physiogenetic mechanisms with assistance from
advanced laboratories in the developed countries, and station and staff
development. Countries having similar abiotic stresses should collaborate
closely by sharing genetic materials, scientific findings, and training oppor-
tunities. It is imperative to have a regional research consortium to make
full use of the limited resources available in the stressed production areas.
It is encouraging that rice breeders have recently organized periodic work-
shops to strengthen the collaboration in each of the unfavorable environ-
ments: deepwater, dryland, and problem soils. The desirable plant type
that will fit in a particular environment for each of the six ecosystems has
been outlined by IRRI scientists (IRRI 1989c). For upland areas, a weed-
competitive plant type featuring droopy lower leaves and erect upper
leaves has been identified (IRRI 1988a).
58 RICE: PRODUCTION
IRRI's future efforts are aimed at strengthening the collaborative

research among NARS and international centers and maximizing the out-
puts in areas where the stresses exist. Long-term land sustainability and
environmental conservation will be included as a part of the crop improve-
ment package (see IRRI 1989c).
Rice researchers at IRRI and elsewhere recognize that attaining the
target in harsh environments will be a slow and difficult process with low
efficiency in terms of returns. However, it is also a matter of equity to
improve the livelihood of the rice farmers in the unfavorable areas-
especially the women, who will likely handle the bulk of the manual
chores.
Breeding in High-Yield Countries

The historical developments in Italy, Spain, Japan, Republic of Korea,
and the United States prior to 1979 were described in the 1980 version of
this chapter. The focus here will be on the developments in six selected
countries after 1980.
China
Among the Asian countries, mainland China has made the most impressive
gains in yield during the past decade: from 4.1 t/ha (1978-79) to 5.3 t/ha
(1984-87). With a continuous expansion in irrigated rice areas (25.70 mil-
lion ha in 1949 to 31.75 million ha in 1986) and in double cropping, a
3.5-fold increase in production has been realized. Quick-acting nitrogen
fertilizers and pest management were two of the contributory factors,
while hybrid rices, which are now widely grown in the southern provinces
of Sichuan, Guangdong, Hunan, and Fujian, provided the potential for
higher yields. Hybrid rices surpassed the best semidwarf varieties of hy-
brid origin by as much as 20 to 30%. Since hybrid rice was released in
1976, the area planted to hybrid rice rose from 5 million ha in 1979 to about
13 million ha in 1988-89 (out of a total of 32.9 million ha). The highest yield
obtained from hybrid rice in Jiangsu Province was 14.4 t/ha in contrast to
10.4 t/ha from an improved variety (Yuan et al. 1989). An economic study
conducted in southern Jiangsu Province revealed that hybrid rices yielded
7.8 t/ha on 90 farms vs. 6.8 t/ha for improved keng (sinica race) varieties.
The yield difference was 15% for both the southern and northern districts.
However, the profitability amounted to about the same because the keng
rices command a higher market price than the hybrid rice having the indica
type of cooking quality (He and Flinn 1989). A number of hybrid rices
have been developed to suit different climatic and soil conditions in various
regions of China (Yuan and Virmani 1988). Details on hybrid rice research
and development are discussed in a separate section.
Descriptions of rice breeding activities and their progress from the

1930s up to 1981 may be found in Shen (1980) and CAAS (1986). In the
conventional process of hybridization and selection, increasing emphasis
has been given to disease resistance, insect resistance, tolerance to salin-
ity, drought resistance, and low temperature tolerance (CAAS 1986). Im-
proved grain quality is a common objective among many breeders.
China was among the pioneers in developing improved varieties by
anther culture. Several varieties were released since the 1970s, but most
of them did not command large-scale adoption or possess unique features.
The methodology is described under Innovative Approaches.
Colombia
Among the countries outside Asia, Colombia has shown the most dramatic
rise in rice yield in recent decades: the national average was slightly under
2 t/ha in the mid-1960s; it rose to nearly 5 t/ha in 1987. Rice yields began
to climb in the early 1970s when seeds ofiR8 and IR22 were obtained from
IRRI. CICA 4 and CICA 6, both selected from IRRI lines, were released by
the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) and the national
center, Instituto Columbiano Agropecuaria (ICA). CICA 7 and CICA 9
were released in 1978, followed by Metica 1 and Oryzica 1 and 2 in the
1980s. By 1975, all the irrigated riceland was planted to the semidwarfs,
amounting to about 235,000 ha.
Two production constraints, blast and the Hoja blanca virus disease,
continue to restrain yield, although the virus problem was largely resolved
by developing the resistant varieties, Metica 1 and Oryzica 1 (see Dalrym-
ple 1986).
Japan
The dramatic rise in rice yield in the postwar years stemmed partly from
an improved plant type that is similar to the semidwarf type in having a
reduced plant stature, erect, thick, and dark green leaves, stiff culms, and
well-filled grains (see Tsunoda 1965). Improved varieties such as Hoyoku,
Kokumasari, and Shiranui have a shorter plant type stature than their
predecessors because of their common lineage from Jikkoku/Zensho 26.
Jikkoku has the sd 1 gene in thejaponica background (Kikuchi 1986). These
transformations took place during the late 1950s and the 1960s. Meanwhile,
breeding methods and materials were diversified (see Chang and Li 1980).
Improved cultural practices also substantially contributed to the yield
increase.
While the average national yield continued to rise after the mid-1960s,
overproduction has led to shifts in breeding objectives: (1) appropriate
grain quality for various domestic uses receives increasing attention; (2)
60 RICE: PRODUCTION
tolerance to adverse weather condition, especially cold water tolerance,

is widely screened; (3) yield stability is ensured by breeding for disease
and insect resistance; (4) grain threshability is tuned to suit combine
harvesting; (5) earliness is desired in the warm regions of southern Japan;
and (6) certain high-yielding rices may be diverted to animal feeds. Re-
search institutions have been reorganized to increase efficiency and coordi-
nation (see Kaneda 1986).
Since 1981, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries has
embarked on a three-phase coordinated research program aimed at in-
creasing the yield by 50% over a 15-year period by using japonica/indica
hybrids. The first phase of three years was devoted to the selection of
local parents and crossing them with alien germplasm.
During the second phase, three high-yielding cultivars were developed
and registered on a national level. Hoshiyutaka, bred by the Chugoku
National Agricultural Experiment Station (earlier called Chugoku 96) has
medium-slender grain and high amylose-the first Japanese variety having
such a grain type. Habataki (Hokuriku 129) is another indica grain type
selected from a cross between two South Korean varieties (Milyang 42/
Milyang 25) which are also of interracial origin. Oochikara (Hokuriku 130)
came from BGl/Shu 3116. BGl (Big Grain 1) has large and heavy grains.
The drier (less sticky) condition of cooked rice is now preferred in prepar-
ing fried rice and other processed forms of rice (Kushibuchi 1988).
Among the diseases, blast still ranks as a major threat. Other diseases
receiving increased attention are bacterial blight and the stripe virus dis-
ease. Sheath blight became more prevalent following heavy nitrogen fertil-
ization. Breeding efforts for this fungus disease have not been rewarding
because varietal resistance is unstable and low in heritability. The brown
planthopper has increased its damage to Japan's rice crop because the
insect is annually transported by the air stream into Japan from east
China, and the insect's prevalence has also been on the rise in China and
neighboring Vietnam (see Kisimoto 1979). Each of the four Bph (or bph)
genes has been successfully introduced into Japanese germplasm during a
15-year period (Ikeda and Kaneda 1986; Nemoto et al. 1989).
High standards of grain quality were set by popular varieties such as
Koshihikari and Sasanishiki which were bred by the Ministry-designated
prefectural stations three decades ago. They are tall in stature and suscepti-
ble to lodging, however. Successful developments in this important area
consisted of the release of (1) Akita-Komachi, (2) Kikara 397 derived from
a dull endosperm mutant, and (3) Kinuhikari of the Hokuriku Station
which combines the taste of Koshihikari and stiff culms contributed by
the IRS parent. Kanto 154, bred from Basmati 370/Nipponbare, carries
the strong aroma and soft cooked kernels.
Hybrid rice is an area of renewed and intense activity: the first usable
cytoplasmic male-sterile source was identified by Shinjo and Omura (1966)

(see the section on hybrid rice). Stimulated by the recent developments in
China, Japanese breeders are exploiting the yield potential offered by F 1
hybrids. Workers at the National Agriculture Research Center (NARC)
have identified a thermosensitive genic male-sterile source which may
replace the fertility-restorer genes or the need to maintain the male-sterile
source. NARC scientists have succeeded in developing abundant regener-
ated seedlings by the artificial seed method-28 million seedlings from one
gram of cultured F 1 embryos (Kaneda personal communication).
In the search for more distantly related cultivars for interracial crosses,
several tropical varieties and one U.S. breeding line have been identified
as widely compatible with Japanese varieties. These are Dular, CP231-
SL017 selection, Calotoc and Ketan Nangka (Ikehashi and Araki 1987).
Chinese breeders are also interested in such materials in their effort to
broaden the base of their hybrid rices.
Recently, several Japanese companies have entered the area of rice
breeding, especially in applying techniques from cellular and molecular
biology. Advances in these areas will be mentioned in the section on
innovative approaches.
Korea
Both countries of the Korean peninsular have attained outstanding ad-
vances in yield level through breeding. The use of the tropical semidwarf
varieties in the Republic of Korea (South Korea) has led to a jump in the
national yield from 4.6 t/ha in 1971-72 to 6.8 t/ha in 1977-78. However,
widespread planting of the genetically similar semidwarfs together with
cool weather led to serious cold injury and blast incidence in 1979 and
subsequent years which resulted in a sharp drop in the HYV area. Rice
production slumped in 1980. Taste preference and price differential led
many farmers to revert to the traditional varieties. The current focus is
directed to cold tolerance and blast resistance (RDA 1985).
North Korea made equally impressive advances in yield level via
interracial crosses. Breeding efforts are focused on tolerance to both high
and low temperatures, drought and flood tolerance to typhoon damage,
and tolerance to salinity in coastal area. The most popular variety Pyong-
yang 15 is grown on 60% of the riceland.
United States
The historical aspects of rice breeding in the United States have been
described by Jones (1936) and Adair et al. (1973). Since the breeding
programs were initiated in each of the four major producing states (Arkan-
sas, Louisiana, Texas, and California), the primary objectives were for
62 RICE: PRODUCTION
high field and mill yields and stable production of a range of grain types
(short, medium, and long) for domestic and foreign markets. Initially,
disease resistance received more attention in the southern states than in
California, where cool tolerance, especially tolerance to cold irrigation
water, is more critical. However, with use of high levels of nitrogen
fertilizer (up to 225 kg/ha) problems with stem rot have greatly increased
in California. Milling, cooking, and processing qualities are also prime
criteria in the evaluation of hybrid progenies. During the period from 1951
to 1961, the grain yields of 18 selected varieties grown at six locations
have shown markedincreases over the check varieties, ranging from 5 to
8% (Adair et al. 1973). The increases ranged from 2 to 31% for five locations
during the 1961-69 period (Adair et al. 1973). A list of principal varieties
developed between 1917 and 1971 was provided by Johnston et al. (1972).
Since the mid-1950s, U.S. breeders have devoted much attention to
developing an improved plant type that would combine short plant stature,
nitrogen responsiveness, lodging resistance, early maturity, and high head
rice yields with the desired grain quality (Johnston et al. 1972). Important
factors making possible the major shift to shorter and earlier maturing
varieties in the United States, which started in 1968 with the release of
Starbonnet, were the development of (1) satisfactory chemical methods of
weed control, and (2) variety-specific rate and timing of nitrogen fertil-
ization.
After Taichung Native 1 (TNl) had established a record yield at the
Beaumont Center in Texas, and recognizing IRRI's success with the semi-
dwarfs and their impact on rice yields in tropical Asia, U.S. breeders also
turned to the semidwarfs for enhancing nitrogen responsiveness, lodging
resistance, and yield performance. A second source of semidwarfism in-
volving the sd1 locus was developed from induced mutants of Calrose-
Calrose 76 was the first California semidwarfwith ajaponica background
(Rutger et al. 1977). Improved sd 1-derivatives which greatly contributed
to yield increases in recent years may be exemplified by (1) M9, M201,
M202, L201, and L202 in California and Lemont and Gulfmont from Texas
which have TN1 or IR8 parentage, and (2) M7, M101, M301, M302, and
S201 which have Calrose 76 parentage. More than two-thirds of the semi-
dwarf ancestry came from TN1 or IR materials (Dalrymple 1980, 1986).
By 1984, about 22% of the U.S. ricelands were seeded to the semidwarfs,
with California at 96%, leading the other states. In 1989, about 50% of the
U.S. rice hectarage was seeded to semidwarfs.
Because of their very high susceptibility to blast, the high-yielding
California semidwarf varieties are not suitable for growing in the more
humid southern states. About one-half of the southern U.S. hectarage is
in Arkansas, and even the progressive farmers have hesitated to accept
present semi dwarf varieties because of difficulty in obtaining good stands
and increased competition by weeds. Moreover, the inherently high sus-

ceptibility of the semi dwarfs to sheath blight requires increased chemical
control. Several nonsemidwarfs-high-yielding, short-statured, and lodg-
ing resistant varieties including Starbonnet and, more recently Mars, New-
bonnet, and Tebonnet-have served the Arkansas farmers well. Each of
these had improved plant type with more erect leaves, increased disease
resistance, and grain yields 10 to 15% higher than its respective predeces-
sor. The conventional varieties Labelle and Lebonnet which formerly
occupied major acreage in Texas and Louisiana were replaced by the
Texas-developed semidwarfs Lemont and Gulfmont. The latter varieties
are also widely grown in Mississippi and to some extent in Arkansas.
Hectarage of the very high-yielding and widely-grown (in Arkansas and
Mississippi) N ewbonnet has declined because of two severe outbreaks of
blast due to the buildup of two previously minor races of the fungus.
Newbonnet was grown on over one million hectares in Arkansas and
Mississippi in 1986 (Huey et al. 1989).
Rice yields in the United States have increased 20% in the past 20
years to an average of 6330 kg/ha (Arkansas Agricultural Statistical Service
1989).
In recent years rice researchers have paid increasing attention to
sheath blight in the southern states and stem rot in California. Blast re-
mains the number one disease problem because of its potential for destroy-
ing the rice crop in the southern United States. Progress in breeding for
blast resistance is evidenced by the recent release from the cooperative
Arkansas program of the new long-grained variety Katy which possesses
high resistance to the eight predominant races of blast common in the
region. Consumers' increased interest in fancy types has led the southern
states to release an aromatic IRRI line (IR841) as Jasmine.
Other diseases receiving attention in the breeding programs include
brown spot, kernel smut, water mold complex, sheath rot, narrow brown
leaf spot, aggregate sheath spot, and straighthead (a physiological disor-
der). The virus disease hoja blanca also has received attention (Rice Tech-
nical Working Group 1982, 1986).
The major insects being emphasized are water weevil, stemborers,
and stink bugs. So far, insect damage has been small, but other insects
have the potential of damaging the rice crop (Rice Technical Working
Group 1982, 1984, 1986, 1988).
Research on anther culture, somaculture, mutation breeding, and ge-
netic engineering has increased considerably, but major emphasis is still
placed on improving methods and conventional breeding. Research also
is being conducted on hybrid rice, including the search for apomixis (Rice
Technical Working Group 1986, 1988).
The major varieties of the four rice-producing states since the 1930s
64 RICE: PRODUCTION
were based on 39 introductions and parents, which reflects a narrow

genetic base. U.S. breeders have recently devoted more time to germ plasm
acquisition, conservation, and use by exploring South America for wild
species, rejuvenating the world rice collection of the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA), and holding annual committee meetings on germ-
plasm use (Rice Technical Working Group 1986; Dilday 1990).
In recent years private seed companies have entered the realm of rice
improvement. N.F. Davis Drier and Elevator, Inc. in California (see Hu
1983) has produced rices of special grain quality: California Belle (long
grain) and Calpearl (short grain). Several seed companies are working on
hybrid rice development. Two companies have obtained license from
China to develop hybrid rices outside China.
The strength of the breeding programs in the United States stems
from cooperative federal and state efforts, acquisition and use of diverse
germ plasm, and collaborative research with rice researchers in other disci-
plines. The increased and more efficient use of nitrogen fertilizers through
growth-stage-specific timing, improved chemical control of weeds, and
ratoon cropping of early maturing varieties have contributed greatly to the
sustained increase in rice yields (Evatt and Beachell 1962; Johnston eta!.
1972).
Breeding in Tropical and Subtropical Asia

The past decade saw sustained national efforts in using the semidwarfing
gene (sd 1) for raising yields in irrigated areas. Varietal improvement has
been achieved by three means: (1) local breeding programs drawing on
introduced materials mainly from IRRI-c. 50%, (2) testing and adopting
introduced genetic materials or named IR varieties-c. 35%, and (3) elite
materials from other countries' programs supplied by the International
Rice Testing Program, coordinated by IRRI-c. 15% (Hargrove et a!.
1988). The international exchange of elite germplasm reached a new height
during the decade, with IRRI serving as the hub (see Chang eta!. 1988). The
multidisciplinary approach exemplified by IRRI's GEU Program became
widely practiced in several countries (see Harahap eta!. 1982). Asian rice
breeders also made extensive use of IRRI materials in breeding for insect
resistance (46% of the parents), disease resistance (39%), short growth
duration (38%), and grain quality (23%). For insect and disease resistance,
donors from other Asian countries were heavily used: 25% and 18%,
respectively. Of 71 widely grown varieties in 1984, 60% were semidwarf,
11% intermediate, and 21% tall (see Hargrove eta!. 1988).
The objectives common to most national breeding programs are high
yield, locally preferred grain quality, resistance to diseases and insects,
and wide adaptiveness. Increased emphasis was placed on drought resis-

tance, tolerance to adverse soil factors, ability to withstand excess water
(deepwater or submergence due to flash floods) and tolerance to cool
temperatures. These needs were reflected in IRRI' s new strategy for the
year 2000 and beyond (IRRI 19S9c) and the organization of international
teams to work together on a common ecosystem of the unfavorable cate-
gory (IRRI 19S4a, 19SSb, 1990b).
Progress in rice breeding during the decade from 1979 to 19SS for
selected Asian countries is enumerated below.
India
The major breakthrough in rice breeding during a food crisis in India was
the widespread use of the semidwarfparents (Taichung Native 1 and IRS)
in many state and national stations, following their successful introduction
in the mid 1960s. Indian breeders have also used induced mutations to
shorten the height of tall traditional varieties that are tolerant of ecoedaphic
stresses. An example is Jagganath which was selected from mutants of
T141.
Many foreign introductions, both from IRRI and other sources, be-
came established in certain ecologic niches, such as Pankaj (selected
from IR5), the early-maturing Palman 579 (IR579-4S-1) in north India, and
Mahsuri of Malaysia in soils oflow fertility and poor drainage. Meanwhile,
a large number of farmers' varieties grown in pest-endemic areas were
identified, purified, and released. Some of these were verified to have high
levels of pest resistance to multiple pests in IRRI's GEU Program and
were later incorporated into IR varieties. Examples are the ARC varieties
of Assam State, the CO series, the PTB series, and Chempun of Kerala
State. Similarly, FR13A was reconfirmed to have the highest tolerance to
submergence by flood waters (see IRRI 19S2b; Sharma et al. 19SS; Seshu
et al. 19S9).
Locally bred varieties of some impact were Jaya, Sana, Ratna, Anna-
puma, and CR1014 (Gangadharan 19S5). IRRI-supplied materials were
extensively used by local breeders (Hargrove et al. 19SS).
The extent of HYV adoption during 19S3-S4 was 54.1% which in-
cluded several IR varieties such as IRS, IR20, IR36 and IR42 (Dalrymple
19S6).
On the other hand, rice yields remained low in the unfavorable envi-
ronments, such as east India (the Bengal Bay States) and the northeast
states. Recently, improved varieties for the upland areas have been re-
leased: Birsa Dhan 191 and Annada (MW10). For waterlogged soils of
shallow depth, Mahsuri remains popular. A package approach to raise the
low-yield ceilings needs to be developed on a multidisciplinary basis.
66 RICE: PRODUCTION
Indonesia
An interesting combination of breeding efforts, monitoring of pests, gov-
ernment subsidy, and community collaboration in plant protection led
Indonesia to raise its rice yields dramatically. The extent of HYV use was
85% in the early 1980s. The elite germplasm came mainly from IRRI,
though a local multidisciplinary breeding program, similar to IRRI's Ge-
netic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Program, also went into action
(Harahap et al. 1982). The continuous cultivation of a single pest-resistant
IR variety under a double-cropping system involving staggered planting
dates soon led to serious outbreaks of the brown planthopper when a new
biotype of the pest emerged from vast tracts of the earlier resistant variety.
Then, another variety containing a major gene resistant to the new biotype
was introduced to replace the old cultivars, though not for long. Overuse of
insecticides led to a resurgence of the pest following repeated applications.
This kind of boom-and-bust cycles recurred in north Sumatra and parts of
Java during 1975-76, 1982-83, and 1985-86. Then, the plant protection
workers helped rice farmers to synchronize planting dates, monitor pest
developments and practice community pest control. Pest incidence be-
came markedly reduced, and bumper harvests continued from 1983
through 1989.
Varietal rotation was successfully used to control the once-rampant
tungro virus disease.
The most important locally developed varieties in the 1980s were
Cisdane (from Pelita I-1//IR789/IR1527) and Krueng Aceh (from Pelita I-
I/IR2709). They have replaced IR36 in areas where the brown planthopper
incidence was low.
Myanmar (Burma)
Myanmar has had an interesting journey in varietal improvement. While
improved varieties such as IR8 and C4 were introduced into the country
about 20 years ago, the HYVs did not gain widespread acceptance. Up to
1979-80, only 27% of the riceland was planted to HYVs, while export-
quality rices kept their dominance in the irrigated areas. The HYVs rose
to 49% in 1983-84. However, since the early 1980s, three varieties, which
did not come from local breeding programs quickly gained acceptance: a
mutant of IR5, Mahsuri (of Malaysia), and a nameless variety selected by
a Burmese farmer. These varieties now occupy about 80% of the ricelands
(Win and Win 1990).
Taiwan
The earlier history of rice breeding in Taiwan has been covered in the
previous edition (Chang and Li 1980) and in the section on breeding for
high yield and wide adaptiveness. Because of the intensive cultiva-
tion practices and double cropping, breeding efforts continued to focus

on:
1. resistance to blast, bacterial blight, sheath blight, stripe virus,

brown planthopper, whitebacked planthopper, the small brown
planthopper
2. a higher yield in the second crop
3. grain quality with preference toward the low amylose Ponlai type
More significant advances have been attained in improving the resis-

tance to insect pests than in the other areas.
Since the mid-1980s, the rice breeding programs of different stations
have been reorganized to have the hybridization operations centralized at
the Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute and the subsequent selection
and testing at designated district agricultural improvement stations. The
most important commercial variety grown during a 10-year period was
Tainung 67, although it is susceptible to blast. A new release, Tainung
69, has multiple resistance to brown planthopper and the whitebacked
planthopper. Tainung 70 has good quality. Because of the use of indica
semidwarf parents in the crossing program, the amylose content of many
Ponlai varieties has been raised to a nearly intermediate level of about
20%. Tai-Keng 2 and Tai-Sen 1 have a slightly higher yield potential than
Tainung 67 (5% increase). Among the indica varieties, Taichung Sen 10 is
the most promising successor to Taichung Native 1.
With the multidisciplinary approach, Taiwan breeders and affiliated
scientists have developed a number of varieties that are early-maturing
and outstanding in the international nurseries. These are Taichung Sen Yu
285, Tainung Sen Glutinous 2, Chianung Sen Yu 26, and Si-Pi 692033.
Recently added breeding objectives are adaptiveness to direct seeding
or mechanized transplanting and combine harvesting, strong rooting abil-
ity, and large grains. The development of hybrid rice is progressing well,
more so in the indica group. Efforts to equalize yields between the first
season (average 5 t/ha) and the second season (average 4.2 t/ha) have
shown less progress.
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is an island similar in size to Taiwan, but its diverse ecosystems
and rich genetic variability among landraces make it a microcosm of
varietal diversity. Breeding efforts in the 1940s led to improved varieties
of the H series which had both improved yield potential and resistance to
blast.
The introduction of the semidwarfing gene sd 1 to local varieties lent
new impetus to the varietal improvement efforts by recombining early-
68 RICE: PRODUCTION
maturity, high yield, and biotic and abiotic tolerances. The BG series of
improved varieties pushed the yield level to 10 t/ha. Brown planthopper
resistance was another breeding objective since it flared up in the mid-
1970s. Other improved varieties include the BW and LD series.
Adoption of the new varieties reached 80% of the ricelands in the early
1980s. However, diverse soil and climatic constraints have prevented
greater expansion of the modern varieties. Many BG and BW varieties
have shown outstanding performance in the international nurseries, espe··
cially for their short duration, intermediate height, vigorous seedling
growth, and resistance to blast, and are adapted to adverse environments
of high soil acidity and iron toxicity. Grain quality remains an area where
local preference for the small roundish grains and a red pericarp have
impaired wide acceptance of the Sri Lankan varieties outside their home
territories.
Thailand
Thailand maintained its lead in rice export through breeding efforts, main-
tenance of genetic diversity among major cultivars, coordinated research,
and a favorable pricing policy. During the dry season, the semidwarf
RD1 predominates in the irrigated areas. In the wet season, thousands
of traditional varieties are grown, providing security through diversity.
Therefore, Thailand has experienced only light outbreaks of diseases and
insects except for a brown planthopper epidemic in 1974. Meanwhile,
breeders have developed improved types to suit different ecosystems. For
instance, RD8, an induced mutant from the famous quality rice, Khao
Dawk Mali 105, finds acceptance in the unfavorable environment of the
northeast. RD19 is adapted to water depth of about 1 m.
Breeding at IRRI
Breeding at IRRI began in 1961-62 when 256 widely grown varieties of
Asia and the United States were planted and observed. About 80 of the
better entries were tested for yield performance in late 1962. Continued
varietal evaluation led to the use of about 30 varieties which were hybrid-
ized in 1963 under two categories: tropical indica x semidwarf indica
(from Taiwan) and tropical indica x Ponlai (from Taiwan). Soon after,
U.S. varieties and lines were crossed with tall tropical indicas, and back-
crosses were added. From the first group of crosses, the eighth cross (IR8:
Peta/Dee-geo-woo-gen), the ninth cross (IR9: Peta/1-geo-tze), and the fifth
cross (IR5: Peta/Tangkai Rotan) produced some of the more promising
hybrid progenies, and the selected ones were yield-tested in late 1964 and
twice in 1965. Extensive testing of these lines at multiple sites in the
Philippines, Bangladesh, India, Mexico, Pakistan, and Thailand during
1966 fully demonstrated the high yield performance under heavy nitrogen
fertilization and wide adaptiveness ofthe IRS-2SS-3line; it was named IRS
in late 1966 (see IRRI 1967). IR5-47-2 was named a year later, and it found
wide acceptance in less favorable environments. IRS set the pace for other
tropical semidwarfs bred by IRRI and NARS of tropical Asia (see Chandler
196S), and its planted area quickly expanded (see Dalrymple 1976).
The next phase was to improve the grain quality and to incorporate
the necessary resistance to major diseases and insects. Meanwhile, coop-
erative efforts on testing and exchange with NARS was intensified
(Beachell et al. 1972). IR20, IR26, IR36, and IR42 represented widely
grown products of the second decade (Khush 19S4b). The planted area of
IR36 reached about 10 million ha in the early 19SOs. IR42 produced high
yields in the wet season at moderate nitrogen levels. However, their top
yield levels were below that of IRS.
Implementation of the multidisciplinary GEU Program since 1974
intensified the search for resistance to biotic factors (diseases and insects)
and tolerance to abiotic stresses (drought, deepwater, salinity, low temper-
atures). The program also broadened the scope ofiRRI's breeding efforts
for different environments (see Brady 1975). The GEU approach was also
adopted by several Asian countries (Harahap et al. 19S2). Extension of
the GEU approach on an international scale led to the initiation in 1974 of
the International Rice Testing Program (IRTP) coordinated by IRRI (IRRI
19SO). More than SOO rice scientists in 75 countries have joined the net-
work. Together with the seed exchanges provided by IRRI's germplasm
bank and the breeding program, exchange and collaborative testing of rice
germplasm, both unimproved and improved, reached an unprecedented
scale. Since 1975, IRRI has stopped naming varieties from its crosses,
thus encouraging breeders in NARS to exchange widely and use the
international pool of genetic materials-about 160 varieties named by
NARS were bred at IRRI and 40 more were named from entries in IRTP
nurseries. During 19S1-S2, about 36 million ha ofriceland in southern and
southeastern Asia were planted to the high-yielding (or modern) varieties,
the bulk of which was IR varieties. The widespread use of the pest resis-
tance genes in IR varieties and lines by Asian breeders was also sustained
(see Hargrove et al. 19SS).
Since the mid-1970s, efforts were also directed toward developing
early-maturing (100-110 days) types that fit better in multiple-cropping
systems. IR36 and IR56 have 110-d maturity, while IR50 and IR58 were
five to 10 days shorter in growth duration. The incorporation of additional
disease and insect resistance to the earlier IR varieties was another major
thrust (see Khush 19S4a, 19S4b; Khush and Virmani 19S5). However, the
reliance on major genes of the vertical resistance type and the sequential
release of such related varieties have accelerated breakdowns in varietal
70 RICE: PRODUCTION
resistance to the brown planthopper (Bph and bph genes), grassy stunt
virus biotype 1 (Gsv), and tungro virus resistance. The breakdowns were
largely due to shifts in insect population structure which responded to
changes in host resistance to the insect vector (see Saxena and Barrion
1985; Hibino 1988; Chang 1988).
Since the early 1980s, IRRI has collaborated with several Asian coun-
tries in testing hybrid rices based on the WA ems of Chinese origin and in
developing better adapted hybrids for the tropics. Research on fertility
restoration and the physiological aspects of hybrid vigor has made good
progress. However, the development of superior hybrids for on-farm use
and the technology of hybrid seed production for tropical areas are still at
the developmental phase (see IRRI 1988c).
In the early years of its operations, IRRI breeders collaborated with
young rice breeders of NARS, who were studying at IRRI, in developing,
crossing, and testing projects for the countries involved by making the
desired crosses at IRRI and testing them in the home country of the
trainees. Such assistance was extended to Colombia, Mexico, the Republic
of Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, and later to China. In the late 1970s, a
GEU training program for young breeders and affiliated disciplines in the
NARS was instituted. Each trainee was required to make a large number
of crosses at IRRI and bring F 1 seeds back to the home station. Such
arrangements help both manpower development and the generation of
specifically tailored breeding materials. Under NARS-IRRI collaborating
schemes, IRRI-generated crosses provided to NARS have encompassed
the irrigated, rainfed-wetland, upland, and deepwater regimes, as well as
adverse soils.
An expanded version of collaboration, termed shuttle breeding, was
developed between IRRI on the one hand and the Republic of Korea and
China on the other, in which the crosses were made by national workers
at IRRI. F 1 hybrids were advanced to F2 populations in the winter months
at IRRI, segregating materials were selected in the national center during
the summer months, and another generation was grown at IRRI during
the ensuing winter. Korean breeders regularly made large-scale seed in-
creases of promising lines at IRRI during the cool months and the breeder's
seeds were airshipped to Korea for further increase and multiplication.
Such an effective process was illustrated by the development of Tong-il
(IR667-98) which spearheaded the advent of semi dwarf interracial varieties
in Korea.
Innovative techniques of cellular and molecular biology have been
used recently by IRRI researchers to augment the tools offered by conven-
tional breeding programs. Techniques of anther culture, pollen culture,
embryo culture, and protoplast fusion have been successfully adapted for
use in rice. Interspecific hybrids involving officina/is, minuta, brachyan-
tha, and others have been obtained through tissue culture of the F 1 em-
bryos, thus providing an avenue for the use of multiple pest resistance or
novel source present in the distantly related wild species (see IRRI 1990a).
Under Rockefeller Foundation funding, researchers in advanced labora-
tories and IRRI researchers and breeders are collaborating closely in using
the new tools to overcome genetic barriers in breeding and in understand-
ing the physiogenetic bases of host-pest interactions. Some of the recent
advances made by Cocking et al., McCouch et al., and Wu et al. are
described in this section on innovative approaches. All these efforts will
certainly expand and accelerate the use of novel genes in the expanded
genetic pool available to rice breeders (see Chang and Vaughan 1991).
Breeding efforts for the adverse environrpe11ts under rainfed culture
(wetland, upland, deepwater, and adverse soils) were initiated in the mid-
1970s by different research teams in the GEU program. Workshops dealing
with upland, deepwater, cool temperatures, and adverse soils have been
held periodically to sustain collaborative efforts among NARS and IRRI
(for the latest publications, see IRRI 1979, 1984b, 1986; 1988b, 1990a; Juo
and Lowe 1986). While the research findings on various environmental
stresses have steadily added the essential knowledge in dealing with hith-
erto little-known ecosystems and genetic resources, varietal development
has been slow in coming, partly because the IRRI site is not representative
of the difficult environments and therefore poorly suited for testing and
selecting breeding materials. In spite of the slow progress, workers in
NARS have taken steps to form working groups by region or the stress
factor concerned (see IRRI 1984b, 1986, 1988b, 1990b).
Beginning in 1990, IRRI's research program will become ecosystem-
oriented in order to pool existing resources and focus more closely on the
different research needs of a particular ecosystem. Greater emphasis will
be paid to NARS-IRRI collaboration in the major production areas of
each one of the ecosystems: irrigated, rainfed-lowland, upland, and deep-
water and tidal wetlands. A cross-ecosystem research thrust will deal
with broad needs common to two or more ecosystems. The restructured
research ftpproaches aim to increase research efficiency ~nd productivity
and to ensure long-term sustainability of ricelands (IRRI 1989c, 1989d).
Current Breeding Methods

A wide array of methods has been used by rice breeders to develop
improved germplasm. The simplest approach consists of selecting panicles
or plants in an unimproved variety grown by the farmers. One of the
widely grown varieties in Myanmar (formerly Burma) was selected by a
farmer from his field in such a manner (Win and Win 1990).
Many experiment stations continue to collect and evaluate local varie-
72 RICE: PRODUCTION
ties. Mass selection or individual plant selection, followed by comparative

trials, has led to the identification of superior germ plasm. Several varieties
possessing multiple resistance to insect pests under field conditions were
thus developed at the Pattambi and Coimbatore Rice Experiment Stations
in southern India. Releases such as PTB-18, PTB-33, C0-43, and C0-44
in India were products of this simple and effective method (Sharma et al.
1988).
For breeding materials following controlled hybridization, the pedi-
gree method of selection among the F 2-derived progenies is the most
popular method. Concurrent testing of progenies in early generations from
F 3 onward for pest resistance and grain quality is a distinct advantage of
this method. During the process of testing advanced lines, phenotypically
similar sister plants of a line are usually bulked to provide sufficient
seedstock for large-scale testing and for further seed increase. Therefore,
most named varieties do not qualify as pure lines by Johansen's definition.
When grown in a different environment, an improved variety may reveal
variants within the population. Such a phenomenon has been termed
"environmental segregation" (see Chang 1976c).
The bulk population breeding method is sometimes used by rice breed-
ers, but more often in a combination with the pedigree method, also known
as the modified bulk method (see Jennings et al. 1979). In IRRI's upland
rice improvement program, the hybrid progenies were often carried as
bulked populations for two to three generations until the prevailing envi-
ronmental conditions permitted an effective selection of individual plants
(IRRI 1987). For lowland rice breeding programs, plant competition is
more intense, especially in heavily fertilized fields in the tropics. The
breeder needs to take the proper measures so that the short statured plants
would not be suppressed by competition from tall plants (see Jennings et
al. 1979).
The backcross method is used in some instances to incorporate a
simply inherited trait quickly into a preferred agronomic background. Its
effective use can be illustrated in the transfer of the Gsv gene for grassy
stunt virus resistance from 0. nivara into IR lines (see Khush 1984b). It
is also a helpful technique in building up pest resistance by pyramiding the
resistance genes. Another application has been made in developing ems
lines (Shinjo 1975). However, the backcross method is not so widely used
as it may merit.
The single-seed descent approach has been used at IRRI to advance
the hybrid generations rapidly in the phytotron or glasshouse. The method
is well-suited for photoperiod-sensitive materials that can be shortened in
life span by short-day treatment (see Ikehashi and HilleRisLambers 1979).
However, the successful application of this method has yet to be realized.
Composite populations with the help of a male-sterile gene (ms) have
been attempted (see Ikehashi and Fujimaki 1980). However, such a prac-
tice has not been carried out long and broadly enough to allow an assess-
ment of its usefulness.
Mutation breeding has been widely practiced by rice workers in the
1960s, often as a means to accelerate improvement efforts with small
populations and limited objectives. A large spectrum of mutations was
produced, particularly in the areas of reduced plant stature and earlier
maturity, but rather few mutants had a proper mix of economic traits to
qualify as improved germplasm. Reviews of past attempts have been
provided by Gregory (1972), Mikaelsen (1980), and Micke et al. (1987).
The notable successes were several superior varieties, namely, Reimei of
Japan, Jagannath of India, RD6 and RD15 of Thailand, and Calrose 76
which supplied the sd 1 locus in a japonica background (see Mikaelsen
1980; Micke et al. 1987).
Recurrent selection for population improvement involves repeated
intercrossing and testing of hybrids. The successive cycles of selection
with selected recombinations permit an accumulation of desired genes.
The method can be combined with a diallel-cross composite base under
the diallel selective mating system. Such a selection embodies intermating
among hybrids to enhance the breaking of linkages (see Jensen 1988 for
details). In spite of the potential advantages offered by these methods,
practically none of the rice breeders has gone beyond selection under self-
fertilization following initial crossing in the quest for yield improvement
and stabilization.
Another method of developing a pure diploid from a haploid of hybrid
origin is by means of tissue culture. The technique of making use of a
doubled haploid is described in the section on innovative approaches.
The use of F 1 hybrids in commercial production is described in the
next section.
Hybrid Rice
Heterosis in intervarietal crosses was first reported by Jones (1926). A
great many papers have appeared since, either describing the phenomenon
of hybrid vigor or proposing means to produce F 1 hybrids for commercial
use. However, a stable source of cytoplasmic male-sterility, as was found
in maize and onion, was not available in rice to facilitate hybrid seed
production until the 1960s (see Yuan and Virmani 1988).
Reciprocal crosses involving the Asian cultivars and their weed race
(spontanea) showed differences in F 1 pollen sterility. Workers in Japan
(Katsuo and Mizushima 1958) ascribed the sterility to an interaction of the
nuclear genes in the cultivars with the cytoplasm of the wild relative.
Later, a source of cms-bo was found in Chinsurah Boro II/Taichung 65
74 RICE: PRODUCTION
hybrids (Shinjo and Omura 1966), however, it was not used until the
1970s by rice breeders in northern China. A pollen-sterile wild rice (Wild
Abortive or WA) found on Hainan Island in China in 1970 paved the way
for widespread use of this ems- WA source in the indica(' 'hsien' ')varieties
of China which began in 1974 (see Chang 1979c for earlier reports of
Chinese workers). It heralded a second Green Revolution of rice in China.
The cytogenetic mechanism underlying successful hybrid rice seed
production is the same as that of maize and onion: a pollen-sterile cyto-
plasm in the Wild Abortive female parent interacts< with nonrestoring
gene(s) in the male parent to produce a useful maintainer line (A) which
can be agronomically upgraded by backcrossing to any nonrestoring par-
ents. The male-sterile (A) plants are grown side by side with a parent (B)
line capable of restoring the fertility and when cross pollination between
the two parents is effected, F 1 hybrid seeds are produced in quantity.
When certain crosses produce sufficient hybrid vigor (heterobeltio-
sis-superiority over the high parent) in yield and possess desirable agro-
nomic characteristics, such F 1 hybrids can be exploited to commercial
advantage. The scheme of producing hybrid seeds under the three-line
system is shown in Fig. 3-2.
Chinese workers experimented with a large variety of cultural prac-
tices and manipulations to maximize seed production and reduce seed
cost. Manipulations such as adjusting the ratio of pollinator plants to the
sterile plants, increasing the planting density of the sterile parent, stripping
the flag leaves of the female parent, shaking the panicles of the male
parent to increase pollen dispersal, and spraying of growth hormones to
regulate plant height were helpful in making hybrid seed production practi-
cal on a large scale. Seed production has increased from 0.75 t/ha before
1981 to 1.6 t/ha in 1986 (see Yuan and Virmani 1988). The planted area
dramatically rose from 8.670 ha in 1976 to about 13 million ha in 1988 and
1989 and is likely to grow further.
The yield advantage of superior F 1 hybrids over the best improved
varieties ranged between 10 and 30% in the early years, and it has been
raised to 20-30%. Yields over 8 t/ha were frequently obtained. The use of
pest-resistant IR varieties and lines have helped to sustain hybrid rice
yields in China when new biotypes of insects or pathotypes began to attack
the widely grown hybrids (Yuan and Virmani 1988).
The yield superiority of the F 1 hybrid has been studied and ascribed
to a higher crop growth rate up to heading, increased spikelets per panicle,
higher spikelet fertility percentage, grain weight, and greater vigor of the
root system in some cases (see IRRI 1988c).
Genes that can restore pollen fertility of Wild Abortive ems lines have
been found in Chinese varieties as well as IR varieties such as IR24 and
maintainer
multiplication
of
ems lines
maintainer
ems line restorer

hybrid seed
production
field
restorer
Figure 3-2. Process of hybrid rice production involving continuous supply of agro-
nomically improved cytoplasmic male-sterile line, maintainer line, and
fertility restorer line in system. Maintainer and restorer lines are main-
tained by selfing (@),while ems line and F1 seeds are produced with
efforts to enhance cross pollination ( x) in field. F and S refer to fertile
and sterile cytoplasm; Rf and rf are fertility-restoring and -nonrestoring
genes, respectively.
IR36. Two such genes (Rf1 and Rfz) are needed for fertility restoration.
For the Chinsurah Boro II cytoplasm, only one gene is needed (see Virmani
and Shinjyo 1988). In the seed production fields, the ratio of the areas
planted to the three lines is 1 male-sterile line:50 hybrid seed production
field:5000 commercial production field.
The near monopoly of Wild Abortive ems in the southern provinces
of China has caused concern to many rice workers. A number of other
76 RICE: PRODUCTION
ems sources has been reported: Gambiaca, Dissi, Chinsurah Boro II (Li-
Ming), and others of minor importance. The Wild Abortive cytoplasm
remains as the most stable source of pollen sterility in the southern prov-
inces of China, as well as in tropical Asia.
Recent research activities in China have been directed toward short-
ening the growth duration, improving grain quality, and increasing the
level of resistance to diseases and insects. To simplify the seed production
process, a two-line approach, using a photoperiod- or temperature-sensi-
tive maintainer (B) line is being tested to replace the traditional three-line
method. Such a maintainer line is male-sterile under long day length, but
it becomes male-fertile when days become short. However, hybrids of the
two-line scheme have lower yields than the traditional hybrids and require
more refined work to link ecogeographic adaptation of the male-sterile
lines with specific sites (Lu et al. 1989).
Outside China, both public institutions and private seed companies
began their hybrid rice research in the early 1980s. Among international
institutions, IRRI has collaborated with China on hybrid rice research and
organized a network of national centers in tropical Asia that share the
same interest. Most of the research activities focused on the extent of
heterosis obtainable from hybrids, combining ability tests, comparison of
different ems sources and restorers, tests of fertility restoration by local
parents, extent of natural outcrossing, and grain quality of hybrids (see
IRRI 1988c). Private seed companies in the United States have concen-
trated on the developmental processes of identifying commercially viable
hybrids, but the grain quality of such hybrids is below market demand.
Progress to date has indicated that the ems-WA is the most stable source
in tropical environments, and the extent of heterosis is impressive. The
main constraints for hybrid rice use in the tropics are the high technology
needed in seed production, high cost of seed, necessity of changing seed
every crop season, and farmers' dependence on outside sources for the
supply of seed. The use of hybrid seed is also affected by the local pricing
policy, which will determine if the increased yield is economically viable
(see IRRI 1988c).
The Yield Ceiling and Future Potential

Since the late 1960s, rice yields on experimental stations have not gone
beyond the records established earlier (see Chang 1990). This constraint
is of serious concern to all rice researchers.
The highest yield obtained on the IRRI farm was 10.3 t/ha from IRS
and 11.0 t/ha from IR24 in the dry seasons. The highest yield reported
from farms was 13.2 t/ha from Japan, 14.4 t/ha from Jiangsu Province of
China, and 17.8 t/ha from India. Climatic conditions and pest incidence
greatly influence rice yields. The highest yields are generally obtained in
the temperate zone where oasislike weather prevails such as California
and Australia.
A higher potential yield may be realized if both biomass and the
harvest index can be raised. It appears feasible to raise the harvest index
from the present 0.5 to 0.6. Several rice physiologists and breeders had
opted for sink size with large grains and high spikelet number, but the
efforts were not particularly rewarding because of compensatory interac-
tions among the yield components. Enriching the growing plants with C0 2
could add 2 t/ha to the harvest (Yoshida 19Sl).
Other approaches proposed by rice physiologists are to improve the
partitioning of energy for sink formation with less total dry matter at
heading, more erect leaves, and medium growth duration. Attainable yield
targets are 15 t/ha in the tropics and 1S t/ha in the temperate region. Hybrid
rice appears to offer such an avenue (Akita 19S9).
Meanwhile, grain production per hectare per day has been raised by
reducing the growth duration of the HYV s. Some of the recently developed
IR varieties have not surpassed IRS or IR2S in yield per hectare, but they
produce more grains per hectare per day (see Yoshida 19Sl).
Reinstating Genetic Diversity in Major Cultivars

Paradoxically, success in plant breeding soon leads to genetic uniformity
and a narrowing of the genetic base. This trend is common to other major
cereals, especially wheat and maize.
During 19S2-S3, the HYV s were planted on more than 73 million ha
of riceland (Dalrymple 19S6) which can be partitioned into:
• noncommunist Asian countries: 36.37 million ha (44.9% of total

area)
• communist Asian countries*: 33.3S million ha (Sl.O% of total area)
• Latin American countries: 2.29 million ha (26.0% of total area)
• African countries: 0.20 million ha (4.7% of total area)
• Near East countries: 0.10 million ha (8.4% of total area)
• United States: nearly 0.5 million ha (50% of total area)
Most of the HYVs are semidwarfs, and they share the sd 1 locus (see
Chang et al. 19S5). Many of the HYVs bred in the 1970s have the cytoplasm
of Cina (Tjina) which was present in IRS and several other IR varieties.
Moreover, most of the 13 million ha hybrid rice grown in China share the
Wild Abortive cytoplasm and the sd 1 gene. Genetic uniformity in such
*Incomplete for China; North Korea not included.

78 RICE: PRODUCTION
vast areas is a matter of concern to several rice workers (Chang 1976c,

1979a, 1979b, 1984; Hargrove et al. 1979, 1988; Dilday 1990). For the near
future, the trend of decreasing diversity among forthcoming releases may
not be readily corrected because rice breeders in tropical Asia continue
to involve IR varieties, other semidwarfs, and similar sources of pest
resistance as parents in their crosses (see Hargrove et al. 1988).
While the spectre of a major disaster like the 1970-71 southern leaf
blight epidemic of maize in the United States may not happen in rice, the
situation in rice warrants a critical review of past events to devise preven-
tive measures for the future. The rice crop is more vulnerable than temper··
ate-zone crops because continuous multiple cropping of rice is practiced
in the hot and humid tropics. In addition to a single variety or similar
varieties being planted in close succession over large contiguous areas,
staggered plantings in irrigated areas have further increased pest incidence
(see Chang 1988). Adding to the misuse of an improved variety in succes-
sive plantings over a large area, the gene or genes conferring pest resis-
tance are major genes of the vertical type which is prone to being overcome
by the emergence of a new pathotype or insect biotype.
A number of serious pest outbreaks are enumerated below to show
the wrong use of a technology package comprising pest-resistant HYVs
in multiple cropping that led to the "boom and bust" cycles described by
Robinson (1976).
1. IR26 was widely planted in Mindanao Province of the Philippines,
northern Sumatra in Indonesia, and South Vietnam as a brown planthopper-
resistant variety during the early 1970s. Under intensive and double crop-
ping, however, the Bph-1 gene in IR26 soon lost its protective value as
brown planthopper biotype 2 emerged as the predominant fraction in the
insect population after three to four years. IR32, IR36, and IR42, all
carrying the bph-2 gene, were substituted to cope with brown planthopper
biotype 2. In about five years in the same areas, biotype 3 or a different
biotype emerged in 1982. IR56, IR60, and other later releases were offered
as replacements. Epidemics broke out again during 1985-86.
2. The Gsv gene conferring resistance to the grassy stunt virus lost its
effectiveness when a new biotype of the virus emerged.
3. The tungro virus persists as another major destabilizer to rice
production in the Philippines and other Southeast Asian countries because
the assumed varietal resistance was not true resistance to the virus but a
protection provided by resistance to the green leafhopper which is the
insect vector for the virus. Subtle shifts in the insect population, especially
when insects continuously feed on a resistant variety, became accelerated.
The new population of insects also gain efficiency in virus transmission
(see Chang 1984, 1988; Hibino et al. 1987 for citations).
On the other hand, farmers of Thailand continue to grow traditional
varieties of diverse composition in the monsoon season, while semidwarf

HYV s are grown in the dry season under irrigation. Thailand is one of the
few major producing countries in the Asian tropics that have not been
affected by serious insect and disease outbreaks for decades, except for a
brown planthopper epidemic in the 1974 dry season (Chang 1984).
In the temperate zone, South Korea saw a sharp rise in rice yield
during the mid 1970s when interracial hybrids were bred and widely grown.
In 1978, about 76% of the rice area was planted to the new varieties
carrying sd 1 gene. However, these varieties were susceptible to cool tem-
peratures at maturation and to the blast disease as well. A cool season and
blast epiphytotics in 1980 severely damaged the HYVs, and heavy yield
losses resulted. Many farmers returned to the use of the traditional varie-
ties, and the HYV hectarage dropped to 20% in 1988. After attaining self-
sufficiency in 1978, Korea imported one million tons of rice in 1981, and
the national economy suffered (see Chang 1988 for sources of information).
Although other misapplications of technology such as the improper use
of insecticides, which could lead to a resurgence of the brown planthopper,
have also contributed to serious pest problems, some of the problems
associated with a narrow genetic base can be alleviated by other ap-
proaches. Among those measures successfully used in Indonesia are vari-
etal rotation, synchronized time of planting, and the monitoring of pest
incidence followed by communitywide control (see Chang 1988).
In the long run, reinstating genetic diversity in the major cultivars will
prove to be one of the essential requisites in stabilizing crop production.
In a related manner, the expansion in planting rice and wheat in close
succession will also present problems, as the two cereals are affected by
certain pathogenic fungi that are closely related (see Chang 1988).
Innovative Approaches Offered by Cellular and Molecular Biology

The advent of biotechnological techniques that can make use of novel
genes and cytoplasm from distantly related plants has raised the horizon
for future improvements. The potentials are a two-way traffic, i.e., both
to and from rice. The expanding gene-pool to supplement the rice germ-
plasm has been discussed by Chang and Vaughan (1991).
Past achievements and future possibilities are discussed under the
following six headings.
Wide hybridization
The first cultivated/wild interspecific cross made for a practical purpose

was made by Ting (1933) in the late 1920s. From a sativa/spontanea cross,
Yatsen I was selected. Other crosses involving an Indian wild rice gave
several progenies which have a higher level of insect resistance than most
80 RICE: PRODUCTION
other Chinese cultivars. Bao-tai-ai and Bao-xuan 2 were the outstanding

examples (Chang et al. 1982). The first interspecific hybrid involving differ-
ent genomes was made between sativa (A) and australiensis (E) by Li et
al. (1963), but no useful progeny was obtained. The hybrid rice of China
was also based on the spontanea (Wild Abortive) and sativa cross (Lin
and Yuan 1980).
IRRI breeders, entomologists, and pathologists have made crosses with
several wild species in an attempt to transfer into sativa the multiple insect
resistance in 0. officina/is (CC genome), blast resistance in 0. minuta (BBCC
genome), yellow stemborer resistance in 0. brachyantha (FF genome) and
other biotic and abiotic stress tolerances in other wild taxa of unknown
genomes. Tissue culture was extensively used to produce F 1 plants from the
otherwise incompatible crosses (Bajaj 1980; IRRI 1990a).
Intergeneric hybrids involving rice, sorghum, bamboo, reed, corn,
wheat, and other grasses were reported from China, but none of the
reputed hybrids led to useful progenies (see Chang et al. 1982). Recently,
hybrids between Porteresia coarctata (formerly 0. coarctatum) and 0.
sativa have been obtained (see Finch in IRRI 1990c). P. coarctatum is a
salt-tolerant wild relative found in coastal mangrove swamps. Its seed is
collected as a food supplement, but the seeds do not germinate readily
under laboratory conditions.
Anther, pollen, and ovary culture
Anther culture has been used by Chinese scientists since the 1960s to
accelerate breeding progress. Haploid tissue of an F 1 hybrid was cultured,
the chromosomes doubled, and the plant regenerated to provide a homozy-
gous line. Several varieties produced by anther culture-derived doubled
haploids have been released in China, but the scope of genetic improve-
ment was no greater than those produced by conventional hybridization
of selection and are largely confined to the readily cultured sinica race (see
Bajaj 1980; Hu 1985; Raina 1989).
For traits that do not readily recombine, this technique may offer
advantages, however. A scheme to produce alien addition and substitution
lines from interspecific crosses through anther culture has been proposed
by Chu (1982). Anther culture has been pursued at IRRI for a variety of
objectives which included cold tolerance and salt tolerance (Zapata et al.
1986, 1989).
A discussion on pollen and ovary culture may be found in Cho and
Zapata (1988) and Raina (1989).
Another use of cell/tissue culture is to facilitate genetic manipulations
in distantly related hybrids: alien chromosome addition and substitution,
induction of homologous pairing, induction of amphidiploidy, and induc-

tion of translocations (see Raina 1989).
Somatic cell culture

Somatic cell culture can be used to rescue hybrid embryos, poorly viable
seed, and in vitro storage of recalcitrant germplasm. Another potential
application is large-scale plant regeneration, which would aid rapid propa-
gation of desired genotypes and quick screening for variants at the cellular
level.
Variants that appear during the regeneration of cultured cells are
called somaclonal variants and comprise another means of producing novel
variability, probably through mutations and chromosomal interchanges.
Mutations obtained in rice were related to culm length, flowering date,
grain shape, and spikelet fertility, and the variants became fixed in the R2
generation. Somaclonal variants for tolerance to salt and aluminum were
screened at IRRI and mutants with higher tolerance levels were obtained.
Similarly, variants having enhanced resistance to Helminthosporium
oryzae toxin were found in a Chinese study (Raina, 1989). The potential
scope offered by this method for crop improvement appears to be less
than those involving alien germplasm, however.
Protoplast fusion
Protoplasts can be isolated, cultured, and regenerated from single cells in
a culture. In the absence of a cell wall, the protoplasts are amenable to
genetic transformation through the incorporation of foreign DNA, cell
organelles, and other genetic components. When the naked cells fuse,
somatic hybridization and mitochondrial recombination could take place.
Amphidiploid protoplasts can be directly generated. Thus, this method
offers more possibilities for genetic manipulation than other kinds of cell
cultures by bypassing zygotic barriers.
Recent experiments have demonstrated that rice protoplasts can be
isolated, cultured, and fused first within a sinica variety and then a whole
plant regenerated (as by Yamada et al. 1985; Fujimura et al. 1985; Couli-
baly and Demarly 1986; and Abdullah et al. 1987). Protoplast fusion and
plant regeneration have also been attained in indica varieties (Kyozuka et
al. 1988; Peng and Hodges 1989; IRRI 1989). Somatic hybrids have been
obtained in the following crosses: 0. sativa and Glycine sp. (Niizeki et al.
1984), 0. sativa and Echinochloa oryzicola (Terada et al. 1987), between
0. sativa cvs. (Toriyama and Hinata 1988) and between sativa and a wild
species with a different genome (Hayashi et al. 1988). Hybrids have been
82 RICE: PRODUCTION
obtained from ems and fertile lines in which cytoplasmic male sterility was
transferred (Akagi et al. 1989; Yang et al. 1988).
Protoplasmic DNA uptake

Molecular manipulations using DNA offer one of the most powerful means
of gene transfer. The first step consists offractionizing and isolating donor
DNA from an alien source. Direct plant transformation by microinjection
of DNA into ovules or embryos and by protoplast fusion with bacterial
spheroplasts have been attempted by Gerlach et al. (1985) and Cocking
and Davey (1987). Fertile transgenic plants regenerated from transformed
protoplasts have been obtained (Shimamoto et al. 1989).
Recombinant DNA
The DNA fragment is first fractionized and confirmed to carry the desired
genetic information as the vector. The fragment can be transferred when
mediated by a T 1 plasmid. Such a transfer has been achieved (Lorz and
Gobel 1986). ·
The foregoing summary represents to date largely experimental ap-
proaches that are indispensable to applying the techniques. Although no
successful transfer of an agriculturally important gene into rice for com-
mercial use has been achieved, the potentials appear highly promising,
partly because rice is more readily regenerated than wheat or barley. On
the other hand, the incomplete status of rice genetics will continue to
affect rapid advances in genetic engineering.
Several agricultural scientists have pointed out that genetic engi-
neering alone will not lead to improved cultivars nor replace conventional
plant breeding. The combined input of plant breeders, biotech workers,
and other disciplines will be needed to attain the expanded goals (see
Sprague et al. 1980; Carlson 1983; Borlaug 1983). Sustained training of
competent plant breeders is crucial to the team approach in delivering
usable products.
AREAS FOR FUTURE ENDEAVOR
The world's human population passed the 5 billion mark in August 1988
and will well exceed 6 billion by 2000. The rate of increase is higher in the
rice-growing regions than other regions. The estimated requirement for
rice by the turn of this century will be around 556 million tons which
represents a 100-million metric ton increase over the present level of 458.
GE~JETICS AND BREEDING 83
The increased need will have to come mainly from improved yield because
the prospects for expanding riceland are limited (see IRRI 1989c). This
presents a great challenge to all rice workers, especially those involved in
crop improvement, as rice farmers may not be able to increase their input
at a sustained rate in the face of diminishing natural and related resources
(see Chang 1988).
One of the avenues to higher rice yields is to increase concurrently
the total biomass and the harvest index (HI), the ratio of grain to biomass.
For presently grown HYVs in irrigated fields, the HI ranges between 0.4
and 0.5. The HI needs to be elevated to 0.6 in order to reach a 15-22 t/ha
yield level (Akita 1989).
A high rate of dark respiration in the tropics has been often described
as one of the factors leading to low yields, but it is also a necessary step
in the accumulation ofphotosynthates. On the other hand, yield-enhancing
genetic interactions in cultivated/wild crosses have not been explored,
while it was shown in oats to be a promising approach (see Frey 1983).
The yield destabilizing effects of unfavorable weather and heavy pest
incidence need to be reduced in extent and frequency. As the global
warming trend is likely to intensify, and weather disturbances such as the
El Nino phenomenon continue, the monsoon will be pushed northward.
Drought will be more frequent and serious in the middle latitude countries
such as China and India (see Bryson 1974; World Climate Research Pro-
gram 1990). Meanwhile, a rise in seawater level will aggravate flooding in
coastal and low-lying areas. Expansion in intensive multiple cropping will
increase pest epidemics. On the other hand, unique genes in the rich rice
germplasm will enable breeders and allied scientists in plant protection to
make a fuller use of genetic tolerances and render them more durable.
Germplasm collection in remote areas and of the wild relatives must be
completed and the materials fully evaluated. Further advances in genetic
manipulations and their combined use will facilitate the incorporation of
genes from a broader array of germplasm even beyond the genus Oryza.
Related genera such as Leersia, Porteresia, Zizania, and others-each
possess unique characteristics that can be exploited to improve the rice
plant-should be explored (see Chang and Vaughan 1991). Meanwhile, a
fuller understanding of the genetic system of rice is indispensable to more
refined genetic manipulations and enhancement (see Flavell 1985).
Further efforts to meet the impending food needs will not only involve
greater collaboration among the various scientific disciplines of many
nations working on rice but also different sectors of society: rice farmers,
food processors, rice consumers, agricultural engineers, decisionmakers,
educators, mass media, and the public (see Chang 1988). It will be an all-
out war for human survival that cannot be circumvented.
84 RICE: PRODUCTION
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4
Rice Culture
Duane S. Mikkelsen
Surajit K. De Datta
Rice is unique among the world's major food crops by virtue of the extent
and variety of its uses and its adaptability to a broad range of climatic,
edaphic, and cultural conditions. It is usually grown under shallow flood
or "wet paddy" conditions but is also cultured where floodwaters may be
several meters deep and, at the opposite extreme, as an upland cereal.
Although rice appears to have a high water requirement, its requirement
is actually not much different from that of other field crops. Unlike most
cereal crops, however, rice benefits from standing water. It is capable of
anaerobic respiration and has aerenchyma tissue in the aerial organs
through which oxygen diffuses to the roots.
Its unique ability to grow and produce high caloric food values per unit
area on all types ofland and water regimes, combined with its adaptation to
a wide variety of climates and agricultural conditions, make rice the
world's most important cereal crop. Thousands of cultivars are grown
throughout the world, representing a wide range of plant and grain charac-
teristics. The crop was planted on some 144,641,000 ha of land (1985-87)
which produced 468,275,000 metric tons of rice with an average world
yield of 3.2 t/ha. The significance of rice is shown in its widespread use as
a staple food by more than half of the world's population. Millions of
people in Asia subsist almost entirely on rice. Most countries rely almost
entirely on domestic production to feed their populations, with only about
103
104 I RICE: PRODUCTION
Rest of world
(2.8%)
Latin America
(3.9Cfo)
South Asia
(23.5%)
East Asia
(45.4%)
Southeast
Asia
(22.2 Cfo)
Figure 4-1. Regional distribution of world rice production (298 million tons milled
rice), 1987 (IRRI 1988a).
4% of the world's rice production reaching the international market (FAO

1989). More than 90% of world's rice is produced in Asia (Fig. 4-1). The
estimated area and production of rice for the years 1985-87, by selected
countries and regions, are shown in Table 4-1. The average yields of rough
rice per hectare in each region of the world are shown as follows:
Location tlha
Asia 3.3
Latin America 2.3
Africa 1.9
United States 6.2
Rest of World 4.8
World 3.2
According to Chang (1976), the two cultivated species of rice, Oryza

RICE CULTURE 105
sativa and 0. glaberrima, developed from a common progenitor, progres-

sively from a wild perennial to a wild annual, and ultimately a cultivated
annual. Through diversification accelerated by climatic changes, human
dispersal and selection over a wide range of latitude and altitude, plus
manipulation for cultural adaptation, many different cultivars have been
developed. From its origin in ancient India, 0. sativa was dispersed to
north and central China, where puddling and transplanting techniques
were developed. In Southeast Asia, upland rice culture occurred first.
Planting progressed from shifting cultivation to direct sowing in prepared
fields, with later transplanting into bunded fields. The dispersal of 0.
sativa has led to the development of three ecogeographical races: indica,
japonica, and javanica, each grown with cultural practices ranging from
upland to lowland and to deepwater cultures. 0. glaberrima developed
somewhat later than 0. sativa and is grown largely in Africa. The tropical
race, indica, has spread through the humid tropics, the Middle East,
Europe, and Africa. Bold grain, tall javanica races have spread through
parts of Asia and many contiguous island areas, including Indonesia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Japan. The cool-season race, japonica, was
developed in the lower Yangtze River area of China, from where it was
introduced into Korea, Japan, and later to southern Europe, the U.S.S.R.,
the United States, and South America.
With distribution of rice cultivars to the high latitudes, cultivar
changes occurred in response to low temperature and short photoperiod.
This was accompanied by selection for short plant stature and plants with
more determinate tillering and uniform heading. In the high latitudes of
the world, rice can be grown only during the warm season of the year.
Great genetic diversity exists, as shown by the fact that more than 83,000
rice cultivars are currently identified at the International Rice Research
Institute (IRRI) by differences in adaptability to various climates, soil
and water requirements, agronomic characteristics of plant type, growth
duration, photoperiodism, grain type, and quality.
The main theater of rice production is found on the Asian continent
and adjacent islands which lie in the tropical and subtropical regions.
Much of the Asian rice is produced in the monsoon area where abundant
rainfall, plus some supplementary irrigation, provides an edaphic advan-
tage. Rice production is concentrated in areas where water management is
convenient on flat lowlands, river basins, and delta areas. The continental
monsoon varies from year to year, however, creating an instability in
rice production which can be overcome only by adequate supplementary
irrigation. Within the Asian area, regional monsoons, trade winds, ty-
phoons, and tropical depressions create a pattern of distinct wet and dry
seasons and add variability to the climatic features from year to year. The
monsoon season-from June to December in the tropics north of the
0o-
Table 4-1. Rice Production

Major Rice DISTRIBUTION OF RICE AREA(%)
Producing ROUGH RICE (1985-87) Areas
Countries, Rainfed Planted to
Regions, and Area Yield Production Lowland Deepwater Floating Modern
World (thousand ha) (t/ ha) (thousand t) Irrigated (0-50 em) (51-100 em) (>199 em) Upland Varieties
Asia 129,530 3.3 428,968
Afghanistan 211 2.2 468 100 0 0 0 0
Bangladesh 10,229 2.2 22,350 12 53 15 11 9 30
Cambodia 1,717 1.1 1,933 10 37 7 21 25 17
China 32,798 5.3 174,934 93 5 0 0 2 28
India 40,991 2.1 87,335 35 37 7 6 15 58
Indonesia 9,889 4.0 39,474 63 17 3 3 14 72
Iran 493 3.7 1,841 100 0 0 0 0 12
Japan 2,298 6.3 14,379 98 0 0 0 2 100
Korea, DPR 858 7.0 6,000 67 20 0 0 13 60
Korea, Republic 1,229 6.4 7,824 91 8 0 0 I 22
Laos 599 2.2 1,342 11 40 0 0 49 15
Myanmar 4,718 3.2 15,012 17 56 9 3 15 49
Nepal 1,352 1.9 2,508 21 65 7 4 3 36
Pakistan 2,010 2.4 4,754 100 0 0 0 0 49
Philippines 3,426 2.7 9,135 43 43 2 0 12 87
Sri Lanka 851 2.9 2,498 63 29 I 0 7 89
Thailand 9,378 2.0 18,887 14 69 9 5 3 13
Turkey 57 4.9 275 100 0 0 0 0
Vietnam 5,691 2.8 15,891 40 31 14 8 7 40
Latin America 7,606 2.3 17,733
Argentina 108 3.7 401 100 0 0 0 0 85
Brazil 5,457 1.8 9,956 18 6 0 0 76 80
Colombia 378 4.8 1,804 65 0 0 0 35 100
Cuba 156 3.4 528 100 0 0 0 0 100
Dominican Republic 101 4.0 399 98 0 0 0 2 85
Ecuador 173 2.7 653 40 50 0 0 10 88
Guyana 87 3.7 324 95 0 0 0 5 95
Mexico 189 3.4 644 41 0 0 0 59 100
Peru 203 4.7 950 84 0 0 0 16 94
Surinam 75 4.0 299 100 0 0 0 0 100
Uruguay 84 4.7 399 100 0 0 0 0 100
Venezuela 143 2.6 365 90 0 0 0 10 100
Africa 5,368 1.9 9,924
Ivory Coast 418 1.3 532 6 - 7- 0 87
Egypt 423 5.9 2,514 100 0 0 0 0
Guinea 560 0.8 466 5 - 45- 3 47
Liberia 232 1.2 288 0 - 6- 0 94
Madagascar 1,183 1.9 2,201 31 - 46- 4 19
Nigeria 717 2.0 1,449 16 - 17- 12 55
Sierra Leone 350 1.4 483 0 - 32- I 67
Tanzania 318 1.6 515 10 - 64- 0 26
Zaire 337 0.9 303 5 - 5- 0 90
United States 972 6.2 6,029 100 0 0 0 0 100
Rest of the world 1,165 4.8 5,621
World 144,641 3.2 468,275 53 23 8 3 13
......
!::3
equator and from November to April south of the equator-constitutes

the area of the so-called "monsoon" rice crop.
While the bulk of the rice production is centered in wet tropical
climates, the crop flourishes in humid regions of the subtropics and temper-
ate climates such as Egypt, Japan, Korea, Spain, Portugal, Italy, South,
and Central America, Hungary, the U.S.S.R., the United States, France,
and Australia. The highest grain yields have been recorded between 30°
and 45° latitude, while the producing areas extend from about 5l 0 N to 35°S
latitude. Various explanations have been suggested for the higher rice
yields obtained in the higher latitudes of the world. These include longer
day length and higher solar energy, varietal differences (japonica in higher
latitudes), more favorable soil conditions, better water control, and fewer
disease and insect problems. The rice plant is unique in that it is adaptable
to a wide range of climatic and environmental conditions ranging from
upland and lowland to deepwater culture. Cultivars have been developed
which meet the wide range of conditions under which rice is grown as a
commercial crop.
CLIMATIC FACTORS AFFECTING RICE PRODUCTION
The distribution of rice production over the world is controlled primarily

by climatic variables that ideally should provide adequate water during
the entire growing season, relatively high air and soil temperatures, ade-
quate solar radiation, the absence of destructive storms, a moderately long
growing season, and relatively rain-free conditions during the ripening
period. Important edaphic factors include the need for relatively levelland
with poor internal drainage and favorable chemical and physical properties
in the soil itself. A calendar of planting and harvest times is shown in Table
4-2 for the various rice-growing countries of the world.
Precipitation and Water

Water, often in the form of precipitation, is the most important factor
influencing the distribution of rice in the world, and also its growth and
yield potential. The growth of all rice varieties is favored by flooding, and
yields have been increased as much as 53% over adequately irrigated
but nonflooded culture (Senewiratne and Mikkelsen 1961). Although rice
benefits from a flooded soil environment, it requires no more water than
most upland field crops. The major benefits from a flooded soil are the
enhanced availability of nutrients, especially N, P, Fe, and Mn, enhanced
nitrogen fixation, less competition from weeds, and favorable microcli-
matic regulation. Nonflooded culture initially favors seedling growth but
RICE CULTURE 109
is unfavorable for tiller production, vegetative and reproductive growth,

and ultimate yield. Consequently, rice is preferentially grown only in
the rainy season except where water storage and irrigation facilities are
available. Total seasonal precipitation, as well as its intensity and distribu-
tion, is extremely important.
Under rain-fed lowland rice culture, a desirable rainfall pattern pro-
vides abundant precipitation at the beginning of the rice season to allow
timely land preparation, transplanting, or broadcast seeding of the crop.
Less frequent rainfall is needed during the vegetative phase, but it should
be sufficient to replace losses due to evaporation, transpiration, percola-
tion, and runoff. Ideally, during the reproductive and ripening phases,
solar radiation should be high to favor photosynthesis and grain formation.
Water stresses during these phases are particularly damaging to grain
production. Rainy weather during the flowering period, often accompanied
by a lowering of temperature, may also adversely affect normal pollination
and increase the percentage of sterile spikelets.
Since rice is unable to make full use of the total annual rainfall, only
the precipitation occurring during the cropping period is directly beneficial.
As a rule, between 70 and 90% of the total rainfall during cropping effec-
tively benefits the crop. The intensity and distribution of the rainfall, the
water retention characteristics of the soil, various field losses, and water
conserving cultural practices all affect water availability.
With rain-fed flooded rice culture, the major determinants of crop
water requirements are surface runoff, percolation losses, and evapotrans-
piration. Where it is feasible, a portion of the potential surface runoff
should be restricted by surrounding bunds, but when continuous precipita-
tion exceeds 50 to 80 mm day, runoff is likely to occur. Water is also lost
by percolation depending upon soil type, land preparation practices, and
depth of the water table. Percolation rates may vary from I mm/day in
well-puddled clay soils to 3 to 10 mm/day in coarse textured soils with
deepwater tables.
Studies on the role of percolation rate on productivity of lowland rice
soils have reached diverse conclusions. Chinese workers observed that
draining lowland rice soils for short periods during vegetative growth
greatly improved soil aeration and suggested that this may be favorable
for rice growth (Cheng 1981). Japanese researchers suggest that a percola-
tion rate of 10 to 20 mm/day is essential to get high rice grain yields
(De Datta 1981; Hasegawa et al. 1985). Recent results at IRRI (Sharma et
al. 1989a) suggest that percolation significantly benefited rice grain yield
only in acidic soils and those rich in organic matter. In silty clay loam,
with 10.5% organic matter and pH of 5.2, a percolation rate of 40 mm/day
increased grain yield by about 21% over that with no percolation control.
In soils having less than 5.1% organic matter, grain yield remained unaf-
_,.
0
Table 4-2. Rice Crop Calendar by Country

Bulk of
Crop and Country Planting Harvest Harvest
Asia
Bangladesh:
Aus April July-Sept. July-Aug.
T. aman July-Aug. Nov.-Jan. Dec.
B. aman April Late Oct.-Dec.
Boro Dec. April-May
Myanmar:
Main June Nov.-Jan. Dec.
Second Nov. March-May April
China:
Early crop Feb.-May June-July July
Intermediate" March-May Aug.-Oct. Sept.
Late rice June-July Oct.-Nov.
Northern Mid-April to Mid-June Sept.
India:
Kharif:
Early March-May June-Dec. Aug.-Sept.
Main June-Oct. Nov.-April Nov.-Jan.
Rabi (summer) Nov.-Feb. March-June April-May
Indonesiah:
Main:
Java Oct.-March Feb.-June March-May
S. Sulawesi May-June Aug.-Oct. Aug.-Sept.
N. Sumatra July-Nov. Dec.-March Jan.-March
S. Sumatra Oct.-Jan. Jan.-June April-June
Second:
Java April-June July-Oct. July-Sept.
S. Sulawesi Nov.-Feb. April-June May
N. Sumatra May-June Aug.-Sept. Aug.-Sept.
S. Sumatra June-July Sept.-Oct. Sept.-Oct.
Iraq May Late Aug. to Mid-Nov.

Japan April-May Sept.-Nov. Oct.
Kampuchea:
Main June-July Dec.-Jan.
Second Dec.-Jan. March
Korea DPR May-June Sept.-Oct. Sept.
Korea Rep June-July Oct.-Nov. Oct.
Laos June-Aug. Nov.-Dec.
Lebanon May Sept.-Oct.
Malaysia:
Main:
West Sept.-Oct. Nov.-March Dec.-Feb.
Sabah June-Aug. Jan.-March Jan.-Feb.
Sarawak Oct.-Nov. March-April
Second:
West April-May July-Oct. Sept.
Nepal:
Early Late May-Aug. Aug.-Sept.
Late June-July Nov.
Pakistan Mid-April to Mid-July Mid-Oct. to Nov. Early Nov.
Philippines:
Main July-Sept. Nov.-Jan. Dec.
Second Jan.-Feb. April-June May
Third May-June Sept.-Nov .
....
~
......
j\j
Table 4-2. Continued

Bulk of
Saudi Arabia July Nov.
Sri Lanka
Maha (main) Oct.-Nov. Feb.-March Feb.
Yala April-May Aug.-Sept.
Syria July-May Mid-Sept. to Oct. Oct.
Taiwan, China:
Main Jan.-March May-July June
Second May to Mid-Aug. Sept.-Nov. Oct.
Thailand:
Main:
North May-June Nov.-Jan. Nov.-Jan.
Northeast June-Aug. Nov.-Jan.
Central June-July Nov.-Feb.
South Sept.-Nov. March-May
Second Jan.-May June-Aug.
Turkey April-May Sept.-Oct. Oct.
Vietnam
lOth month (main):
North May-Early Sept. Late Sept.-Nov.
Central May-Sept. Sept. to Mid-Dec.
South May-Early Oct. Late Nov.-Feb.
Winter-spring
North Jan.-Early March May-June
Central Jan.-Early March April-May March-May
South Mid-Dec. to Early March
5th month spring Oct.-Nov. May-June
Summer-fall:
North April-May Aug.-Sept.
Central April-May Late July-Sept.
South April-June July-Oct.
South America
Argentina Mid-Sept. to Mid-Dec. Mid-March to Mid-June April
Bolivia Oct.-Nov. Jan.-March Feb.-March
Brazil:
South Aug.-Dec. Feb.-May March-April
Northeast March-May Aug.-Oct. Oct.
North Nov.-Dec. April-June May
Chile Oct.-Nov. March-April April
Colombia:
Summer (main) March-April June-Aug.
Winter Dec.-Feb.
Ecuador:
Winter (main) Dec.-Feb. April-June May
Summer May-Aug. Aug.-Dec.
French Guiana:
Upland March-Oct.
Lowland Whole year-round
Guyana:
Autumn (main) May-June Sept.-Oct. Oct.
Spring Dec.-Jan. Feb.-May March-April
Paraguay Sept.-Dec. Jan.-March Feb.-March
Peru Jan.-Feb. May-July July
Surinam:
First April-May Sept.-Oct.
Second Oct.-Nov. March-April
......
c;';
.....
~

Bulk l~{
Uruguay Oct.-Dec. March-July April-May
Venezuela:
Spring Jan.-Feb. Feb.
Winter April-June Sept.-Nov. Oct.
Central and North America
Belize:
Main April-June Sept.-Dec. Oct.-Dec.
Second Oct.-Nov. March-May
Costa Rica:
North Nov.-Dec.
South Aug.-Sept.
Cuba March-June Aug.-Dec. Oct.-Dec.
Dominican Republic:
Spring (main) April-Aug. July-Dec.
Winter Jan.-Feb.
El Salvador June-July Oct.-Dec. Nov.
Guatemala April-May Aug.-Dec. Nov.
Haiti:
First Oct.-Nov. March-April
Second April-May Sept.-Oct.
Honduras April-May Sept.-Oct. Oct.
Jamaica Dec.-Jan. Dec.-Jan.
Mexico Mid-March to Mid-July Mid-Sept. to Mid-Jan. Nov.
Nicaragua June-July Nov.-Feb. Dec.
Panama:
Main April-May Aug.-Oct. Sept.
Second Aug.-Sept. Dec.-Jan.
St. Lucia Nov.-Dec. Nov.
Trinidad & Tobago June-Early Aug. Late Oct.-Early Dec. Nov.
United States:
Gulf April-June Aug.-Oct. Late Aug.-Sept.
California April-June Mid-Sept. to Nov. Oct.
Africa
Algeria April-May Mid-Sept. to Mid-Oct.
Angola Mid-Oct. to Mid-July Mid-March to Mid-May
Benin Mid-April to Mid-July Mid-Aug. to Mid-Dec.
Burundi Mid-Oct. to Mid-Dec. Mid-May to Mid-July June
Cameroon:
North June-July Nov.-Dec. Dec.
South' Aug. Dec.-Jan.
Central African Rep July Nov.
Chad June-July Oct.-Dec.
Congo Nov. April-May
Egypt:
North (main) Late April-June Mid-Sept. to Oct.
South July-Aug. Dec.-Jan.
Ethiopia April-June Dec.-Jan.
Gambia June-July Oct.-Nov. Oct.
Gabon Mid-Nov. to Mid-Jan. Mid-May to Mid-June
Ghana Mid-March to Mid-May Mid-July to Mid-Oct.
Guinea:
Major April-May Sept.-Oct.
Minor May-Aug. Oct.-Jan.
Ivory Coast March-July Mid Aug. to Mid-Dec. Oct.
en
......
c>

Bulk of
Kenya:
Main Nov.-Dec.
Second June-July
Liberia:
Upland Mid-April to July Sept. to Mid-Dec. Oct.
Swamp July-Aug. Dec.-Jan.
Madagascar Oct.-Nov. April-June
Mali June-July Late Nov.-Jan.
Malawi Mid-Nov. to Dec. April-June
Mauritania June Oct.-Nov. Nov.
Mauritius May-June
Morocco July-Aug. Aug.
Mozambique May-June June
Niger Mid-July to Mid-Aug. Mid-Nov. to Mid-Dec.
Nigeria Mid-April to May Aug.-Sept. Oct.
Rwanda Mid-Oct. to Mid-Dec. Mid-May to Mid-July June
Senegal:
Casanance June-July Nov.-Jan. Nov.
Fleuve June-July Oct.-Dec.
Sierra Leone:
Upland May-June Aug.-Oct.
Inland swamp May-July Sept.-Dec.
Mangrove swamp July-Aug. Dec.-Jan.
Boliland May-July Dec.-Jan.
Riverain April-May Dec.-Jan.
Somalia May Sept. Mid-Sept.
Sudan June Oct.
Swaziland:
Main Jan.-Feb. Mid-Feb.
Second April-July
Tanzania:
Mainland June-Oct. July-Aug.
Zanzibar June-Aug. June-July
Togo May Mid-Oct. to Mid-Nov.
Uganda:
First crop Jan.-Feb. Oct.-Nov.
Second crop June-July
Third crop Sept.-Nov.
Upper Volta Mid-May to Mid-July Mid-Oct. to Mid-Nov.
Zaire:
North Feb. June
South Oct. Jan.
Western Europe
France March-April Sept.-Oct. Oct.
Greece May Sept.-Oct. Sept.
Italy April-May End Aug.-Early Nov. Sept.
Portugal March-May Aug.-Oct. Sept.
Spain May Sept.-Oct. Sept.
Eastern Europe
Albania April-May Oct. Oct.
Bulgaria March-April July-Aug. Aug.
Hungary April-May Sept.-Oct. Oct.
Romania April-May Sept.-Oct. Oct.
......
......
-..1
~
cP

Bulk of
U.S.S.R. April-May Aug.-Sept. Sept.
Oceania
Australia:
New South Wales Oct. March-May April
Western Australia Nov. April-May
Fiji Feb.-July April-May
Papua New Guinea May-Aug. June-July
Solomon Islands Whole year round
Tonga April-May
" Includes single crop late rice.
b If irrigation is available, especially in Java and Bali, rice is harvested whole year-round and in some sites a third rice crop can be harvested at
least once every 2 years. Java accounts for 62% of the total rice crop.
Source: USDA. 1983. Foreign Agriculture Circular. Grains. Reference Tables on Rice-Utilization for Individual Countries. Washington.
RICE CULTURE 119
fected by percolation rate. Possible causes were the fast degradation of

organic acids and other phytotoxins at higher soil temperatures produced
during the decomposition of organic matter. Another study by the same
authors (Sharma et al. 1989b) reported from a field trial that rice yield and
root length density remain unaffected by the addition of 6 t/ha of rice straw
and by percolation rate of 9 and 123 mm/day.
Evapotranspiration values vary according to local climatic conditions,
cropping practices, and phase of plant development. Evapotranspiration
in humid climates is fairly consistent between 3.5 and 6 mm/day where
advective energy is relatively small to 8 mm/day with a high advective
influence. Transpiration losses vary with temperature, humidity, wind
velocity, water management practices, and plant growth stages. Generally,
transpiration increases with total crop leaf area. Transpiration is relatively
slow after transplanting, then increases with tillering, reaching a peak at
heading and decreasing with grain ripening. Evaporation likewise varies
with climatic and crop density factors but generally reaches its maximum
rate during the seedling stage and decreases as the plant canopy shades
the water.
The net water requirement for rice grown in tropical Asia varies from
750 to 2500 mm with the average about 1250 mm. Of this amount, 40 mm
is allocated for seedling nursery purposes, 210 mm for land preparation,
and about 1000 for irrigation purposes. Typical water requirements in
various areas include 2.5-4.5 acre-ft/season in Japan, 6.0 in Thailand, 4.0
in Indochina, and 4 to 6 in Sri Lanka, Australia, and the United States.
Excessive rainfall can be a major source of crop loss where flooding
cannot be controlled and crops are inundated. In parts of Asia and Africa,
special deepwater or "floating rice" varieties must be grown to tolerate
deep flooding.
Irrigated lowland rice covers about 50% of the rice-growing area of
the world. Irrigation allows complete control of water application and
depth and is becoming the major system of world rice culture. In temperate
Asia-China, Japan, Korea, and Pakistan-most riceland is irrigated. In
the United States, Australia, and Latin America-Argentina, Columbia,
Cuba, Dominican Republic, Guyana, Surinam, Uruguay, and Venezu-
ela-and Egypt in Africa, most of the rice area is also irrigated (see Table
4-1).
Temperature
In temperate regions, temperature is a limiting factor in rice culture. In
the main rice-growing season of the Asian tropics-particularly India,
Myanmar, Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, and the Philip-
pines-temperature is more or less constant and within safe limits. How-
ever, in rice-farming regions far from the equator, low temperatures during
seedling and early vegetative phases cause slow growth of some varieties.
In areas of northern India and Bangladesh, where three crops a year are
grown, even a photoperiod-insensitive variety may take 20 to 40 days
longer to mature when planted in December or January than it does when
planted in March through June.
Rice is adaptable to areas with abundant sunshine and average temper-
atures above 20 to 38°C (68-1 00°F). Temperatures below 15°C (59°F) retard
seedling development, delay transplanting, slow tiller formation, delay
reproductive growth, and consequently reduce grain yields.
The lower temperature limits for germination are difficult to estimate
and vary with variety, but germination proceeds only slowly at 1ooc (50°F).
The optimum temperature for germination is in the range of 18 to 33°C
(64-91.4°F) with seeds of most varieties germinating more rapidly at the
higher temperatures than the lower ones. At 42°C (108°F), germination is
arrested; at 50°C (122°F) the seed is killed. Critical air temperatures are
15 to 15.SOC (59-60°F) for transplanting seedlings from lowland nurseries,
14 to 15°C (57.2-59°F) from semi-irrigated beds, and 13 to 13.SOC
(35.4-56.SOF) for seedlings from upland nurseries. Rice rooting occurs
over a range of 19 to 33°C (66.2-91.4°F), 25 to 28°C optimum (77-82.4°F),
with root inhibition occurring below 16°C (60.8°F) and above 35°C (95°F).
Top growth is generally linear between 18 and 33°C (64.4 and 91.4°F),
but above and below that range, growth notably decreases. As a rule, water
temperature is more critical than air temperature because the growing
meristem is usually under water. Sasaki (1927) reported that leaf elongation
increases with temperature in the range of 17 to 31°C (52.6-87.8°F), but
decreases and practically ceases at 45°C (113°F). The lower limit for leaf
elongation is 7 to 8°C (44.6-46.4°F). Tillering is a complex relationship
involving an interaction between carbohydrate metabolism, solar radia-
tion, and temperature. Tillering is generally favorably affected in the range
of 15 to 33°C (59-91.4°F).
Anthesis generally begins at the same time as panicle emergence from
the sheath. Morning temperatures, rather than daily mean temperatures,
determine the start of flowering. Sakai (1949) states that 29 to 31 oc
(84-88°F) appears to be the most favorable temperature range for the
opening of spikelets and for effective pollination. Flowering is usually
stimulated by high temperatures, although variations occur among cul-
tivars.
Patterns of temperature variation during each crop season and sequen-
tial changes from season to season are complex and affect plant growth
and maturity in different ways. As a rule, the annual mean temperature
decreases from lower to higher latitudes and altitudes. In the tropics, rice
can usually be planted in any month of the year since temperature varia-
tions are only slight from season to season and day to night. Temperature
RICE CULTURE 121
differences do not usually cause yield fluctuations in the elevations near

sea level in the tropics. Even so, low temperature at high altitudes may
be a problem for tropical varieties, and high temperature near sea level
during flowering and grain formation may cause damage. In subtropical
and temperate areas, temperatures usually increase from spring to summer
and decrease again in autumn, thus limiting the growing season. Air and
root-zone temperatures may change considerably from night to day and
from season to season, affecting nutrient uptake, vegetative, and reproduc-
tive development and grain ripening.
The effects of temperature on rice plant growth can be evaluated by
relating phenological data to heat summation units or day-degrees. Heat
summation data for all the growing days above the baseline of a mean
daily temperature show that the lower range is probably between 898 and
1206°C (1649 and 2204°F) and that most varieties need an accumulated
temperature of 1639 and 1978°C (2982-3593°F). Nuttonson (1951) com-
puted day-degree summation with a 10°C (50°F) baseline from the sown
to ripe period of nontropical cultivars showing a range of 373°C (704°F) in
the U.S.S.R. (lat. 43° 40'N) to over 1516°C (2760°F) in Texas (lat. 30°04'N).
IRRI research (Bhattacharyya and De Datta 1971) reported that low
temperatures at the early vegetative phase retarded the growth of shoots
and roots. A temperature of l5°C delayed panicle initiation by 17 days and
extended the time required for complete heading. Crop maturity was
proportionately delayed. The rice plants were highly sensitive to cool soil
and water temperatures during panicle development. Heading was delayed
at low temperature and it took longer for all panicles to emerge. Grain
yields were significantly decreased by a 15°C soil temperature during this
period.
Photoperiod
The photoperiod, or day length, the duration of the light period between
sunrise and sunset, including the twilight hours, is a major factor influenc-
ing the development of the rice plant, especially its flowering characteris-
tics (Chang and Vergara 1972). Although rice is considered a short-day
plant (short days decrease their growth duration), cultivars differ widely
in sensitivity.
The daylight hours fluctuate during the year and vary with latitude.
The day length is shortest in winter, increasing gradually toward summer,
with the greatest changes occurring in the high latitude areas. In the tropics
the maximum photoperiod difference is less than 3 h/day, but in the warm
temperate zones, the difference in photoperiod may be as much as 5 h.
Photoperiod-sensitive cultivars flower when the decreasing day length
reaches a critical point. Day length also exerts a large effect on the growth
duration of rice cultivars, depending upon their photoperiod sensitivity.
The response is seen largely through changes in the basic vegetative

growth pattern, especially the duration of the reproductive phase. Photo-
period sensitivity (the critical day length required for flowering) varies
greatly, some cultivars being referred to as nonseasonal or neutral, others
as weakly photoperiod sensitive, and others as strongly photoperiod-sensi-
tive. Weakly sensitive cultivars vary only slightly in growth duration from
the time of planting to harvest, while those termed strongly sensitive can
be planted only during seasons with long day length. Photoperiods that
are longer or shorter than the optimum delay the flowering of photoperiod-
sensitive cultivars. The range of diversity among cultivars is very large
with virtually no cultivars showing a long day response.
The practical aspect of photoperiod sensitivity is that farmers must
select carefully among the variety of cultivars, since the degree of sensitiv-
ity will determine the growth duration, maturity date, and potential yield
of a crop as well as cultivar adaptation to double cropping. In tropical
areas, photoperiod-sensitive cultivars have traditionally been selected be-
cause they could be planted when the monsoon rains begin and be har-
vested at a fixed time after rains cease and floodwaters recede. Such
cultivars utilize the high solar radiation at the late growth stages which
has a beneficial effect on yields.
Solar Radiation
Solar radiation and sunshine hours are important climatic determinants in
rice production. Numerous studies have shown a close correlation be-
tween solar radiation, plant growth and yield (Moomaw et al. 1967; Stansel
1975). Young seedlings have a comparatively low solar radiation require-
ment so shading at early stages exerts only small effects on ultimate yield.
Light becomes progressively more important through the vegetative and
reproductive phases, reaching maximum importance at the heading stage.
The need for solar energy is most critical from panicle differentiation to
about 10 days before maturity (Stansel1975). Results at IRRI (Moomaw
et al. 1967) show that high grain yields were strongly correlated with total
solar radiation between 30 and 45 days before harvest (De Datta and Zarate
1970).
Although postflowering itradiance is clearly an important determinant
of grain yield, irradiance during earlier periods of development may be
at least as important and possibly more so. The greater importance of
preflowering irradiance shown by shading experiments is also supported
by Yoshida's (1973) results with the C02 enrichment of rice crops at
various stages before and after flowering; Yoshida's study was based on
the assumption that both C02 enrichment and high irradiance increase
RICE CULTURE 123
photosynthesis. Grain yield increased 30% by enrichment for 33 days

before flowering, but only 10% by enrichment for 30 days after flowering
(Evans and De Datta 1979).
Results at IRRI (Evans and De Datta 1979) showed significant correla-
tions between yields of all test varieties and irradiance (over 20- or 30-day
intervals) during crop reproductive and ripening phases.
Regardless of whether irradiance rises or falls progressively, high
irradiance at any stage after panicle initiation is associated with higher
yields in both older and modern varieties. Responsiveness to irradiance
was greater at higher application levels of nitrogen fertilizer.
The amount of sunlight a crop receives depends on solar radiation
intensity, day length, cloud cover, and mutual shading by the plants in a
population. Day length and solar radiation intensity are determined by
geographical location and changing seasons as modified by cloud cover.
Mutual shading is the shading of one plant part by others. Plant type
and leaf arrangement play an important role in the energy absorption
characteristics of the plant canopy. The effects of mutual shading in the
tropics are most critical where days are shorter and midday intensity is
high for relatively short periods. Cloudiness greatly reduces the period of
energy absorption, especially during the monsoon. Many rice growing
areas have distinct wet and dry seasons which greatly affect solar radi-
ation.
Mean daily solar radiation values during the main rice-growing season
are lower in the tropics than in the temperate zone, which may account in
part for yield differences in the two areas.
Tropical Storms
Tropical storms of various types, often violent and destructive to the rice
crop, include tropical cyclones that originate in the low-latitude oceanic
areas and move rapidly as violent hurricanes or typhoons, cyclonic depres-
sions developing in the middle and high latitudes; and, to a lesser extent,
tornadoes. If they occur after the heading of the rice, they may cause
severe lodging and shatter loss in some varieties. Strong winds just before
heading may also cause a decrease in the number of spikelets per panicle.
High winds during pollination will induce sterility, while continued strong
winds have been shown to reduce photosynthesis and promote the spread
of bacterial diseases both in temperate and tropical rice areas. Strong
winds and rains that mechanically damage the leaves are responsible for
grain losses through increased shatter. Rice cultivars that are susceptible
to mechanical damage of leaves and the shattering of the grain produce
lower grain yields than less susceptible ones (Chang and Vergara 1972).
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING RICE PRODUCTION
Over the centuries, a number of systems of rice production has evolved

to fit local conditions of climate, soils, water supply, economics, and social
conditions. Despite wide variations in culture, two main systems of soil
management have evolved: (1) dry soil management, in which the land is
prepared dry and the crop is seeded in the same manner as other cereal
crops (this is referred to as upland rice culture but may also be practiced
in irrigated lowland rice production), and (2) wet soil management, referred
to as lowland or wetland culture, in which the land is flooded and all soil
preparation is done in wet or submerged soil.
Upland Rice Soils

Upland rice is grown under a wide range of soil conditions, on both flat
and undulating fields that are not bunded to accumulate water. The fields
are prepared for seeding in dry soil and are dependent on rainfall for
crop moisture. The soil characteristics found in upland rice culture are
nonspecific with respect to soil texture, pH, organic matter content, and
slope, and soil fertility variations encompass virtually all possible condi-
tions (De Datta and Feuer 1975).
Moorman and Dudal (1965) suggest that soil texture and topography
may be the most important soil characteristics for upland rice since they
profoundly affect the moisture of the soil and its tilth for seeding. The
textural profile of the surface and the subsoil layers is important in optimiz-
ing water penetration and storage. Soil structure figures prominently in
tillage, desirable seedbed characteristics, moisture interception and con-
servation, and crop management practices.
According to De Datta and Feuer (1975), vertisols and alfisols are the
major soil groups used in upland rice culture in Southeast Asia and in
tropical rain forest areas of Central and South America. Oxisols are of less
importance in Southeast Asia except in Java but are of major importance
in Central and South America and parts of Africa. Hydromorphic soils
with shallow ground water, seepage areas, or surface waters during part
of the growing season are often used for rice production. The gleyic
cambisols, humic-gley soils, and entric fluvisols represent large upland
rice areas in West Africa. A surface soil with medium to fine texture
overlying a subsoil of finer texture is considered most desirable overall
for upland rice. Together with good soil structure, which influences soil
moisture storage potential and root penetration, these soils provide good
conditions for upland rice production. Soil reaction for upland rice is most
favorable over the pH range of 5.5 to 6.5, although most upland rice areas
are more acidic. Ponnamperuma (1975) summarizes the growth-limiting
RICE CULTURE 125
factors in upland rice soils as being related primarily to the variable soil
moisture regimes, and a nutrient status with less soluble iron, phosphorus,
and silica than in flooded soils. Most plant nutrients occur in their oxidized
forms, making nitrate-nitrogen and sulfate-sulfur susceptible to leaching.
Potential problems on acid upland soils are manganese and aluminum
toxicities and, on alkaline soils, iron deficiency.
Lowland Rice Soils

A major portion of the rice in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate
regions is grown under conditions where the soil is flooded during the
greater part of the growing season. Rice is physiologically, morphologi-
cally, and anatomically adapted to grow in wet or flooded soil conditions.
The flooded culture provides benefits of weed control, improved water
and air microclimates, improved soil fertility and moisture relations, and
a root zone environment well suited for rice culture.
Soils used for lowland rice culture are usually on level terrain or
on terraces where standing water can be maintained. By virtue of their
physiographic position, often accentuated by inundation and soil manage-
ment practices for rice, these soils usually have strong hydromorphic
characteristics and poor internal drainage but can be irrigated and drained
in rice culture management.
Lowland soils, particularly in Southeast Asia, are frequently prepared
for planting while they are covered with several centimeters of water. The
objectives of wet tillage (puddling) are to reduce the power requirements
for land preparation, to control weeds and incorporate crop residues, to
produce a "plow sole" to reduce percolation losses, and to develop a
soft soil suitable for transplanting. From a physical viewpoint, puddling
destroys soil aggregates, reducing them to a slurry. Puddling decreases the
volume of soil macropores, increases bulk density, and reduces internal
drainage, thereby increasing the water holding capacity of the soil (Sharma
and De Datta 1986).
Studies have shown that the physical properties of medium- to coarse-
textured soils low in active clay are hardly changeable and that tillage
does not improve rice growth (Lal 1985). Moreover, the prospects of
satisfactory yield with no tillage or with minimum tillage have been demon-
strated (Rodriguez and Lal 1985). Recent research (Mambani et al. 1989)
concluded that tillage is not required to alleviate soil physical limitations in
rain-fed lowland rice production in low permeable soils under an adequate
climatic water balance. Wet tillage is a prerequisite for rice productivity in
medium- to coarse-textured soils in drought-prone environments, although
thorough puddling showed no advantage over shallow puddling.
Incorporating crop residues before transplanting rice lessens the likeli-
hood of toxicities from anaerobic decomposition products, accelerates the

onset of soil reductive processes, and enhances the availability of some
plant nutrients.
In some countries, rice straw is returned to the soil; in others, it is
burned in piles or rows. Decomposition of the rice straw returned to the
soil causes changes in soil reduction and cation exchange capacity and
helps maintain a balanced nutrient reserve in the soil. Keeping the soil
continuously flooded throughout the growing period is recommended for
high rice yields. However due to the uncertainty of rainfall or lack of
adequate irrigation in tropical countries, rice fields are often subjected to
varying moisture stress. Varying the water condition is expected to modify
the flooding effects on Fe and Mn and, consequently, on Fe and Mn uptake
by plants (Mandai and Mitra 1982).
In a greenhouse study using two high-pH soils, applying rice straw
increased IR36 straw and grain yields and Fe and Mn yields at different
growth stages with 0.5% rice straw; Fez+ and Mn 2 + in the soil solution
peaked early, and high Fe and Mn contents were obtained (Yodkeaw and
De Datta 1989).
The diffusion of oxygen into water is only 10- 4 of that in soil, so the
exchange of oxygen from the atmosphere to the soil is extremely small. A
few millimeters of soil beneath the soil-water boundary does contain small
amounts of oxygen, and it remains in an oxidative condition. Beneath this
thin oxygen sink, the soil remains largely in a reduced state through the
metabolic activity of aerobic and facultative anaerobic microorganisms
which either act directly as electron acceptors in anaerobic dissimilation
reactions or by forming various organic decomposition products.
The main chemical changes occurring in flooded soils are reviewed by
Patrick and Mikkelsen (1971), Ponnamperuma (1972), and De Datta (1981).
These include the following:
1. Gases such as C0 2 , CH4 , Nz, and Hz from microbial dissimilation

products are accumulated.
2. The pH of acid soils increases while that of calcareous and sodic
soils decreases. This change in pH of acid soils occurs when Fe++
iron and Mn + + manganese begin to precipitate and equilibrate with
COz and HC03 in the soil solution. In alkaline soils, the acidifying
effect of COz lowers the soil pH, which is buffered by Ca and Mg
carbonates.
3. The change of NO], Mn+ +++,Fe+++, and S04 to their reduced
forms is controlled by an established thermodynamic redox se-
quence found to occur in flooded soils.
4. Increased electrical conductivity is seen, correlated with HC03,
RICE CULTURE 127
Fe++, and Mn + + ion concentrations in acid soils and with Ca and

Mg bicarbonate concentrations in alkaline soils.
5. The supply and production of NHt -N from both the native soil
nitrogen and heterotrophic and autotrophic nitrogen-fixing organ-
isms, is increased. Biological nitrogen fixation represents direct
addition of nitrogen to the soil, while organic matter is mineralized
more slowly and entails less immobilization, leaving a net increase
in available N.
6. Increased availability of P, Fe, Mn, Si, and Mo is a consequence
of reduction, dissolution, and desorption reactions.
7. The accumulation of toxic substances and the associated anaerobic
decomposition of soluble carbohydrate materials may cause the
formation of gases such as C0 2, CH4, N 2, and H 2, organic acids
such as acetic, butyric, propionic, and formic acids, and H 2S from
reduced sulfates in flooded soils.
In the rice-growing areas of the world, the full development of yield

potential is often limited by soil problems of a diverse nature. Problems
of salinity and alkalinity, various toxicities, and especially strong acidity
where high levels of soluble iron and aluminum are most common. Some
of these constraints on yield can be corrected by proper soil treatment and
management, but the costs involved are often beyond the means of farmers
in developing countries. Rice varieties that can tolerate adverse soils are
sought in current research. Results from such research could bring vast
areas of unused land into productive use.
Rice is grown over a wide range of soil characteristics, often through
the ameliorating effects of flooding. About 80% of the world's rice produc-
tion occurs on entisols and inceptisols where seasonal drainage problems
occur. Vertisols, ultisols, and alfisols are commonly used where available
water is sufficient and the terrain is flat or gently sloping. Oxisols are
sometimes used in rice production in the tropical and subtropical areas,
although the hilly terrain usually requires terracing. Organic soils (histo-
sols) are not used widely for rice and are quite variable in their production
capability. Kalimantan in Indonesia and Florida in the United States have
large areas under histosols, some of which are grown to rice.
BIOTIC FACTORS AFFECTING RICE PRODUCTION
Rice, like other plants, does not live alone in nature but in association with
other organisms ranging from the soil microflora to mankind itself. This
section briefly discusses the major biotic influences affecting the growth
and yield of rice.
Weed Pests
Weeds are universal competitors of rice, competing for moisture, light,
and plant nutrients essential to plant growth and yield. Weeds also create
problems in harvesting, drying, and cleaning, and reduce the quality and
marketability of the crop. Insects pests such as leafhoppers and stemborers
also live on weeds as alternate hosts and directly attack the rice crop,
sometimes spreading virus diseases. Water management is often impeded
when weeds block irrigation systems, slowing drainage. Mechanical har-
vest of rice is more expensive, as are cleaning and drying, when weeds
grow in competition with the crop.
There are some 30,000 different weed species regarded as serious rice
pests in the world. Of these, 30 species are very damaging and some 88
species are noxious. Weed control issues are extensively reviewed in
Weed Control in Rice (IRRI 1983). Matsunaka (1975), commenting on
the world's worst rice pests, lists Echinochloa colonum, E. crusgalli,
Sphenoclea zeylanica, Ischaemum rugosum, and Fimbristylis miliacea.
In Southeast Asia, the major rice weeds are reportedly Echinochloa gla-
brescens (formerly E. crus-galli ssp. hispidula), E. colonum, Cyperus
rotundus, C. difformis, Fimbristylis miliacea I, M onochoria uaginalis, and
Sphenoclea zeylanica. Species making up the total weed complex vary
widely in economic importance in different rice-growing regions and often
differ between adjoining fields. The species, their density, and the duration
of their competition all affect rice yields (Smith 1983; De Datta 1981).
Upland culture
Weeds are a major barrier to satisfactory rice production wherever they

occur but are especially troublesome in upland rice where their growth is
less restricted and where conservation of available moisture is critical.
Weeds in upland rice consist of both annual broadleafs, sedges, and
grasses, and a wide variety of perennials, including some shrub species.
Since rice is grown under such a wide range of climatic conditions, soil
types, and crop rotations, it is not possible to identify the most damaging
species. Echinochloa crus-galli, E. colonum, Cyperus rotundus, Rottboel-
lia cochinchinensis, and lmperata cylindrica are serious weed pests in
most upland rice areas of the world (Sankaran and De Datta 1985).
The most common means of weed control in tropical areas is hand
weeding, usually with a short-handled hoe, requiring about 300 man-h/ha.
Cultivation with animal or machine power is also practiced, as well as
weed burial and intercropping. Without satisfactory weed control, upland
rice yields are severely restricted. Under moderate competition, weeds
alone may reduce grain yields by 40 to 50%, and severe competition may
RICE CULTURE 129
cause complete crop failures (De Datta 1980). Moisture levels often dictate
control of some of these weeds with herbicides (Pathak et al. 1989).
Weed problems in upland conditions develop to serious proportions
where intensive labor input is not available. In West Africa, Moody (1975)
reports that present weed control methods (both cultivation and herbi-
cides) are unsuitable for continuous or large-scale farming. Likewise, if
cultivation areas are shifted once weeds become too prevalent, it is neces-
sary to abandon the land to forest, a means used by early man to cope
with upland weed problems.
An understanding of environmental factors and their interactions in
relation to rice-weed competition will be an important breakthrough in
weed control research. Knowledge is being sought from some ecophys-
iological processes that are well-studied for various crops. Recent IRRI
research (Ampong-Nyarko and De Datta 1989) suggests that C4-weeds in
upland rice fields gave higher net photosynthetic rates than did Crupland
rice varieties under all light intensities. Interspecific differences were ob-
served in rice and weed response to water availability. Upland rice weeds
gave lower leaf conductance, lower transpiration rate, and higher water
use efficiency than did upland rice. The ability of rice to recover from
early season competition partly explains the existence of critical periods
in rice-weed competition.
Lowland culture
Conditions in lowland rice culture favor the growth and reproduction of

aquatic and semi-aquatic annual and perennial weeds. The most prevalent
weeds are grasses, broadleaf weeds, and sedges, but submerged aquatic
weeds and algae often have an adverse effect on rice growth.
Among the most damaging lowland and aquatic weeds in rice (De
Datta 1988a, c) are Echinochloa spp., Eichhornia crassipes, Fimbristylis
spp., Cyperus spp., Monochoria vagina/is, Sagittaria spp., Salvinia spp.,
Polygonum spp., Marsilea quadrifolia, Alternanthera spp., Eclipta alba,
Jussiaea spp., Sphenoclea zeylanica, and lschaemum rugosum.
The control of weeds in flooded lowland is facilitated by thorough land
preparation before planting. When this is properly done, most weed seeds
fail to germinate and weeding becomes easier and less expensive. Straight
row transplanting enables farmers to use push-type rotary weeders along
the rows, providing a distinct advantage over random transplanting. Hand
weeding, involving pulling or trampling the weeds into the mud, is a
satisfactory alternative where rotary weeders are not available (Ampong-
Nyarko and De Datta 1991). IRRI data show that, under average field
conditions, hand weeding requires 120 man-h/ha, while similar rotary
weeding takes 70 h. Effective rotary weeding requires adequate floodwater
and a soft soil condition. Hand weeders cannot eliminate weeds if flood-
water is maintained too deep in the fields, since the plants float and remain
alive.
Water management has long been known to be an effective means of
weed control in both transplanted and directly seeded rice. The germina-
tion of weeds and the kinds of weeds that emerge are closely related to
soil moisture content and depth of flooding. Research at IRRI has shown
that continuous soil saturation (1-2.5 em deep) up to the late dough stage
of rice allows more sedges to grow than grasses or broadleaves. Flooding
at depths of 15 em from 4 days after transplanting to the late dough
stage suppresses grass and sedge germination. Broadleaf weeds are not
controlled by flooding (De Datta 1988a).
Many herbicides are effective against broadleaf weeds, sedges,
grasses, and submerged aquatic weeds. The concept of preemergence
weed control with herbicides such as 2,4-D, 2-methyl-4-chlorophen-
oxyacetic acid (MCPA), butachlor, and thiobencarb has rapidly changed
weed control practices in tropical Asia (De Datta and Ampong-Nyarko
1988).
Insect Pests
Rice is grown under diverse conditions of climate and culture over a
wide geographical range. Because of crop adaptability to warm, humid
conditions, the survival and proliferation of insects are a great problem in
the tropics and semitropics, diminishing somewhat in the temperate rice
areas. More than 70 species of rice pests are known and some 20 have
major significance. They attack virtually all parts of the rice plant at all
growth stages. Insects also serve as vectors of virus diseases that attack
rice and contribute to the low rice yields obtained in the humid tropics.
Continuous cropping and the favorable environment of the humid tropics
allow overlapping insect populations throughout the year, with no distinct
diapause or dormancy period.
Among the insect pests of rice, the rice stemborers (Chilo suppressalis
and Tryporyza incertulas) are generally considered the most serious in
tropical rice production. Other important rice insects are green leafhoppers
(Nephotettix virescens) and brown planthoppers (Nilaparvata lugens).
The rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus) is a common problem
in the temperate zone, in addition to the rice stink bug (Oebalus pugnax),
planthopper (Sogatodes orizicola), and others. Other destructive groups
include grasshoppers, locusts, gall midges, rice hispa, army worms, cut-
worms, whorl maggots, and thrips.
Current control of rice insect pests depends largely on the use of
pesticides, even though many traditional and new cultivars have some
RICE CULTURE 131
degree of resistance to insect pests. Chemicals will no doubt continue to

play an important role in rice crop protection. With tropical rice where
pesticides are costly and sometimes not available, it is increasingly im-
portant to combine various compatible management practices that provide
crop protection at minimum cost. Entomologists recognize that the easiest
integration of pest control methods is to combine cultivar resistance,
cultural practices, and the timely use of pesticides.
In recent years, the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) concept has
received considerable attention in both temperate and tropical countries.
An example of IPM success is that from Indonesia. Since the introduction
of IPM through the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) program using Indonesia's and IRRI's technology, the number of
insecticides used was drastically reduced in 1987-88. Rice yields not only
remained stable but increased (P. Kenmore, FAO, unpublished).
Diseases
Diseases of rice are caused by a variety of organisms including fungi,
bacteria, viruses, and probably mycoplasma-like bodies. These will be
discussed in Chapter 5.
Other Rice Pests

Among several pests often localized in their economic damage are rodents,
birds, snails, crabs, and sometimes a variety of large animals.
Rodents, particularly rats, cause serious losses in rice and are consid-
ered as economically important as insects. Rodents damage rice by eating
seeds and seedlings, gnawing off tillers, damaging plants, and feeding on
ripened grain. They attack rice in the field in all growth stages. They also
cause large losses of grain in storage. Rats burrow in bunds and ditches
causing loss of water, decreased irrigation efficiency, and an increase in
the cost of maintaining irrigation systems. Losses due to rats vary widely,
but field losses vary from 3.5 to over 25% with complete crop failures
occurring in some localized areas.
Birds cause greater rice crop losses than do most other vertebrate
pests. They may attack ripening grain in all stages from the early "milk"
stage through grain maturation. Most bird pests perch on the rice panicle
and feed on the ripened grain. Large quantities of rice are often shattered,
fall to the ground, and are lost. Some bird species feed on rice that falls
to the ground after harvest, or rice that is seeded directly on dry prepared
seedbeds, planted on mud, or sown into water.
The principal African bird pest is Quelea quelea, an abundant and
widespread sparrow-sized weaver bird. Large flocks of this nomadic bird
migrate across Africa, descending on rice, millets, and sorghum indiscrimi-
nately, often completely destroying entire crops. Control is very difficult

because of the large populations involved, their migratory characteristics,
and their extremely broad feeding range. Frightening the birds by various
devices provides some short-term relief, but the effort is very time-con-
suming.
A wide variety of bird species eat seeds. This poses a problem in most
areas of the world. Some are indigenous birds, omnipresent but often
migratory, following the ripening of rice and various other grain crops. In
tropical Asia the weaver birds of the genus Ploeus, parakeets, Munia,
and sparrows destroy rice crops. Blackbirds, cowbirds, and the common
grackle permanently colonize forest and swamp areas, causing great dam-
age in Latin America. Ducks, geese, and various waterfowl damage rice
in many countries, including Australia, the United States, South America,
and West Africa.
Varieties of mollusks and crustacea, occurring in both fresh and brack-
ish water, attack rice in many parts of the world. Snails such as Lanistes
ovum, Amulearia lineata, and A. galuca (usually growing in standing
water) harm the rice crop by feeding on seeds and newly emerged seed-
lings. Snails are often difficult to control because of their soil-burrowing
characteristics. Two types of crabs, land crabs (Gercarindal) and river
crabs (Potamonidal), damage rice by burrowing in bunds and irrigation
systems. Crabs also attack rice planted by transplanting as well as by
direct seeding. Shrimp (Triops granarius and T. longicaudatus), often
referred to as tadpole shrimp, cause damage especially in the subtropic
and temperate zones of the Americas, West Indies, Hawaii, and Japan.
They do not attack drilled seed or transplanted seedlings but cause damage
to pregerminated seed sown directly in flooded fields. Chemicals applied
directly to the floodwater have been successful in combating this.
In some areas of rice production, disorders occur in rice that resemble
the symptoms of fungus and virus diseases. Some of these disorders are
called physiological diseases and are sometimes associated with physiolog-
ical and nutritional abnormalities. These plant disorders have been called
by names such as akagare, akiochi, aogare, bronzing, and straight head.
SYSTEMS OF RICE CULTURE AND PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY
Despite the importance of rice as a world crop, there are no complete

quantitative data classifying ricelands by water regimes and predominant
plant type. Based on land and water management practices, ricelands
are classified as either lowland (wetland preparation of fields) or upland
(dryland preparation of fields). Based on water regimes, ricelands can be
classified as upland (with no standing water), rain-fed lowland (with 5-50
RICE CULTURE 133
Table 4-3. HaNested Area, Yield, and Rough Rice Production in 37 Major Rice-
Producing Less Developed Countries, by Ecosystem, 1985
AREA PRODUCTION
Yield
Ecosystem million ha % (tlha) million t %
Irrigated 67 49 4.7 313 72
Rainfed lowland 40 29 2.1 84 19
Upland 18 13 1.1 21 5
Deepwater/tidal wetland 13 9 1.5 19 4
Total 138 100 3.2" 437 100
"Weighted average.
Source: IRRI (1988b).
em of standing water), deepwater (with > 51 em standing water), and

floating (with from 101 em to 5-6 m of standing water) (De Datta 1981).
These definitions differ from many of those used throughout Asia, the
argument being that basic rice plant types suited to each area will differ.
Furthermore, the irrigated rain-fed environment cannot be sharply divided
but represents a continuum of conditions ranging from very good to poor
water control (Barker et al. 1975). Regardless of how various factors
combine to affect the relative contribution of each ecosystem, the irrigated
areas will continue to dominate production. Irrigated land now comprises
about half the total harvested area but contributes more than two-thirds
of the total production (Table 4-3). In the areas of poor water control, both
drought and uncontrolled flooding can be a problem.
In Africa and Latin America, upland rice is the major system of rice
culture. On the basis of the type of rice culture, climate, soil conditions,
and technology level of agriculture, rice in Africa is divided into 14 major
ecosystems (Table 4-4). All of Africa's 5.37 million ha, however, comprise
only 3.7% of the world's rice area.
About 6.3% of the world's rice is grown on 9.2 million ha of land in
Table 4-4. Major Rice Ecosystems in Africa

MIDAL TITUDE GUINEA SAVANNAH
Rice Culture Sudan
Type Forest Humid Dry Savannah Pluvial Hydro. Pluvial Mangrove
Upland + + + +
Irrigated + + + + +
Shallow
flooded + + + +
Deep flooded +
Source: Buddenhagen and Ter Vrugt (1977).
the Americas (1988). Brazil has 5.9 million ha, of which about 3.5 million
ha are upland. In several South American rice areas, rice yields have
steadily increased since the introduction of modern rice varieties and
irrigated culture. Six major ecosystems for rice culture are identified for
Latin America and the Caribbean areas. See Table 4-5.
In many rice-growing areas of the tropics, the year is divided into
fairly distinct wet and dry seasons. In most areas, the bulk of the rice is
produced in the wet season. The amount of rainfall received during the
dry season is usually not sufficient to grow a crop of rice, so irrigation is
necessary. Because of the lack of irrigation facilities in most rice-growing
areas of the tropics, the hectarage planted to rice in the dry season is
limited. Although many countries have increased their irrigation facilities
for rice (and for other crops), rice grown in the tropics may still have to
depend largely on monsoon rains. The problem of variable rainfall is
further compounded by the inflexible planting times in tropical Asia.
The production methodology or cultural practices that have evolved
or developed for rice are both complex and unusual. Because rice is grown
under both irrigated and rain-fed conditions, one set of cultural practices
cannot be used effectively for all conditions. We will therefore discuss
systems of rice culture separately and mention how cultural practices vary
with different conditions.
Rain-Fed Lowland Rice

On most unirrigated farms, rice is grown during the wet season and the
land lies fallow or is planted with low input crops through the dry season.
Because of the farmers' dependence on both the fickle monsoon rains and
conventional late maturing rice varieties, this has been the only feasible
cropping system for centuries. The potential to intensify food production
exists in most of these rainfed areas, although the technology and often
the markets may be lacking. The practices followed are much more com-
plex and variable in rainfed lowland areas than in irrigated areas.
Transplanted rice
The onset of the monsoon determines the planting time and thus the day
length and solar radiation available during the growing period. In lowland
rice culture, transplanting is the major system of rice culture.
Land preparation: Effects of puddling and flooding. The traditional
method of preparing land for transplanted lowland rice consists of plowing
and puddling the soil. The method has been widely adopted because it
greatly reduces the weed population. In addition, puddling substantially
increases the amount of water retained by the soil and reduces the amount
of water lost through percolation (Sanchez 1973a, b). In an experiment
Table 4-5. Production by Ecosystems and Rice Varieties Cultivated in Latin America and the Caribbean, 1983/84 Harvest
PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF
VARIETIES
Area Yield Production Production Tall

Ecosystem (thousand ha) (t/ha) (thousand ha) % . Dwarfs Improved Traditional
Irrigated 2387.2 4.2 10063.9 60.7 71.6 21.9 6.5

Favored upland 409.1 2.4 987.2 6.0 41.7 57.4 0.9
Moderately favored upland 329.4 2.5 819.7 4.9 86.3 7.8 5.9
Upland nonfavored 4146.0 1.0 4345.9 26.2 0.8 74.2 25.0
Manual or traditional 156.3 1.3 195.5 1.2 5.4 2.0 92.6
Low-lying flooded areas 63.0 2.5 157.4 1.0 32.4 19.7 47.9
Source: Mikkelsen (1987a).
w
en
Cumulative amount of water (mm)

1200r--------------,
NONPUDDLED SOIL PUDDLED SOIL
10001-
Water applied-
800 r--
600-
Percolation
400-
Water applied
200-
-Evapotranspiration
~Evapotranspiration
I I I
20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Days after planting
Figure 4-2. Comparison of cumulative water applied, evapotranspiration, and
percolation loss in puddled and nonpuddled soils continually flooded
at 5 em (IRRI1972 wet season). From De Datta and Kerim (1974).
conducted (Maahas clay), water lost through percolation was considerably

higher in unpuddled soil than in puddled soil (Fig. 4-2), so unpuddled soil
received twice as much water (1180 mm) as puddled soil (588 mm). Rice
in puddled soil had 2.5 times the water use efficiency (7 .8 kg rice/ha/mm
of water) of unpuddled soil (2.9 kg rice/ha/mm of water) (De Datta and
Kerim 1974).
Thus, in rain-fed areas, puddling lowers the chance that yield-reducing
moisture stress will occur between two successive rains. The rain-fed
puddled system should therefore result in better moisture conservation,
and possibly higher yield, than the rain-fed unpuddled system. Puddling,
however, involves more labor. From De Datta and Kerim (1974).
The term puddling has several different meanings. Farmers in Asia
consider it a method of soil preparation which facilitates transplanting
and reduces moisture losses through percolation. Soil physicists describe
puddling as the process of breaking down soil aggregates into a uniform
mass when clay soils are plowed and harrowed at about soil saturation.
Consequently, several changes take place in the soil structure. Puddling
changes the solid and liquid phases of the soil, decreasing the respective
volumes occupied by macropores by 91 and 100%. Because most gaseous
elements of the soil are in macropores, tillage at the moisture equivalent
RICE CULTURE 137
causes a corresponding reduction in the amounts of trapped gases present.

Puddling decreases the macroporosity of clay soils and increases their
microporosity, thereby causing an increase in the so-called water-holding
capacity of the puddled soil (Sharma and De Datta 1986).
For most crops, good soil structure is beneficial because it promotes
infiltration of water and aeration of the soil. Although only a small amount
of air is present in the micropores of well-puddled soil, no aeration prob-
lems occur with rice. A rice plant can tolerate low soil oxygen levels
because its roots receive oxygen by transfer from the aerial parts.
Puddling is often accompanied by the submergence of rice soils. That
increases the availability of many nutrients, particularly N, P, K, Ca, Si,
and Fe (Ponnamperuma 1972; Obermueller and Mikkelsen 1974). If the
soil structure is highly porous, however, nutrients will be leached from
the root zone. Studies show that the large losses of water from unpuddled
soil caused greater nitrogen losses and less nitrogen uptake by rice at all
growth stages. As a result, rice yields were significantly lower on unpud-
dled soil than on puddled soil, with or without the addition of nitrogen
fertilizer (De Datta and Kerim 1974).
The effects of puddling on the physical properties of soil, percolation
losses of water and nutrients, nutrient uptake, and grain yield were evalu-
ated in an IRRI experiment (Sharma and De Datta 1985). Puddling de-
creased the bulk densities of soils in the top 0.1-m layer by about 30% but
differences in bulk density between puddled and nonpuddled soil narrow
with time. The concentration ofN03 -N in puddled soil was either compa-
rable to or lower than that in nonpuddled soil. Higher percolation rates
did not improve soil productivity, but increased leaching losses of water
and plant nutrients. Bulk density and soil strength were the main factors
that affected grain yield.
Puddling is achieved by tilling the saturated (flooded) soil with animal-
or power-driven plows and harrows until the soil macrostructure is de-
stroyed. In practice, the land in the rain-fed lowland areas is prepared by
an animal-drawn implement, frequently with poor results.
Plant spacing. In monsoon Asia, high tillering cultivars are very desir-
able for culture of transplanted rice. Cultivars with improved plant type
and high tillering capacity can be planted at a wide range of spacings and
still produce an adequate number of tillers per unit area. The tiller number
per unit area in a rice population is largely a function of planting density.
The tiller number is correlated with grain yield either positively or nega-
tively, depending on the rice cultivar and crop environment. A uniform
stand containing an optimum plant population is essential for proper crop
development and high grain yields. Management is found to be much easier
if the field is planted in straight rows, since cultural practice such as
weeding by hand or chemical methods, spraying insecticides, and top-

dressing with nitrogen fertilizers can then be done without damaging the
rice plants significantly.
A great deal of work has been done in Japan on the effects of plant
density and spacing on rice yield, and such work has lately assumed
importance in the tropics. The conclusions from these findings vary. Some
suggest that closer spacings produce higher yields, whereas others report
opposite effects, depending on environmental conditions.
It is true that, with varieties such as IRS, plant spacings between 15
x 15 em and 30 x 30 em would not give any significant yield difference.
Recent evidence indicates that a relatively short-statured variety with
moderate tillering capacity must have close spacing for maximum yield,
i.e., plant spacings of 15 x 15 em give significantly greater yields than 20
x 20 and 25 x 25 em (Nguu and De Datta 1979). Further, under poor or
no weed control, closely spaced rice competes better with weeds.
Water management and moisture-stress effects. Rice, like other crops,
requires adequate water to grow and develop at its maximum potential
rate. Unlike other crops, rice is usually grown in flooded soil. With an
adequate water supply from rain or irrigation, continuous flooding with
from 5 to 7 em of standing water is desirable on most soils for the best
moisture supply. It also gives the best weed and insect control with granu-
lar chemicals and high nutrient availability with minimum loss of nutrients
from fertilizer and soil. Thus, wherever possible, a flooding depth from 5
to 7 em should be maintained even in rain-fed rice. lt is imperative that
levees be kept in good repair to minimize surface runoff of excess water
when it rains.
In rain-fed areas, the paddies often become dry and' the crop suffers
from various degrees of moisture stress. Although rice can be grown under
upland, lowland, and deepwater conditions, stable high yields occur only
under continuous optimum flooded conditions. Moisture stress is perhaps
the chief factor that limits economical and stable yields of rain-fed rice
(De Datta et al. 1973).
Senewiratne and Mikkelsen (1961) report that grain yield is 53% lower
under nonirrigated nonflooded conditions than under flooded conditions.
Unlike other crops, the upper limit of the range of available moisture for
rice is not field capacity. Jana and De Datta (1971) report that the optimum
soil moisture conditions for high grain yield in upland rice (which should
be true for rain-fed lowland rice as well) is between the maximum water
holding capacity and the field capacity. De Datta et al. (1973) indicate
that soil moisture tension as low as 15 cb was enough to reduce grain
yields of rain-fed lowland rice. Part of the reduction in grain yield is due
to a loss of nitrogen under the alternating dry and wet conditions which
RICE CULTURE 139
prevailed in the plots subjected to various stress levels. At the same

time, there is enough evidence to demonstrate marked varietal differences
between the modern rices in their tolerance to high levels of moisture
stress(± 30 cb).
Farmers in rain-fed lowland areas have been growing varieties that fit
in with the probable rainfall distribution. Early-maturing rice varieties are
often preferred to avoid drought stress. Early-maturing varieties should
provide good stable yields under rain-fed lowland culture.
The need for drought-tolerant rice cultivars in the drought-prone areas
is widely recognized. These cultivars must survive drought stress during
the vegetative phase, quickly recover, and grow rapidly upon renewed
availability of soil moisture. Thus, a technique that quantifies soil moisture
stress for screening thousands of cultivars and breeding lines for drought
tolerance during the vegetative phase has been developed (De Datta et al.
1988c). Table 4-6 shows the test entries from different crop environments
that showed better drought tolerance than the tolerant check. Results
suggest that farmers in rain-fed areas should grow drought-tolerant modern
rice cultivars with good recovery ability. During dry spells, the visual
degree of desiccation during the vegetative phase permits the farmers
to estimate potential plant recovery upon relief of soil moisture stress
(Malabuyoc et al. 1985).
Fertilizer management. The development and dissemination of fertiliz-
er-responsive cultivars of rice, wheat, and other cereals have encouraged
a steady increase in the use of fertilizer in the developing world. Fertilizer
responsiveness is a key factor in differentiating among the traditional rices
and the new high-yielding cultivars. Only where the levels of fertility are
at least modest do yield differences between the new and the old become
significant; without fertilizer, the new cultivars yield little better than the
old. With fertilizer, in contrast, the yield potential is often double or even
triple that of the traditional ones (De Datta et al. 1974; Shastry et al.
1974).
The efficiency of applied nutrients in rice has long been studied by soil
fertility scientists. Only recently, however, has concern been expressed
over possible shortages and higher prices of fertilizer, particularly nitrogen
and phosphorus. Serious concern about the efficient use of these nutrients
in rice production stems from the realization that the fossil fuel supplies
needed for the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizer are not limitless and that
adverse environmental effects may occur with improper use.
Fertilizer use efficiency can be described as the output of economic
produce by any crop per unit of fertilizer nutrient applied under a specific
set of soil and climatic conditions. The least amount of fertilizer needed
to match plant use at maximum grain yield is the most efficient rate of
g
Table 4-6. Frequency Distribution of Desiccation and Recovery Scores of Two Drought Susceptible Rice Varieties, a Drought
Tolerant Line, and a Drought Tolerant Variety, IRRL 1981 and 1982 Dry Seasons
SCORE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
I98I I982
Variety/Line Character n I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 n I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
!RAT 9 (Susceptible variety) 96 101
Desiccation score 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 61 27 9 9 9 9 9 1 1 34 65
Recovery score 0 0 0 2 4 9 44 33 4 0 0 1 0 2 0 1 1 96
IR20 (Susceptible variety) 103 88
Desiccation score 0 0 0 0 I 0 41 58 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 40 44 3
Recovery score 0 0 2 20 63 18 4 2 0 0 0 2 0 53 2 31 0 0
IR442-2-58 (Tolerant line) 99 94
Desiccation score 0 0 0 4 10 39 45 1 0 0 0 0 I 7 46 40 0 0
Recovery score 5 II 46 24 9 3 I 0 0 25 1 57 0 10 0 I 0 0
Salumpikit (Tolerant variety) 97 98
Desiccation score 0 0 4 28 49 10 3 2 1 0 0 8 31 51 6 1 0
Recovery score 4 30 45 14 3 0 I 0 0 13 2 72 0 10 0 0 0
Source: Malabuyoc et al. (1985).
RICE CULTURE 141
fertilizer application. Bartholomew (1972) classified nitrogen needs ac-

cording to plant use-good use efficiency, average use efficiency, poor
use efficiency, and polluting rates.
Several factors determine fertilizer efficiency in rice. At the farm level,
these are soil, cultivar, season, time of planting, water management, weed
control, insect and disease control, cropping sequence, sources, rate,
methods, and time of fertilizer applications.
For India, Mahapatra et al. (1974) summarized the fertilizer efficiency
in cereals as follows: dry season rice > wet season rice > wheat >
corn > millet> sorghum.
Despite agronomic efforts to improve plant nitrogen use efficiency,
the recovery of fertilizer nitrogen applied to transplanted rice is seldom
more than 30 to 40% (De Datta 1987a) and 60% in water seeded, mecha-
nized rice (Mikkelsen 1987b). Understanding the mechanisms and path-
ways of nutrient losses has helped researchers develop practices to in-
crease the efficiency of fertilizer use in rice.
Even a slight improvement in nitrogen fertilizer efficiency will save
energy costs and foreign exchange in countries that import nitrogen fertil-
izer. Hence, the increased interest in nitrogen transformation processes
in lowland rice in recent years.
Ammoniacal nitrogen is subject to clay fixation and loss by volatiliza-
tion, nitrification and denitrification, leaching, runoff, and seepage (Mik-
kelsen 1987b; De Datta 1988b).
In lowland rice, 60 to 80% of the nitrogen absorbed by the crop is
derived from the native nitrogen pool (Broadbent 1979). Recent results
suggest that approximately 60% of the rice yield, ranging from 2 to 4
t/ha, is produced without fertilizer nitrogen. With increased study on soil
nitrogen, and its management, especially fertilizer placement, substantial
yield gains are possible with resources already on the land. Recently,
significant differences in nitrogen use efficiency were found among rice
genotypes, and the possibility of improving nitrogen use efficiency in rice
through genotype selection was shown (Broadbent et al. 1987).
A method has been proposed for evaluating nitrogen utilization effi-
ciency among rice genotypes by various combinations of rice plant pa-
rameters, and for ranking their performance in the field (De Datta and
Broadbent 1988).
From extensive data, Watanabe et al. (1981) found that a rice crop
used an average of 40 to 50 kg N/ha from the soil pool, when no nitrogen
fertilizer was applied. In most instances, soil nitrogen did not decrease,
indicating that the nitrogen used was compensated for by mechanisms,
among which biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) was the most important.
Among the gaseous losses, ammonia volatilization and denitrification
are the most important (De Datta and Patrick 1986). Nitrogen loss through
ammonia volatilization from flooded soils was reported by various re-

searchers (Mikkelsen et al. 1978; Fillery et al. 1984; Fillery and De Datta
1986; De Datta et al. 1989). Jayaweera and Mikkelsen (1990) have shown
that ammonia volatilization is dependent on water NH 4 concentration,
pH, temperature, water depth, and wind speed over the flooded rice
system.
Summarized data of recent field studies on ammonia volatilization in
lowland rice soils show a large variation (5-47%) in the amount volatilized.
The magnitude of losses are sometimes due to different measurement
techniques used by the researchers, the chemical nature of the fertilizer,
and the varying fertilizer application methods. Nevertheless, data from
these studies indicate that ammonia volatilization losses from irrigated
lowland rice fields may be substantial (De Datta 1987a; De Datta et al.
1989; Jayaweera and Mikkelsen 1990).
Nitrification-denitrification has long been considered an important
nitrogen loss mechanism in flooded soils. However, direct field measure-
ments of denitrification losses from puddled rice soils in the tropics were
made only recently. The direct recovery of (N 2 + N20)- 15N from 15N-
enriched urea has recently been measured in the Philippines, Thailand,
and Indonesia. In all12 studies, recoveries of(N2 + Nz0)- 15 N ranged from
0.1 to 2.2% of the nitrogen applied (Buresh and De Datta 1990). Total
gaseous nitrogen losses, estimated by 15N-balance technique, were much
greater, ranging from 10 to 56% of the applied urea-nitrogen.
A great deal of attention has been devoted to evaluating the relative
merits of various fertilizers for lowland rice. The yield response of rice to
different sources of nitrogen is affected by soil condition and management
practices, particularly water management and time and method of nitrogen
application (Mikkelsen and Finfrock 1957; De Datta 1986a).
In most situations, ammonium-containing and ammonium-producing
(urea) fertilizers are similar in effectiveness based on grain yield. Urea is
likely to remain the leading nitrogen source for rice beyond the end of the
century as attested by the large potential for new urea capacity in Asia,
where rice is primarily grown. Most urea is produced and sold as dry
prills, but recently, production shifted toward that of granular urea
(Stangel 1985).
The optimum integrated nitrogen management strategy would be in-
fluenced by (I) availability of native soil nitrogen, (2) the mineralization
rate of organic nitrogen sources, (3) timing of chemical nitrogen applica-
tions, (4) losses of native and added nitrogen, and (5) interactive effects
of organic and chemical fertilizers on nitrogen availability and loss (De
Datta and Buresh 1989).
In some areas, rice is produced in arid regions where the soils are high
in pH and often saline. The typical water management system calls for
RICE CULTURE 143
G~i;n~y~ie~ld~(t~/~~1--------------~R=A=IN~fwE~D~------------------------,
JRRI form Formers' field Moloyontoc
(Cloy; p/16.0; CEC45meq/100g) (Cloy loom; pH5.8; CEC IBmeq/IOOg)
6
3
...,
2 "'
.... ~ ~ Ci
"'
0
a.
00
=
0
Figure 4-3. Relative grain yields of IR26 grown under rain-fed conditions. Grown
without nitrogen fertilizer and with 30 kg nitrogen/ha as urea under
different methods of application. IRRI and farmers' fields in Malayan-
toe and Nueva Ecija, Philippines, 1974 wet season. From De Datta et
al. (1974).
intermittent flooding similar to rain-fed lowland rice fields in tropical Asia.

The flooding-drying sequences are rather short, permitting a number of
cycles during the growing period of the rice. The fields are not puddled,
and water infiltration rates are sometimes high.
Although nitrogen transformation processes in irrigated lowland rice
under continuous flooding are fairly well understood, hardly any pertinent
research has been done in rain-fed lowland rice. Rain-fed lowland condi-
tions are more harsh and variable, so that denitrification losses may be
high. Research should measure denitrification losses in relation to ammo-
nia volatilization loss in rain-fed lowland rice using simultaneous measure-
ment techniques.
Fertilizer nitrogen placed 8 to 10 em deep is apparently less subject to
volatilization and microbial oxidation than surface applied material. The
loss of nitrogen is commonly more serious in rain-fed lowland conditions
than in irrigated fields. Experiments in several countries have shown that
deep placement of fertilizer nitrogen gave higher yields than other methods
of application. Results obtained in the Philippines are given in Fig. 4-3.
The grain yield differences between deep placement and other methods
were less at the IRRI farm because rainfall distribution was more uniform
there than in farmers' fields (De Datta et al. 1974).
Although research results indicate that nitrogen efficiency is higher
when the fertilizer is deeply placed, most farmers usually wait until the
crop is established before applying any nitrogen fertilizer.
In rain-fed areas, the best time to topdress nitrogen is at tillering
(20-30 days after transplanting) and at panicle initiation.
Recent results suggest that even in rain-fed lowland rice fields, deep
placement and basal incorporation without standing water are advanta-
geous in minimizing nitrogen losses and increasing nitrogen use efficiency
over topdressing 10 to 15 days after transplanting.
Improved incorporation or placement of urea and improved urea and
coatings offer considerable potential for increasing the yield response of
rice to urea fertilizer application. Priority should be placed on (1) devel-
oping labor- and cost-effective methods offertilizer placement, (2) dissemi-
nating available information on the most agronomically effective timing
for conventional prilled and granular urea, and (3) developing a cost-
effective and environmentally safe coated urea (De Datta and Buresh
1989).
Sources, method, and time of application of phosphorus and potassium
would not be any different for irrigated and rain-fed areas. Still, rain-fed
rice generally needs more phosphorus than does irrigated rice. This is
because more phosphorus is brought into solution under good water condi-
tions, such as continuous flooding, than under rain-fed rice culture where
moisture deficiency is a factor affecting nutrient availability.
Weed control. In many rain-fed areas, water accumulates in the bunded
field as the crop grows. In other situations, the crop starts as a lowland crop
and finishes as an upland crop. With those uncontrolled water conditions,
weeds generally develop in larger numbers and greater diversity of species
than with rice grown in puddled soil under good irrigation.
Lack of water control is a major practical management factor that
increases the amount oflabor required for weeding. Precise water manage-
ment with continuous flooding is ideal for a number of reasons, particularly
to minimize weed growth. Since most fields in South and Southeast Asia
cannot be flooded continuously, indirect and direct complementary prac-
tices are essential for effective weed control at the farm level.
Like irrigated rice, many weed species in rain-fed lowland rice are
annuals, such as Echinochloa crus-galli ssp. hispidula, E. glabrescens,
Leptochloa chinensis, Fimbristylis littoralis, Cyperus difformis, and C.
iria. The perennials Paspalum distichum and Scirpus maritimus are also
a problem. The broadleaved weed Monochoria vagina/is also grows when
water is standing in the field.
RICE CULTURE 145
Under the existing conditions of high weed density, relatively low

labor cost, and the availability of some chemicals, the necessity of weed
removal is more important than how it is achieved. In the Asian tropics,
either hand weeding or use of a rotary weeder is effective in rain-fed
transplanted rice fields, although both are tedious, time consuming, and
somewhat expensive.
In tropical Asia, either 2,4-D or MCPA effectively control annual
weeds (De Datta et al. 1968). If the water control is not good, however,
2,4-D applied before emergence of the weeds (4 days after transplanting)
often does not control weeds adequately. Thus, supplemental hand weed-
ing is often necessary to control surviving weeds. Selective herbicides
such as butachlor or thiobencarb are somewhat more effective against a
wide spectrum of weeds, particularly under the area of relatively poor
water control in rain-fed rice (De Datta 1988a, c).
Insect control, harvesting, and threshing

Practices such as insect control, harvesting, and threshing do not differ
between rain-fed and irrigated rice culture of a transplanted crop. These
operations are discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
Direct seeded lowland rice

Direct seeded lowland rice culture is an important system for the Asian
tropics (De Datta 1986b). Pregerminated seeds are broadcast onto puddled
fields without much standing water. Direct seeding is primarily by the
broadcast method. Such is the case for most rice areas in Sri Lanka and
parts of India and Bangladesh. The area under broadcast seeded flooded
rice is rapidly increasing in Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines.
Fields are prepared under wet conditions. The degree of puddling
depends on the amount of moisture accumulated from the rain. Stand
establishment is often poor because of poor land preparation and insuffi-
cient water control. Farmers in Java, Indonesia, often decide whether to
seed rice under wet or dry soil conditions according to the amount of
moisture available during the planting month. If less than 200 mm of rain
falls within that month, farmers opt for dry seeding; with more than 200
mm, they seed under wet conditions (De Datta 1981).
Water management. Water control is more critical for broadcast seed-
ing than for transplanting. For better stand establishment, the field should
be kept saturated but not flooded from the time of seeding to about 6 days
later. Because of a lack of precise water control and use of muddy water,
germinating rice seeds are often covered with a layer of silt, thereby
reducing the stand. When that occurs, it is best to reseed with pregermi-
nated seeds in the areas where germination is poor.
Weed control. In the direct seeding system of rice culture, weeds grow
vigorously. Selective herbicides such as butachlor and thiobencarb would
control weeds under rain-fed culture. Supplemental postemergence weed
control, either with 2,4-D (if the predominant weeds are broadleaves and
sedges) or by hand weeding, is essential to control the remaining weeds
(De Datta 1989).
Other cultural practices. In rain-fed areas, fertilizer application, insect
control, harvesting, and threshing will not differ markedly between direct
seeded and transplanted rice culture.
Dry seeded bunded rice

The greatest economic return to farmers in the rain-fed areas may not
come through an increase in the yield per crop, but rather by expansion
through double cropping.
For many years, farmers in Bangladesh and Indonesia have grown
rain-fed lowland rice seeded directly on unpuddled soil at the beginning of
the rainy season. This method of rice culture is known as ''aus'' cropping in
Bangladesh and "gogo-rantja" in Indonesia. By doing this, the farmer
takes advantage of early rainfall and may thus manage to grow an extra
crop of rice (De Datta 1981).
Drought damage and weed infestation are the two most critical factors
in good seedling establishment of dry sown rice on bunded fields. Good
land preparation is difficult because of the power required to cultivate the
hardened soil. Drought damage is severe, and weeds tend to outgrow rice
under this system.
Recently, early-maturing modern cultivars with good drought toler-
ance have minimized drought damage. Further research at IRRI and other
organizations in Southeast Asian countries hopefully will develop im-
proved technology for the direct seeding of rice.
Irrigated Rice
Irrigated rice remains the keystone to global rice security. It accounts for
over 50% of the world's 144 million ha planted to rice, and 70% of the
470 million tons of global rice production. In South and Southeast Asia,
irrigated rice accounts for some 40% of the rice area and over 50% of rice
production.
In temperate Asia, such as the People's Republic of China, Japan,
Korea, and Taiwan, most of the riceland is irrigated. In temperate
America, Europe, and Australia, rice is entirely an irrigated crop. In those
temperate countries, rice is simply not grown if irrigation water is not
available.
In irrigated areas of the world, rice is grown as follows: transplanted,
RICE CULTURE 147
seeded directly onto puddled soil, drill seeded into dry soil, and seeded
directly into water. Cultural practices in these systems of rice culture often
vary a great deal.
Transplanted rice
In irrigated areas of Asia, most of the rice is transplanted.
Land preparation. Land preparation for irrigated transplanted rice is
no different from that for rain-fed transplanted rice discussed earlier. The
water requirement for land preparation in the lowland field varies from
150 to 200 mm.
Water management. Rice, like any other crop, requires adequate water
to grow and develop at its maximum potential rate. Unlike other crops,
rice is usually grown in flooded soil.
Submergence has many advantages, such as better weed control,
higher efficiency of fertilizer, and better insect and weed control with
granular herbicide. Considering all factors, continuous submergence with
5 to 7 em of water is probably best for irrigated rice.
The rotational method of irrigation has not been widely adopted (ex-
cept in China) because it requires competent irrigation personnel as well
as good cooperation among farmers. Existing conveyance systems must
be modified to include measuring devices. Weeds are also more difficult
to control when the fields lack standing water for a time.
Fertilizer management. Much of the fertilizer nitrogen applied for a rice
crop is not taken up by the rice plants. Depending upon soil type and the
method and time of fertilizer application, only 20 to 60% of the fertilizer
is utilized by the crop in a given growing season. Some of the remainder
is combined with organic forms by soil microorganisms in the soil, and it
may be released too late for crop uptake. Some is lost to the atmosphere
by the biological process of denitrification. In other cases, nitrogen is
directly lost to the atmosphere by ammonia volatilization. Figure 4-4
shows the fate of fertilizer nitrogen under flooded and upland condi-
tions in the Philippines. Obviously, the challenge is to minimize the
loss of fertilizer nitrogen and to increase the efficiency of usage by the
crop.
Fertilizer nitrogen management can be improved by (1) basal incorpo-
ration of the first nitrogen dose rather than broadcast application at 10 to
21 days after transplanting, when nitrogen losses are extremely high, and
(2) application of second nitrogen dose immediately before, rather than
after, panicle initiation (De Datta 1987a).
Although basal incorporation of urea into drained soil can reduce
nitrogen loss (De Datta et al. 1989) and frequently increase grain yield,
gaseous nitrogen loss remains substantial, suggesting that considerable
Figure 4-4. Balance sheet of nitrogen fertilizer applied to flooded and upland
soils. Adapted from IRRI (1974).
scope for improving the efficiency of urea still exists. Implements and
technologies for more thorough incorporation of prilled and granular urea
merit investigation (De Datta and Buresh 1989).
Coarse textured soils usually have high percolation rates and demand
split applications of nitrogen (usually two or three) to avoid serious losses
that would prevent maximum crop growth.
More finely textured soils require fewer nitrogen applications,
often only one or two, provided that water management practices are
good.
Yield differences do not always correlate to differences in nitrogen
uptake. Proper placement of nitrogen fertilizer within the flooded system
is of extreme importance. Fertilizers containing ammonium nitrogen are
stable provided they are placed 8 to 10 ern below the surface of the flooded
rice field. This is because microorganisms capable of oxidizing ammonium
nitrogen cannot function in an oxygen-deficient zone. Fortunately, rice
RICE CULTURE 149
readily uses ammonium as well as nitrate nitrogen, but nitrate forms cannot
be retained in flooded soils (Mikkelsen and Finfrock 1957).
A considerable advantage appears to exist in keeping the nitrogen
fertilizer concentrated rather than dispersed throughout the soil. Deep
placement of urea in lowland rice fields is widely recognized as an
effective management practice for irrigated rice, except in high percola-
tion rate. Basal deep placement of urea is superior to split application
of prilled urea in both transplanted and broadcast seeded flooded rice
(De Datta et al. 1988a). Considerable scope exists for the development
of less labor-intensive, more economical methods of deep placement.
Moreover, better delineation is needed of environments where deep
placement has a distinct comparative advantage over other management
practices.
The sources of nitrogen are no different for irrigated rice than for
rain-fed transplanted rice. The topic is covered in the section on rain-
fed culture.
Phosphorus deficiency is a widespread nutritional disorder of rice.
It occurs on millions of hectares of ultisols, oxisols, vertisols, and
certain inceptisols. These soils are not only low in available phosphorus
but also fix fertilizer phosphorus as highly insoluble minerals. Besides,
soil submergence gives only a slight increase in the availability of
phosphorus in these soils.
In Indonesia, about 1 million ha of soils cultivated for rice are
deficient in phosphorus, while many areas in Thailand, particularly in
the northeast, are also deficient in phosphorus.
Phosphorus deficiency is not only quite widespread but also acute
in certain areas. In acutely phosphorus-deficient areas, the response to
P alone has been comparable to or even better than that to N at equal
rates of application.
Few significant differences have been found among the effects of
various phosphorus sources in flooded rice except in extremely acidic
or alkaline soils. India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Korea, and Myanmar
use superphosphate as their primary sources of phosphorus on all soils,
while Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam use rock
phosphate. On the acidic soils of South and Southeast Asia, phosphate
rocks have been applied directly as sources of phosphorus Jor rice.
These sources are lower in price than acidulated phosphates and
represent a means of reducing fertilizer cost where transport costs are
not too great (De Datta et al. 1990).
Experiments in the greenhouse at the U.S. National Fertilizer
Development Center and in fields in Thailand evaluated several phos-
phate rocks with varied citrate solubility. A procedure has been devel-
oped that allows the choice of P source on the basis of both agronomic
effectiveness and price of Pas triple superphosphate (TSP) vs. phosphate

rocks (Engelstad et al. 1974).
In general, phosphorus is applied at planting. If needed, application
can be postponed but not past the time of active tillering. It has been
reported that early application of phosphorus is essential for root
elongation. Phosphorus applied no later than the early tillering stage is
most efficiently utilized for grain production. In general, most phospho-
rus applications should be made as a basal treatment.
The phosphatic fertilizer needs of rice on deficient soils can be
reduced if varieties that can extract phosphorus efficiently from the soil
can be developed. That would be a real benefit to the poor farmers of
the tropics where most of the phosphorus-deficient soils occur, especially
since phosphate fertilizers have recently tripled in price (Kundu and De
Datta 1988).
Most rice soils have not been shown to be particularly deficient in
potassium. That is because irrigation water usually contains significant
amounts of potassium. The majority of rice soils in Asia responds more
to N and P, than to K (De Datta and Mikkelsen 1985).
In Japan, crops grown on degraded paddy soils respond well to
potash fertilizers, and yield increases of 20 to 30% can be expected.
Further, a response to potassium is obtained on light soils where
leaching causes considerable loss of bases. Favorable responses to
potassium have been demonstrated from sandy and coarse textured soils
of Vietnam, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia. In Sri Lanka, about 25% of the
total rice fields suffer from potassium deficiency. The average increase
in yield in Taiwan from potassium application is about 50%. Responses
are most significant in red and yellow earths, and the effects of potassium
are generally greater in the second crop than in the first.
Common sources of potassium are potassium chloride and sulfate
and complete fertilizers. Potassium should be applied during the final
land preparation. Results from Taiwan occasionally indicate that split
application of potassium is beneficial to rice grown on coarse textured
soil. Five-year data on clay soils in the Philippines showed no beneficial
effects from a split application of potassium over a single application
(De Datta and Gomez 1974).
In response to recent fertilizer shortages, there is a move to reduce
the doses of phosphorus and potassium and in some cases eliminate
them altogether from recommendations for various crops in India.
Results from the long-term fertility experiments indicate that, in areas
where one crop per year is grown with an adequate supply of nitrogen,
the response to phosphorus and/or potassium may be marginal. Response
may become marked, however, under--intensive. cultivation involving
more than one crop per year (De Datta et al. 1988b).
RICE CULTURE 151
Because of the current fertilizer situation, inorganic fertilizers should

be supplemented with green manure, compost, and other organic ma-
nures, and rice straw. Quantitative experimental data are needed to
assess the value of organic manures in realizing high yields from the
modern rice varieties.
In some Asian countries, straw is available in large quantities as a
source of organic matter and nutrients. In other countries, rice straw
is used for cattle feed and hence is not available for field use. In clay
soils, straw incorporation has limited fertilizer value, but in sandy soils
of low cation exchange capacity (CEC) the effects may be of some
significance (FAO 1973). These organic sources alone, however, would
seldom serve as substitute for chemical fertilizers if modern high-yielding
rice cultivars are grown.
Next to nitrogen and phosphorus, zinc deficiency is perhaps the
most important nutritional factor limiting the grain yield of wetland rice.
It occurs in alkaline, calcareous, wet, organic, and sandy soils. Millions
of hectares of low-lying land in the humid tropics, well-supplied with
water, could be brought under rice cultivation if improved cultivars
with tolerance to zinc deficiency are developed. Zinc deficiency in rice
has been extensively reported in India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Japan,
the United States, and Brazil.
In many countries, zinc deficiency is perhaps the second most
important nutritional disorder limiting the yield of lowland rice. At least
13 provinces in the Philippines have large areas of zinc deficient soils
(Orticio and Ponnamperuma 1977). In these zinc-deficient areas, NPK
fertilizers alone will provide only a limited yield advantage unless zinc
deficiencies are corrected first.
The incidence of zinc deficiency has increased in recent years
because of the replacement of old cultivars by modern ones with less
tolerance to zinc deficiency, the removal of large amounts of zinc by
the new high-yielding cultivars, the replacement of ammonium sulfate
with urea, the increased use of phosphate fertilizers and concentrated
fertilizers, and double and triple cropping of lowland rice (De Datta
1981).
In transplanted rice, zinc deficiency is easily corrected by dipping
seedlings in 2% zinc oxide suspension in water (Yoshida et al. 1970).
Other methods of correcting zinc deficiency in transplanted rice include
foliar sprays and soil application. Treatment of transplanted seedlings
and soil treatment are the two most common methods of zinc application.
Sprays are usually employed only in emergency situations when the
crop is growing and shows deficiency symptoms (Mikkelsen and Kuo
1976). Cultivars with tolerance to zinc deficiency would reduce the
problems of growing rice in zinc deficient soils. Results at IRRI showed
that IR20, IR34, BG 90-2, and several IRRI elite breeding lines tolerated
zinc deficiency. Cultivars tolerant to zinc deficiency should be grown
on zinc-deficient neutral soils. On organic and calcareous soils, it is
advisable to use a combination of tolerant cultivars and a 2% zinc oxide
suspension dip (Orticio and Ponnamperuma 1977).
Weed control. Weed control does not differ greatly between irrigated
transplanted rice and rain-fed transplanted rice as discussed earlier.
Good land preparation and good water control make weed control less
difficult for irrigated transplanted rice than for rain-fed transplanted rice.
Hand weeding is commonly used in almost all areas in South and
Southeast Asia. Rotary weeding seems common in some Southeast
Asian countries although not in others. Herbicides are used most
commonly in areas of inadequate labor and high wages, particularly in
eastern Asia-Taiwan, Korea, and Japan.
In the Philippines and some tropical South and Southeast Asian
countries, 2,4-D is the principal herbicide used because of its low cost.
In the tropics, 2,4-D controls annual grasses if applied to transplanted
rice four days after transplanting, before the emergence of weeds
(De Datta et al. 1968). Other promising herbicides include butachlor,
thiobencarb, piperophos, molinate, ftuazifop-butyl, and oxadiazon (De
Datta 1988a). In most of tropical Asia, developing integrated methods
of weed control (using limited quantities of low cost chemicals in
combination with direct and indirect methods) may be the most attractive
alternative from agronomic, economic, and ecological points of view
(De Datta 1988a).
Insect and disease control. Insects do far more damage to rice in the
tropics than in temperate regions. In fully irrigated areas of the tropics,
where year-round rice culture is practiced, pest problems became much
more serious than in the cool temperate climates where only one crop
can be grown each year.
The control of insect pests in the tropics currently depends largely
on the use of pesticides, even though many traditional cultivars have
some resistance to one or more insect pests or diseases. These have
played and will continue to play a major role in successful rice produc-
tion. In recent years, scientists have evaluated different insecticides and
application methods to learn how farmers can maximize return on
insecticide investments.
In biological control studies, it was found that a predator (Cyrtorhi-
nus lividipennis) can kill an average of 0.6 brown planthopper nymphs
per day, or 50 green leafhopper nymphs per day, for at least 4
consecutive days. The predator prefers to prey on nymphs rather than
adults, and prefers green leafhoppers to brown planthoppers.
Entomologists have recognized that integration of pest control
RICE CULTURE 153
methods involves combining cultivar resistance with pesticides when

necessary. Plant resistance should reduce the pest population somewhat,
if not considerably, and insecticides can be applied to reduce the number
of these pests even further. Farmers in the tropics cannot afford the
luxury of expensive plant protection measures. Crop resistance with a
minimal insecticide application must be the answer if rice production
in the tropics is to be economic. Promising lines are being developed
continually that combine broad genetic resistance to all major insects
and diseases in tropical Asia. The concept of Integrated Pest Manage-
ment (IPM) is gradually becoming an important guideline for pest control
in rice.
For diseases of rice, resistant lines have been identified and incorpo-
rated in the elite breeding lines. Although chemical control of blast or
of the vectors of virus diseases is possible, this control is neither
practical nor economical. Cultivar resistance to these diseases and to
the vectors of virus diseases is the only economic solution to these
problems.
Harvesting, threshing, drying, and storage. In the tropics, rice matures
about 30 days after heading. Harvest must occur on time otherwise
grain may be lost through damage caused by rats, birds, insects, shatter,
and lodging. Timely harvest ensures optimum grain quality, a higher
market value, and greater consumer acceptance.
In the Asian tropics, harvesting is done by hand. The straw is
usually cut about 15 to 25 em above the ground, although in some areas,
particularly Indonesia and some upland rice areas in the Philippines, the
panicles are clipped off with a sharp knife.
Threshing is done by hand, by beating the rice heads on a perforated
platform made of bamboo. Occasionally, threshing is done by having
animals tread on the harvested rice crop. In the recent past, the axial
flow thresher has gradually become popular in Thailand and other
Southeast Asian countries.
The grain is usually dried in the sun, although that is difficult during
the wet season when clouds and rains often disrupt operations. Practical
experience has shown that, in the Philippines, four days of sun drying
are usually sufficient to reduce the moisture content of the grain to an
acceptable level.
Most farmers save only a certain amount of harvested rice (rough
rice) for family consumption and store the grain in sacks or in small
barrels since proper storage facilities are rare in the Asian tropics. The
problem of postharvest operations, including storage, has become more
serious because of the higher yields obtained with modern cultivars.
The IRRI Engineering Department has designed a number of small
harvester units, or threshers, and dryers for the Asian tropics, and
widespread use of these (like any mechanical equipment) will depend

on availability, pricing, and the profitability of production.
Direct seeding onto puddled soils

The practical difficulties of establishing good stands of direct-seeded rice
under monsoon conditions have been studied to determine whether trans-
planting is indeed superior to direct seeding under tropical conditions.
Evidence suggests that grain yields are similar for direct-seeded and trans-
planted rice. This finding, along with the increasing cost of transplanting,
may lead to serious consideration of direct seeding as a desirable alterna-
tive, at least in areas with controlled irrigation. Although machines are
available for drilling pregerminated rice onto puddled soil, the broadcast
method is most common (De Datta 1986b).
Direct seeding on puddled soil is practiced in some parts of India,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. In Sri Lanka, 80 to
90% of the rice acreage is broadcast. Egypt and Korea grow rice under
broadcast seeded flooded conditions. Cultural practices for direct seeding
onto puddled soils are similar to those for transplanted rice in some opera-
tions, and distinctly different in other operations.
Land preparation. The practice of puddling in broadcast seeded rice
culture, similar to the transplanted system, reduces water percolation.
Puddling is also reported to aid in creating a level soil surface, incorporate
uniformly added fertilizer, incorporate weeds, and hasten mineralization
of organic nitrogen.
Water management. Without leveling of fields, water management is
difficult. The depth of water determines the success of seedling establish-
ment. Systems of water management for direct seeding onto puddled soil
vary widely. In one system, fields are flooded just before seeding and kept
flooded until harvest. They may be drained soon after seeding and flooded
again. In another system, pregerminated seeds are sown onto a inoist but
drained field, and the field is reflooded with 3 to 5 em of water when rice
is at the four-leaf stage and weeds at the three-leaf stage.
Fields are often drained during the growing season. The reasons for
drainage include control of aquatic weeds, algae, and water-weevil, and
application of feitilizers and agricultural chemicals. Also, for basal nitro-
gen incorporation, puddled field should be drained first (De Datta et al.
1988a).
From the literature, continuous submergence appears suitable under
most situations for direct-seeded rice.
Fertilizer management. Management of fertilizer does not greatly differ
between direct-seeded irrigated rice and direct-seeded rain-fed lowland
rice. Recent research suggests that if farmers do not wish to change their
RICE CULTURE 155
first topdressing of nitrogen 2 to 3 weeks after planting, switching from

transplanting to broadcast seeding will minimize nitrogen losses by 9 to
10% (Obcemea et al. 1990). Furthermore, nitrogen fertilizer efficiency is
greater in direct-seeded irrigated rice than in rain-fed lowland rice under
a similar method of planting.
Weed control. Weed control is more critical and difficult in rice
grown from pregerminated seeds broadcast directly into the field than
in transplanted rice. Laborers cannot move through broadcast rice to
weed by hand without destroying some rice plants. Furthermore, labor-
ers cannot distinguish between young grassy weeds and young rice seed-
lings.
For direct-seeded flooded rice culture, the herbicides butachlor and
thiobencarb, which are commercially available in several Asian countries,
give excellent weed control without injuring the rice crop (De Datta and
Bernasor 1971). Propanil and molinate are also effective in the production
of direct-seeded rice (Smith et al. 1977). Among the new herbicides, a
mixture of piperophos and dimethametryne has shown excellent selectivity
and broad spectrum activity in both the tropics and temperate regions.
Another new selective herbicide for direct-seeded flooded rice is butralin
(De Datta and Bernasor 1973). In trials in India, Pillai (1973) compared
direct seeding to drilling on dry soil, except that the seedbeds are usually
left very coarse and dry before flooding. Soil clods 2 to 6 em in diameter
are found in a typical good seedbed. After flooding, these practices effec-
tively control weeds in direct-seeded rice. In the Philippines, Malaysia,
and Thailand, this method of culture has become popular as new herbicides
are identified and marketed (De Datta 1989). The direct-seeded flooded
rice culture will become an acceptable alternative as the cost of labor
rises, as less expensive selective herbicides become available, and as
water control becomes better (De Datta and Flinn 1986).
Insect and disease control and other cultural practices are the same for
direct seeded as for transplanted rice in most tropical areas. Harvesting,
threshing, and storage are also similar.
Direct seeding into water

In areas where highly mechanized agriculture is justified or where the
labor requirement for transplanting is excessive, direct seeding into
flooded fields is practiced. The practice is ancient in parts of Asia, including
India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, and Thailand, and is now done on a wide scale
in the Americas, southern Europe, the U.S.S.R., and Australia. Direct
seeding saves time and labor in both land preparation and in actual sowing.
More care must be exercised in the management of water sown rice
than with most other methods of cultivation. Water depth, excessively
high or low water temperatures, and muddy water are occasionally sources
of problems in stand establishment. Direct seeding requires 40 to 50%
more seed than transplanting; the seed must have good viability and the
cultivars must possess good seedling vigor. The seed used is pre germinated
by soaking in water for 18 to 24 h, draining for an additional24 h or until
sprouts develop about 2 mm long. The sprouted seed is broadcast directly
into the flooded field. Field flooding practices vary according to local
conditions. Oxygen deficiency does not appear to be a limiting factor in
stand establishment of rice in flooded soils (Chapman and Mikkelsen
1963). Adequate chemical weed control measures must be available since
mechanical cultivation is not possible.
Land preparation. Land preparation for rice seeded directly into water
is similar to that used for drilling on dry soil except that the seedbeds are
usually left very coarse and dry before flooding. Soil clods 2 to 6 em in
diameter are found in a typical good seedbed. After flooding, these clods
slake down to smaller aggregates, leaving an irregular surface that reduces
seedling drift and helps establish root penetration. A suitable seedbed
should be relatively level, devoid of low and high spots (De Datta 1981).
Water may be too deep for good emergence in the low spots, and weeds
(especially barnyard grass) may be favored in soil not covered with water.
Fertilizer management. Fertilizer placement by band drilling nitrogen 5
to 10 em deep in dry soil or broadcast applications incorporated by dis king
to the same depth have given significant yield increases and higher nitrogen
use efficiency than nitrogen applied at the surface (Mikkelsen and Finfrock
1957). Surface-applied nitrogen may be nitrified and subsequently lost
by denitrification or ammonia volatilized after the floodwater is applied.
Ammonium nitrogen, drilled 5 to 10 em deep where reducing conditions
develop within a few days of flooding, remains effective in the soil during
most of the crop season. Broadcast applications to typical rice seedbeds
show that ammonium nitrogen is nitrified if it is applied too far in advance
of flooding. With soil temperatures that average 22°C (71.6°F), as much as
60% of the ammonical nitrogen can be converted to nitrate in 7 to 9 days
(Mikkelsen and Miller 1963). The average effect of nitrogen placement at
four locations was to increase rice yields by 34% over broadcast in water
applications and 19% over broadcast applications on a dry seedbed (Mik-
kelsen and Miller 1963).
Split applications of nitrogen, part as a basal application and the
balance topdressed at panicle initiation, has proven effective in some
parts of the world. Topdressing experiments in California have shown no
superiority over adequate preplant soil applications (Mikkelsen and Miller
1963). When the basal nitrogen application is not sufficient to meet crop
needs, topdressings have been effective in increasing rice yields.
RICE CULTURE 157
Phosphorus, potassium, and zinc are best applied to the soil before
flooding. Phosphorus and potassium can be incorporated during seedbed
preparation with good effectiveness. Zinc, however, should be applied to
the soil surface without incorporation. Since water-sown rice has a great
need for zinc during the first three weeks after planting, it is essential that
it be applied in the soil surface for maximum efficiency of recovery at the
lowest levels of application. Surface-applied zinc adequately meets the
needs of rice during the growing season (Mikkelsen and Kuo 1976).
Weed control. Weed control in water-sown rice is accomplished by
proper management of water depth and the judicious use of herbicides.
The same types of herbicides and methods of application described for
drill-seeded rice apply with relatively few exceptions (Smith et al. 1977).
Barnyard grass and other annual grasses do not survive if water is main-
tained between 5 and 10 em deep (De Datta 1981). Surviving grass seedlings
are controlled by propanil or other appropriate herbicides applied to ac-
tively growing plants although some herbicides like propanil have no
residual value. Treatments at recommended rates do not normally cause
permanent injury, although propanil applied with certain seed treatments
or carbamate insecticides may cause severe injury. Propanil may cause
damage to sensitive crops, so spray drift must be avoided. Molinate in a
granular or emulsifiable form, also used as a pre- and postemergence
herbicide, is especially effective against Echinochloa spp. For maximum
effectiveness, water in rice fields treated with molinate should be held for
at least seven days. Phenoxy herbicides, particularly 2,4-D and MCPA,
control many broadleaf weeds, sedges, and aquatic weed species. As
reported for drilled rice, consideration is necessary for the proper rate and
time of application.
Harvesting and drying. Harvesting and drying requirements are the
same as described for drill-seeded rice. Conventional harvesters are widely
used where artificial systems of rice drying are available in many parts of
the world. In Japan and other Asian countries, small combines are avail-
able with single row and head threshing units.
Drill seeding into dry soil

Drill seeding into dry soil is widely used in the Americas, southern Europe,
the U.S.S.R., and Australia, where land holdings are large and labor
scarce. Typically the preplanting climate is relatively dry, land is level,
and irrigation can be controlled with some precision. Drill seeding is also
used in rice-producing areas of South and Southeast Asia, Africa, and
South America where seeds remain in the soil until rainfall is sufficient to
initiate germination and sustain seedling growth. In most drill seeding,
however, fields are irrigated to ensure adequate moisture for stand estab-
lishment, and after an appropriate time, the fields are placed in permanent
flood.
Land preparation and planting. The drill seeding of rice is usually ac-
companied by other highly mechanized farming practices. The land is
frequently plowed in the off season with a large tractor-drawn moldboard
or disk plow, then disked again and harrowed before planting. When fields
remain wet during the off season, the entire land preparation may be done
just before planting. Harrowing is usually done with a minimum of tillage
unless the soil contains large amounts of clay. A roller packer is often
used to break up clods and firm the soil, helping to retain moisture. Soil
preparation usually involves machine travel over the gently sloping levees
which are usually rebuilt after seeding and subsequently seeded.
Conventional grain drills are commonly used for drilling seed in rows
spaced 15 to 20 em apart. Drills are capable of planting seed, and when
equipped with a fertilizer applicator, they place the seed at a uniform depth
and simultaneously place fertilizer below and to the side of the seed. In
Australia, direct seeding is sometimes done into pasture sod after heavy
animal grazing without previous land preparation. A planting depth of 3
to 5 em is common. Uniformity of seeding is important to uniform stand
establishment and crop maturity.
Water management. When soil moisture is not adequate for seed germi-
nation, fields are flushed with water. The irrigation water is drained soon
after the fields are completely submerged, since seed cannot germinate
and emerge if covered with both soil and water. If soil moisture becomes
limiting or if crusting occurs, additional irrigation followed by drainage is
used. Irrigation practices vary, but fields are usually completely sub-
merged with 5 to 10 em of water when seedlings are 8 to 12 em tall. If the
fields are weedy, water is applied to inhibit weed growth as soon as the
rice has emerged. After the permanent flood is applied, the water depth is
held nearly constant until several weeks before harvest. Water is usually
drained only when special problems develop as with algae, water weevil,
or weed.
Fertilizer management. Fertilizer use on drilled rice takes on many
variations, depending on variables of climate, cultivars, and crop and
water management practices. The required plant nutrients, except nitro-
gen, are commonly either applied during land preparation or are drilled
with the seed along with all or a part of the nitrogen requirement. Up to
two-thirds of the nitrogen requirement is usually applied by drilling or
broadcasting just before permanent flood is applied to the rice crop. Mid-
season nitrogen applications, broadcast into the water, are sometimes
made using internode elongation or leaf analysis as a guide to proper
RICE CULTURE 159
timing, as reviewed by Mikkelsen and Patrick (1968). Proper timing avoids

excessive plant height and increases grain yields.
Zinc deficiency is a common problem on alkaline soils, causing chloro-
sis which affects plant survival and crop maturity. Soil applications of zinc
are usually applied in combination with other fertilizer materials or applied
independently by broadcasting. Applying sulfuric acid to either the soil or
floodwater has provided some relief from zinc deficiency in areas where
the water is derived from limestone substrate and tends to be high in
dissolved calcium and bicarbonate ions (Mikkelsen and Kuo 1976).
In areas of the southern United States with long growing seasons, the
growth of a ratoon or "stubble" crop is possible. After the initial harvest,
the ratoon crop is stimulated by applying fertilizer nitrogen.
Weed control. Weed control is accomplished with judicious manage-
ment of both water and herbicides. Cultivation between drill rows is
difficult except with rotary weeders, and the practice is not widely used.
Herbicides are an important production resource to reduce weed popula-
tions and to increase the effectiveness of other practices. The herbicides
propanil and molinate, the most widely used, are applied early after seed-
ing to control grass seedlings, sedges, and some aquatic weeds. Broadleaf
weeds and sedges are usually controlled with phenoxy herbicides, espe-
cially 2,4-D and MCPA.
Propanil is applied by both ground and aerial equipment as medium-
fine droplets to obtain good plant coverage. Echinochloa spp. are con-
trolled most effectively when they have from three to five leaves and are
growing actively.
Molinate in a granular form is applied to the water after the rice
emerges. It controls Echinochloa spp. up to about 7 em tall but is not
effective against broadleaf, sedges, or aquatic weeds. For effective con-
trol, water should be held on the field for at least 7 days after treatment.
During cool weather or where irrigation water is to be drained, molinate
is more effective against barnyard grass than is propanil.
Phenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-D and MCPA, are effective against
many broadleaf weeds, sedges, and aquatic plants, but are ineffective
against grasses. These herbicides are usually applied about midseason
when rice is in the early jointing stage. At that time, weed control is
effective with minimum damage to the rice plants. A variety of new chemi-
cals have potential for weed control in drilled rice, including thiobencarb,
oxadiazon, butachlor, bifenox, and bentazon.
Harvesting and drying. Self-propelled combine harvesters are used ex-
tensively in the Americas, southern Europe, the U.S.S.R., and Australia
where water and mechanized drill seeding is practiced. Combines mounted
on tracks or equipped with oversized pneumatic tires with large lugs for
traction and flotation move effectively over drained fields. Harvesters

are provided with the component parts necessary for cutting the crop,
threshing, and separating the grain and holding it in field storage. The
equipment must sometimes be specially adapted for certain harvesting
conditions. Mechanical failures from working in wet soils in rainy weather
sometimes make combine harvesting difficult. Since rice is usually har-
vested at 20 to 25% moisture content to preserve high milling yields,
artificial drying must be used to reduce the grain moisture below 14% for
safe storage.
Deepwater and Floating Rice Areas

About 10 million ha of riceland in the world is subjected to annual floods
(Table 4-1). The depth of water, duration of flooding, the rate of increase
in water level, temperature, turbidity, time of occurrence, etc., vary at
different locations, so that the term deepwater may have different mean-
ings (Vergara 1977).
''Deepwater'' is a general term used to refer to a rice culture or cultivar
planted where the standing water for a certain period is more than 50 em
with a maximum water depth of 1 m, resulting sometimes in complete
but usually partial submergence of the plant. Special selected deepwater
cultivars are used in areas with uncontrolled water regimes where flood-
waters annually rise from 50 em to 4 or 5 m deep.
For our discussions, these areas with uncontrolled water supply are
divided into deepwater and floating rice areas. Nearly half of the rice in
Asia is grown in uncontrolled water regimes, with maximum water depths
varying from 51 to 100 em. We would call part of this area (that with a
water depth of 51-100 em) the deepwater rice area.
When the water level exceeds 100 em and the water usually remains
in the field for 3 to 4 months, special rice types known as "floating rice"
are planted. Such conditions of uncontrolled water regimes, whether a
deepwater or a floating rice area, prevail in densely populated deltas,
estuaries, and river valleys of Asia in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Viet-
nam, Thailand, Cambodia, and parts of Indonesia. In Africa, deepwater
rice is grown in Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Dahomey, Gambia, and Sierra
Leone, and Ecuador in the Americas. Special cultivars are required since
local cultivars, the semidwarf rices, cannot elongate with rising floodwa-
ter, nor can they withstand submergence; most simply drown out if grown
in such deep water. The few plants that may survive will mature when the
water is still high. Harvest is difficult or impossible, and panicles may rot
on the stalk. It is easy to see why farmers in deepwater rice areas prefer
their traditional deepwater adapted cultivars, mostly photoperiod-sensi-
tive types, even if they yield only about 1 t/ha.
RICE CULTURE 161
In deepwater rice areas, dry seeding is fairly common-as well as

drought stress (De Datta and O'Toole 1976). For example, in Bangladesh,
sowing starts in mid-March, but with the advent and amount of rainfall
as factors determining the actual date of sowing (Hasanuzzaman 1974).
Further, farmers are fully constrained by uncertain rainfall during March
and April and frequently sustain drought damage and poor stand establish-
ment. In West Bengal, seed is broadcast in April through May on dry soil
(Mukheijee 1974). In Thailand, deepwater rice is planted and grown under
dry-season rainfall conditions until the monsoon achieves full force, any
time from June to August. During this period, rice frequently suffers from
severe drought (Prechachart and Jackson 1974). In Vietnam, farmers often
compare deepwater rice culture to gambling. Farmers in deepwater rice
areas often have to reseed once or twice if rain does not fall within several
days of seeding (Xuan and Kanter 1974). Early seeding is desirable to
ensure that the plants are of sufficient size to elongate when water levels
rise. However, the erratic onset of the monsoon rains and the possibility
of subsequent drought increase risks in early planting. If drought tolerance
is bred into cultivars meant for deepwater areas, early seeding will ensure
rapid establishment, thereby reducing the risk that a sudden rise of flood-
water will destroy young seedlings.
Another problem of deepwater rice cultivars is that they need 6 weeks
of growth before their internodes elongate when submerged. Floods that
occur before the plant has grown sufficiently are a major contributing
factor in low plant density obtained in the deepwater rice crop. Although
the rise in water level is generally 3 to 10 em/ day, in certain years and in
certain places, the increase may be as much as 60 em/day during a few
days of rainfall. The deepwater rices must flower after the water level has
reached its peak to minimize the danger of the panicles being submerged.
The traditional deepwater rices for a particular area generally flower at a
time selected by farmers to ensure less crop damage and easier harvesting
(Vergara 1977).
Weed control is a major factor limiting the grain yields of deepwater
rices. The problem of weeds usually occurs during the early stages of
growth when upland conditions exist prior to flooding (De Datta et al.
1982). Although early weed competition may be decreased by heavy seed-
ing, tall weeds that grow faster than the rice will offer competition. Farmers
generally do not weed deepwater rice areas. The deepwater rices with
vigorous seedling growth and spreading tillers compete better with weeds.
In Bangladesh, weeding is done to a small extent under either preflooded or
flooded conditions (Hasanuzzaman 1974). Except for Ipomoea aquatica,
Eichhornia crassipes Salons (water hyacinth), and wild rices, weeds are
not a serious problem at later stages of growth. The rise in water level
eliminates most of the weeds.
Most of the diseases in shallow water rice culture have also been
reported in deepwater culture. There are very few reports on outbreaks
of plant pests and diseases in deepwater rice.
Salinity is another problem affecting some deepwater areas.
Because most of cultivars grown in deepwater rice areas are photo-
period-sensitive, harvesting is done after floodwaters have receded.
It is important that breeding, agronomic efforts, and relevant physio-
logical studies be directed to improving the yields of deepwater rice. This
effort should help a large number of subsistence farmers. It is anticipated
that these breeding and research efforts will expand the area where im-
proved cultivars can be grown.
Upland Rice
Upland rice refers to rice grown on both flat and sloping fields that are not
bunded, that are prepared and seeded under dry conditions, and that
depend on rainfall for moisture (De Datta 1981). Upland rice is grown on
three continents, mostly by small subsistence farmers in the poorest re-
gions of the world. Grain yields are generally low: 0.5 to 1.5 t/ha in Asia,
about 0.5 t/ha in Africa, and 1 to 4 t/ha in Latin America.
The area planted to upland rice, however, is so large (nearly one-sixth
of the world's total riceland) that even a small increase in yield would
substantially influence total rice production.
The following sections summarize updated information on factors that
limit the grain yield of upland rice and discuss the prospects of overcoming
them.
Irregular rainfall
Upland rice is grown under a wide range of rainfall, from as low as 800
mm (in some years) in Uttar Pradesh, India, to 4000 mm in the Amazon
Basin of Peru. Even within individual countries, the distribution of rainfall
can be as diverse as the amount. For example, in the upland areas of
Myanmar, rainfall from May to November can be as low as 500 mm or as
high as 2000 mm; in Sri Lanka it varies from 875 to 1000 mm (De Datta
and Vergara 1975). In the southern portion of West Africa, 1200 mm in
two rainy seasons is separated by a short dry season (FAO Inventory
Mission 1970). Some dry northern parts of West Africa have 600 mm of
rain during the 4-month rainy season (Cocheme 1971). Latin American
countries may have 200 mm of monthly rainfall during the growing season
(Brown 1969; Sanchez 1972). These total amounts are usually adequate
for growing a crop of upland rice, although they are not the most favorable
for high upland rice yields.
The daily rainfall is actually more critical than the monthly or annual
RICE CULTURE 163
total rainfall. Plants in an area that receive as much as 200 mm of precipita-

tion in 1 day can be damaged or even killed by moisture stress if no rain
falls for the next 20 days. A precipitation of 100 mm/month, distributed
evenly, is preferable to 300 mm/month which all falls in 2 or 3 days (De
Datta and Vergara 1975).
More important than variations in the seasonal distribution of rainfall
is the variability in efficiency of a given volume of precipitation which
substantially depends on temperature, day length, atmospheric humidity,
wind movement, and other factors determining the rate of evapotranspira-
tion. Tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) and torrential rains also
occur during the monsoon season where upland rice is planted. The strong
winds may cause lodging, sterility, and grain shatter, thereby adding to
the problem of too little or too much rain.
The prospects for overcoming irregular rainfall with varietal develop-
ment will depend on two major factors: agronomic characteristics, such
as plant type and maturity group, and drought tolerance. Many upland
cultivars currently grown are of the early-maturing type. Quite likely,
they were bred or selected primarily for drought tolerance or drought
avoidance. Nevertheless, they provide valuable material to obtain low but
stable yields under upland rice culture.
Major factors that often determine the partial success or failure of the
crop are plant type, maturity group, and yielding ability, as well as toler-
ance to drought. In screening rices for drought tolerance, several tech-
niques are available to mass screen a large number of cultivars and breed-
ing lines (De Datta et al. 1988c). Information is meager however on
practices that minimize drought damage in upland rice. Since upland rice
depends on rainfall, some cultural practices have been suggested to de-
crease damage from water shortage (De Datta et al. 1976).
Clearly, poor to imperfect drainage conditions are preferred for the
growth and production of rice. All well or excessively drained soils are
risky to a varying degree, but the risks may be diminished by conserving
rainwater through leveling and bunding of the land as defined earlier. In
low rainfall areas (800-1200 mm of annual rainfall), much of the rice area
is planted to dry-seeded bunded rice, loosely termed upland rice. Similar
dry seeding in bunded fields is practiced in the aus crop areas in West
Bengal, India, and Bangladesh. It is also practiced in Java where a choice
between a system of upland/lowland culture combination (gogo-rantja)
and purely lowland rice culture will depend on the amount of rain that falls
at the time of seeding. If less than 200 mm of rain is received during the
planting month, the land is prepared dry and seeded dry (De Datta 1981).
Fields are bunded to hold rainwater in later months. Such agronomic
techniques are practiced in the "sabog-tanim" method in some parts of
the Philippines to grow a direct-seeded crop in bunded dry fields. Similar
water management was suggested on land with level topography in West

Africa (Moorman et al. 1975). Bunding and leveling ofland was suggested
to increase the hectarage of rain-fed riceland outside the optimum climatic
zone.
Very few studies have been made on the effects of mulching on mois-
ture conservation in upland rice. Studies in Nigeria showed that moisture
retention was improved by straw mulching (IITA 1972). A surface straw
mulch of 4 t/ha was found to be more effective in increasing soil moisture
retention than the same organic matter at 5.0 t/ha buried 10 em below the
surface (liT A 1973).
A well-designed windbreak often influences crop productivity and
increases water use efficiency.
IRRI physiologists have theorized that upland rice grown under coco-
nut trees is less subject to drought damage primarily because the crop is
shaded. It is believed that, besides providing shade, coconut trees may
serve as windbreaks, reducing wind damage to the upland rice crop. Such
planned tree plantings around upland rice fields may be worth considering
in areas with high frequency of drought and where strong wind aggravates
drought damage. This is the practice in some areas of Java, Indonesia,
where a tall legume tree species is planted around upland rice fields,
providing shade and serving as a windbreak for upland rice. Flowers from
the legumes plants are eaten by the farmers. The leaves of the legumes
are used as cattle feed and as a green manure to supplement commercial
fertilizers.
No matter what the annual rainfall or its distribution may be, progres-
sive farmers sow upland rice at the onset of the rainy season and harvest
it about 100 days after seeding. With the residual moisture, many farmers
in Batangas Province, Philippines sow another crop that may have a high
value in cash, such as onion, garlic, com or sorghum. In parts of northern
India (in Uttar Pradesh), upland rice is followed by wheat. All these
examples convince us that, to make upland rice economically viable, it
should be considered as part of the cropping system and not as a monocul-
ture in subsistence farming, as it is widely considered today.
Diseases and insects

It is mandatory that all upland rice cultivars have a high level of blast
resistance. In fact, most upland types currently grown resist blast.
Sheath blight is a disease becoming serious in upland rice in the
Philippines.
Other diseases that may affect the growth of upland rice are Helmin-
thosporium and Cercospora leaf spots, bacterial leaf streak, and bacterial
leaf blight. ·
RICE CULTURE 165
The picture of insect damage is less clear in upland rice than in lowland
rice. Grasshoppers, stemborers, leaf folders, white-backed planthoppers,
green leafhoppers, zigzag leafhoppers, and brown planthoppers are some
of the pests. Considerable progress has been made in incorporating insect
resistance into lowland rices. Nevertheless, many of the crosses with
intermediate stature and high insect resistance should generate progenies
with desirable plant type and resistance to pests and diseases.
Soils on which upland rice is grown
The frequency and duration of moisture stress is affected not only by

rainfall distribution but also by the capacity of the soils to retain water
(De Datta and Feuer 1975). The texture of a soil affects its moisture status
more than any other factor except topography.
Texture is particularly important in upland rice fields that have no
bunds to retain surface moisture. Rooting depth depends not only on
texture of the surface soils but also on the textural profile, including the
subsoil.
Many upland rice soils have a sandy or loam texture and have poor
moisture retention capacity. In such soils, drought stress commonly occurs
unless the rainfall distribution is perfect, which is very rare.
In West Africa, soils on which upland rice is grown are either freely
drained or hydromorphic (with high water tables and receiving supplemen-
tal water through surface runoff). In these freely drained soils, upland rice
frequently suffers from drought stress. In addition, the soils are highly
weathered and generally have low nutrient content because they are de-
rived mainly from acid rocks and are more strongly leached under the high
rainfall regime of the areas in which they occur (Moorman et al. 1975).
Raising a good upland rice crop on these freely drained soils requires
cultivars and technology that tolerate these extremely harsh conditions.
On the other hand, suitable management technology should be developed
to take advantage of hydromorphic soils on which rice would suffer fewer
moisture and nutrient deficiency problems.
Deficiency or toxicity of elements

In general, alternate wetting and drying of the soil leads to losses of both
native and applied nitrogen. It was reported that rice takes up less nitrogen
under upland conditions than under lowland conditions.
An upland soil has less water than has a submerged soil; iron phosphate
and silica are less soluble; available nitrogen is present as a highly mobile
nitrate; either soil acidity or alkalinity may be problems (Ponnamperuma
1975). Upland soils, unlike submerged soils, do not adjust their pH levels
to the favorable range of 6.5 to 7 .0. This means that manganese and
aluminum toxicities can occur in strongly acid soils and iron deficiency in
alkaline soils (Ponnamperuma 1975). It seems that upland rice will do
best on lower numbers of the toposequence of slightly acid soils. Sodic,
calcareous, and saline soils, acid sulfate soils, and soils low in organic
matter are not suitable for upland rice.
It is entirely possible that interacting factors, such as lack of adequate
moisture and soil problems, affect the growth and yield of rice. The need
to study these factors together has been demonstrated (De Datta et al.
1975). It was reported that the reduction in grain yield caused by increased
soil moisture tension may be due to either the direct effects of moisture
stress or moisture stress-induced soil problems, such as iron deficiency,
or to a combination of both. Therefore, moisture stress and soil problems
should be considered together in evaluating the suitability of rices for
upland culture.
The content of water-soluble iron in most aerobic soils is too low for
ready detection. The apparent iron requirement of rice is higher than that
of other plants, and rice suffers from iron deficiency in well-drained upland
soil. Several cultivars and breeding lines that are tolerant to iron deficiency
were identified by IRRI soil chemists. These rices would perform well in
most iron-deficient soils on which rice is grown.
Competition from weeds and control measures

More weeds grow under upland than under lowland conditions. Some-
times, the infestation in untreated fields of upland rice is so heavy that no
grains can be harvested (Sankaran and De Datta 1985). The traditional
puddling and subsequent flooding which minimizes weed infestations in
lowland rice is irrelevant to upland rice where flooding has been recognized
as an effective weed control method for many years. Under heavy weed
competition, weeds alone may reduce grain yields by as much as 80 to
100%. If perennial weeds, such as purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus
L.), are present, competition for moisture, light, and nutrients is severe,
reducing grain yields (Okafor and De Datta 1976).
Much of the future expansion in riceland may have to be in upland
areas, since most potential lowland areas are already under cultivation.
Suitable weed control practices, including the use of herbicides, would
play an important role in increasing rice production in such new areas.
For example, Indonesia has 1.28 million ha under upland rice, and the
upland area is gradually expanding in southern Sumatra and Borneo. If
weeds such as lmperata cylindrica and C. rotundus are controlled, further
increases in areas under upland rice are possible.
For West Africa, reports indicate that manual weed control methods
are unsuitable for continuous or large-scale farming. In areas of shifting
RICE CULTURE 167
cultivation, once weeds become too great a problem, the land is abandoned
to forest, a cheap and effective means of control. To make upland rice
culture meaningful, the highest priority should be given to research aimed
at finding chemicals that are economical and effective (De Datta et al.
1986).
The most feasible and economical schedule for weed control in upland
rice is one which uses both chemical and mechanical methods, as well as
other cultural practices. One hand-weeding often takes 350 to 600 man-
h/ha. However, several hand-weedings are necessary to remove weeds
completely, so that chemical weed control may be essential for successful
upland rice cultivation anywhere in the world. With all chemical treat-
ments, a subsequent hand weeding is often essential to remove weeds
either not controlled by the chemicals or freshly regrown (De Datta
1977a, b).
The perennial nutsedge, Cyperus rotundus L., is a problem in upland
rice because it germinates just before or simultaneously with upland rice;
it grows with, and therefore competes with, the rice crop (De Datta and
Llagas 1984).
Other cultural practices

Practices such as land preparation, sowing method, seed rate, row spacing,
dates of planting and fertilization affect the grain yields achieved by the
upland rice farmers.
Land preparation. In most of Asia, little mechanization is used to
prepare land for planting. As soon as enough rain has fallen to permit initial
land preparation, the field is plowed with an animal-drawn implement, and
then harrowed with a comb harrow to prepare a good seedbed and to firm
up the soil. Sometimes the weed seeds are allowed to germinate for a
week, and then the field is harrowed for the final time, destroying all
germinated seeds.
Indonesian farmers generally prepare the land with animal-drawn
plows during June through August. Indian farmers simply turn the soil
over with country plows and pulverize it no more than 10 em deep.
About 98% of the riceland in Africa is prepared manually because
draft cattle are scarce, most being susceptible to the trypanosome disease.
Land-preparation methods in Latin America vary greatly from country
to country. In Peru's areas of shifting cultivation, for example, mature
secondary forests are cut and burned during the drier months from July
to September. Upland rice is then seeded by dibbling without further land
preparation (Sanchez 1972). Shifting cultivation in Peru is quite similar to
the slash-and-burn methods that precede planting in Malaysia, Myanmar,
and Thailand.
Sowing time, methods, seed rate, and row spacing. Upland rice farmers
have learned through experience to plant early, where rainfall distribution
is unimodal and the rainy season lasts about 4 months. Upland rice gives
the highest grain yield and best nitrogen response if planted shortly after
the first monsoon shower. ·
In most of the Philippines, an animal-drawn wooden plow called a
"lithao" is used to open furrows. Dry seeds are then broadcast. An
implement called a "kalmut" is then used to divert the seeds into rows
and to cover them. In most of India, seeds are broadcast on either dry or
moist soil in roughly prepared fields. Indonesian farmers seed rice broad-
cast on dry soils soon after the rainy season begins. In the areas of shifting
cultivation in Asia, the land is cleared by the slash and burn method and
seeds are then dibbled into the soil. In West Africa, rice is sown by
broadcasting or dibbling. On the 40% of the upland area with annual rainfall
of less than 1500 mm, seeds are dibbled into rows made with a pointed
stick or a narrow-bladed hoe. On the 60% that has more than 1500 mm
annual rainfall, seeds are broadcast on dry soil.
Seeding methods vary greatly among Latin American countries. In
Peru, eight to ten rice seeds are normally planted in holes dug with a
pointed stick called a "tacarpo" at irregularly wide spacings, about 50 x
50 em. The seeds are not covered with soil. Sanchez (1972) considers this
system of seeding inefficient because the rice competes poorly with weeds
and ripens unevenly. In parts of Brazil, seeds are drilled with a tractor-
drawn seed drill, at spacing as wide as 60 em.
Upland rice in Latin America, whether grown under shifting or under
semimechanized cultivation, is generally spaced widely to discourage the
spread of blast disease and to help the crops tolerate drought. Optimum
row spacing for upland rice should be developed locally depending on two
major factors: severity of drought in the area and varietal resistance to
blast.
To get high yields of upland rice, it is essential to plant a lodging-
resistant and high-yielding cultivar. If the area suffers from annual drought
or the cultivar grown is susceptible to blast, it is essential to plant at wide
spacings (45-60 em), as in Brazil.
Variety and fertilizer application. Most upland rices do not respond well
to nitrogen; nitrogen fertilizer increases susceptibility to blast and lodging.
However, considerable progress has been made through plant breeding in
developing cultivars with higher levels of blast resistance. There seems to
be a trade-off in plant-type requirement for drought tolerance and shading
of weeds with semidroopy leaves versus lodging resistance. Many interme-
diate-statured cultivars with high tillering ability will lodge under heavy
showers. On the other hand, they fare better than short-statured varieties
under less favorable moisture status and in weedy areas. Fortunately,
RICE CULTURE 169
damage from lodging is less severe under upland than under lowland
conditions. For this reason, the taller types are favored.
Regardless of varietal type, it is better to apply nitrogen in split doses
to minimize lodging and to get maximum nitrogen efficiency (De Datta et
al. 1990). Results further indicate that banding the fertilizer near to the
seed (10 em deep) greatly enhances nitrogen efficiency in upland rice.
In phosphorus-deficient areas, banding of both nitrogen and phosphorus
complements and increases the efficiency of both elements under upland
rice culture.
Harvesting. Many different systems of harvest have been devised for
rice, depending upon environmental, cultural, religious, and economic
factors. Over the world the major portion of rice is harvested by hand
sickle, though various knives are also used. In highly mechanized rice-
producing areas, rice is harvested entirely with high-capacity self-
propelled combine harvesters.
Hand harvest is widely used because it can be done under a wide
range of weather and field conditions, is adapted to small plots where rice
maturity varies from plot to plot, can occur as panicles ripen, and can
eliminate weeds from the harvested material. Mechanical equipment is
often inoperable under these conditions.
The type of equipment used in hand harvesting depends on such
factors as method of planting, plant height, lodging problems, shatter
losses, timeliness of harvest, method of threshing, and weather conditions
during the harvest season.
The shattering of ripened grain is a problem with certain cultivars,
especially when the grain is too dry (below 15-20% moisture). The harvest
techniques employed, including timely harvests, must minimize shatter
losses. Rice subjected to excessive drying may shatter badly and may
undergo "sunchecking," which causes minor cracks to develop in the
kernel, favoring breakage during hulling and milling. A grain moisture
value between 20 and 25% is considered satisfactory for an acceptable
harvest.
The sickle is used widely for harvest, although the size and design
varies from country to country. Harvesting requires workers to hold the
straw with one hand and cut with the other. The length of cut varies with
local conditions. After cutting, the harvested portion is either dried further
in the field or collected for threshing.
In parts of Southeast Asia, only the panicles (plus 5-6 em of straw)
are harvested. A special harvest knife, consisting of a soft metal blade
set in a crescent-shaped wooden handle, is used. Individual panicles are
sometimes harvested as they mature, lessening shatter losses and facilitat-
ing drying.
Animal- and engine-powered reapers, windrowers, and threshers have
been developed and are used for small plots in Europe, Japan, China, and
elsewhere. Modern combine harvesters, suitable for large-scale mecha-
nized rice production, are used in many areas, especially in the Americas,
Europe, and Australia. The modern combine cuts the straw and threshes
out the grain which is then separated from the straw, cleaned, and stored
temporarily in self-contained bins. A high-capacity combine can harvest
6 to 12 ha/day. A part of combine harvesting essential for high milling
quality is artificial drying.
Threshing of hand-harvested sheaves usually requires adequate pre-
or postthreshing drying. The sheaves may be laid on the ground, stacked,
or hung on racks for drying prior to threshing or storage. Threshing in-
volves separating the grain from the panicle by a variety of methods
employing manual beating or treading, animal treading, or engine-powered
threshing devices. Cleaning foreign material from the grain and drying to
13 to 16% moisture is accomplished before rice is placed in storage.
FUTURE OUTLOOK IN RICE PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Rice truly means life itself to the most densely populated regions of the
world. About 80 to 100 million additional people must be fed each year,
most of them in the poorer and less developed countries. Dependence on
rice for food energy is much higher in Asia than in other regions. However,
the growth rate in most irrigated area in Asia is declining (Fig. 4-5).
Irrigated areas currently produce about 72% of total rice supply which
may not be sustained unless the trend is reversed. Rice provides between
Growth rates (%)in

net irrigated area
8....-------------,
Asia Africa
11M ha
6
0
1970-76 1976-80 1981-85 1970-76 1976-80 1981-85
Year
Figure 4-5. Limited and declining growth in irrigated area in Asia, and rapid
expansion of irrigated area in Africa. From Levine et al. (1988).
RICE CULTURE 171
35 and 59% of the calories consumed by 2.7 billion people in Asia. In

Africa and Latin America, rice provides only 8% of the food energy for
almost 1 billion people. Regardless of the region, most rice-dependent
economies have high population growth rates, low rice yields (except for
China and Indonesia), and low GNP.
To meet the projected growth in demand for rice, making allowances
for the substitution of other foods in diets as incomes increase, IRRI
estimates that the world's annual rough rice production must increase
from the current 458 million tons to 556 million tons by 2000 and to 758
million tons by 2020-a 65% increase (1.7%/yr). For the leading rice-
growing countries in South and Southeast Asia, the need to increase rice
production in 2020 is about 100% (2 .1 %/yr) (IRRI 1989).
Rice is the primary or secondary staple food of nine-tenths of the low-
income people of the most densely populated regions of the world. The
average annual income of those who depend primarily on rice is only $80.
In spite of the impressive technological advances of the past decade,
national production figures show increases that are barely high enough to
meet population growth in the developing countries. The experiences of
the past few years remind us that the production revolution needed to feed
rice consumers has only begun.
Rice output can be increased through the expansion of cultivated area
or through an increase in the productivity of existing land. In South and
Southeast Asia, prior to 1960, the expansion of land area provided the
principal source for output growth. New lands were opened up at a pace
roughly in keeping with the growth in the agricultural labor force.
The gradual closing of the frontier land after 1960-more pronounced
in lowland rice than in upland crops-necessitated a shift toward the use
of modern yield-increasing inputs (Herdt and Barker 1977).
Modern Cultivars
The most important single factor for increasing rice production has been
the development of modern cultivars that respond to yield-increasing in-
puts. The introduction of the IRS plant type in the late 1960s generated
widespread hope for coping with the chronic rice production gap that
plagued many developing countries. The introduction of modern cultivars
also generated improved technology to exploit the yield potential of these
cultivars. More fertilizers were used for these modern cultivars than in
traditional ones and the practice was termed the Green Revolution. It is
still not uncommon to refer to so-called Green Revolution technology as
synonymous with seed-and-fertilizer technology. Often, little emphasis is
given to complementary management practices such as the control of
insects and weeds and improved water management. Nevertheless, the
greatest breakthrough took place in the development of modern cultivars
that take from 120 to 125 days to mature from seed to harvest, as opposed
to the 150 days required by older varieties. Shortening the growth period
while obtaining a marked increase in grain yield potential was perhaps the
most significant breakthrough in agriculture as a whole, and rice research
in particular. These groups of modern cultivars increased rice production
considerably in irrigated areas and to some extent in rain-fed areas.
In the following 8 to 10 years (1967-1976), varietal development fo-
cused on two issues: (I) building up insect and disease resistance in modern
cultivars, and (2) shortening the growth duration further, to around 100
days. As a result, a series of cultivars has been introduced in South and
Southeast Asia which met both objectives. These cultivars provided a
unique opportunity to intensify rice cropping. It is likely that future devel-
opments might generate cultivars with a still shorter growth period, such
as those that would mature between 85 and 90 days. There is, however,
enough evidence to indicate that shortening the growth period from 85
to 90 days sacrifices a certain amount of yield potential. Despite this
shortcoming, rice with an extremely short growing period would perform
a valuable role in certain environments. In many instances it would mean
an extra crop instead of nothing. With the present level of technology,
100-day growth duration is perhaps the lowest limit without greatly sacri-
ficing the grain-yield potential.
Rice-Based Cropping Systems

Several terms have been used by various researchers and research admin-
istrators to explain the basic production systems of intensive cropping. For
example, terminology such as double cropping, triple cropping, multiple
cropping, cropping intensity, cropping patterns, continuous cropping, and
cropping systems all have one thing in common: they deal with more than
one-crop culture.
No matter what the terminology is, increased cropping intensity will
continue to play a significant role in future rice production in South and
Southeast Asia. Results from agronomic research focused on crop intensi-
fication show that, under most conditions in irrigated areas and partly in
favorable rain-fed lowland rice areas, at least one additional crop can be
grown profitably.
China has, in fact, partially met this objective by growing one addi-
tional crop in some rice-growing regions. In many areas of successful
intensive cropping, the essential features are the availability of improved
cropland with good irrigation and drainage, improved cultivars and man-
agement practices, the availability of farm machinery, and a high demand
for farm produce. Further, a favorable ratio of labor to land must be
present.
RICE CULTURE 173
In some parts of tropical Asia, cropping systems can be intensified by

extending the growing season and by utilizing the available growing season
more efficiently. Extension of the growing season can be accomplished by
supplemental irrigation, early crop establishment, conservation of residual
soil moisture, and growing drought-tolerant crops into the dry season.
Better utilization of the growing season can be achieved by growing
earlier maturing rice varieties, reducing turnaround time, harvesting at
physiological maturity, and using relay cropping and intercropping.
Yield increases can be partitioned between increases from irrigating
a higher proportion of the area and from using more yield-increasing
inputs, such as new seed and more fertilizer.
In vast areas, rice is grown under rain-fed conditions. In these areas,
the greatest returns may not come through an increase in yield per crop
but through expansion of the area that is double-cropped. Rain-fed farms
in Indonesia, Bangladesh, and northeastern India have been taking advan-
tage of pre-monsoon rain to establish a direct-seeded rice crop. IRRI
scientists have demonstrated that rain-fed lowland rice seeded directly
onto nonpuddled soil at the beginning of the rainy season takes advantage
of early rainfall and may allow an extra crop of rice to be grown.
Continuous cropping of rice in irrigated areas and increasing rice
cropping intensity in the rain-fed lowland areas are not free of problems.
Evidence indicates that continuous rice cropping causes a buildup of some
pests. In those intensively cropped areas, the IPM concept should be
followed, minimizing pesticide use by carefully monitoring threshold levels
of pests and diseases.
The problems of continuous cropping are more serious and more
complex, but farmers in rice-growing areas will grow rice wherever reason-
able success can be achieved. The greatest challenge of the future will be
to develop technology to minimize these hazards.
The buildup of complex and diverse insect, disease, and weed problems
could persuade us to consider cropping intensity that would include crop
diversity. Modern rice cultivars mature a month or more earlier than
traditional rices, leaving enough time and soil moisture to grow other
crops. Residual fertilizer left in the ground after rice harvest can be con-
verted into more food rather than be wasted. Alternate crops will use the
long and warm growing season of the tropics to the fullest extent.
Multiple cropping and rice-based cropping systems are not new. Farm-
ers have grown other crops with or following rice for a thousand years,
but the need to intensify cropping is far greater today than ever before.
Studies are underway in most rice-growing countries to find the biological
potentials of different cropping systems. The development of intensive
farming schemes that are slanted to the needs of small-scale farmers rank
high in priority.
Since cropping intensity and pattern are controlled by the physical,

economic, and social resources, and by the environment, a knowledge of
the environments in which we work and how they limit cropping potential
is important. The researcher who understands the environment and the
existing and potentially available resources is equipped to design improved
patterns to make more efficient use of the available physical resources.
He must, at this point, have a source of improved component technology
(cultivars, pest management, new crops, etc.). He puts potentially feasible
cropping patterns together with socioeconomic resource requirements
that can be used in his target area. These cropping patterns, together with
their management and input requirements, become potential cropping
systems.
Potential cropping systems must be tested for their adaptation to the
physical and socioeconomic environment. The testing of cropping systems
thus requires farmer participation at an early stage (Garrity 1990). Im-
proved cropping systems aim at more efficient and more complete use
of farmer resources. To be successful, they must both produce more
agricultural products and improve farmer welfare.
The traditional practice of intercropping (growing two compatible
crops, such as corn and upland rice, simultaneously in alternate rows) is
highly suited to situations of limited land and surplus labor. Intercropping
corn and upland rice produces as much as 1 1/3 ha to every 1 ha of corn
and upland rice planted separately. Intercropping uses inputs efficiently.
Besides increased food production, intercropping and multiple crop-
ping lessen the risk of total crop failure and provide higher income and
more balanced nutrition to farm families than does the monoculture of
rice.
A future goal, then, is to find the sequences and combinations of crops
that will increase productivity and improve farmer welfare while using
resources more effectively. The first task is to provide a choice of alterna-
tive cropping patterns which fit the soil type, drainage, and water availabil-
ity pattern of the region. More than one alternative cropping pattern is
needed, because as intensity increases, labor and power usually become
limiting factors. The efficient use of both of these resources depends on
diversification of farm enterprises. Diversification also compensates for
the loss of stability in any given cropping pattern as intensity is increased.
In the future, it will be necessary to develop sufficient component
technology for crop management, such as tillage method, and control of
insects, diseases, weeds, and nematodes. Further, it is necessary to de-
velop varieties with suitable plant type, maturity, and management charac-
teristics, and develop the know-how to manage the crops under a range
of conditions of fertility, tillage, water, and cash and labor availability.
In most parts of monsoonal Asia, rice is transplanted during the early
RICE CULTURE 175
part of July and harvested toward the middle of November, a period when
a crop may not suffer from major stress problems. Crop intensification in
this typical environment complex can be achieved by (1) using early crop
establishment techniques, (2) using a premonsoon upland crop during the
short period just before the main rice growing season, (3) introducing a
second rice crop necessarily in combination with an early seeded first rice
crop, (4) reducing the turnaround time between the first and second rice
crops, (5) ratoon cropping of the first rice crop, (6) planting upland crops
(after a single rice crop), (7) reducing the turnaround time between rice
and upland crops, and (8) relay cropping or intercropping.
Development of New Cultivars and Technology

We know that the areas under irrigation are increasing, so efforts to
develop cultivars and technology that would produce still higher yields
than those currently in use are being intensified. We also know that even
under irrigated conditions, the grain yield potential of existing cultivars
and technology is not achieved under field conditions. We must understand
why farmers are not able to get as high a yield as the experiment stations.
Are the conditions in the experiment stations so different from those in
farmers' fields that variety and technology would not give similar perfor-
mance? If so, we must learn what are the constraints to high yields under
farm conditions. If the variety and technology are not entirely suitable
under farm environments-biophysical and socioeconomic-then we
must develop varieties and technology appropriate to the farmers' condi-
tions.
The problem of increasing grain yield is far greater for rain-fed farming
than for irrigated farming. Constraints on high yields in rain-fed farms are
innumerable. Even today, for about three rice farms out of four, there
is no improved cultivar and technology that can significantly increase
production beyond current levels. For these millions of subsistence farm-
ers, the best available technology consists of hardy but low-yielding local
rices and ancient farming methods. These farmers depend solely on the
unpredictable monsoon rains to water their crops. Some grow upland rice
and manage it like wheat. Others bund their fields to hold water on the
land in paddies, but the monsoon rains often fail and drought sets in.
The new short-statured rices and modern technology are not suited
for hundreds of millions of farmers-those on whose fields floodwaters
annually rise to depths of 50 em to 4 or 5 m.
Many farmers have problem soils such as saline and alkaline soils or
toxic soils with excess soluble iron and aluminum, and in mountains and
hilly regions, rice suffers from cold damage. This shows that in drought-
and flood-prone areas, in mountainous areas, and areas with problem soil
the Green Revolution has not occurred. Varietal and technology develop-
ment for these disadvantaged environments should be sharply focused to
raise production and income for millions of poor farmers.
New technology
If production in irrigated areas needs to be increased further and new
cultivars are introduced into rain-fed areas, it is important to develop new
technology that will encourage more efficient use of agricultural inputs.
Fertilization. One area of recent concern is increasing fertilizer use
efficiency. Energy-based commodities such as fertilizers and pesticides
were badly hit by the unrealistic rise in prices in 1974. The era of cheap
fertilizers and pesticides is probably at an end. The millions of small-scale
rice farmers who have reaped the benefits of the new rice technology often
do not have the capital to use high rates of agricultural chemicals.
Agronomists have demonstrated that deep placement of nitrogen fertil-
izer increased efficiency, sometimes saving 40% of fertilizer nitrogen with
no reduction in grain yield.
The greatest challenge for the future is to develop a machine that will
place fertilizer in the root zone where losses are minimal. This increase in
fertilizer efficiency would reduce the dependence of the rice crop on
petroleum-based agricultural chemicals. Cropping systems involving le-
gume crops and crop residue management will help farmers become more
self-sufficient.
Mechanization. The modern technology is referred to as seed-fertilizer
technology. However, throughout Asia, the concept of modernization is
closely associated not only with biological and chemical technology but
also with mechanical technology. The biological and chemical technology
is thought of primarily as saving land and the mechanical technology as
saving labor.
To raise production at the farm level in rain-fed and irrigated areas,
some degree of mechanization is essential. Some mechanized processes
are already taking place. For example, in land preparation under the
puddled system, mechanization of some form is spreading rapidly in the
Philippines and some other South and Southeast Asian countries. What is
needed badly is to mechanize land preparation operations to establish a
dry-seeded crop in rain-fed areas. In many parts of Thailand, dryland
preparation with large tractors is practiced as labor demand is shifted from
farm to industrial growth.
Weed control is another operation that needs to be partially mecha-
nized, especially in the rain-fed areas under dry seeding. Threshing is
another operation where mechanization would be helpful. At present,
RICE CULTURE 177
losses in threshing are high in most farms in tropical Asia, although axial
flow threshers designed at IRRI are gaining popularity in Thailand and the
Philippines.
Despite some mechanization in land preparation and threshing, there
has been a substantial increase in the use of hired labor, partially replacing
family labor. That is because mechanization complements existing meth-
ods of land preparation, weeding, and threshing, allowing family labor to
be used in other more profitable farm operations. As a result, there is a
net gain of hired labor utilization in South and Southeast Asia (Cordova
and Barker, 1977).
It appears, then, that emphasis on mechanization in tropical Asia
would help increase rice production. In the future, if the availability of
labor decreases, mechanization will help minimize labor costs. In other
words, the experiences in East Asia will generally be repeated in tropical
Asia if alternative employment of labor is generated.
With rice varieties of shorter growth duration, growing two crops
where one grew before or three crops where two grew before is distinctly
possible. We must not only reexamine the issue of land preparation but
also relate it to seeding method, pest and disease control, and harvesting
practices in order to maximize the potential of the new rice technology.
In short, the changes witnessed to date in rice growing in tropical Asia are
only a beginning. The future holds great prospects for increased rice
production through improved technology and national efforts to minimize
production constraints.
In the developed countries of the world, a relatively advanced degree
of rice production technology already exists. Annual rice yields are reason-
ably stable each year, primarily because the production resources are
available and used at near-optimum levels. Extreme climatic variables do
not usually occur, complete irrigation control is possible, and disease
and insect pests cause fewer problems. Annual rice production in these
developed countries tends to be influenced more by general national ag-
ricultural policies than production constraints. Rice production and trade
policies are closely linked, usually with production-support programs that
guarantee to domestic producers prices somewhat above normal world
price levels. These policies have multiple objectives: to achieve certain
broad social and economic gains by insuring a desired level of income and
stability to farms and equitable pricing policies for consumers. Production
policy is sometimes further complicated by the use of rice surpluses in
world markets on concessional terms, creating irregularities in normal
commercial trade channels.
Rice yields per hectare in developed countries are not likely to make
large short-term gains in the foreseeable future. With a high level of
technology already in existence, future yield increases will be small and

largely geared toward improved rice varieties, more careful farm manage-
ment, and the skillful combination of the various production resources.
Among the major objectives for improved rice production in the devel-
oped nations would be
1. Development of high-yielding cultivars with short stature and lodg-

ing resistance, earlier maturity, resistance to major insect and dis-
ease pests, better adaptability to climatic conditions, and grain
qualities preferred by various consumer groups
2. Development of improved cultural practices, including seeding
techniques, insect, disease and weed control, improved water man-
agement, and desirable crop rotations which effectively deal with
residues from the rice crop
As in developing countries, industrialized countries can look to greater

prospects for increased grain yields per hectare through improved culti-
vars, technology, and greater national efforts to control the environment
for rice production. Increasing the environmental consequences of grow-
ing rice will need to be considered in management decisions-water,
fertilizers, pesticides, straw burning, etc.
The worldwide rate of food production has recently been increased
along with population. The Green Revolution of the late 1960s raised the
hope of avoiding massive hunger. In Asia, where rice is mostly produced
and consumed, the Green Revolution has been dramatic. Several devel-
oping countries now feed their own people.
SUSTAINABLE RICE PRODUCTION
The Green Revolution technologies, by focusing on high-resource environ-

ments, were highly successful in addressing production problems. It has
become increasingly critical, however, to generate technologies that will
consider agricultural employment and still address the needs of production
and environmental protection in low-resource areas. Research results
have emphasized that high input use to intensify agricultural production
is not always an appropriate solution.
The sustainability of rice production will be a consequence of im-
proved technical management and the inherent stability and sustainability
of the entire agro-economic system. Part of the critical research agenda
should include genetic diversity; germplasm collection, characterization,
and utilization; developing cultural practices for efficient resource use;
quantifying the effects of lowland rice culture on global climate change and
RICE CULTURE 179
of global climate change on rice production; fine-tuning of IPM; improving

management of sloping uplands to conserve topsoils; and involving farm-
ers' participation in cropping systems (De Datta 1990).
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5
Rice Diseases
T. W. Mew
INTRODUCTION
In Asia, rice production has entered an era of change. The tall and low
tillering traditional cultivars are giving way to improved semidwarf and
nitrogen-responsive modern cultivars. In countries where rice cultivation
and production are intensive and an average grain yield/ha is well over
3 t, the use of chemicals for pest management has also increased at an
unprecedented rate (Mew 1988). In tropical Asia, these chemicals are
primarily insecticides and herbicides, while in the temperate zone in east-
ern Asia, disease control represents the biggest share of chemical use.
The use of modern semidwarf cultivars has been the key factor in the
increase in rice yield; however, this was not achieved without a cost. As
crop intensity increases, together with the demand for such inputs as
fertilizer, diseases have become the destabilizing factor to rice production.
The continuous and prolonged planting of cultivars with uniform geno-
types over a large area exerts high selection pressures on those pathogen
populations to which the cultivars are resistant, and enhances disease
development and spread in favorable environmental conditions of less
economic important diseases.
187
Plant pathologists have focused their efforts on improving the under-

standing of major diseases and generating information gathered. They
have worked closely with plant breeders to develop resistant cultivars,
on the one hand, and to investigate and formulate disease management
technology as part of the integrated pest management (IPM) strategy on
the other. Remarkable progress has been made in both endeavors. The
truth is that pathogens are shifty, and over the years, the disease spectrum
in the rice fields has presented a changing scenario. The Bengal famine
due to brown spot (Padmanabhan 1973) is unlikely to repeat itself, and
other rice diseases, whether their epidemic potential is high or low, are also
unlikely to create a similar effect. However, diseases remains a production
constraint that is inevitably a reality. The blast epidemics in Korea (Crill
1981), Egypt (Balal personal communication) and elsewhere (Lee 1986),
and the bacterial blight and virus diseases (grassy stunt and tungro) in
southern and southeastern Asia in recent years (Mew 1987; Ou 1985; Ling
1983; Upadhyay 1985) never could match in scale the catastrophe of the
Bengal famine but have nonetheless caused panic and hardship to farmers
where the epidemic occurred.
Since detailed information about rice diseases has appeared in Ou' s
Rice Diseases (1985), the author intends simply to summarise and present
a brief account of the common diseases. More important, the author has
attempted to underline the importance of the diseases in specific rice
ecologies. The diseases are discussed according to the various pathogen
groups: bacterial, fungal, viral, and nematodal.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
A dozen of rice diseases are caused by bacterial pathogens (Mew 1990).

Among them, two are in the genus Xanthomonas, two in Erwinia, and the
others are all in Pseudomonas. Rice diseases caused by mycoplasmalike
organisms will not be treated in this section. Rice bacterial diseases can
be classified into four major groups according to the tissues and organs of
the rice plant generally infected: seedling diseases, foliar diseases, leaf
sheath and grain diseases, and culm and root diseases. The classification
is for convenience of management and for diagnosis. The fact that some
of the pathogens attack more than one type of plant tissue or organ points
out the difficulty in classifying diseases this way. Likewise, most of the
bacterial pathogens attack the grain and are therefore likely to be seed-
borne and seed-transmitted; yet the role of seedborne inoculum and trans-
mission varies according to the ecosystem in which the rice is cultivated.
The two Erwinia species reported to cause rice diseases are E.
chrysamthemi pv. oryzae (Goto 1979) and E. herbicola (Azegami et al.
RICE DISEASES 189
1983), causing foot rot and palea browning, respectively. Other Erwinia
spp., especially those in the carotovora and amylovora groups, have
also been isolated from seeds and are reported to attack rice (Ou 1985).
It remains to be confirmed, however, if these bacteria do indeed affect
the rice plant.
Species of Pseudomonas attack rice grains, seedlings, leaf blades,
and leaf sheaths. P. fuscovaginae (Tanii et al. 1976) and P. glumae
(Kurita and Tabei 1969), which cause sheath brown rot and grain rot,
respectively, are most economically important. P. plantarii (Azegami et
al. 1987) and P. syringae pv. oryzae (Kuwata 1985), which cause seedling
and halo blight, were reported recently. The economic importance of
the last two is not fully understood. In the genus of Xanthomonas, X.
oryzae pv. oryzae (Ishiyama 1922) and X. oryzae pv. oryzicola (Fang
et al. 1957), which cause bacterial blight and bacterial leaf streak,
respectively, are two of the most important bacterial pathogens of rice.
Bacterial blight has been known for over a century in Asia, but
other bacterial diseases of rice are relatively recent. Most, if not all,
affect the grain and sheath, causing discoloration. The taxonomic status
of most of the pseudomonads is uncertain. Little information is available
about their economic importance, ecology, or epidemiology.
Bacterial Blight (Xonthomonos oryzoe pv. oryzoe]

The disease
Bacterial blight (BB) has been reported and studied for over a century
(Tagami and Mizukami 1962; Ou 1985). However, its importance to rice
production in tropical Asia was recognized only after the introduction of
modern cultivars which are highly responsive to nitrogen fertilizer. Be-
sides its occurrence in Asia, which has caused several epidemics in recent
years, the disease has also been found in northern Australia on cultivated
rice and on the wild species Oryza rujipogon and 0. australiensis. More
recently, the disease has become widespread in Queensland. In Africa,
the disease was reported in Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon, Senegal, and Burk-
ina-Faso (Mew 1990).
Bacterial blight has occurred in the Americas, first in Latin America
and the Carribean region (Lozona 1977) and, more recently, in the United
States (Jones et al. 1989). It therefore occurs globally; its distribution
ranges from 20°S in Queensland, Australia, to 58°N in Hei-Long-Jiang,
China, and from sea level to the Tibetan Plateau. Usually, it is more
prevalent in the wet season than in the dry, and in lowland than in favorable
upland environments. In subtropical regions where there are double crops,
it occurs in both rice crops. In temperate countries such as Korea and
Japan, where most rice is monocropped under irrigation, the disease is
common during the rainy months from July to October, especially follow-
ing heavy rainstorms. In countries like China and India, where several
cropping patterns are practiced, the disease behaves according to the
climatic conditions (Mew 1989).
Damage due to BB has been extensively studied by many scientists.
In Japan, about 300,000 to 500,000 ha of rice were affected by bacterial
blight in the 1950s (Mizukami and Wakimoto 1969). Quantitative data on
yield losses caused by BB are available, and its epidemic potential is
well-documented (Mew 1987). In infected plants, the 1000-grain weight is
reduced; in the panicles, the sterility percentage is increased as the number
of immature grains increases (Fang et al. 1963). Grains from diseased
plants are easily broken during milling. Moderate infection causes a 10 to
20% yield reduction, while in severely affected fields, the reduction may
be as high as 50% (Ou 1982; Wakimoto 1968). In fields with kresek,
the number of missing hills is increased, total crop failure is likely, and
replanting is necessary (Mew 1990). Greenhouse experiment of potted rice
plants inoculated with races of the bacterial pathogen resulted in yield
losses of 47 and 75% for moderately resistant and susceptible cultivars,
respectively (IRRI 1967). Reddy et al. (1979) found a high correlation
between loss of rice yield and BB severity.
Economically, bacterial blight is important mostly in Asia. If the
cultivars have no adequate resistance, the disease can be very destructive.
Several epidemics have occurred during the past two decades in Asia. In
West Africa, bacterial blight has caused severe damage to rice cultivation
in several districts. In the United States, it has caused concern to seed
growers.
Disease cycle
Although seed transmission may not play a major role in the tropics, the
bacteria can infect the seeds and be seedborne. When the disease has
already become established in a country, seed may not be an important
source of inoculum. In countries where the disease has not yet been
recorded, however, seed transmission may be very important (Mew et al.
1989). Infected straws, infected voluntary rice plants, and weed hosts are
likely to play a major role in the disease cycle from one season to another.
Once the disease starts in the field, its spread is closely related to rain
splash. Wind-driven rain can carry the inoculum far and predispose the
plants for infection.
The causal bacterium

The causal bacterium was earlier named as Bacillus oryzae Hori et Bokura
(1911) and was renamed Pseudomonas oryzae Uyeda and Ishiyama (1922)
according to the Migula system, and later transferred to Bacterium oryzae
RICE DISEASES 191
Nakata following E. F. Smith's concept. Subsequently, it was named

Xanthomonas oryzae. Later it was adopted to Xanthomonas campestris
pv. oryzae (Uyeda and Ishiyama) dye (Dye et al. 1980) according to the
Committee on Taxonomy of Phytopathogenic Bacteria of the International
Society for Plant Pathology. More recently, it has been revised to X.
oryzae pv. oryzae (Swings et al. 1990). Isolates of X. oryzae pv. oryzae
constitute a homogenous group regardless of their geographic origin. The
bacterial cell is a short rod with rounds, 0.55 to 0.75 x 1.35 to 2.17 ~-tm,
with a single polar flagellum. The bacterium is gram-negative and non-
spore-forming. The cells are single and surrounded by mucous capsules,
and are joined to form an aggregated mass. On nutrient agar, the colonies
are circular, convex, whitish-yellow to straw yellow, and opaque against
transmitted light, with smooth surfaces and entire margins. They produce
a water-soluble yellow pigment.
Symptoms
Bacterial blight is a vascular disease and the infection is systemic. The

bacterium normally enter the host through wounds or natural openings
such as water pores and ends up in the xylem tissues, where it multiplies
and moves throughout the plant (Mew 1987).
Bacterial blight in rice has two symptoms: kresek and leaf blight.
Kresek is the more destructive manifestation of the disease. At seedling
and early tillering stages, leaves of the entire plants turn pale yellow and
wilt. The kresek symptom may be observed from 1 to 6 weeks after
transplanting; normally, new leaves become greyish-green and begin to
fold up and roll along the midrib. The occurrence of kresek is usually
associated with the age ofthe plants at the start of infection. In the tropics,
transplanted rice is normally raised in nursery beds. At 21 days after
seeding, the seedlings are pulled, and the operation often injures the roots.
Prior to transplanting the tips of the leaves are often cut off. This provides
entries for the bacteria, which multiply rapidly. Initially, the plants wilt,
and finally the tiller or the whole plant may die. Kresek was first found in
Indonesia and is now very common in the tropics. It has also been observed
in Africa, China, and Korea.
Leaf blight is the more common disease syndrome; the disease is often
referred to as bacterial leaf blight. Lesions on the leaf blades may extend
to the leaf sheath. The lesion enlarges in length and width and may have
wavy margins. It turns a whitish-straw color from its initial water-soaked
greyish or yellowish grey in 1 to 2 weeks. Bacterial ooze may be observed
if the conditions are humid and warm. Leaf blight occurs at all growth
stages, but it is common from maximum tillering until maturity.
Yellow or pale yellow leaf is also considered a syndrome of bacterial
blight. This is however, a secondary effect ofleafblight (Mew et al. 1986).
Host range
Xanthomonas 0. pv. oryzae infects Oryza sativa and related wild species.
Among the weed species, Leersia sayanuka is the most important weed
in Japan. L. oryzoides, Zizania latifolia, Leprochloa chinensis, L. fili-
formis, L. panacea, and Cyperus rotundis are other hosts.
Disease control
The disease has been effectively controlled by using resistant cultivars.
Where resistant cultivars have been extensively planted in wide areas for
a number of years, new races have emerged in the bacterial population
with different virulence. Race identification is based on reaction to a set
of differential cultivars. Fourteen resistance genes have been identified
and utilized in national and international breeding programs, and resistant
cultivars are developed and planted by farmers.
Various chemicals such as dimethyl-nickel-carbamate, phenazine, ka-
sumin, oryzemates, and copper compounds, as well as antibiotics have
been evaluated for controlling the disease. In spite of all these efforts, no
efficacious chemicals can be recommended or are used by farmers both in
the tropics and temperate regions. Chemical seed treatment has been
recommended with little measurable success.
Bacterial Leaf Streak (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola]

The disease
Bacterial leaf streak (BLS) has been reported in most of tropical Asia and
in Africa. It is common in lowland as well as upland rice during the rainy
season. It has not been found in Japan, Korea, northern or central China,
or other temperate countries.
No realistic estimate exists as to how much damage the bacteria may
cause. Some estimates of yield losses in susceptible cultivars in the wet
season range from 7.0 to 8.3%, depending on disease intensity and, more
important, on the stage of the crop (Ou 1962). Losses in the dry season
are almost negligible at 1 to 3%. The infection can be observed at any
growth stage of the crop depending on the weather.
A recent report from China placed the disease in epidemic proportions.
Apparently vast areas are affected by the disease, causing premature
yellowing of all infected leaf tissues (Zhu zhe-da personal communication).
This could be serious if the effect is at maximum tillering and flowering.
Symptoms
Bacterial leaf streak was at first confused with bacterial blight (Ou 1985).
It is characterized by small, water-soaked, interveinal, translucent streaks
that advance lengthwise. The streaks begin as dark green and become
RICE DISEASES 193
translucent later. Eventually, the streaks may coalesce to cover the entire
leaf, which turns brown, then greyish-white, and then dies. At this stage,
the disease may be indistinguishable from bacterial blight. Old lesions turn
light brown. In the tropics, numerous tiny bacterial exudates appear as
yellow beads on the surface of the lesions, a distinct feature of the disease.
Causal bacterium
In China, Fang et al. (1957) were the first to distinguish bacterial leaf streak
from bacterial blight; they named the new bacterial pathogen Xanthomo-
nas oryzicola. In accordance with the revision of Taxonomy of Phytopa-
thogenic Bacteria (Dye 1978), the bacterium was renamed Xanthomonas
campestris pv. oryzicola (Fang et al. 1957; Dye 1978), but more recently
revised to X. oryzae pv. oryzicola (Swings et al.).
Fang et al. (1975) provided details concerning the bacterium. The cells
are rods, 1.2 x 0.3 to 0.5 11-m, usually single, and occasionally in pairs,
but not in chains. They are nonspore-forming and motile by a single polar
flagellum, with no capsules. The bacteria are gram-negative and aerobic,
and they grow favorably at 28°C. Colonies on nutrient agar are pale yellow,
circular, smooth with entire margins, convex, and viscid. All isolates grow
luxuriantly on glucose yeast calcium carbonate agar medium with typical
yellow-pigmented colonies. They produce a moderate amount of acetoin.
X. o. pv. oryzicola displays a distinct protein pattern on polyacrylamide
gels different from that of X. c. pv. oryzae. All X. o. pv. oryzicola isolates
show strong gelatinase activity and effect strong peptonization of litmus
milk, together with alkalinization starting at the top of the medium and
reduction starting from the bottom. All isolates grown on 0.2% vitamin-
free Casamino acids without a carbon source. Based on numerical analysis
of phenotypic features and of protein electrophoregrams, all isolates of
X. o. pv. oryzicola belong to one single phenon. The bacterial pathogen
appears to have a fairly narrow host range, limited to species of Oryzae.
No other gramineous weeds are reported to host the bacterium. There are
severallysotypes, and isolates with different virulence exist.
Disease cycle
Bacterial leaf streak is commonly observed in the rainy season. The dis-
ease normally spreads through rain splash, irrigation water (distance dis-
semination), and leaf contact (within the canopy in a single field). The
bacteria enter the host tissues through stomata or wounds, and multiply
in the parenchymatous tissues. Soon after a lesion develops, bacterial
exudates form on the surface of the lesion under high temperature and
humidity. The high temperatures that prevail in the tropics favor disease
development and permit the growth of the organism throughout the year.
In the dry season in the tropics, although the conditions are favorable for
disease development, there is little natural infection or spread due to the

lack of predisposing factors such as rain splash. The bacterial pathogen is
believed to be seedborne and seed-transmitted (Fang et al. 1957); however,
no experimental data are available to support the conclusion. The move-
ment of seeds harvested from infected plants is believed to introduce
the disease to new localities. Once the disease is established, seedborne
inoculum seems to have little effect.
Disease control
The disease can be adequately managed by host plant resistance. Many
modern cultivars have various degree of resistance, but such cultivars
have not been used solely for the purpose of controlling the disease.
No other control measures are actually practiced to control the disease;
however, many of the field sanitation operations, and use of clean seed
should be helpful.
Grain Rot (Pseudomonas g/umoe]

The disease
The disease was first reported in 1958 in Japan (Hashioka 1969), but it
probably had occurred long before it was noticed. In Japan, the affected
area has increased every year (Uetmatsu et al. 1976). In 1975, 900,000 ha
of rice were infected on northern Kyushu Island alone. The bacterium
causes rot in seedlings raised indoors in seedboxes for mechanical trans-
planting. This has become one of the major problems since the advent of
this technology. The pathogen also infects the grain.
The disease is caused by P. glumae, which colonizes the surface of
the basal part of the ligule and the inner surface of the lemma (U etmatsu
et al. 1976). The bacterial cells invade the interspaces of host cells in the
outer epidermis and the spongyparenchyma of the lemma.
The disease is favored by high temperature and high humidity. Grain
rot incidence is highest if infection occurs at heading and the plants are
incubated at 32°C. When the plants are placed in a moisture chamber for
24 h, the infected plants may produce grain rot incidence as high as 100%.
The effect of temperature on the growth of P. glumae and the develop-
ment of grain rot is also positively correlated. The bacteria grow well at
28 to 32°C. High night temperature also favors grain rot development. The
disease may reach 100% at 28/28°C.
Symptoms
In a mature crop in the field, the disease is usually observed at the milky
stage during the second crop in Taiwan (Chien et al. 1983) and during the
wet season in tropical countries. Diseased grains are scattered throughout
RICE DISEASES 195
the panicles, but in severe cases more than half of the grains may be
attacked. The sterile lemmas of infected grains are purplish-brown to dark
brown, but the branches remain green. Infected grains are shrunken and
pale green, then become dirty greyish, yellowish, and dark brown. Eventu-
ally, the grains dry up. When infection of the grains is light, only the palea
becomes discolored. The discoloration is limited to the grain; both rachises
and rachis branches are free from discoloration. The infected part of the
hulled rice seed is grey, which is a distinct diagnostic feature.
The causal bacterium
The disease is caused by P. glumae, a gram-negative aerobic rod with a
single polar flagellum. The bacteria form white viscid colonies on nutrient
agar. They are nonfluorescent on King's Medium B. The bacterium liqui-
fies gelatin, reduces litmus milk and nitrate, produces ammonia and leci-
thinase, and hydrolyzes Tween 80. It is oxidase-positive and arginine
dihydrolase-positive, and it grows at 40°C.
The bacterial pathogen can be easily differentiated by a selective
medium composed of the following: 1.3 g KH 2P04 , 1.2 g Na2HP0 4 , 5.0 g
(NH 4)z S0 4 , 0.25 g MgS0 4 • 7H20, 24 mg Na2Mo0 4 , 2Hz0, 10 mg EDTA-
Fe, 10 JLg L-cysteine, 10 g D-sorbitol, 50 mg pheneticillin potassium, 10
mg ampicillin sodium, 10 mg cetrimide, 1 mg methyl violet, 20 mg phenol
red, and 15 g agar in 1 L of distilled water. Both P. glumae and other
pseudomonads grow well in this selective medium, but confidence will be
improved if it is used in combination with serological methods.
Sheath Brown Rot [Pseudomonas fuscovaginae)
The disease
Sheath brown rot was first observed in Hokkaido, Japan, and reported in
1975 by (Tanii et al. 1976) and co-workers. It occurred widely in the rice-
growing areas on that island. It may have occurred long before being
identified as a bacterial disease, but the disease syndrome was often con-
sidered cold weather damaged. A similar disease caused by P. marginalis
was reported in 1962; it was later confirmed to be sheath brown rot.
Another similar disease was reported in Latin America (Zeigler and AI··
varez 1987). Scientists believed the disease was identical to sheath brown
rot. It has caused substantial crop losses in a large rice-producing area in
tropical and temperate South America. In addition to Asia and Latin
America, this disease has also been reported in the Burundi highlands of
Central Africa and Madagascar (Maraite et al. 1989; Rott et al. 1988).
Symptoms
Initial symptoms appear on the flag leaf sheaths as water-soaked, dark
green, irregular spots that enlarge to become dark to greenish brown
blotches with no definite margins and bacterial ooze (Miyajima and Akita
1975 a,b). Brown necrosis on lower rachis also appear in nonemerged
panicles when severe infection occurs on flag leaf sheaths. Young panicles
in diseased sheaths are also affected by the pathogen. The florets exhibit
water-soaked brown flecking surrounded by green tissues, resulting in
dark or greyish-brown discoloration. Infection also occurs in the grains.
The typical lesions on grains appear to show brown or water-soaked
lesions on the glumes. Later, the lesions turn greyish-brown. Grains are
partly or totally brownish and abortive or abnormal in shape. In 1986, it
was confirmed that the disease was seedborne and seed-transmitted. The
bacterium caused discoloration and rotting of the sheath surrounding the
rice panicle and grains. Discolored seed from many tropical countries has
been shown to be infected with this pathogen. Affected sheaths enclosing
the panicle may show extensive water-soaking and necrosis, with poorly
defined margins. Glumes become discolored before emerging from in-
fected panicles. Grains on affected tillers may be symptomless, have only
small brown spots, or be completely discolored and sterile.
Seedlings are also affected by the disease, which occurs after trans-
planting (Miyajima and Akita 1975a,b). The diseased seedlings first show
a yellowish-brown discoloration in the lower leaf sheaths, and then the
leaf blades wilt. Eventually, the lower sheaths change to dark or greyish-
brown and become soft, and rotting occurs in the lower leaf blades and
young new leaves. At temperatures lower than 20°C, rotting is prevalent.
Causal bacterium
Brown rot is caused by Pseudomonas fuscouaginae (Tanii et al. 1976;

Miyajima 1983), a gram-negative, nonspore-forming rod with round ends
and a size of 0.5 to 0.8 x 2.0 to 3.5 f.Lm. The bacterial cells occur singly
or in pairs and are motile by one to four polar flagella. Colonies form on
nutrient agar at 4 to 5 days at 28°C, are white to creamy, smooth, glistening,
convex, gransluscent, circular, and butyrous, with a diameter of 3 to 5
mm. The bacteria produce a green fluorescent diffusable pigment on King's
Medium B. No slime is produced on nutrient agar containing 5% sucrose.
The bacteria are strictly aerobic and show no growth at 40°C
The bacterial pathogen appears similar to other arginine dihydrolase
and oxidase positive fluorescent pseudomonads. It differs from P. oryzi-
cola in oxidase activity in that the latter is negative. It is most similar to the
saprophytic pseudomonads P. marginalis, P. putida, and P. fluorescens
biotypes G. P. fuscovaginae also seems to have a specific antigen as well
as several antigens common to other Pseudomonas spp.
Rott et al. (1988) believed that the bacterial pathogen can be properly
identified by a pathogenicity test on 3-week-old rice plants, through posi-
RICE DISEASES 197
tive sero-reaction to anti-P. fuscovaginae serum (1/200), and biochemical

profile identical to the one of P. fuscovaginae, including oxidase and
arginine dihydrolase positive and acid production from trehalose.
Host range
P. fuscovaginae has pathogenicity not only on Oryza sativa, but also on
Hordeum vulgare, Triticum aestivum, Avenae sativa, Zea mays, Lolium
perenne, Bromus marginatus, Phleum pratense, and Phalaris arundiacea
(Tanii et al. 1976 and Miyajima 1983). The pathogens in northern Japan
are divided into four lysotypes based on sensitivity to three bacteriophage
strains.
Disease cycle
Pseudomonasfuscovaginae survives in rice straw kept indoors in temper-
ate regions but cannot be detected in straw scattered in an open field. In
the tropics, other hosts as well as infected grains may be important sources
of inoculum. The bacteria have also been detected on healthy leaves of
Agrostis clavata var. nukabo and other gramineous weeds growing near
rice fields. The bacteria are also able to survive and multiply on rice plants,
and usually reach a high population level at booting. In field plants, the
bacteria have been detected at high population levels on healthy leaf blades
and sheaths 8 days before diseased plants were visible in the field, and
then on all healthy plants 2 days after disease occurrence.
Sheath brown rot occurs widely and frequently in rice. Severe infec-
tion is usually associated with rice plants suffering from cold temperature
stress (Miyajima and Akita 1975a). The symptoms may appear early at
tillering stage (in northern Japan, in early June to early July). Lesions
characteristic of sheath brown rot occur on the sheaths of the flag leaves
from booting to heading. Dark greenish water-soaked lesions appear on
the sheath and later turn brown, with the central portion of the lesion
becoming greyish-brown. At high temperature and low humidity the le-
sions produced are elongated and oblong, while at low temperature and
high humidity, irregular lesions with unclear margins develop. In severe
cases, the sheaths are totally dark brown or greyish brown. The panicles
are withered and dried. Lesions may occur on sheath other than the flag
leaves. Occasionally, streaks appear on the base of the flag leaves.
Day rather than night temperature affects disease development. Low
daytime temperature increases disease severity and delays heading. The
bacteria multiply in the flag leaf sheath and panicle tissues and cause
severe damage after inoculation when the plants are kept in a chamber
with day/night temperatures of 17/11 or 23/17°C. Less bacterial multiplica-
tion and disease development occurs at 29/23°C.
P. fuscovaginae survives in dry diseased straw, grains, and on wild

gramineous plants. It is seedborne and seed-transmitted. Occurrence of
the disease is associated with resident populations prior to infection (Miya-
jima 1989).
Disease control
Streptomycin alone or with oxytetracycline (15 + 1.5%) has proved highly
effective and can be used to control the disease. Dry heat therapy (65°C,
6 days) is also effective. Kasugamycin significantly reduces but does not
eradicate the pathogen for seedborne inoculum (Zeigler and Alvarez 1987).
FUNGAL DISEASES
Among the 80 rice diseases, the fungal diseases form a major group. Ou
(1985) has listed 40 fungal diseases of rice, i.e., approximately 50% of the
recorded rice diseases are caused by fungal pathogens. These pathogens
are distributed worldwide, covering almost every rice-growing country.
As a group, they infect rice plant parts ranging from seed to leaves, leaf
sheath, culm, nodes, panicles, and roots. Some have caused devastating
epidemics, while others maintain endemicity year after year in certain
localities. Many others affect the rice plant in ways that are not well-
understood. Among all the fungal diseases, perhaps all rice diseases, blast
has received the widest attention since ancient times (Ou 1985). On other
diseases, little or no research work is being done.
Bakanae (Fusarium moniliforme)

The disease
This is a typical seedborne disease that occurs from seedbed to the main-
field. It is widely distributed in all rice-growing countries. The seed is
infected at flowering. When severely infected, the kernel develops a red-
dish discoloration due to the presence of the conidia of the fungus. The
fungus also infects the branches of the panicle. Yu and Sun (1977) believed
that ascospores of G. fujikuroi are liberated and contaminate the grains in
the field. Ascospores are generally discharged during harvest and on rice
straw heaped in the paddy after rainfall, even during daytime. The fungus
may survive in seed as long as 4 to 10 months at room temperature and
up to 3 years in cold storage at 7°C. The fungus also produce conidia on
diseased plant parts, and these are easily disseminated by wind and water
to cause new infection. Studies in Taiwan indicate that grain contamination
RICE DISEASES 199
is due principally to airborne ascospores, but contamination may also

occur from conidia during the harvest.
Although most seedlots yield 100% F. moniliforme on agar plates,
only 33% bakanae disease incidence occurred when infested seeds were
planted in the soil. The pathogen is both seed- and soilborne. Chang (1973)
found that both conidia and ascospores survived for about 4 months on
stems under room conditions as well as in soil in the field. Panicle infection
occurs in Taiwan but at a low frequency compared to that in Japan.
Conidia and perithecia on diseased stems are often washed into the soil
by rain, and diseased plants and stubble are often discarded in the field.
Therefore, paddy soil is commonly contaminated by F. moniliforme. F.
moniliforme survives in soil by means of thick-walled hyphae or macroco-
nidia which function as chlamydospores; their longevity in soil is about
4 months in Taiwan. Panicle infection is due to airborne ascospores. No
secondary cycle of the disease occurs in a single crop period.
Symptoms
The most common symptom is the internode elongation. Diseased plants
are slender, pale yellowish in color, and taller than the healthy ones.
Diseased seedlings may die during or after transplanting, and healthy
seedlings may be infected in the main field after transplanting. Besides
elongation, bakanae symptoms include leaves bending over and the pro-
duction of adventitious roots at nodes on the lower portion of the culms.
Under high humid conditions, the infected culms may turn bluish-black,
and blue-black perithecia form on the surface of the culm (Sun and Snyder
1981). Wilting is common in susceptible cultivars under high inoculum
density, while node elongation is common among susceptible cultivars at
low inoculum density (Lee et al. 1980).
Causal organism
The. teleomorph of the pathogen is Gibberella fujikuroi (Sawada) Ito.
Sun and Snyder (1981) indicated that the correct name should be G.
moniliformis. Perithecia are dark blue, spherical to ovate, somewhat
roughened outside, 250 to 330 x 220 to 280 fLm. The asci are cylindrical
vistin-shaped, flattened above, 90 to 102 x 7 to 9 fLm, with four, six, or
(seldom) eight ascospores. The ascospores are one septate, 14 to 18 x 4.4
to 7 fLm.
The anamorph is Fusarium moniliforme. The microconidia are more
or less agglutinated in chains and remain joined or are cut off in false
heads. The surface of colonies is usually rose-colored with white colony
mycelium. Macroconidia are delicate, slightly sickle-shaped or almost
straight, narrow at both ends, occasionally somewhat bent into a hook at
the apex, distinctly or slightly foot-celled at the base, three to five or,
rarely, six to seven septate. The chlamydospores are absent but present
with thickened walled hyphae.
Physiologic Specialization
There are many rice cultivars resistant to bakanae. IR973-ll-2-2 and
Nongbaek, Taipei 309, Minehikari, and Taichung 65 are highly resistant
to all the races tested, even 4 weeks after seeding. The method of soaking
seeds in Fusarium moniliforme spore suspension is used to determine the
existence of pathogenic races of the fungus. The percentage of seedlings
of each differential cultivar infected by each isolate was computed as
criteria for evaluating varietal resistance and pathogenic races. Using this
technique, Estrada et al. (1981) identified eight race groups from 56 iso-
lates in the Philippines on eight differential cultivars. The diseases are
common in both tropical and temperate environments under irrigated
rice ecosystems.
Control measures
Since the pathogen is seedborne and the infected seed occurs in high
frequency, seed treatment is the important control measures of the disease.
Many fungicides have been used for this purpose, beginning with formalin
and mercuric compounds. More recently, benomyl, thiram-benomyl, and
thiram-thiophanate methyl wettable powders have become common as
seed disinfectants. Then, in 1980, benomyl-resistant strains were found
(Ogawa 1988). Many of the fungus strains are less sensitive to benomyl.
Currently in Japan, the wet powder dressing process is recommended to
contain thiram-thiophanate-methyl or captan thiabendazole. This process
has been registered for controlling the bakanae (Ogawa 1988).
Blast (Pyricularia oryzae]

The disease
Blast is one of the oldest rice diseases (Ou 1985). It is found wherever
rice is cultivated: in irrigated and rain-fed lowlands as well as upland
ecosystems, and from temperate to tropical zones. It is most important,
however, in the irrigated ecosystem in the temperate regions, in tropical
uplands, and in drought-prone rain-fed lowland ecosystems. It also occurs
in deepwater and tidal wetland, but its importance in these ecosystems is
negligible. The fungus infects leaves, nodes, panicles, and grains, though
perhaps not the roots. The leaf sheath is either not or seldom infected, but
the collar-the joint between leaf blade and leaf sheath-is infected; this
is known as collar rot. Infection can begin in seedlings on mature plants.
RICE DISEASES 201
Infection of seedlings, often called seedling blast, occurs before the three-
leaf stage. The infection is usually caused by seed borne inoculum. Seedling
leaf blast occurs on leaves at three-leaf stage in seedbeds. Leaf blast
normally refers to the blast on leaves after transplanting to the main fields,
which occurs at any stage from tillering to maturity. Such classification is
very distinct in irrigated rice in the temperate environment. In the tropics,
however, whether in upland or rain-fed lowland, seedling blast and leaf
blast may not be so distinguishable. When infected at the seedling or
tillering stages, the plants are often completely killed under conditions
favorable to the fungus. Leaf blast also causes stunting. Its effect is to
reduce the active tiller numbers and seed weight. Panicle blast, which
occurs at the flowering stage, is more destructive and causes great losses.
Although blast occurrence in the tropics may be occasional, its epidemic
potential is very high under favorable conditions.
Symptoms
The fungus causes elliptical spots with pointed ends on leaves. The center
of the lesion is usually greyish or whitish, and the margins brown or
reddish-brown. From seedborne inoculum, the lesion usually appears on
the coleoptile and the first leaf (Kato et al. 1988). Initially, only a tiny
water-soaked spot appears, which rapidly turns yellowish-brown, causing
the bud to rot. When the seedling grows bigger, the dark green spot can
be observed, but it turns brown shortly. Infected seedlings are often killed.
The leaf blast lesions are of four different types (Chinese Academy of
Agricultural Sciences 1986): the acute type, the chronic type, the brown
necrotic spot type, and the white spot type. The acute-type lesions are
round, dark green spots with pointed ends, the latter developing into a
spindle shape. The center has a colony appearance caused by conidio-
phores and conidia. Such lesions usually develop in favorable conditions
where the cultivar is also susceptible.
Chronic lesions are very common. They are spindle-shaped with a
greyish-white center and brown margin. Although sporulation occurs from
these lesions, the quantity is considerably less than with the acute type.
The brown necrotic spot type of lesions are pinhead size. They are
common on resistant cultivars or on old leaves. The lesions usually will
not sporulate.
White-spot lesions appear as white or greyish-white, round or irregular
in shape, and may gradually develop to ovoid shape. Such lesions usually
develop when the conditions change to unfavorable for lesion develop-
ment. When the conditions, such as weather, change to favorable, these
lesions may become acute.
Node blast occurs when the node is infected (Ou 1985). At first it is a
tiny black spot, then becomes a ring around the node, and eventually
enlarges to cover the whole internode and becomes dark brown. Under
high humidity, the infected node is covered with a greenish-grey powdery
substance which is the conidiophores and conidia. At a later stage, the
node dries up and the plant is easily lodged.
Panicle blast often occurs on the neck, rachis and panicle branches
(Ou 1985). At first, the disease appears as a water-soaked brown spot
which extends in both directions. The infected area appears brown or dark
green. Usually panicle blast occurs after the panicle has exserted, but
occasionally, the infection also takes place before the panicle exsertion.
The fungus infecting the grains and glumes is known as grain blast,
and the lesions vary (Kato et al. 1988). The distinct lesion only appears
on the grains during the soft dough stage and is similar to the lesion on the
leaf blades. As the panicles mature, the lesions on the grains become
indistinct. When the glume is infected, it often turns to greyish-brown or
dark brown. It has no effect on grain filling.
The causal fungus

Rice blast is caused by Pyricularia oryzae Cavara. The conidiophores are
grey, single or in fascicles that are usually simple and show sympodial
growth, geniculate toward the apex and with a swollen base (Ou 1985).
Conidia are pyriform to obclavate, about 17 to 23 x 8 to 11~-tm, have two
septate with small basal hilum, and are aerogenous. Cultural morphology
varies greatly with isolates and with the media used. The amount of aerial
mycelium varies from very scant to a thick cottony mass. The colony color
also varies from whitish or cream, through buff, grey, to dark olivaceous.
The fungus is predominantly uninucleate; however, it has a consistent
number of binucleate cells (10%) among the intercalary cells which may
be important for heterokaryon formation (Leung and Williams 1986). The
chromosome number observed during meiosis in fertile crosses is six, but
the chromosome number in some isolates in the natural populations may
vary. The teleomorph is Magnaporthe grisea (Hebert) Barr. It is an asco-
mycete that produces asci with eight unordered ascospores.
Natural isolates of P. oryzae differ in host range, with regard to the
ability both to attack various species of grasses and to infect different
cultivars of rice. P. oryzae is a highly variable fungus that is capable
of producing numerous races with virulence to rice cultivars possessing
specific gene(s) for resistance (Ou 1985). The number of races and race
compositions prevailing in an area is dependent on the cultivars grown in
the area. Race identification has been very intensive in some of the major
rice-growing countries such as China, Japan, Korea, the United States,
and many others. It is done on the basis of differential cultivars, many
RICE DISEASES 203
differential cultivars being used in the different countries. In 1963, an

international effort was made to test, establish, and eventually select a set
of eight cultivars for this purpose. Different systems were also developed
to name or designate the races (Atkins et al. 1967; Ling and Ou 1969). In
1976, Yamada et al. proposed a new set of nine differentials based on
known resistance genes possessed by each of these cultivars, and following
Gilmour's octal system in numbering the races. As more is learned about
the population structure of P. oryzae in the different rice-growing regions,
the pathogen can be readily described according to virulence frequency in
various environments with respect to the resistance ofthe cultivars grown.
However, races are continuously being identified and monitored in some
countries.
The fungal pathogen has a host range including rice, wheat, barley,
and many gramineous weeds. It is not always certain if the isolates from
other hosts are readily infective to rice, or vice versa.
Disease cycle
The fungus pathogen, which hibernates in the rice seed or in the straw, may
serve as the primary source of inoculum. However, seedborne inoculum is
not important in conventional outdoor wetbed nurseries (Yamaguchi
1986). In the temperate zone, mycelium and conidia and mycelium over-
winter in the straw piles near the farmstead readily infect a new crop in
the following year. In the tropics, the airborne conidia are present all year
round (Ou 1985). The fungus may live in diseased rice plants and alterna-
tive weed hosts at any time of the year. In the temperate zone, as well as
in the tropics, airborne conidia during the rice-growing season are the
most important means of dissemination or secondary infection. Conidia
are produced on lesions on the rice plants about 4 to 6 days after inocula-
tion. The rate of sporulation increases with the increase in relative humid-
ity; below 93% relative humidity (RH), no conidia are produced (Suzuki
1970). A typical lesion is able to produce 2000 to 6000 conidia each day
for about 14 days (Ou 1985). Most of the spores are produced and released
during the night, particularly between 2 and 6 A.M. A diurnal periodicity
is related to sporulation. In the tropics, a second peak of spore discharge
occurs in the afternoon after a monsoon shower. Free moisture is required
for spore release. The longer the dew period, the more spores are released.
Most of the spores are vertically distributed in the canopy in the rice field.
Disease control
Chemical control is commonly practiced in eastern Asia. Nine fungicides
have been developed for blast control; each has a specific mode of action
different from the other (Yoshino 1988). WhenP. oryzae becomes resistant
to one of the fungicides in a specific district, another fungicide is immedi-

ately recommended and used. The method of application affects the effi-
ciency as well as the economics of fungicide use. However, the methods
and timing of application are site-specific, hence, the efficacy of the fungi-
cides depends on climatic factors and the cultural practices adopted in a
specific region or country. Fungicide may be applied in granular form to
the seedbed, submerged in the field for leaf and neck blast control, and/
or foliar spraying and dusting by ground and aerial application. The effec-
tive use of fungicides requires basic information on the nature of the blast
occurring in the area or its epidemiology.
Silica increased the resistance of rice plants to blast. In irrigated rice,
the ratio of total C/N, Si02/N, KzDIN in leaf blades increased with the
application of silicate fertilizer. The negative correlation of these ratios
with the incidence of rice blast was high (Paik 1975). A high dosage of
nitrogen-fertilizer increased the total nitrogen and decreased the silicate
and total sugar content in leaf blades, thus disposing the rice plants to
blast. In tropical uplands, the rice hull is an important source of silica.
Blast has been effectively controlled by the deployment of resistant
cultivars. The feasibility of host plant resistance to blast is especially
sound in tropical lowlands. Partial resistance in many newly developed
cultivars such as IR36 appears adequate to protect the crop in irrigated
rice ecosystem in the tropics. The same sort of resistance may not be
adequate in irrigated upland or in temperate zones where the environments
are highly conducive to blast (Lee et al. 1987; Yeh and Bonman 1986).
Cultivar mixture was proposed for the control of blast in upland rice
in Asia (Bonman et al. 1986). Chin and Ajmilah (1981) believed that
cultivar mixture was a very important attribute in upland rice culture
where rice is grown for subsistence, and blast is a major biological con-
straint.
Brown Spot (Cochliobolus miyabeanusj

The disease
First described by Breda de Haan in 1900 as a leaf spot on rice, the causal
organism was named Helminthosporium oryzae. Since then, it has been
reported in many countries and is now distributed worldwide.
The disease is common in upland and rain-fed ecosystems and associ-
ated with adverse and poor soil. Its occurrence often indicates soil condi-
tions adverse for rice production. In irrigated rice, the disease has not
been considered a serious problem in the past decade in the temperate
zone, while in the tropics, a serious brown spot epidemic has been ob-
served in Southeast Asia. It appears to be prevalent in all rice-growing
RICE DISEASES 205
regions in India. The disease becomes prevalent in saline soil or soil in

reduced condition in which toxic substances accumulate and is severe in
soil with low pH and deficient in essential macro- and microelements. The
addition of Mn at 5 and 10 parts per million (ppm) significantly reduced
the disease, regardless of the cultivars planted. However, at low Mn levels
even resistant cultivars showed susceptible reaction (Kaur et al. 1979).
Kaur et al. (1982) investigated the relationship of phosphorus nutrition,
and the expression of the disease in soil collected from regions where
brown spot was known to be endemic showed a reduction in the disease
intensity with the application of 50 ppm of phosphorus to most of the soils.
Further increase in phosphorus-levels increased the disease intensity in all
soils. A significant positive correlation was obtained between phosphorus-
content of the host and the disease intensity. The disease intensity was
minimum at moderate levels of nitrogen (20-40 kg/ha) and was higher in
both lower and higher dosages of nitrogen. It appears, therefore, that rice
plants grown in both deficient and excess nitrogen levels were susceptible
to the disease.
Rice grown on nitrogen-deficient soil is more susceptible to the patho-
gen. However, the chemical formulation of nitrogen applied affects disease
expression. Moharty and Chakrabarti (1981) and Vidhyasekaran et al.
(1983) reported that slow release form of nitrogen fertilizers and coal tar-
coated urea reduced the susceptibility of the plant. Other forms of chemical
fertilizers may also influence the development of the disease, but quantita-
tive information is lacking.
In Latin America it was found that infection with the hajo blanca (HE)
virus enhanced the spread of brown spot and the development of lesions.
The lesions were sometimes as much as 40 times larger on HE-infected
plants than on HE-free plants (Lamey and Everett 1967). Increased sus-
ceptibility of HE-infected rice leaves to Cochliobolus miyabeanus was
reported.
The causal organism

The teleomorph of the pathogen is Cochliobolus miyabeanus (Ou 1985).
The perithecia are globose to depressed globose, with the outer wall a
dark yellowish-brown and pseudoparenchymatous, 560 to 950 x 368 to
377 p,m. The asci are cylindrical to long fusiform with hyaline or pale olive
green filamentous ascospores coiled together, 6 to 15 septate, and 150 to
469 x 6 to 9 p,m. The anamorph of C. miyabeanus is not typical of
H elminthosporium and was transferred to Drechslera oryzae. The conidia
are slightly curved, fusiform or obclavate, characteristic minute hilum,
acropleurogenous, brown when mature, with 1-14 pseudoseptate, 14 to
22 x 63 to 153 ~-tm. Conidiophores are single or in small fascicles, up to

600 ~-tm long and 4 to 8 ~-tm thick, sometimes geniculate, olivaceous at the
base and lighter at the tip.
Physiologic specialization of the pathogen has been reported. Nawaz
and Kause (1962) identified five races of the fungus from pathogenicity
tests on four rice cultivars. Eruotor (1986) tested 23 isolates against 11
rice cultivars and observed significant differences in virulence among test
isolates and susceptibility of cultivars; these were insufficient to designate
distinct races, however. Studies on the variation of the fungus in morphol-
ogy, physiology, cultural characteristics, and sporulation ability were also
reported.
In addition to rice, the fungus is reported to infect wheat, oat, maize,
millets, and weeds such as Digitaria sanguinalis, Eleusine coracana, Leer-
sia hexandra, Panic urn colonum, Zisania aquatica, and others (Yamamoto
et al. 1972). On the pathogenicity of Cochliobolus miyabeanus to several
paddy weeds found to be susceptible, brown spot lesions were observed
on Oryza sativa L., Leersia sayanuka Ohwi, Beckmannia syzigachne
Fernald, Setari viridis Beaw. Many wild species of Oryza were susceptible
to brown spot. 0. montana, 0. australiensis and 0. rujipogon, 0. punc-
tata, 0. alta, 0. eichingeris, 0. granddiglumis, 0. latifolia, and 0. peren-
nis (Subramanian and Ramakrishnan 1973).
Symptoms
The symptoms are observed on leaves, glumes, coleoptiles, leaf sheaths,
panicle branches, and on mature plants as well as seedlings. It is rarely
observed on stems. At the initial stage of infection, the spots are small,
circular, and may appear as a dark or purplish-brown dot. The spot may
reach 1 em in length on susceptible cultivars. In severe case of infection,
the leaves eventually wither. Symptoms on the glumes appear as black or
dark brown spots which may cover the entire surface of the glume. When
the glume is severely infected, blackish spots can be observed on the
endosperm. The lesions on leaf blades are oval spots about the size and
shape of sesame seeds. The spots are brown with grey or whitish centers
when fully developed. A matured lesion is surrounded by a yellow halo.
Black and dark brown spots appear on the glumes.
The disease reduces the number of tillers, and inhibits root and shoot
elongation.
The disease cycle
The infected seed is likely the carrier of the pathogen and serves as the
primary source of inoculum. Primary infection through infected seed is
probably most common, although infected seeds do not necessarily result
RICE DISEASES 207
to infected seedlings. Airborne spores are responsible for secondary infec-

tion as well as the spread of the disease to adjacent fields. The dispersal
of the airborne spores usually takes place in the middle of the day where
large numbers of spores are discharged under dry condition from 10 A.M.
until sunset, but the maximum discharge is between 5 and 6 P.M.
The most dramatic occurrence of the disease so far recorded was
during the Bengal famine of 1942, to which it was considered a major
contributing factor. Losses amounted to 50 to 90%.
Disease control
The disease can be controlled by chemical seed treatment, foliar applica-
tions of fungicide, planting of resistant cultivars, and by proper manage-
ment of soil fertilizers, especially nitrogen fertilizer.
Selection of cultivars for resistance to brown spot started many years
ago, although not in any systematic breeding program. While many resis-
tance sources have been identified and disease scoring developed for
selection of resistance, breeding for resistance has not been a major en-
deavor in most of the rice improvement programs. Likewise, little is known
about the inheritance of the resistance. This is partly due to the sporadic
occurrence of the disease and to the improving agronomic practices which
have minimized its importance in rice production. In the 1940s and 1950s,
much of the research on varietal resistance and attempts to develop resis-
tance cultivars were in India and Japan. The current effort at IRRI is to
monitor advanced breeding lines to ensure that none is highly susceptible
to brown spot, using the upland blast nursery. A significant positive corre-
lation was obtained between phosphorus content of the host and disease
intensity in all soils. Higher disease intensity was positive correlated with
N, P, and Mn content and negatively correlated with Ca, Mg, K, KIN Fe,
and Fe/Mn ratios of the plant under phosphorus treatments (Kaur et al.
1979). Mahsuri is known to be resistant to brown spot; other recently
developed cultivars, such as IR42, are also resistant.
Sowing healthy seeds or seeds treated with hot water or fungicides
effectively keep the disease in check. Spraying fields with fungicides to
prevent secondary infections is also practiced in many countries. The
economical value of such practice is doubtful, however. The common
fungicides are propiconazole, manzeb, and triphenyltinacetate. Balanced
NPK fertilizers are important in lowering the incidence of the disease.
While many antagonistic microorganisms have been reported to affect
the growth and development of the fungus, biological control of brown
spot is far from being practical. Recently, Mew and Rosales (1986) identi-
fied many antagonistic bacteria effective against the seedborne fungus
pathogens that may make biological control of brown spot possible.
False Smut (Usti/aginoidea viren}

The disease
False smut has been reported in major rice-growing countries of the world.
It is also known as green smut and is increasingly prevalent in high-input
rice production systems. In China, scientists have found the disease to
occur more frequently in hybrid rice fields than regular rice fields (Mew
et al. 1986). Conventionally, it indicates a bumper harvest of the rice crop.
False smut was recognized as a rice malady at an early date in Chinese
literature, though without a proper given name (Ou 1985). Normally, little
damage is caused by the disease but severe infection may affect the quality
of the grain. Aside from the infected grain, which becomes a smut ball,
the weight of the panicles and the 1000-seed weight are reduced with
increased numbers of smutted grains. Increased chaffiness and sterility of
grains adjacent to the infected ones is also reported (Hashioka 1971).
False smut is caused by U stilaginoidea vir ens. In the temperate region,
the pathogen overwinters by means of sclerotia and conidia. Primary
infection is believed to be initiated mainly by ascospores produced from
sclerotia, and conidia play an important role in secondary infection. Singh
et al. (1985) indicated that the conidia remain viable for 3 months at room
temperature and for 2 months under field conditions, the pseudosclerotia
for 4 months in the field, and the sclerotia for 11 months in the field. They
concluded that sclerotia is the major source of inoculum, and conidia is
very important in the secondary spread of the disease in the tropics.
Symptoms
Singh et al. (1985) observed the disease and described that, initially, the
infection formed a small spore mass confined to the glumes. It gradually
enlarges to 1 em or more in diameter, enclosing the floral parts. The young
spore mass is yellow to orange, flattened, and covered with a membrane.
When mature, the spore mass or ball changes to olive to dark green. The
central portion of the spore mass is made up of hard mycelial tissues which
are white or pale yellow and may contain intact floral parts, including
style, stigma, and anther lobes. The glumes are closely attached to the
lower part of the spore mass. The surface of the spore mass is covered
with powdery spores of dark green to olive-black color. The number of
smut balls varies from one to several, and two per panicle is common. The
fungus transforms individual grains of the panicle into greenish balls of
spore with a velvety appearance.
It is generally believed that high moisture favors the development of
false smut. Crops grown under high nitrogen fertilizer provide a luxurious
plant growth at the vegetative phase that is predisposed to infection (Chi-
RICE DISEASES 209
nese Academy of Agricultural Sciences 1986). Therefore, avoiding exces-

sive nitrogen application is advisable. Scheduling planting dates to avoid
heading in the midst of the rainy period helps to prevent the disease. No
chemical control is essential at the moment.
The causal fungus

Ustilaginoidea virens (Cke.), Tak. is the name commonly accepted for the
fungus (Ou 1985). Some of the greenish spore mass develops into one or
four sclerotia in the center. In temperate environments, these sclerotia
overwinter in the fields and produce stalked stromata the following sum-
mer. The stromata swell at the tip of the stalk and contain perithecia
around the periphery. Each perithecium contains about 300 asci. Each
ascus has eight ascospores that are hyaline filiform, unicellular, and 120
to 180 x 0.5 to 1 p,m.
Chlamydospores are also formed on the spore mass. They are borne
laterally on minute sterigmata on radial hyphae and are spherical to ellip-
tical, warty, olivaceous, solitary, dry pleurogenous about 3 to 5 x 4 to 6
p,m. Younger spores are pale, smaller, and almost smooth. Chlamydo-
spores germinate in water to produce fine germtubes bearing one to three
conidia. The number of conidia produced and the growth of the germ tubes
are influenced by the nutrition conditions. No pathogenic variation of the
fungus has been reported.
Narrow Brown Leaf Spot (Cercospora oryzae)

The disease
Narrow brown leaf spot (NBLS) is a rice foliar disease prevalent world-
wide wherever rice is grown. It is considered a minor disease and usually
comes late in the growing season. In recent years, it has occasionally been
serious because of the planting of highly susceptible cultivars (Estrada et
al. 1981). The disease was considered a major problem in Louisiana, in
the United States in the 1940s (Ryker and Jodon 1940). NBLS is found on
all growth stages of the plant and tends to be more severe at the flag leaf
stage when the plants begin to mature. It can be observed in all ecosystems
where rice is grown.
Symptoms
The pathogen causes brown spots that are oval, elliptic, and linear, ranging
from 3.5 x 1 to 1.5 mm (Ou 1985). Lesion size may be related to varietal
resistance. The lesions, mostly seen in boot-leaf and/or in older leaves,
were 1.5 to 2.5 mm in length and 0.5 to 1.0 mm in breadth, with the long
axis parallel to the long axis of the leaf. Occasionally, lesions also develop
on raches and glumes. Severely infected leaves have a scorched appear-

ance similar to that caused by bacterial blight.
Causal fungus
The conidial state is Cercospora oryzae Miyake. Conidia are hyaline or
subhyaline, with 3 to 10 septa, 20 to 75 x 4 to 5 p,m, with conidiophores
amphigenous solitary or in small fascicles, one to two geniculations,
brown, and 30 to 130 x 4 to 6 p,m (Ou 1985).
The teleomorph state is Sphaerulinia oryzina Hara. The perithecia are
scattered or gregarious, black, globose to subglobose with a papilloform
ostiole, immersed in epidermal host tissue, 60 to 100 p.m. Asci are cylindri-
cal or clavate, stipitate 50 to 60 x 10 to 13 p.m. Ascospores are biseriate,
spindle shaped, three-septate, hyaline, and 20 to 23 x 4 to 5 p.m.
Host range
In addition to rice (Oryza sativa), Cercospora oryzae also infects some
weed species. Adeoti and Adeniji (1982) reported Pennisetum purpureum
and Panicum maximum served as collateral hosts to the pathogen. Sridhar
(1970) reported that Panicum repens is a collateral host to the fungus. No
information is available as how the weed host has contributed to the
disease epidemics or to its survival.
Disease development
Rice plants in all stages of growth are susceptible to C. oryzae. Symptoms
are always delayed on upper leaves when compared to lower leaves. This
indicates that older leaves are more susceptible to infection than younger
ones. Symptoms always developed first on lower leaves, indicating the
influence of leaf age on disease development.
Disease control
Although the disease is generally considered minor, economic losses have
been reported. Benlate 50 WP and Dithane M-45 50 WP are reported to
control the disease and increase yield up to 30% in Indonesia. Resistant
varieties provide a better means of managing the disease. Due to the
pathogenic variation and the low epidemic potential, no specific effort has
been made to develop varieties resistant to the disease. Generally, the
advance lines or elite lines are assessed for NBLS resistance. The effort
is to ascertain that no highly susceptible cultivar is released to the farmers.
Several lines or cultivars were identified as rate-reducing resistant to C.
oryzae. These cultivars always resulted in lower terminal disease severities
with little or no lesion formation on flag leaves, as compared to susceptible
RICE DISEASES 211
cultivars. Rate-reducing resistance may be more durable than vertical

resistance to C. oryzae. The cultivar Nato, grown in Louisiana since 1956,
still has a comparatively high level of rate-reducing (partial) resistance
compared to more recent cultivars released with monogenic resistance.
Relative receptivity, the number of lesions per leaf, lesion length,
conidial production per lesion, and incubation period, are all related to
rate-reducing resistance. These resistance factors were operative whether
plants were infected at the seedling or heading stages. Initial symptom
appearance was delayed by 7 to 8 days on rate-limiting resistance cultivars
at the heading stage (Sah and Rush 1988).
Sheath Rot (Sarocladium oryzae)

The disease
Sheath rot caused by Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) Gams and Hawks was
first recorded in 1922 by Sawada in Taiwan (Ou 1985). Since then, it has
been reported worldwide in all rice-growing countries. The damage caused
by the disease is variable, depending on the rice-growing conditions. The
disease affects the development and production of rice. It causes sterility,
abortion, and exsertion of the panicles, and infected rice normally yield
chaffy grains. The yield reduction ranges anywhere from a few percentage
to as high as 80%, according to the literatures. Most of the data on crop
losses were based on rather small-scale assessment. The disease spread
and epidemic conditions have been described generally, with few at-
tempted at quantification.
Formerly, sheath rot was considered a minor disease, but its occur-
rence has become widespread in recent years. The effect of nitrogen
fertilizer on the incidence ofthe disease is not consistent. Tasugi and Ikeda
(1956) showed that the incidence of sheath rot decreased with increases
in nitrogen application. Chen and Chien (1964), on the other hand, indi-
cated that it increased with increases in nitrogenous fertilizers but de-
creased with increases in the potassium level. High levels of nitrogen
application favored the accumulation of reducing sugars in rice cultivars;
sheath rot is reportedly a "high sugar" disease (Purkayastha and Cosgal
1982).
The fungal pathogen is frequently isolated from sterile rice plants
(Hsieh et al. 1977). There was a report (Chien and Huang 1979) that large
numbers of conidia of S. oryzae were found associated with the body of
mites.
The disease is most prevalent in the rainy season in both irrigated and
rain-fed cultures. It is also common in regions where rice plants frequently
suffer from low-temperature stress.
Symptoms
The infection normally occurs at the booting stage when the panicle is still
embedded in the leaf sheath (Ou 1985). The margins of the lesions are dark
brown with light brown centers, oblong or irregular in shape, and ranging
from 5 to 10 mm. In severe cases, the panicle is aborted before exsertion.
Under humid and high-temperature conditions, white powdery mycelium
will be observed in or on the surface of the flag leaf sheath. Those panicles
exserted later often show browning and sterility. An abundant whitish
powdery growth may be observed inside the affected sheath and on the
young panicles as they rot. Amin et al. (1974) describes the initial lesions
as 0.5 to 1 x 0.2 to 0.5 em, oval, chocolate brown, and surrounded by a
diffused light brown halo, while the healthy sheath around the lesion
remained green. Lesions occur on the sheaths of all leaves but were most
conspicuous and common on the flag leaves. Stressed plants with poorly
emerged panicles are prone to infection with the disease. In severe cases,
it is likely that the panicles are compressed in the sheath with dark brown
lesions evident on the outside of the sheath. The panicles are covered with
a white to light pink mat of mycelium and spores. It is often observed that
plants suffer from insect injury or other diseases infected more than
healthy plants. When the panicles emerge from infected sheath, the heads
are commonly straight, with unfilled grains.
The causal fungus
The fungus was named Acrocylindrium oryzae Sawada. Gams and

Hawks worth indicated that it should belong to the genus Sarocladium, the
species S. oryzae (Sawada) Gams and Hawks 1975. The mycelium is white,
sparsely branched, septate, and 1.5 to 2 JLm in diameter. Conidiophores
arise from the mycelium, are slightly thicker than the vegetative hyphae,
and branch once or twice, each time with three to four branches in a whorl.
Conidia are borne on the tip, produced consecutively, hyaline, smooth,
single-celled, cylindrical, and 4 to 9 x 1 to 2.5 JLm. The size differs from
host plants (2.1 to 8.5 x 0.5 to 1.6 J.tm) and from culture (1.8 to 13 x 1 to
1.6 ~.tm).
The optimal temperature for fungus growth is 28 to 31 oc, and conidia
germinate at 23 to 26°C (Tasugi and Ikeda 1956).
Disease control
S. oryzae is seedborne and seed-transmitted. Many chemicals have been
evaluated for the control of sheath rot; however, no field data support the
use of fungicides for its management. Seed treatment with fungicides
appears to improve the germination of infected seeds: 45% seeds died
RICE DISEASES 213
before emergence, and about 30% of the seedlings survived (Viswanathan

and Mariappan 1980).
RICE DISEASES CAUSED BY SCLEROTIAL FUNGAL PATHOGENS
Several sclerotia! fungi cause diseases in rice. In a survey of rice fields in

Louisiana, Shahjahan and Rush (1979) found that, of the 86 fields exam-
ined, 93 and 60% were infected with stem rot and sheath blight, respec-
tively. In recent years, as rice cultivation has intensified and most im-
proved semidwarf cultivars are highly responsive to crop management,
this group of diseases has increased. No true resistance has been identified,
and little effort has been focused on cultural control or alterations in
management that should be considered. The causal fungi can be differenti-
ated and identified by the internal and external morphology of the sclerotia
(Ou 1985). The sclerotia! surfaces of Sclerotium oryzae and S. oryzae var.
irregulare sclerotia are covered with a thin layer of material secreted by
the hyphae. This layer is much thinner on sclerotia of S. oryzae var.
irregulare than S. oryzae, where the substance eventually covers the
surfaces. This substance may serve to seal moisture in the sclerotia and
as a barrier to microbial activity. A similar but much thicker layer of the
exterior substance is present on the surface of S. rolfsii sclerotia, where
it formed the bulk of the outer link. The surfaces of sclerotia of R. oryzae
and R. solani consist ofloosely woven hyphae. The cells of R. oryzae are
mostly 5 to 9 J.Lm wide, whereas the cells of R. solani are 8 to 12 J.Lm wide.
The outer layer of S. hydrophilium sclerotia consists of a dense, uneven
layer of cells that are free from any secreted, cementing substance. Among
them, only sheath blight, sheath spot, aggregate sheath spot, and stem rot
will be described in this chapter.
Sheath Blight (Rhizoctonia so/ani]

The disease
Caused by Rhizoctonia solani, sheath blight is one of the most widely
distributed rice disease. In the last decade, it has gained major importance
second only to blast among the fungus diseases. This is due primarily to
the high-yielding modern cultivars which have short culms, are early to
mature, and are highly responsive to nitrogen. Such cultural practices as
close spacing and high seed rate for direct seedling to suppress weeds
increase the epidemic potential of the disease. Total crop failure due to
sheath blight has been observed for the first time since the disease was
reported (Devadath personal communication). This offers a good illustra-
tion of the difficulties in controlling a disease caused by a pathogen that is
nonhost-specific but is capable of inducing serious damage in conducive

environments. Despite its high epidemic potential, it has not been properly
recognized by farmers and extension specialists except in eastern Asia.
Symptoms
The lesions usually start near the water line of the leaf sheath wherein a
water-soaked, dark green spot with obscure margin develops. It enlarges,
forming an ellipsoid with irregular shape having a greyish-brown center
and light brown margin. In a highly infective, newly developed lesion, the
hyphae extend upward along the leaf sheath. As the hyphae continue to
extend to induce new lesions, the other lesions coalesce, forming a band-
like mosaic covering a large area of the leaf sheath or leaf blade. As the
lesions grow older and under favorable conditions, they turn greyish-white
with dark brown margin. The lesions then have limited hyphal growth, or
do not produce new hyphae, and are not very infective.
Lesion development on the leaf blade is similar to that on the leaf
sheath. The spots are large, 1 to 3 em in length with irregular shape, giving
a banded appearance; thus the disease is also known as banded blight.
The appearance of alternative green and brown or greyish color is perhaps
due to the diurnal effect on the infection process. When the lesions develop
rapidly and aggressively, they appear dirty green and water-soaked. With
slow lesion development, the edge of the lesions bleach to a yellow color.
With favorable temperature and humidity, the lesions may extend
throughout the entire plant, including the panicles, resulting in the death
of infected tillers or the entire plant. With short-culmed cultivars, it is not
uncommon to observe sheath blight on leaf blades with no extended lesion
development from leaf sheath.
If plants at the booting stage are severely infected, panicle exsertion
may be aborted. Infected panicles develop dirty green lesions which later
become dark brown.
Under normal conditions, stems are seldom infected; when they are
infected, they show lesions similar to those of the leaf sheath.
The root systems of infected plants are often dark. The oxidating
power of the root system is also weakened, and the redox potential is
lowered, thus reducing the ability of the root to absorb potassium from
the water.
In the tropics, especially under favorable rain-fed environments when
the soil remains saturated without standing water, a white, powdery,
hymeniallayer is often observed on leaf blades or sheaths. This is believed
to be the basidial stage of the fungus. It is not clear if it is the result of
airborne infection of the basidiospores or the formation of the basidial
stage of the fungus after infection.
RICE DISEASES 215
The causal fungus
Considerable confusion has existed about the name of the sheath blight
fungus. Now, it is finally agreed that the teleomorph is Thanatephorus
cucumeris and the anamorph is Rhizoctonia solani. The teleomorph has
been observed in upland rice in the Philippines and may be produced by
inoculating rice seedlings in an upland nursery with a mycelial culture.
The teleomorph as described by Sawada and Matsumoto has these mea-
surements: basidia 10 to 15 x 7 to 9 JLm; sterigmata 4.5 to 7 x 2 to 3 JLm,
numbering from two to four; and basidiospores 8 to 11 x 5 to 6.5 JLm.
The mycelium is colorless when young, becoming yellowish-brown when
older, is 8 to 12 J.tm in diameter, with infrequent septations. Three types
of mycelium are produced. A straight runner hypha which, at intervals,
gives rise to a short, swollen, much-branched or lobate mycelium, from
which penetration pegs arise. The lobate mycelium infects the tissue and
produces lesions. On infected stem, the runner hyphae may cover most
parts of the stem, but the lobate mycelium is found only on the lesions.
The third type of mycelium consists of moniloid cells involved in the
formation of sclerotia and may be found on petri dish covers or test tube
walls. The sclerotia are superficial, more or less globose but flattened
below, white when young, later becoming brown and dark brown. Individ-
ual sclerotia measure up to 5 mm but may unite to form a larger mass in
culture.
Although the fungus pathogen varies in physiologic characteristics
such as colony morphology, rate of sclerotia production, and nutritional
requirement for in vitro growth, it is not known to exhibit distinct physio-
logical specialization in pathogenicity or virulence. The fungus has about
nine anastomosis groups with subgroups based on hosts at large. R. solani
that infects cereals is classified under anastomosis group 1, or AG-1, while
those that are pathogenic to rice belong to the subgroup AG1-1a.
Disease cycle
Sclerotia formed on the lesions drop to the ground at harvest or during

crop management practices. These sclerotia later mature and become a
dark brown color. When the fields are flooded, they become buoyant and
serve as the major source of inoculum (Sugiyama 1988). The sclerotia
floating on the surface of the water may be carried away or drift off and
finally come in contact with the rice sheath at the water-line. About 40%
of the total sclerotia formed float in water after puddling and weeding.
Soon after the sclerotia come in contact with the rice plant, infection starts.
Mycelium in plant debris also serves as an important source of inoculum.
Horizontal spread of the disease occurs when the hyphae come in contact
with adjacent leaf blades or sheaths (Hashiba 1982).
Sclerotia are major surviving structures. Likewise, mycelium in in-

fected crop debris such as straw, stubbles, etc., carries the fungus for the
next cropping. The sclerotia can survive for more than 1 year in upland
soil under a moisture tension varying from 0.25 to 0.80 bar (Kim et al.
1985, Part IV). Survival is reduced to 11% after 1 month, and 0% after 4
months in lowland soil with water tension not exceeding 0.05 bar. In
flooded condition, the viability is reduced to 3.5% after 1 month and 0%
after 2 months. The fungus may also survive in the tropics in a parasitic
state through weeds in the rice fields (IRRI 1985; Ou 1985). The viability
of sclerotia in soil is related to the microbial activity in the community.
The survival is reduced to 2 weeks in the presence of Trichoderma spp
(Mew and Rosales 1986). Its saprophytic survival ability is therefore af-
fected by the community structure.
Disease environments
The temperature range conducive for sheath blight infection and disease
development is 22 to 3SOC, the optimum being 30°C with humidity greater
than 95% (optimum at 100%). The temperature and humidity within the
hills from panicle initiation to heading determine the severity of sheath
infection and damage caused at maturity.
Sheath blight severity is positively correlated to high nitrogen levels
in the soil. A high nitrogen level predisposes rice plants to infection by
producing more succulent tillers that are more susceptible. Tillers are also
more numerous, and thus a microclimate favorable for sheath blight
development is created within the canopy. Recently, it was shown that
rice plants in upland environments under moisture stress have less sheath
blight incidence (IRRI 1988).
Cultural practices such as close spacing and high seeding rate for
broadcast seeding also favor development of the disease.
Rice cultivars with short culms tend to be more susceptible to sheath
blight because of the rapid advancement of mycelium to upper leaf sheath
and blades.
Disease control
Chemical control. Sheath blight is effectively controlled by fungicides
in eastern Asia. Many fungicides are available for its control (Hori 1986;
Sugiyama 1988). These chemicals include monzet, neoasozin polyoxin,
validamycin, mepronil, pencycuron, ftutolanil, and diclomezine. The effi-
cacy and application of these fungicides was recently reviewed and com-
piled by Mew (1990).
Cultural control. There are many agronomic practices that can effec-
RICE DISEASES 217
tively control the disease to a certain degree. Removing, burning, or

ploughing into the soil the infected plants removes part of the source of
inoculum. Weeding prior to planting rice is effective if the practice is done
a minimum of 2 weeks prior to planting. Proper decomposition of rice
straw or turning over plant debris and weeds when the field is still wet and
leaving it fallow from 2 weeks to 1 month will be helpful in managing the
disease.
Varietal resistance. The inherent level of resistance alone is too low to
control the disease. A cultivar with a moderate level of resistance in
combination with fungicide is effective in managing sheath blight (Chen et
al. 1987) and reduces the number of fungicide applications.
Biological control. Many antagonistic bacteria are found in the paddy
field that effectively suppressed the development of the diseases. Field
trial has indicated the potential of biological control of sheath blight.
However, for use on a commercial scale, biological control of rice dis-
eases, including sheath blight, remains impractical.
Sheath Spot [Rhizoctonio oryzoe]

The disease
Sheath spot, caused by Rhizoctonia oryzae, was first reported in Arkansas,
in the United States, in 1932 and then in Japan in 1935 (Ou 1985). The
disease was previously considered minor, but gained increasing impor-
tance with the changes in cultivars, cultural practices, and nitrogen fertil-
ization. In the United States it was observed to be present in 10% of the
rice fields surveyed in 1985 (Shahjahan and Rush 1979).
Symptoms
Characteristically, the lesions appear as circular spots on leaf sheaths and
range in size from 1 to 3 em. As with sheath blight, the lesions normally
occur near the water lines on the sheath. They appear ovoid on lower leaf
sheaths, bleached with brown margins. Two or more lesions may coalesce
to form larger lesions. Occasionally, the fungus may infect the leaf blades.
Host range
In addition to Oryza sativa, the fungus may also infect Echinocloa crus-
galli, Fimbristylis littoralis, Phragmitis cummunis, and Zisania latifolia.
The disease environments and control measures are similar to that of
R. solani.
Aggregate Sheath Spot (Rhizoctonio oryzoe-sotivoe]

The disease
It is caused by R. oryzae-sativae which was first reported in Taiwan in

1922. It is now a common disease in most Asian countries and in the
United States. In India, it was reported to cause yield losses ranging from
20 to 60% in 1976 in four districts during the kharif season. Since then it
is commonly observed in the rice crop (Ou 1985).
Symptoms
The disease usually appears during and after heading in inundated fields.
Lesions on leaf sheaths are brown, elliptical or oval, characteristically
small (0.5 to 1.0 em in diameter), and aggregated, as compared to sheath
blight and sheath spot. The lesion is encircled by a distinct brown border
band which becomes lighter in color inside and outside of the band. The
lesions on the lower sheath near the water line are water-soaked, discol-
ored, and irregularly expanded. The lesions may coalesce to form larger
lesions with indistinct margins. Severe infection leads to tissue rotting in
both the sheath and stem of the affected plants and may cause lodging.
Disease control
The survival of the fungus as well as the control measures of the disease
is similar to that of the sheath blight.
Stem Rot (Sclerotium oryzoe]

The disease
Stem rot is one of the major diseases of rice in many rice-growing coun-
tries. The disease was first recorded in Italy, and subsequently, it was
found in most of the rice-growing countries. Chen (1971), Huang (1978),
and Ou (1985) have each reviewed the diseases caused by the sclerotia-
producing pathogens comprehensively. Little research on stem rot has
been done in recent years. At the time of this writing, the author made
use of the information available and drew his own conclusions. The disease
appears during the tillering stage on the outer leaf sheath at the waterline
and then enters the culm. It causes decay of the leaf sheath and culm and
contributes to lodging. In early years, it was believed that the damage
caused by stem rot was due primarily to the fact that it aggravates lodging:
infected plants are weak and topple easily, leading to incomplete grain
filling. However, because the symptoms in above ground parts are ob-
scure, the effects of stem rot are often underestimated. Yield losses from
5 to 80% due to stem rot have been reported in different countries. The
RICE DISEASES 219
accuracy of these data has to be verified according to locality, disease

intensity, cultivars, and cultural management.
The losses due to stem rot are difficult to assess. Ou (1985) indicated
that the stem rot pathogen is common and occurs in large quantity in the
rice fields in southern and southeastern Asia. In the later stage of the plant
growth, most of the stems are covered with numerous appressoria or other
structures of the fungi. These stems are seldom infected before harvest,
although the fungi are present in most of the stubble after the rice harvest.
Despite a large volume of literatures, little adequate data are available to
illustrate the significant and importance of stem rot.
Stem rot is caused by two varieties of a fungus pathogen, Helmin-
thosporium sigmoideum and H. sigmoideum var. irregulare. The two
varieties have similar general morphology, cause similar diseases, and
often occur together in the same field. Many scientists treat the diseases
as one, but Ou (1985) believes that many differences exist between them.
Rice plants infected with H. sigmoidea usually lodge while the others
would not. The occurrence of H. sigmoidea and var. irregulare are also
different. In Taiwan, var. irregulare usually occurs in the first crop while
the var. sigmoidea occurs in the second crop. However, the damage on
the second crop is 37% as compared to 25% in the first crop. Both fungi
penetrate through the stomata. H. var. irregulare forms appressoria on
the upper portion of the leaf sheath while var. sigmoidea is on the upper
part of the node. The primary infection starts from sclerotia, and conidia
only in secondary infection. In general, secondary infection does not occur
often. In terms of penetration ability, it appears that var. sigmoidea is
stronger than var. irregulare. However, once inside the tissue, var. irregu-
lare grows as fast and destroys the host tissues as much as that of the
former. The ratio of sclerotia formation also indicated that var. sigmoidea
is greater than var. irregulare.
No exogenous nutrients are needed for the sclerotia! germination of
var. sigmoidea, but because of soil fungistasis the rate of germination is
often different. Keirn and Webster (1975) indicated that its germination
was strongly influenced by soil microorganisms. These authors identified
many fungi capable of doing so. However, one would expect that many
antagonistic bacteria would be involved in the paddy which the authors
did not report. The optimal temperature for lesion development was 24°C.
Above 36°C or below l2°C, both fungi would not cause any lesion (Hsieh
1966).
In the rice field, sclerotia are mostly distributed in the the upper 2 to
3 em of soil. The sclerotia float on the water surface after land preparation
and, when in contact with rice leaf sheath, germinate and initiates the
infection. The ecology and epidemiology of both fungi have not been well-
studied in tropical conditions. Available information shows that the disease
is common in irrigated and favorable rain-fed ecosystems, perhaps due

partly to the viability of the sclerotia being reduced under alternate wetting
and drying conditions. Sclerotia formation, germination, infection, and
disease progression in the field is directly related to irrigation and drainage.
The depth of water in the field also appears to influence the disease severity
(Huang 1978). If the irrigation water is deep (around 20 em), infection rate
is high, and if it is shallow (10 em), the infection is low. Ifthe irrigation
water is deep during the infection period and shallow during incubation
period, the disease becomes most severe, or vice versa. Applying high
level of nitrogen fertilizer increases the disease severity.
Drainage at flowering increases the severity of the disease, while late
drainage decreases the disease severity.
Symptoms
The disease starts with a small, black, irregular lesion on the outer leaf
sheath near the water line. The lesion enlarges as the disease progresses.
The fungus pathogen penetrates into the inner leaf sheath, the leaf sheath
becomes partially or entirely rotted, and eventually infection reaches the
culm. Finally, dark lesions form in one or two internodes, and the stem
rots or collapses. The sclerotia are formed on infected leaf sheaths. The
presence of numerous dark sclerotia is a distinct feature of diagnosis. Dark
necrotic lesions appear on outer leaf sheaths near the water line, usually
after the tillering stage of the plant growth. The inner sheaths and stem are
sequentially infected and, in severe cases, the plants lodge. H. sigmoideum
forms infection cushions on the culm. Numerous black sclerotia may be
formed in the hollow internodes at maturity. Dark perithecia are occasion-
ally embedded in sheath tissue but are not rough to the touch. H. sig-
moideum var. irregulare also attacks the rachis, causing incomplete filling
of the grains.
The causal fungus

The teleomorph of Helminthosporium sigmoideum var. sigmoideum is
called Magnaporthe salvinii, the sclerotial anamorph Sclerotium oryzae,
and the conidial anamorph Nakataea sigmoidea. No teleomorph of H.
sigmoideum var. irregulare is known.
The hyphae of var. sigmoideum are white to olivaceous, septate,
profusely branched, and 2 to 5 /Lm in diameter. Numerous irregular oliva-
ceous appressoria form on the culm, 14 to 30 x 8 to 24/Lm. The hyphae
of var. irregulare are also white to olivaceous, septate, profusely
branched, and 2 to 5/Lm in diameter. Numerous appressoria are produced
at times.
Sclerotia of var. sigmoidea are spherical or nearly so, black at matu-
rity, smooth surfaced, and formed on parenchyma tissues inside the central
RICE DISEASES 221
cavity of the culm. They measure 180 to 280 ~m. Sclerotia of var. sig-
moidea are numerous, irregular in outline, black, rough surfaced, and are
embedded in the parenchymatous tissues near the central cavity of the
culm. They measure 90 to 119 x 268 to 342 ~m.
Conidia var. sigmoidea are borne singly on sharp pointed sterigmata,
fusiform and typically three-septate, simply curved or slightly sinuous,
and 9.9 to 14.2 x 29 to 49 ~m. Conidia ofvar. irregulare, are borne singly
or on sharp pointed sterigmata, fusiform, typically three-septate, 9-12 x
41 to 58 ~m.
Very little is known about the pathogenic variability. One would as-
sume that differences must exist among the isolates from different geo-
graphic regions; however, no information is available to support the
notion.
Both fungi infect several species of Gramineae and Cyperaceae,
Agrostis matsumurae Hack. Eleusine indica, Leptochloa chinensis, Se-
taria pallide-fusca are infected by both fungi. There are many species of
Oryza which have been reported to host the fungi. Zizania latifolia, Triti-
cum and A venae are also reported to host the fungi. Field study has shown
that rice plants are most susceptible at the maximum tillering stage.
Varietal resistance
Many rice cultivars have been tested for resistance to stem rot. Likewise,
many methods have been developed for the purpose. However, there is
no active breeding program for resistance to the disease. Rice with strong
culms is more tolerant than cultivars with weak culms. Shahjahan et al.
( 1986) tested 4614 accessions of rice for resistance to stem rot and identified
very few resistant genotypes. However, several rice cultivars showed
consistent reaction. Susceptible cultivars appear to have characteristics
such as early maturity, weak culms, and absence of awn, while those with
the contrasting traits were generally resistant. Chen (1971) indicated that
the resistance seems to be associated with maturity: short-duration culti-
vars are less resistant than long-duration cultivars.
Disease control
The pathogens survive as sclerotia in the soil or in the straw. If straws
are not removed, burned, or decomposed, it becomes the source of inocu-
lum. In the tropics, rice straw or stubble is common; burning is incomplete
and difficult in the wet season. However, burning does have a positive
effect in reducing stem rot (Bockus et al. 1979).
Mulching eliminates the natural sclerotia population of Sclerotium
oryzae in the soil (Usmani et al. 1985). Seven days of mulching with
transparent polyethylene sheets killed the fungus. Loss of sclerotia viabil-
ity corresponded well with an increase in soil temperatures from 36°C

(nonmulched) to 48°C (mulched) at 28 em depth. Plastic mulching in-
creased rice yield by 23% over the control. Mew (1990) believes that the
effect of mulching and soil solarization definitely affects the number of
sclerotia. The cost-effectiveness of such practice, however, should be
assessed before it is recommended to farmers.
VIRUS DISEASES
Virus diseases of rice have become a major constraint in rice production

in tropical Asia since the introduction of modern cultivars. Prior to the
1960s, no rice virus diseases had been reported in tropical Asia except in
the Philippines and in Japan (Ling 1975). During this time, only dwarf,
stripe, and yellow dwarf were described and characterized. Since the
beginning of modern rice production in the 1960s, several virus epidemics
of rice occurred in Asia, and research on virus diseases has caught the
attention of rice pathologists. Our knowledge on rice virus diseases has
advanced greatly during the last two decades. Among the rice virus dis-
eases with a high epidemic potential, tungro ranked number one, followed
closely by grassy stunt and ragged stunt (Mew 1989). These three diseases
will be discussed in some detail.
The practical identification of virus diseases is often based on symp-
toms. However, distinguishing virus diseases from physiological disorders
can be difficult in farmers' fields. Wherever and whenever possible, diag-
nosis should be based on the characteristics of the causal agents, serology,
and virus transmission. The general information of rice virus diseases has
been well-documented by Ling (1979) and Ou (1985), especially from a
historical perspective. Many of the initiatives that have taken place in the
past few years have not yet yielded concrete conclusion. It is evident,
however, there are more virus diseases in the tropics than were previously
known. Ou has listed about 20 virus and microplasm diseases. Among
them, 18 have positive identity; two are caused by mycoplasm, while 16
are caused by viruses. In terms of geograpical distribution, four are found
in the temperate environments and 12 in the tropical and subtropical zones.
The four virus diseases found in the temperate environments are
dwarf, black streak dwarf, stripe, and gaillume. The first three are found
mainly in temperate Asian countries, while the last one occurs in Italy.
Those that are found in the tropics and subtropics are transitory yellowing,
tungro, waika, bunchy stunt, gall stunt, grassy stunt, ragged stunt, wilt
stunt, yellow mottle, chlorotic streak, mosaic, necrosis mosaic, and hoja
blanca. The two that are caused by mycoplasm are yellow dwarf and
orange leaf.
RICE DISEASES 223
Tungro
The disease
The disease was first reported by Rivera and Ou in 1965. The disease
and/or similar diseases are generally believed to have been noted or re-
ported elsewhere by different scientists a long time ago (Ling 1975). It is
now one of the most destructive rice diseases and is widely distributed in
tropical Asia. Its occurrence is most prevalent in irrigated and favorable
rain-fed lowland rice ecosystems, although the viruses, especially rice
tungro sperical virus (RTSV), have been detected in rice and gramineous
weeds in upland rice ecosystems.
Symptoms
Generally, tungro-infected rice plants are stunted and the tiller number is
reduced. The distinct symptom, however, is the yellowing of the leaves,
and this is visible from a distance. The infected leaves may be rolled
inward and somewhat spirally twisted (Ling 1975). The degree of stunting
and tiller decrease lessens with the increasing of plants at the time of
infection. Yellowing usually starts from the tip of the lower leaves. The
color varies among rice cultivars and with environmental conditions. The
young leaves of infected plants are often mottled or have pale green to
whitish strips of various length running parallel to the vein. Root develop-
ment is poor. Infected plants may die, but they usually live until maturity.
The maturity of infected plants is delayed, and the panicles are small,
sterile, and not completely exserted.
Rice tungro is one of the most important diseases in many southern
and southeastern Asian countries including the Philippines. RTSV is
known to be a latent virus that acts as a "helper" for the transmission of
rice tungro bacilliform virus by leafhopper vectors. RTBV causes the
tungro symptoms, and RTSV enhances the symptoms. RTBV and RTSV
are transmitted by several species of leafhoppers in a semi persistent man-
ner. Tungro is therefore a disease complex associated with RTBV and
RTSV. Because of the complexity of the disease, tungro epidemiology is
not well-understood. Recently, RTSV was found to spread as an indepen-
dent virus. This information suggests a possible relationship to tungro
epidemiology. Further studies have indicated that, in the fields, many rice
plants without symptoms were infected with RTSV alone. RTSV is similar
or identical to rice waika virus. Rice waika was epidemic in 1971-74 in
Kyushu, Japan. Rice waika virus causes mild stunting and occasional leaf
yellowing on some susceptiblejaponica cultivars. Indica rice infected with
RTSV does not show clear symptoms.
Rice waika virus in Japan is similar in properties and serologically
homologous to RTSV and is naturally transmitted by N. cincticeps. Hibino

(1983b) demonstrated that N. l'irescens efficiently transmitted RTBV,
RSTV, and RWV from rice plants infected with both RTBV and RTSV or
RWV and also from plants infected with RTSV or RWV alone. N. nigropic-
tus also transmitted the three viruses but at a very low efficiency. Recilia
dorsalis failed to transmit the three viruses, and they could not transmit
RTBV from plants infected with RTBV alone.
The causal viruses

The rice tungro agents consist of two virus particles: one which is spherical
(RTSV) in shape and is responsible for transmission. The other is bacilli-
form (RTBV) and is for symptom development.
The viruses can be transmitted by Nephotettix virescens, N. nigropic-
tus, and Recilia dorsalis. The viruses do not persist in the vector. The
acquisition feeding is 5 to 30 min. There is no incubation period in the
vector. Infective insects usually transmit the virus immediately after acqui-
sition feeding, and once it loses the infectivity, the insect vector remains
noninfective for the rest of its life unless given access to another virus
source.
Host range
The virus appears to have a wide range of hosts. These include Leersia
hexandra, Rottoellia compressa, Eleusine indica, Echinocloa crusgalli.
Leaves of the weeds in or around rice fields, whether cultivated or idle,
were tested by the ELISA technique with specific anti-RTSV or RTBV
sera and showed positive reaction, indicating that they host either one of
the tungro virus complexes (IRRI 1989). E. indica was positive to RSTV;
Ec. crusgalli, E. colona, and Cyperus rotundus to antiserum of RSTV +
RTBV; but L. hexandra was positive to RTBV and RSTV alone. These
weeds were found both in lowland and upland rice fields.
The transmission efficiency of N. nigropictus, and N. uirescens for
RTSV and RTBV on weeds indicated that, on rice, N. virescens was the
more efficient vector, and retained the viruses for 4 days. N. nigropictus
was less efficient but retained the viruses for 5 days. N. malayanus and
R. dorsalis retained the viruses for only 1 day.
Young seedlings or rhyzomes of E. indica, Ec. crusgalli, Ec. colona,
Leptochloa chinensis, L. hexandra, Panicum repens, and cyperus ro-
tundus were infected with RTBV and/or RTSV when exposed to the four
leafhoppers that had fed on RTBV and RTSV infected plants. These weeds
were also infected with RTSV alone when exposed to the leafhoppers that
had fed on RTSV-infected plants. Only N. nigropictus was able to acquire
the viruses on doubly infected plants of Ec. crusgalli, P. repens, and C.
RICE DISEASES 225
rotundus and transmit them to rice seedlings. Apparently N. nigropictus

could disperse RTBV + RTSV in weed hosts in the fields once the viruses
are introduced from rice fields.
Disease control
Tungro is a composite disease resulting from infection with both rice

tungro bacilliform virus and rice tungro spherical virus. Both viruses
are transmitted efficiently by the leafhopper N. virescens. Rice cultivars
developed by IRRI with moderate resistance in the field had a low tungro
infection rate under low virus inoculum and leafhopper population, but
high infection rates regardless of inoculum and leafhopper levels. Resis-
tance was due to both antibiosis and nonpreference to adult leafhoppers.
In mass or test-tube inoculations with leafhoppers that had fed on plants
infected with RTBV and RTSV, resistant cultivars showed increasing rate
of infection with increasing numbers of leafhoppers. When the cultivars
were indexed with latex serological test, resistant cultivars had increasing
RTBV infection rates, whereas MR cultivars had increasing RTBV and
RTSV infection rates. The RTBV and RTSV infection rates of some
cultivars were high irrespective of leafhopper numbers. When resistant
cultivars were inoculated with RTSV alone, fairly high infection rates
occurred. The resistant cultivars in the field with low infection rates can
be explained by the resistance to the leafhopper (Hibino et al. 1987).
Many improved rice cultivars that had low RTBV and RTSV infection
rates combined in the field had relatively high infection rates with RTBV
alone. IR20, IR26, IR30, and IR40 had low infection rates ofRTSV. Their
resistance to RTSV was not shown because of resistance to leafhopper.
Since RTSV helps in the transmission of the tungro, these potentially
provide the source of inoculum for tungro spread.
The application of insecticides at the right time would control the virus
diseases through the insect vectors. Spraying insecticides at the early
stages of plant growth delays tungro development. Cypermethrim at 40
ai/ha, or Bubrofezin at 10 kg ai/ha with one application in the seedbed 10
days after sowing and three sprays at 1, 2, and 3 weeks after transplanting
proved effective in controlling the disease. The cost-benefit relationship
should be evaluated. Combining chemical control and resistant varieties
is perhaps most desirable for management of tungro.
Grassy Stunt
The disease
The disease was first reported on rice in 1966 in the Philippines. By now
it has been reported in most of the rice-growing countries in southern and
southeastern Asia and also southern China, Taiwan, and Japan. Major
epidemics were reported in the early 1970s in the Philippines and other
Southeast Asian countries when the improved modern varieties possessed
no resistance to either the virus or the insect vector, brown planthopper.
Symptoms
When fully developed, the symptoms of the diseased plants are severe
stunting, excessive tillering, and an erect growth habit. The leaves are
short, narrow, pale green or pale yellow, and often have numerous small,
dark-brown dots or spots of various shapes which may form blotches. The
young leaves of some varieties may be mottled or striped.
The growth of the rice plant following infection is greatly arrested, the
diseased plant becoming markedly stunted, while numerous diminutive
tillers develop that produce a rosette appearance. The infected plants
usually live until maturity, but they produce no panicles or a few small
panicles with dark brown, unfilled grains when infection occurs at early
stage of plant growth. Rice plants infected at an older stage may not
develop symptoms before harvest. The symptoms do occur, however, on
ratoon tillers.
The causal virus

The virus is circular filaments about 950 to 1350 nm in length and 6 to 8
nm in diameter. The filament is a nucleoprotein containing a single strain
RNA. Two strains of the virus are reported in the Philippines. Strain 2
causes yellow to orange discoloration of leaves and premature death of
infected plants, in addition to the symptom described for the ordinary
strain. Strains 1 and 2 are serologically related, and are similar in morphol-
ogy and vector relations. Strain 2 is pathogenic to rice cultivars with
resistance deriving from 0. nivara. Isolates similar to strain 2 have been
reported in Taiwan and Thailand (Hibino 1983). In Taiwan, a "wilted
stunt" was reported. This wilted stunt strain appears similar to strain 2 in
the Philippines.
The grassy stunt virus is transmitted by the planthoppers Nilaparvata
lug ens, N. baberi, and N. muiri in a persistent manner. The virus cannot
be transmitted by mechanical means or through seeds (Ling 1975). No
difference in ability and efficiency of transmissions exists between bio-
types or genders. However, N. lugens nymphs, which also have a shorter
incubation period, are more efficient than adults. InN. lug ens, the latent
period averages eight days (a range of 3 to 28 days), and the minimum
inoculation period is 9 min. The plant hoppers can transmit the virus after
acquisition until its death (Ling 1975), but no transovarial transmission
has been demonstrated. The life span (15.4 days) of transmitting planthop-
pers is shorter than that of nontransmitting hoppers (17.5 days).
RICE DISEASES 227
Host range
Many Oryza species are reported to be hosts of the grassy stunt virus. In
addition to the Oryza spp., such as 0. australiensis, 0. barthii, O.latifolia,
0. longistaminata, other weed species, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus ro-
tundus, Ec. colona, L. hexandra, and Monochoria vaginalis are also in-
fected with the grassy stunt virus.
Disease control
Rice grassy stunt is effectively controlled by the resistant rice cultivars.
All resistance is derived from the resistance of 0. nivara which is condi-
tioned by a single dominant gene. This resistance gene is shown to be very
effective for over 10 years until strain 2 of the virus evolves. A perennial
rice plant, Guang-keng A/Oryza longistaminata (IRRI Ace. no. 104315)
introduced from China, was identified to be resistant to both strains 1 and
2. None of the plants (tillers) inoculated with the two strains developed
grassy stunt. The results indicate that the perennial rice plant was highly
resistant to the two strains and became infected only under high insect
pressure. The perennial plants segregated into dwarf and tall plant types,
and only the dwarf plant types were resistant to both strains.
NEMATODE DISEASES
There are several nematode diseases of rice. Rice white tip and stem
nematodes are widely known. The others, however, are reported sporadi-
cally in the literatures and often do not cause distinct symptoms or, per-
haps, measurable yield reduction. In recent years, because of seed treat-
ment, white tip nematode has come under control. The stem nematode,
also known as ufra nematode, is widespread in deepwater rice areas in
Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, and Vietnam. More recently, the impor-
tance of root and lesion nematodes in irrigated and upland rice culture,
respectively, appear to be increasing in importance. In this chapter, we
will describe only the root and stem nematodes.
Many genera of plant-parasitic nematodes are known to be associated
with rice and its cultivation, but only a few have proven to be of actual or
potential economic importance. These nematodes may feed on the leaves,
stems, roots, and the panicles. Some have been reported to cause signifi-
cant yield loss, while for others, no reliable information is available to
indicate their importance. In general, among the 80 known rice diseases,
nematode diseases are the least studied.
Many rice nematodes are widely dispersed throughout the rice-grow-
ing countries. Among them, only one is definitely known to spread in seed:
the white tip nematode (Aphelenchoides besseyi); another can be spread

in dead foliage and possibly seed (the stem or ufra nematode, Ditylenchus
angustus); and all others spread through soil or roots.
Stem Nematode (Ditylenchus angustus)

The disease
Caused by D. angustus, which is a foliar nematode on rice, this disease
can be transmitted in dried rice foliage. The nematode can survive in a
dried state enclosed in the leaf sheath, particularly at the base of the
panicle. In nature, D. angustus can survive for 4 to 5 months in dry foliage,
but the number surviving decreases later on. D. angustus has been de-
tected in filled and unfilled grains freshly harvested from an infested rice
crop. The nematode may be killed after the grain is dried.
Symptoms
In the field, the symptoms are usually observed two months after planting
but vary according to the activity of the nematodes. Discoloration and
malformation of the leaves develop to normal size.
Control measure
In regions where ufra has become a problem, it is common to leave a
large amount of infested material in the field after harvest. Under such
conditions, the nematodes are dormant during the dry season and become
active in the wet season when rice is planted. Since the nematode is an
obligate parasite and active only in moist conditions, any measure to alter
such condition would limit the infestivity of the nematode. There are
varietal differences in response to the infestation of the nematode.
Some cultivars are resistant to ufra nematode; however, resistance
alone has not been reported as the only measure to manage the disease.
Combining resistant cultivars with other measures, such as field sanitation,
may effectively control the disease. Removal and destruction of the straw
in infested fields to reduce the amount of inoculum would be helpful.
Wherever possible, infested fields should be drained or flooded when
fallow.
Chemical control. Several chemicals are reported to be efficacious in
controlling the disease. They include carbofuran, hexadrin, and benomyl.
In practice, however, farmers use little or no chemical control for the
disease.
RICE DISEASES 229
Rice Root Nematode (Hirschmaniella oryzaej
It is caused by Hirschmanniella oryzae and reported in 25 rice-growing

countries. It is omnipresent in irrigated rice ecosystems all over in eastern,
southeastern, and southern Asia. It is also reported to occur in deepwater
rice in Bangladesh and in Thailand. H. mucronata is present in irrigated
fields in India and the Philippines.
These nematodes cause physical damages to the roots, and they affect
the physiology of the plant. They also reduce nitrogen-fixation in the
rhizosphere. Under controlled experiments, the nematodes reduced the
number of tillers, plant height, panicle length, number ofleaves, fresh root
weight, and shoot dry weight. These effects result in grain yield reduction.
However, no reliable information is available as to the actual yield loss
caused by the nematodes. One has to assume that these are closely related
to the nematode population, soil type, and cropping systems, etc.
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6
Insect Pests of Rice
M. 0. Way and C. C. Bowling
Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and
Extension Center
INTRODUCTION
Rice is the most important food for mankind. Annual world rice production
amounts to approximately 460 million tons grown on roughly 145 million
ha (Norton and Way 1990). Over 90% of this area lies in Asia, while the
remainder is divided among Latin America, Africa, Australia, Europe,
and the United States (IRRI 1989). To keep pace with projected human
population growth, rice production must increase from the 1987 levels to
20% more by 2000 and 65% more by 2020 (IRRI 1989). However, over 800
insect species attack standing and stored rice (Grist and Lever 1969).
According to Pathak and Dhaliwal (1981) these pests account for rice
losses of 24% while Cramer (1967) reports 35%. The importance of rice
insect pests can be grasped by the fact that $910 million are spent annually
in attempts to control their activities with insecticides (Woodburn 1990).
Japanese rice farmers spend the most ($455 million), while farmers in
developing countries spend much less per unit of production (Woodburn
1990). Furthermore, the value of insecticides applied to rice in 1988 was
15% of the total world usage of insecticides (Woodburn 1990). Thus, insect
237
pests are serious enemies to rice production which must be protected and
increased to foster human health and world peace and stability.
Rice is grown in surprisingly varied habitats ranging from sea level to
3000 m, arid to wet environments, and temperate to tropical climates
(Pathak 1968). Each geographical/climatic area harbors a distinct complex
of insects associated with the rice cultivation and practices peculiar to that
area. Production practices which impact insect populations and damage
include varietal selection, method and date of planting, fertilizer and irriga-
tion methods and schedules, pesticide usage,and multiple cropping. The
following brief discussion illustrates the diversity of rice agroecosystems
and associated cultural practices relative to the effect on broad groupings
of insect pests and their activities.
By 1985 the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) had released
24 varieties (IR5-IR60) for commercial planting in the Philippines (Hein-
richs et al. 1985; Khush 1984). Each variety possesses a unique set of
characteristics which best take advantage of a targeted environment or
demand. Many of these cultivars have genes conferring resistance or
tolerance to certain planthoppers, leafhoppers, midges, defoliators, and
stem borers. In Asia, 20- to 40-day-old rice seedlings are transplanted from
nursery beds to paddies where plants are grouped to form hills. In the
United States, rice seed is broadcast to flooded or dry paddies which are
then irrigated, or else seed is drill-planted in dry soil which is subsequently
flooded. The populations and behavior of seedling insect pests and root
pruning weevils are profoundly affected by differences in planting meth-
ods. The Green Revolution, spawned by IRRI in 1962, came to fruition
with the release of the high-yielding short-statured IRS in 1966 (Kisimoto
1984). This and subsequent dwarf cultivars responded without lodging to
increased nitrogen. Production increases of21 and 22% were attributed to
inherent high-yielding ability and increased nitrogen, respectively (Lit-
singer 1989). However, certain pest populations, such as planthoppers,
leafhoppers, and stem borers, also responded positively to elevated nitro-
gen levels.
Lowland rice is grown in paddies which are surrounded by levees to
impound water received from a reliable or uncontrolled source. Upland
rice relies on direct rainfall and is not grown within impounded paddies
(Litsinger 1987). Approximately 75% of the world's rice is grown in low-
lands, while 10% is in uplands (Wilson and Claridge 1985). The remaining
15% is deepwater rice grown in up to 6 m of standing water. Litsinger
(1987) concluded that upland rice is attacked by a wider array of insects
than lowland rice, although populations are generally smaller on upland
rice. The major pests of upland rice attack seed and seedlings; however,
no single insect has been observed as a key pest every year. As the Green
Revolution varieties became more widely accepted and grown, more insec-
INSECT PESTS OF RICE 239
ticides were applied to protect higher yielding crops requiring greater

inputs. The increased use of insecticides decimated natural enemies and
led to secondary pest outbreaks and the resurgence ofplanthoppers (Hein-
richs 1979; Chelliah and Heinrichs 1980; Krishnaiah and Kalode 1987).
Finally, the release of early-maturing varieties lacking sensitivity to photo-
period fostered asynchronous planting and the growth of more than one
crop per year (Kenmore et al. 1984; Oka 1979). In the tropics, this provides
a continuous supply of suitable host plants and an opportunity for pest
populations to build to damaging levels.
Clearly, a single chapter cannot describe all the world rice agroecosys-
tems and associated insect pests. Grist and Lever (1969) consider 28
species in Asia, nine in Australia, 15 in Africa, and 13 in the Americas as
major insect pests of rice. Space limitations require that only the most
important pests, based on number of publications within the last five years
and/or opinions of rice entomologists, be considered here. Consequently,
the remainder of this chapter will describe pertinent aspects of the life
history, damage, management, and current research efforts concerning
only the most important insect pests of rice.
BROWN PLANTHOPPER
The brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stal) is the most

serious insect pest of rice in the world. It occurs in tropical to temperate
areas of southern and southeastern Asia including Pakistan, India, Nepal,
Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Kampuchea,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Japan, China, North
Korea, and South Korea (Reissig et al. 1986). BPH also occurs in Australia
and a related species, Nilaparvata maeander Fennah has been reported
in Africa, where it may become a serious pest (Alam et al. 1985). Dyck and
Thomas (1979) estimated at least $300 million in losses were attributable to
BPH during the 1970s. Damage is by direct feeding ofBPH which removes
excessive amounts of phloem sap, causing foliage to turn brown and die.
Eventually, the entire plant also dies. This condition is called hopperburn
and results in high yield losses. In physiological terms, hopperburn is
probably caused by disruption of photosynthate flow to the root system
which causes leaf senescence (Sogawa 1982). BPH also transmits viruses,
the causative agents of grassy stunt and ragged stunt diseases. Symptoms
of grassy stunt are severely stunted plants with many tillers which produce
few panicles. Ragged stunt gives rise to ragged leaves during early growth
stages, stunting, vein swelling, and more panicles but fewer filled grains
than healthy plants (IRRI 1983). Both viruses are persistent but not trans-
mitted transovarially.
Brown planthoppers became a major pest after the release of high-

yielding, short-statured cultivars which drastically altered traditional
cultural practices and insecticide use patterns. Increased nitrogen applica-
tions, construction and implementation of irrigation systems to allow mul-
tiple rice cropping, and greater reliance on insecticides which decimate
natural enemies have largely been responsible for the change in pest status
of BPH (Kenmore et al., 1984; Sogawa 1982).
The eggs of the BPH are inserted in groups in leaf sheaths. Nymphs
and adults feed at the base of plants where coverage by insecticidal sprays
is often inadequate due to the foliage canopy. A complete generation
requires about one month at 27°C; consequently, multiple generations
develop during the rice growing season (Kisimoto 1981). Until recently,
BPH was known only to reproduce on rice but Heinrichs and Medrano
(1984) discovered populations ofBPH which could develop Leersia hexan-
dra, a weed found in ditches and canals associated with rice cultivation.
Thus, they speculate that BPH natural enemies may maintain their popula-
tions (during periods when rice is not growing) on BPH hosts developing
on L. hexandra.
BPH flight behavior, population dynamics, and damage patterns are
different in tropical and temperate areas. The insect is endemic in the
tropics where populations gradually increase; this increase is followed by
long distance movement to temperate regions (Riley et al. 1987). The insect
does not overwinter north of the Tropic of Cancer; therefore, infestations
in northern China, northern India, Korea, and Japan develop every year
from long distance migrants originating in the tropics and subtropics. In
the tropics, movement from one area to another requires only short flights
because of the continuity of rice cropping in both space and time (Perfect
and Cook 1987). As densities of tropical BPH infestations increase and
rice plants become hopperburned, older, or less preferred, a greater per-
centage of macropterous adults appear (Padgham 1983). Once these
winged immigrants arrive in temperate rice-growing areas, BPH popula-
tions increase exponentially over three generations, eventually causing
hopperburn damage (Kisimoto 1981). This damage may initially be re-
stricted to small areas in paddies where the original migrants arrived, but
gradually, these areas expand to cover entire paddies. On the other hand,
population increases in the tropics are not as dramatic, possibly due to the
action of natural enemies. This implies that BPH long distance movement
separates the pest from its natural enemies. However, Okuma and Kisi-
moto (1981) collected Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Reuter, an important mirid
predator of BPH, and spiders over the East China Sea. Presumably, these
natural enemies were moving long distances from China to Japan as were
the host BPHs.
Table 6-1. Rice Yield Loss and Time of

Infestation of Brown
Planthopper in Korea
Time of lnfestationa Percent of
(days after transplanting) Yield Loss
46 100
56 100
66 81
76 61
81 30
86 19
91 6
Control 0
a Initial infestation of one pair of adults per
hill.
Source: Lee and Park (1976).
Since BPH is a serious pest over a wide range of environments,

numerous economic threshold/injury levels have been proposed. In addi-
tion, the time of infestation relative to crop growth can influence damage
and threshold values. For instance, in temperate areas hopperburn gener-
ally occurs during the reproductive phase of crop growth, while in the
tropics it can occur at any time. Plants infested during the vegetative phase
of development produce fewer panicles and grains per panicle, while later
infestations reduce the percentage of fully developed grains (Sogawa and
Cheng 1979). Furthermore, Kisimoto (1976) found that yield losses in
Japan were greater when hopperburn occurred earlier relative to heading.
In Korea, Lee and Park (1976) infested rice at various times with a single
pair of adult BPH per hill. Data show that roughly a 50-day difference in
the time of infestation can result in less than 10 to 100% yield loss (Table
6-1.). Kisimoto (1984) estimated the critical level of economic loss at 3%.
This corresponds to 0.3 to 0.5 first generation brachypterous females per
hill in temperate regions.
In the tropics, a threshold of20 to 25 BPH per hill is widely accepted;
however, Sogawa and Cheng (1979) believe that 10 per hill is more accu-
rate. Their belief is supported by data from Taiwan showing that 10 BPH
per hill can reduce yield 14% (Table 6-2.). Reissig et al. (1986) report the
economic threshold for tropical Asia as one late instar nymph per tiller.
Late instar nymphs were selected as the sample and treatment target
because they are not sexually mature, have escaped egg and early instar
parasitism and predation, and are capable of removing large amounts of
sap. Since nymphs are not able to reproduce, treatments aimed at their
Table 6-2. Brown Planthopper

Density and Yield Loss in
Taiwan
Number of Percent of
Insects Per Yield
Hill Loss"
10 14.1
20 15.9
40 20.0
80 25.3
160 33.7
a On susceptible variety Taichung Na-
tive 1.
Source: Adapted from Cheng (1976).
control can prevent population buildup. Shepard et al. (1986) developed a

sequential sampling plan for BPH and white backed planthopper, Sogatella
furcifera Horvath in the Philippines (Fig. 6-1.). The sampling unit is a hill,
and the insect stages sampled are late instars and adults during tillering to
flowering of the crop. Sampling is accomplished by beating plants in a hill
over the water surface or a water pan trap and counting the dislodged
.300
280
1/)
1....
260
~ 240
a.
0 220
..c
200
0
c 180
Q)
.~
160
-'
0 140
::l
120
E
::l 100
0
80
50
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1.3
No. hills sampled
Figure 6-1. Sequential sampling plan for hopper pests in Philippines. Probability
of making incorrect decision = 20%. Adapted from Shepard et al.
(1986).
hoppers on the water surface. The effectiveness of the sequential sampling

plan was compared to an approved more extensive sampling method re-
quiring 20 hills to be examined regardless of hopper population density.
Results showed 100% agreement between the techniques with an 80%
savings in time using the sequential sampling plan.
Host plant resistance is the major control tactic for BPH. According
to Heinrichs (1986) over 70,000 rice accessions have been evaluated for
BPH resistance at IRRI. Roughly 1 to 2% were judged resistant. As of 1984,
20 BPH resistant varieties have been released by IRRI. These resistant
varieties are well accepted in Asia and save farmers millions of dollars
annually. For instance, IR36, which is resistant to BPH, is grown on 13
million hectares making this cultivar the most widely cultivated of any
food crop variety (Heinrichs 1986). Breeding programs have employed a
number of resistant donors, including TKM6, Mudgo, Ptb33, Neera,
W1252, and W1256. Taichung Native 1 is often used as a susceptible check
variety in these programs.
Investigation into the mechanism of resistance revealed that BPH
probes more but ingests less phloem sap when feeding on resistant culti-
vars (Khan and Saxena 1988; Kimmins 1989). In addition, on susceptible
varieties, BPH produces more honey dew, lays more eggs, develops faster,
and lives longer (Saxena and Khan 1988; Cook et al. 1987). This has
important implications for BPH long distance movement, since insects
reared on resistant varieties do not have as much lipid reserve as those
reared on susceptible varieties. Padgham (1983) surmised that BPH reared
on resistant IR36 would not have sufficient fuel reserves to cross the East
China Sea successfully and establish in Japan. Also, Saxena and Okech
(1985) extracted plant volatiles from resistant cultivars and applied them
topically to a susceptible cultivar with the result that BPH feeding was
reduced and mortality increased relative to the untreated susceptible culti-
var. They concluded that these volatiles, which include terpenoids, have
a repellent or toxic effect on BPH and play an important role in the
establishment of the insect on rice.
Although BPH-resistant varieties have provided farmers in developing
Asian countries a relatively inexpensive method of control, the stability
of resistance is being undermined by the development ofbiotypes with the
ability to develop normally on previously resistant genotypes. Three BPH
biotypes have been identified, and each has a distinct pattern of responses
to a given set of cultivars (Pathak and Heinrichs 1982). Biotype 1 is affected
by all BPH-resistant varieties; biotype 2 is unaffected by varieties with
the Bph1 gene; and biotype 3 is unaffected by varieties with bph2 gene.
Currently, IR56, IR58, IR60, and IR62 are resistant to all biotypes (Hein-
richs 1986). To combat the development of new virulent biotypes, plant
breeders and entomologists are selecting for genotypes with more than
one resistance gene to achieve a broader base of resistance-horizontal.

Another tactic is to incorporate field resistance or tolerance into vertically
resistant cultivars. Velusamy et al. (1987) reported that IR46, Utri Raja-
pan, and Triveni exhibited field resistance to BPH. In other words, al-
though these varieties are susceptible during the seedling stage of develop-
ment, they become increasingly resistant with age. Utri Rajapan is being
used as a donor in attempts to develop more broadly based BPH-resistant
cultivars.
Other methods of control are (1) limit rice production to two crops per
year, (2) synchronize planting on an areawide basis, (3) do not overfertil-
ize, (4) plow down volunteer ratoon plants after harvest, and (5) apply the
proper dosage of insecticide at the best time to conserve natural enemies
and prevent BPH resurgence. Heinrichs et al. (1982a) found that certain
insecticides, such as carbofuran and decamethrin, when applied as foliar
sprays, stimulate egg production in BPH, resulting in much higher infesta-
tions on treated versus untreated rice. Since BPH feeds below the rice
canopy, insects are often exposed to sublethal doses of foliar applied
insecticides which fosters BPH resurgence due to physiological stimula-
tion. Sprays should be directed toward the base of plants to help solve
this problem. Heinrichs et al. (1982b) conclude that resurgence-promoting
insecticides should be identified and not recommended for use by farmers.
Furthermore, Reissig et al. (1982) evaluated 35 insecticides for toxicity to
natural enemies of BPH. They found that most insecticides did not affect
spiders or Microuelia atrolineata (Bergoth) (a veliid predator) popula-
tions but did reduce C. liuidipennis numbers. Selective insecticides that
do not promote resurgence should be developed. Buprofezin is an insect
growth regulator that shows excellent activity against N. lugens and does
not upset the natural enemy balance or induce resurgence (Konno 1990).
Recently, neem cake, which is made from the seed of Azadirachta indica,
was evaluated by Saxena et al. (1984) for insecticidal action against BPH.
Neem has systemic, antifeedant properties which significantly reduced
food intake of female BPH. However, neem products degrade when ex-
posed to sunlight; therefore, application to soil followed by incorporation
is preferable to foliar treatments. Development of an effective neem-
based insecticide for BPH control would be highly beneficial to Asian
farmers because of ready availability, low cost, and low toxicity to nontar-
get species.
GREEN LEAFHOPPERS
Four species of green leafhopper (GLH) occur in Asia: Nephotettix cincti-

ceps (Uhler), which is limited to temperate regions, and N. uirescens
(Distant), N. nigropictus (Still), and N. malayanus Ishihara et Kawase,
which are distributed in the tropics. Nephotettix spp. are the most im-
portant insect pests of rice in tropical Asia (Saxena and Khan 1989). They
damage rice by direct feeding which is secondary to their ability to vector
viruses that cause rice dwarf, transitory yellowing, yellow dwarf, and
tungro (IRRI 1983). Of these diseases, tungro is the most serious. Symp-
toms of tungro-infec1ed rice are stunting, decreased tillering, leaf color
change from light yellow to orange-yellow to brown-yellow, and develop-
ment of young leaves that are mottled or have pale green to white stripes
parallel to the veins. Infected plants mature later with panicles that are
often incompletely exserted and small. Yields are reduced, primarily due
to fewer filled grains per panicle. Plants that are infected late may not
exhibit symptoms which can occur on subsequent ratoon rice (IRRI 1983).
Younger plants are more susceptible to virus infection and serve as a
better source of inoculum than older plants (Sogawa 1976). Rapusas and
Heinrichs (1987) exposed IR36 plants of varying age to viruliferous N.
virescens. Roughly 85, 50, and 0% of 20-, 40-, and 60-day-old plants,
respectively, became tungro-infected. Not surprisingly, yield is also re-
duced more by early than late infections relative to age of rice. For exam-
ple, Ling (1969) and Ling and Palomar (1966) reported that IRS inoculated
15, 30, 45, 60, and 75 days after sowing gave yield reductions of 68, 57,
30, 16, and 7%, respectively.
Various strains of rice tungro virus have been identified based on
virulence to different rice varieties. The virus has a limited host range,
with wild and cultivated rices being the most suitable. In addition, the
major vector of tungro, N. virescens, also has a limited host range that
includes only those species in the genus Oryza (Cook and Perfect 1989).
Thus, volunteer, ratoon, and wild rice in and around paddies has a large
influence on the epidemiology of tungro, particularly during the time of
year when rice is not cultivated.
Green leafhoppers move into seedling nurseries and paddies when
rice emerges. Adults are capable of long distance movement, and all are
macropterous though most movement is limited to several kilometers.
Unlike BPH, GLH adults occur on the top portion of rice plants. Females
insert egg batches in leaf sheaths or midribs of foliage near the base of
plants. Nymphs are found on foliage during the morning but move down
the plant during the heat of the day. In the tropics, a single generation
requires about 30 days, while in temperate regions, more time is needed
to complete a life cycle. Both nymphs and adults feed on leaf sheaths and
blades and can transmit the tungro virus, but younger individuals are
less efficient. Over 50% of N. virescens actively tranmit the tungro virus
(Sogawa 1976). N. virescens can acquire the virus from virus-infected
plants in only 30 min and transmit almost immediately since no incubation
is required (Ling 1968). Infective insects quickly lose the ability to transmit
but can reacquire the virus within a short time period. Infectivity is lost
upon molting, and transovariole transmission does not occur. Due to

these characteristics, rice tungro virus is nonpersistent and probably stylet
borne.
Since direct damage by GLH is rare, economic threshold/injury levels
are primarily concerned with disease damage. In the Philippines, the eco-
nomic threshold is two GLH per sweep or five per hill sampled by plant
tapping (Reissig et al. 1986). Monitoring rice should begin at emergence
and terminate at panicle initiation. In Japan, the economic injury level for
N. cincticeps is 6% for hills infected early or 17% for late-infected hills
(Andow and Kiritani 1983). However, since this pest vectors rice dwarf
virus, which has a 1- to 4-week incubation period before symptoms de-
velop, control should be initiated before or soon after transplanting. In
fact, control tactics can be employed even earlier, when paddies are fallow.
Above-threshold densities of GLH are considered to arise from higher
than normal vector populations surviving during the off-season on wild,
ratoon, and volunteer rice. These populations move to young cultivated
rice, increase rapidly, and cause extensive damage.
Like the BPH, planting resistant varieties is a major control tactic for
GLH. Resistance to N. virescens has been detected in about 1200 acces-
sions from approximately 48,000 evaluated at IRRI (Heinrichs 1986). All
cultivars, except one, released by IRRI since 1960 have high or moderate
levels of resistance toN. virescens. However, none of these commercial
cultivars possesses resistance to tungro virus (Heinrichs and Rapusas
1990). Six dominant and one recessive gene have been identified as confer-
ring resistance to N. virescens (Saxena and Khan 1989). Japan also has
embarked on an active breeding program to develop varieties resistant to
N. virescens which transmits rice dwarf virus.
Presently, no known GLH biotypes have the ability to develop nor-
mally on previously resistant varieties. However, Saxena and Khan (1989)
reported that allopatric populations of N. virescens responded differently
to the same set of cultivars. Heinrichs and Rapusas (1990) were able to
select for increasingly virulent populations of N. virescens in the labora-
tory. They suggested that breeding efforts should include developing tun-
gro-resistant varieties to combat biotype selection. The chances are that
virulent biotypes will appear in the future; therefore, breeding programs
should also emphasize incorporation of multiple genes for GLH resistance
into agronomically desirable cultivars (Thresh 1989).
Studies by Khan and Saxena (1985a,b) helped elucidate the mechanism
of N. virescens resistance in selected varieties. Insects that fed on a
resistant variety probed more often, ingested less phloem sap and more
xylem fluid, and grew more slowly, with fewer nymphs becoming adults,
than insects that fed on a susceptible variety. Application of steam distillate
extracts of resistant plants to susceptible plants caused N. virescens to
probe more, ingest less phloem sap, and excrete more honeydew relative
to untreated susceptible plants. They conclude that resistant varieties
possess plant volatiles with antifeedant or repellent properties.
Suggested cultural controls for GLH are similar to those for BPH. In
addition, seed beds can be covered to protect young, highly susceptible
plants from viruliferous insects. Also, the use of early-maturing varieties
results in the production of fewer generations of GLH. A novel cultural
tactic employing the early planting of a GLH-susceptible trap crop border-
ing a late-planted main crop was described by Saxena et al. (1988). GLH
were effectively drawn to the early planted rice where they were killed
with insecticide. Incidence of tungro was lower and yield higher in the rice
protected by the trap crop than unprotected rice.
Because low densities of viruliferous insects can cause extensive dam-
age, chemical control is very important in quickly reducing GLH popula-
tions below economic injury levels. Systemic, granular insecticides ap-
plied to the seedbed can prevent early insect attack and tungro infection.
Another insecticide treatment should be applied before or after trans-
planting to prolong protection. Insecticides that are effective in controlling
GLH as a vector are liquid formulations of carbofuran, cypermethrin,
acephate, bendiocarb, isoprocarb, and carbaryl (Satapathy and Anjaney-
ulu 1989a). Granular carbofuran was also shown to be very effective when
applied to the root zone in mud balls (Satapathy and Anjaneyulu 1989b).
The directed placement requires less pesticide, prevents photodegradation
and volatilization, and is less harmful to beneficial insects. Krishnaiah and
Kalode (1986) found that carbosulfan was effective as a seedling root dip
treatment while granular thiocyclam hydrogen oxalate provided excellent
initial and residual control ofGLH. The novel plant derivative insecticide,
neem, was applied to rice seed, causing fewer N. virescens nymphs to
develop to adults and greater seedling vigor (Kareem et al. 1989). Clearly,
this demonstrates the systemic properties of neem. Also, Saxena et al.
(1987) treated soil with neem and evaluated its effect on tungro incidence in
seedlings growing in treated soil and exposed to viruliferous N. virescens.
Protection of seedlings from tungro infection was similar to that afforded
by carbofuran.
STEM BORERS
Before the release of the short-statured, high-yielding varieties, stem bor-

ers were the most serious pests of rice; however, their importance has
decreased relative to planthoppers and leafhoppers which have taken
advantage of the newer cultivars and associated cultural practices. The
Table 6-3. Major Stem Borer Pests of Rice

Species and Family Common Name Pest Distribution
Chilo suppressa/is (Walker) Striped stem borer Tropical and temperate
Pyralidae Asia
Chilo zacconius Blesz Striped stem borer Africa
Pryalidae
Chilo po/ychrysus (Meyrick) Dark-headed stem borer Mostly tropical Asia
Pyralidae
Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) Yell ow stem borer Tropical and temperate
Pyralidae Asia
Scirpophaga innotata (Walker) White stem borer Mostly tropical Asia
Pyralidae and Australia
Sesamia inferens (Walker) Pink stem borer Tropical and temperate
Noctuidae Asia
Sesamia calamistis Hemps. Pink stem borer Africa
Noctuidae
Diatraea sacchara/is (F.) Sugarcane borer Southern United States and
Pyralidae Latin America
Ma/iarpha separatella Rag. White stem borer Africa
Pyralidae
Diopsis spp. Stalk eyed fly Africa
Diopsidae
reasons for the decline of stem borer pest status are (1) widespread use of
synthetic insecticides, (2) cultivation of rice varieties with short, thin
culms, (3) improved cultural practices including destruction of post-har-
vest stubble, and (4) planting of early-maturing varieties. Yet, stem borers
remain chronic pests and in some regions, such as Africa, are considered
the most serious insect constraint to rice production. Many species of
stem borers attack rice, but some of the most common and damaging are
listed in Table 6-3. Each species has a unique life history, but all of the
Lepidoptera borers are sufficiently similar for generalities to be made.
Adults do not fly long distances and are active at night, when they lay eggs
in masses on rice leaves and sheaths. After the eggs hatch, larvae often
balloon as a means of dispersal. They begin feeding between the sheath
and the culm and eventually enter the culm where they consume the inner
portions. Here they are protected from natural enemies and nonsystemic
insecticides. Symptoms of early infestations relative to plant age are dead
hearts, while symptoms of later infestations are whiteheads. Pupation
occurs within the culm, often near the base. A single generation requires
roughly 40 to 50 days, so multiple generations can develop on rice, de-
pending on the length of the growing season, the number of rice crops
grown per year, and varietal maturation time.
Damage leads to lodging and yield reductions resulting from fewer
panicles and more unfilled grains. In Japan, data show that 2 to 3% of the
stems infested with Chilo suppressalis (Walker) give a yield loss of 3.5%
when infestations occur early relative to plant development (Kiritani 1979).
Later infestations must approach 14% infested stems to give similar yield
reductions. Kisimoto (1984) reportd that yield losses of 3% due to C.
suppressalis economically justifies a control tactic. Thus, yield losses
must be correlated to previous borer stages, densities, or early damage
symptoms to allow implementation of control tactics to prevent economic
damage. For instance, the economic threshold for stem borers in tropical
Asia is two egg masses per 20 hills (Reissig et al. 1986). However, the egg
masses must be held until parasites emerge, since an insecticide treatment
is not required if at least 50% of the eggs are parasitized. Research has
shown that egg densities of this magnitude will likely give rise to later
damage equal to the cost of control.
Population dynamics of and damage by stem borers are markedly
influenced by cropping practices, phenology of the host, and environment.
In China, Scirpophaga incertulas (Walker) prefers to oviposit on tillering
and booting rice (Yu 1980). Newly hatched larvae can also more easily
penetrate the culm during these stages. Therefore, staggered planting and
multiple cropping provide a continuous supply of preferred stages of the
host which leads to a buildup of populations to damaging levels over the
course of three or four generations of the pest. This pest, as well as S.
innotata (Walker), is monophagous so establishment of a rice-free period
and destruction of stubble and volunteer rice during the off-season can
greatly affect pest population dynamics. Rothschild (1971) reported densi-
ties of S. incertulas in stubble in Sarawak between 1200 and 1900 larvae
per 200 plants which illustrates the significance of off-season hosts. Water
management can also affect borer activity. For example, in a laboratory
study, rice was exposed to flood depths of 0 to 20 em and to eggs and first
instar larvae of C. suppressalis (Tsumuki et al. 1985). About three times
as many stems were infested at 5 em vs. 20 em. Alam (1988) compared
stem borer species abundance on upland and irrigated rice in Nigeria. In
general, borers were more abundant on irrigated rice which was infested
earlier by Diopsis spp. and later by three lepidopterous species: Maliarpha
separatella Rag., C. zacconius Blesz, and Sesamia calamistis Hemps. M.
separatella was the most abundant Lepidoptera borer in both environ-
ments, which could be due to a more limited host range than the other
borers. Deepwater rice is also attacked by stem borers, primarily S. incer-
tulas. However, feeding by the larvae often does not damage the vascular
transport system; thus heavy infestations do not necessarily translate to
high yield losses (Taylor 1988). Apparently, the large hollow stems of
floating rice allow the larvae to feed on parenchyma tissue without inter-
rupting nutrient transport.
Cultural controls include synchronous plantings of eariy-maturing va-

rieties; destruction of ratoon, stubble, and wild rice; avoiding year-round
rice cropping and excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications; and hand re-
moval of borer egg masses. Also, some resistant varieties are available.
Chandina, IR20, Ratria, IR1561-228-3-3, IR36, and IR42 possess resistance
to C. suppressalis and have been released for commercial production
(Khush 1984). These cultivars, of which IR36 is the most resistant, derive
their resistance from TKM6. IR36 also is resistant to S. incertulas. Further-
more, host plant resistance research is being conducted in Africa against
C. zacconius. Lac23, IR2035-120-3, IR4625-132-1-2, and Columbia 1 have
been identified as resistant varieties. Larvae reared on these varieties
weighed less and exhibited higher first ins tar mortality relative to suscepti-
ble varieties (Ukwungwu and Odebiyi 1987). Therefore, the mechanism of
resistance is antibiosis.
Beneficial insects are very important in maintaining most borer popula-
tions below economic threshold levels. Generally, egg parasitism is very
high in Asian borers. Hikim (1988) recorded increasingly high rates of egg
parasitization with each succeeding generation of S. incertulas. Lowest
and highest parasitization rates were 47 and 94%, respectively. Telenomus
spp. were the most common egg parasites.
Insecticides with systemic and residual activity are preferred for borer
control because most of their life history is passed within the plant where
they are protected from contact insecticides. Reissig et al. (1986) suggest
that sprays or granules be applied during tillering but only sprays after the
vegetative phase. Often, multiple applications are required to effect long-
lasting control. Many insecticides have been evaluated for stem borer
control. Among the most effective are carbofuran, chlorpyrifos, quin-
alphos, phosphamidon, fenitrothion, BPMC, fundal, carbaryl, phorate,
and endosulfan. However, organophosphorus resistance was detected in
C. suppressalis in Japan in 1978 (Tanaka et al. 1982).
RICE GALL MIDGE
The rice gall midge CRGM), Orseolia oryzae (Wood-Mason) occurs in

southern and southeastern Asia including Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Ban-
gladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Kampuchea, Vietnam, Indonesia, and
China but not in Japan, Korea, or the Philippines (Reissig et al. 1986). A
related species, Oryseolia oryzivora Harris and Gagne, is found in the
African countries of Guinea Bissau, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory
Coast, Malawi, Cameroon, Sudan, Zambia, and Nigeria on irrigated and
rainfed lowland rice (Alam et al. 1985). Like BPH, RGM has become a
more serious pest since the release of photoperiod-insensitive, high-yield-
ing varieties that allow multiple cropping with an uninterrupted, abundant

supply of host plants. Yield loss as high as 60% have been reported since
severely damaged plants fail to produce panicles (Hidaka and Widiarta
1986).
The RGM adult is a small fly in the family Cecidomyiidae. Before
infesting rice, one or two generations are completed on alternate grass
hosts. Once rice is planted, females lay eggs on leaves near the junction
of blade and sheath. Eggs and larvae require high relative humidity; thus,
upland rice is not damaged. However, lowland rice, grown in the monsoon
season when rain is frequent, skies are cloudy and temperatures are high,
suffers severe attack due to the rapid increase of RGM populations. After
egg hatch, the small larva moves between the sheath and culm to the no-
dal meristem where feeding occurs. As the larva feeds, it secretes ceci-
dogen which causes proliferation of plant cells and formation of a long,
tubular gall called an onion leaf or silver shoot which fails to produce a
panicle (Prakasa Rao 1989). Within the gall, the larva metamorphoses to
the pupa which moves, with the help of abdominal spines, to the top
of the gall where the insect emerges as an adult. Plants infested early in
development produce compensatory tillers which suffer heavy damage
and produce few panicles. According to Hidaka and Widiarta (1986), RGM
larvae cannot develop in panicle primordia; therefore, rice is susceptible
to attack only during the vegetative phase of growth (seeding through
tillering).
Prakasa Rao (1989) investigated the effect of RGM damage on 15
cultivars in India. Yield loss ranged from nil to 1.1% for each percentage
increase in density of silver shoots. This large variation illustrates the
importance of developing RGM economic injury levels for each variety
grown in a distinct geographical area. Hidaka and Widiarta (1986) sug-
gested that inspections for RGM damage be made two to four weeks after
transplanting. An insecticide should be applied if 5% or more of silver
shoots + tillers are silver shoots.
Development of resistant varieties is the most promising method of
control. Heinrichs and Pathak (1981) identified more than 170 varieties
resistant to RGM. India embarked on an extensive breeding program after
the release ofiR8. Several varieties such as Eswarakora, Leuang 152, and
Siam 29 were used as donors to develop RGM-resistant varieties Shakti,
Vikram, Kakatiya, Phalguna, and Surekha (Khush 1984). The mechanism
of resistance in varieties with Siam 29 and Eswarakora as resistance
donors appears to be larval antibiosis, possibly due to increasing phenol
concentration in response to larval infestation (Kalode 1980). Neverthe-
less, RGM resistance is controlled by only one or a few genes which allows
for relatively rapid selection of RGM biotypes with the ability to develop
normally on previously resistant cultivars. At least four biotypes of RGM
Table 6-4. Response of Rice Gall Midge to

Selected Varieties
RESPONSE OF BIOTYPE
Variety 2 3
Eswarakora group Ra R
Siam 29 group R s
aResistant.
bSusceptible.
Source: Kalode and Bentur (1989).
have been identified (Kalode and Bentur 1989). Each biotype has a distinct
response, as measured by certain criteria of developmental success, to a
given set of varieties (Table 6-4.). Biotype 4 was identified in China and
was able to develop on Eswarakora and Siam 29 groups (Lai et al. 1984).
Obviously, the goal of plant breeders and entomologists is to develop
RGM varieties possessing multiple genes for resistance to slow the devel-
opment of virulent biotypes.
Manipulation of cultural practices can reduce RGM problems. Dense
stands of rice and applications of high amounts of nitrogen create a thick
canopy and a moist, humid environment which is ideal for RGM develop-
ment. Removal of alternate hosts during the off-season can cause an
interruption in the pest's life cycle. Several grasses, including wild rice
(Oryza nivara), are suitable hosts ofRGM. In fact, Srivastava (1986) found
that RGM larval infestations in wild and cultivated rice were similar. An
important control tactic recommended by Chinese entomologists is to
weed the overwintering host Leersia hexandra (Chin 1980). Clearly, stag-
gered planting dates and multiple cropping will also favor RGM; therefore,
synchronous planting on an areawide basis will prevent continuous devel-
opment of the pest. Finally, Reissig et al. (1986) suggest that photoperiod-
insensitive varieties be planted early in the wet season to allow the crop
to develop vegetatively before RGM moves from alternate hosts.
In general, granular formulations of insecticides, such as carbofuran,
phorate, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and quinalfos, applied to flooded paddies
during the vegative phase of growth provide control of RGM. Systemic
insecticides kill larvae feeding within the gall. In areas where the RGM is
a serious pest every year prophylactic application to seedling beds, root
zone application of granular products, or soaking seedlings in an insectici-
dal bath may be justified.
Natural biocontrol agents play a significant role in reducing RGM
populations. At least 19 parasites and predators have been recorded for
RGM (Kalode 1980). Probably the most important is an egg-larval para-
site, Platy gaster oryzae Cameron (Hidaka 1974). A field survey by Patnaik
and Satpathy (1985) conducted in India revealed that P. oryzae comprised
80% of the parasite complex and accounted for an average of 21% parasit-
ization of RGM over a 3-year period. However, Hidaka et al. (1988)
evaluated the effect of selected insecticides commonly applied for RGM
control onP. oryzae and found that all chemicals were toxic to the parasite.
Granular formulations appear to be less disruptive to beneficial insects
than emulsifiable concentrates.
RICE WATER WEEVIL
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel infests rice in all the rice-producing

states of the United States, where estimated annual losses in the absence
of carbofuran (the only insecticide approved for weevil control by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state agricultural depart-
ments) approach $50 million (Grigarick 1984; USDA 1989). The pest also
occurs in Japan, where it was introduced via California in 1976 and spread
to all prefectures within ten years (Ohto 1989). Japanese farmers spend
roughly $160 million annually to control the rice water weevil (RWW)
which is 50% more than any other country spends on rice insect control
(Woodburn 1990). The RWW invades rice fields from overwintering sites
located in the crowns of perennial grasses and woodland leaflitter. Muda
et al. (1981) reported that indirect flight muscles of overwintered weevils
degenerate upon adult arrival and feeding on the foliage of rice in newly
flooded paddies. Presumably, muscles are resorbed to provide for the
development of eggs which are laid under water in the coleoptiles, leaf
sheaths, and culms of young plants. Thus, once the RWW invades a
paddy, movement is restricted since flight is curtailed. Morgan et al.
(1984) monitored RWW emergence from overwintering sites and found a
consistent pattern based on heat unit accumulation. Using a threshold
temperature of 18°C, 50% and 90% of adults emerged by about 100 and
175 cumulative degree days, respectively. Currently, an extension pro-
gram based on these data alerts Arkansas rice producers to begin scouting
paddies for RWW activity.
Eggs hatch within 7 days, and the larvae move to the rice roots where
feeding occurs for the entire larval life which consists of four instars.
Larvae obtain oxygen by tapping roots with dorsal abdominal tracheal
hooks. Depending on temperature, the larval stage lasts from approxi-
mately 2 to 4 weeks, while the pupal stage, which occurs within a mud
cell attached to roots, lasts 1 to 2 weeks. Thus, in the most southern states,
two generations can develop in a year; in California, Arkansas, and Japan,
however, only one generation is normally completed. In addition, bisexual
populations occur in all states except California and Japan where only
parthenogenetic females exist (Grigarick and Beards 1965).
Damage from root pruning results in stunted plants, delayed maturity,
and reduced yield, ranging from an average estimated 33% in California
to 10% in Arkansas (USDA 1989). Losses are greater in California, in
large part due to irrigation and planting methods. Paddies are flooded and
seeded, with the flood maintained to near maturity of the crop, whereas
in the southern states the majority of paddies are seeded and periodically
flooded and drained until the rice is actively tillering, at which time a
permanent flood is applied. Thus, in California, weevil infestations, which
initiate development when paddies are permanently flooded, occur earlier
in relation to plant phenology than in the other states. These earlier infesta-
tions are more damaging because rice is more vulnerable in the seedling
vs. the tillering stage. An overall average yield reduction for weevil in-
fested rice in the United States is between 10 and 20%. Control of this
damage is primarily chemical; however, the EPA is considering banning
the use of granular carbofuran due to avian toxicity problems (USDA
1989). In Japan, damaging infestations develop on newly transplanted
seedlings which can be protected by applying granular insecticides to the
seedling box or flooded paddy. Carbosulfan, benfuracarb, buprofezin,
diazinon, disulfoton, BPMC, and cartap are commonly used insecticides
(Woodburn 1990).
Economic threshold/injury levels have been developed for the RWW.
In Arkansas, Tugwell and Stephen (1981) used cages with varying infesta-
tions of the RWW and reported that ten larvae per core (9.2 em diameter
and 10 em deep plug of soil and roots) was associated with a loss in yield
of 360 kg/ha. Sooksai (1976) regressed larval densities on adult feeding
scars on the youngest leaves of rice plants under permanent flood for less
than a week. From these data, an economic threshold of 60% of plants
with scarred leaves was established. Seldom does adult feeding affect
rice growth; however, feeding scars are an indicator of the magnitude of
subsequent larval infestations and damage.
Tugwell and Stephen (1981) also developed a sequential sampling plan
utilizing feeding scars and a sampling unit of 40 plants. Other states have
also developed economic threshold/injury levels for the RWW. Smith et
al. (1986) reported that average paddy populations in Louisiana of one
larva per core reduce yield 45 kg/ha. This relationship is linear, so that
five larvae per core reduce yield 225 kg/ha, which was established as the
economic injury level. Texas has adopted this level, but Mississippi uses
one larva per plant (MCES 1983). In California, most insecticide treat-
ments are applied prophylactically; however, soon after emergence
through the water, rice can be inspected for RWW activity. At this time
the economic threshold is 10 to 20% of rice plants with feeding scars on
the youngest leaves (University of California 1983). Iffeeding scar density

equals or exceeds the economic threshold, paddies are drained, treated
with carbofuran, and reflooded. In Japan, Tsuzuki et al. (1983a) found that
one adult per hill caused a yield loss of over 10% and early plantings
sustained less damage because plants were older when attacked. Tsuzuki
et al. (1983b) conducted cage studies on newly transplanted rice infested
with adult RWW. They reported that adult feeding did not affect yield;
however, larval infestations caused significant yield losses. Adult infesta-
tions of 0.25 per hill or less resulted in no yield loss. The economic
thresholds for seedling box and paddy insecticidal treatments were set at
less and greater than 0.5 adult per hill, respectively (Ohto 1989).
Other research efforts have emphasized host plant resistance. Rob-
inson et al. (1981) screened 2500 plant introductions for larval resistance
and found seven lines exhibiting antibiosis (22-34% fewer larvae than
susceptible Saturn). Using paired protected and unprotected plots, over
5000 lines were evaluated for antixenosis, which was detected most consis-
tently at highest levels in WC1403, WC1711, and Cl11048 (Grigarick and
Way 1982; Robinson et al. 1988). These lines and others are being used as
genetic donors or sources in conventional breeding programs to develop
a RWW-resistant variety for the United States. In addition, clones derived
by tissue culture of selected lines, including Cl11048, are currently being
evaluated for resistance (Croughan et al. 1989). In spite of these efforts,
the probability of developing a cultivar with a level of resistance that
precludes the need for insecticide is slight. Nevertheless, a moderately
resistant cultivar could reduce insecticide usage by increasing the eco-
nomic threshold of the RWW and/ or restricting insecticide applications to
the margin of paddies where weevil activity is greatest.
Since the RWW is semi-aquatic, water management as a control tactic
has received recent attention. In the southern rice-producing states, delay
of the permanent flood results in RWW infestations developing later rela-
tive to plant growth stage; consequently, less damage is sustained. How-
ever, water depth does not appear to affect RWW-plant interaction. Mor-
gan et al. (1989) investigated the effect of draining paddies soon after
invasion and oviposition by RWW. If paddies were drained and dried
until soil cracked, control was similar to that achieved by carbofuran.
Apparently, draining paddies 10 days after flooding exposes and kills
young larvae; however, the cost of this tactic was estimated to be between
$5.44 and $10.95/ha more than the cost of a carbofuran application (Smith
1981).
Chemical control remains the first line of defense against the RWW.
However, U.S. governmental approval of the continued and future use of
insecticides is becoming more difficult. Because of the fragile and diverse
aquatic ecosystem associated with rice production, broad spectrum activ-
ity insecticides which persist in the environment and result in adverse

effects on the native flora and fauna will not be approved for use on rice.
Recently, RWW insecticide research has concentrated on insect growth
regulators and better timing of carbofuran applications. Smith et al. (1985)
found that diflubenzuron and alsystin only affected the egg while devel-
oping within the adult or soon after oviposition. Thus, adult ingestion of
treated foliage or egg contact with treated water resulted in the highest
mortality. Under field conditions, the timing of application of insect growth
regulators must coincide with peak adult activity. Later applications are
less effective.
RICE LEAFFOLDER
The rice leaffolder (RLF), Cnaphalocrocis medina lis (Guenee), is a pyralid

Lepidoptera whose recent elevation to major pest status is a result of the
Green Revolution. As with BPH, GLH, and RGM, multiple cropping of
modern varieties that require high amounts of nitrogen fertilizer, and
asynchronous planting have encouraged RLF epidemics. RLF is found in
temperate and tropical Asia, Oceania, Australia, and Africa where it feeds
on rice, sorghum, millet, oat, sugarcane, wheat, and a variety of wild
grasses and sedges (Khan et al. 1988). However, Yadava et al. (1972)
reported that rice varieties IRS and Taichung Native 1 were preferred
relative to wild grasses based on larval development and survival. Adults
lay single eggs in batches on the upper and lower surfaces of leaf blades.
After egg hatch, first instar larvae move to the base of the youngest,
unfurled leaves and begin feeding. The larvae fold the leaves longitudinally
by means of silk stitches. Generally, young larvae are gregarious but
become solitary during the second ins tar, so that only a single larva is
found per leaf roll. Feeding behavior, as described by Fraenkel et al.
(1981), consists of scraping and consumption of green mesophyll tissue.
The resulting damage appears as white longitudinal stripes. Larvae move
from leaf to leaf so more than one leaf can be damaged by a larva. Heavily
infested paddies appear scorched. Pupation occurs on leaf blades and
stubble. Completion of a generation requires approximately 5 weeks in
the tropics.
This pest has the ability to move long distances. In fact, specimens,
presumably from China, have been collected over the East China Sea
(Kisimoto 1984). No hibernating RLF have been found in Japan, but during
the rainy season many immigrants appear in western Japan. Thus RLF is
now thought to move every year during early summer from China to Japan
(Miyahara et al. 1981). In addition, Wada et al. (1988) gave evidence for
a second annual movement from China to Japan during autumn when host
.------------------------------------------ --------
-
~8
I I)
iGl 5
Economic loss
j
.J:: 4
3:
i!
0
3
..0
E 2
s
(I)
1 -
2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10
l.eaffoJder damaged leaves (%)
Figure 6-2. Multiple pests thresholds for stem borer and leaffolder in the ripening
stage. From Polis et al. (1989).
plants are scarce and the environment unsuitable. This migration appears
nonadaptive.
Insect/damage relationships have been developed for tropical and
temperate areas. Bautista et al. (1984) infested caged rice with varying
densities of RLF moths and measured subsequent leaf damage and yield.
They found that 17.5 and 26.6% damaged leaves gave yield losses of 16.5
and 21.3%, respectively. From these data, they estimated the economic
injury level at greater than 5% damaged leaves. This corresponds to an
action control threshold of 0.5 to 1 larva per hill (Bandong and Litsinger
1988). Miyashita (1985) observed that infestations during grain filling did
not affect yield; however, infestations at heading reduced the percentage
of filled grains. Yield was reduced in proportion to the percentage of
damaged area of the upper two leaves. Palis et al. (1989) developed multiple
pest thresholds for stem borers and leaffolders. They found that leaffolder
and stem borer damage was additive in terms of effects on yield. In
addition, yield loss resulting from the damage of one insect could be
expressed in terms of the other. For example, the economic value of yield
loss due to a combination of 5% whiteheads and 2.8% damaged leaves or
3% whiteheads and 5.4% damaged leaves is equal to the cost of control
and lies on the iso-loss line (Fig. 6-2.). Therefore, any combination of
damage that results in the economic value of yield loss being above the
iso-loss line will lead to economic loss, which is that amount greater than
the cost of control.
1\)
()1
co
Table 6-5. Economic Thresholds for Oeba/us pugnax for 1989. Values Indicate Average Number of Adults per
10-Sweep Sample
Yield
Spray Plant 5040 kglha 6720 kg/ha 8400 kg/ha
Cost Date Rice Price Rice Price Rice Price
($/ha) (mol day) Loan $0.20/kg $0.24/kg Loan $0.20/kg $0.24/kg Loan $0.20/kg $0.24/kg
THRESHOLDS AT HEADING
4/1 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3
12.85 5/1 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3
6/1 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3
4/1 7 6 5 6 4 4 5 4 4
20.63 5/1 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
6/1 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
4/1 9 7 7 7 6 6 6 5 5
28.42 5/1 8 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5
6/1 8 7 7 6 6 6 5 5 5
THRESHOLDS AT MILK
4/1 12 9 9 10 7 7 8 6 6
12.85 5/1 12 9 9 8 7 7 6 6 6
6/1 11 9 9 8 7 7 7 6 6
4/1 15+ 14 13 14 11 11 12 9 9
20.63 5/1 15+ 13 13 14 11 11 12 9 9
6/1 14+ 13 13 12 11 11 10 9 9
4/1 15+ 15+ 15+ 15+ 14 I4 I5 I2 I2
28.42 5/I I5+ I5+ I5 + I5+ I4 14 I5+ I2 I2
6/I I5+ I5+ I5+ I5+ I4 I4 13 II I2
THRESHOLDS AT SOFT DOUGH
4/1 9-13 IO 10 8-I2 8 8 8-ll 7 7
I2.85 5/1 11-I5 + IO 10 10-12 8 8 7-II 7 7
6/1 9-I5+ IO IO 8-12 8 8 7-11 7 7
4/1 11-I5 I4 I4 IO-I4 11 11 9-I3 IO IO
20.63 5/1 13-I5+ I4 14 12-I5 + 11 11 11-I5 10 10
6/1 15+ 14 14 10-15+ II 11 9-I5 10 9
4/1 15+ 15+ 15+ ll-I5+ 14 14 10-14 I2 12
28.42 5/1 15+ 15+ 15+ I3-15 + 14 14 12-I5 + 12 I2
6(1 15+ 15+ 15+ 15+ 14 14 11-15+ I2 12
Source: Adapted from Harper (1988).
"-l
~
Breeding programs are actively developing resistant vanetles, al-

though no resistant commercial cultivars have yet been released. Hein-
richs et al. (1985) evaluated nearly 20,000 genotypes for RLF resistance.
Fewer than 50 were judged resistant. Of these, TKM6, GEB24, W1263,
Muthumanikam, and Ptb33 are being used as donors. Khan et al. (1989)
compared RLF larval growth on TKM6 and wild rices, some of which
exhibited higher levels of resistance than TKM6. In the future, novel
breeding techniques may allow the transfer of resistant genes from wild
to domestic rice.
SEED-FEEDING INSECTS
A number of Hemiptera attack rice from heading to maturity. Probably

the most damaging are Leptocorisa spp., which occur in temperate and
tropical Asia, and Oebalus pugnax (F.), which occurs in the southern
United States. These pests damage rice by ingesting the contents of devel-
oping grains. Microorganisms are associated with this feeding activity,
which can result in a discolored, weakened area surrounding the feeding
puncture (Marchetti 1984). Damaged kernels are described as pecky and
are more apt to break during milling. The blemished rice and lower milling
yields can reduce grade and price substantially in the United States.
Brorsen et al. (1984) determined that a unit percentage reduction in peck
increased Texas farm revenue by as much as $160/ha.
Life histories of seed-feeding bugs are similar in that they develop on
alternate grass hosts before moving to rice when it begins to head. Adults
are highly mobile and lay eggs in rows on foliage and panicles. Nymphs
and adults feed on grain, but adults are more damaging. Leptocorisa spp.
insert their stylets in the small opening between the lemma and palea, but
0. pugnax can penetrate the hull. Stylet sheaths are produced where
insects probe. Because the time from heading to harvest is relatively short
(about 30 days in the United States), only one generation can develop on
a single crop, but adult immigration can occur at any time during the
ripening period.
The economic threshold for Leptocorisa spp. is four bugs/m2 (Dyck
1978). In the United States, dynamic thresholds have been developed for
0. pugnax (Harper 1988). Data for the thresholds were taken from large
field plot experiments in which natural infestations of 0. pugnax were
manipulated by insecticides applied at various times from heading to matu-
rity. Dynamic programming was the methodology selected to develop
flexible thresholds which take into account planting date, cost of insectici-
dal control, projected yield and price of rough rice, and stage of grain
maturation (Table 6-5.). Thresholds vary from three to greater than 15

adult bugs per 10 sweeps, depending on the above variables.
Since the vulnerable stage of the crop is short, chemical control of
seed feeders is the most effective tactic. In the case of 0. pugnax, farmers
can choose from several insecticides with differing residual activity and
cost. However, since immigrant 0. pugnax infestations can occur, the
selection of an insecticide with low residual activity requires frequent
sampling of paddies to guard against postapplication infestations. Recom-
mended insecticides with residual activity for 0. pugnax are a liquid
formulation of carbaryl and an encapsulated formulation of methyl para-
thion (Way and Wallace 1990).
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7
Insect Pests of Stored Rice*
Robert R. Cogburn
USDA Rice Research Center
Stored-product insects damage agricultural commodities during storage,

processing, and distribution. Postharvest losses are particularly costly.
The production costs already invested in the crop place the value at its
highest point, and the loss of relatively small percentages is financially
significant. Many insect species are associated with stored grain and grain
products, but only about 50 are injurious, either occasionally or frequently
(Cotton 1956). The more common species are listed in Table 7-1. Photo-
graphs and drawings of these and other stored-product insects are con-
tained in Agricultural Handbook 500 (USDA/ARS 1986).
The relative abundance of particular species may vary from country
to country, but most stored-product insects are distributed throughout the
world, and the same species do the same types of damage everywhere.
Many species damage several types of commodities. For example, the
flour beetles, Tribolium spp., are found in all grains and grain products;
the cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (F.), breeds in tobacco, red
pepper, cinnamon, other spices, flour, cornmeal, grains such as rice,
*Cooperative research by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Texas Agricultural Experi-

ment Station, Texas Rice Improvement Association, and Texas Rice Research Foundation.
Mention of a proprietary product does not imply endorsement by any of the cooperating
agencies.
269
Table 7-1. Stored-Product Insects Associated with Harvested Rice

Preferredh
Common Namea Foods
MAJOR INSECT PESTS OF RICE IN THE UNITED STATES
Angoumois grain * Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier) P.B
moth
Lesser grain borer * Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) P,B
Rice weevil * Sitophilus oryzae (L.) P,B,M
Red flour beetle * Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) P,B,M,O
Almond moth * Ephestia cautella (Walker)c P,B,M,O
Sawtoothed grain * Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) P,B,M,O
beetle
Merchant grain (S,W,T) Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel) P,B,M,O
beetle
Cigarette beetle * Lasioderma serricorne (F.) B,M,O
"Flat grain Cryptolestes spp. P,B,M,O
beetle"
Indian meal moth * Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) P,B,M,O
OTHER INSECT PESTS OF RICE IN THE UNITED STATES
Confused flour (P) Tribolium confusum du Val B,M,O
beetle
American black (T) Tribolium audax Halstead B,M,O
flour beetle
Maize weevil (P) Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky P,B,M
Larger black flour (T) Cynaeus angustus (Le Conte) B,M,O
beetle
Foreign grain (S,P,T) Ahasverus advena (Walt!) P,B,M,O
beetle
Squarenecked (S) Cathartus quadricollis (Guerin-Meneville) P,B,M,O
grain beetle
Cadelle (T) Tenebroides mauritanicus (L.) M,O
Smalleyed flour (S) Palorus ratzeburgi (Wissman) P,B
beetle
Longheaded flour (S) Latheticus oryzae Waterhouse P,B,M,O
beetle
Siamese grain (S,W) Lophocateres pusillus (Klug) B,M
beetle
Spider beetles (P) Ptinidae B,M
Grain mite (S,P,W) Acarus siro L. p
(Acarina)
FUNGUS-FEEDING INSECTSd
Hairy fungus * Typhaea stercorea (L.) p
beetle
INSECT PESTS OF STORED RICE 271

Cereal psocid Liposcelis diuanatorius (Mueller) P.B.M,O
"Sap beetle" (W) Carpophilus pilosellus (Motschulsky) M
Dried fruit beetle (W) Carpophilus hemipterus (L.) M
Pink scavenger Pyroderces rileyi (Walsingham) M
caterpillar
a The author has observed the species infesting the type of storage indicated: S-silos (farms
and commercial); P-processing plants, rice mills; W-warehouses/ports; T -transportation
carriers (rail cars, ships); *-all.
h Commodities that each species commonly infests: P-paddy (rough rice); B-brown rice;
M-milled (polished) rice; 0-other (bran, rice flour, processed cereal, etc.).
c Several other species of Ephestia may infest rice.
d These species do not damage rice, but their presence could indicate other problems (leakage,
spoilage).
wheat, and sorghum, and processed commodities such as breakfast

cereals or animal feeds; and the saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus
surinamensis (L.), attacks all grains, processed farinaceous commodi-
ties (flour, cornmeal, etc.), dried fruits (e.g., raisins), and various
nutmeats.
Storage insects are most abundant in areas with warm, humid climates,
but they can and do cause severe problems anywhere grain is stored.
Because most rice is produced and stored in tropical or subtropical areas,
conditions usually favor infestation.
Rough rice is somewhat less susceptible to infestation than other
grains because the hull partially protects the edible portions of the seed.
Even so, the rice hull will not totally prevent infestation in rough rice. All
commercially harvested rice has a proportion of grains with hull defects
which admit pest insects. Methods of harvesting, drying, and handling, as
well as environmental conditions during the growing season and the variety
of rice, can all affect hull condition. Also, some pests can find ways to
enter grains in spite of intact hulls.
Rice weevils, Sitophilus oryzae (L.), do not attack grains with intact
hulls (Breese 1960; Cogburn 1974), but both lesser grain borers, Rhyzoper-
tha dominica (F.), and Angoumois grain moths, Sitotroga cerealella (Oliv-
ier), can infest rice grains selected for perfect hulls. Larvae of these two
species may penetrate through the hull or, more likely, force entry through
gaps between the palea and lemma that are too small to be detected even
under high magnification. Both are known to enter through the abscission
scar at the base of the grains (Cogburn et al. 1983).
Brown rice is an excellent medium for the growth of storage insects.
Rice is not often stored as brown rice, but the United States exports a
significant amount of rice to countries that have milling facilities. Brown
rice and rice bran products are being promoted as health foods, and the
growth of this industry may require storage of brown rice and bran for
extended periods. Both products are especially susceptible to infesta-
tion.
Milled rice (white or polished rice) is a relatively poor growth medium
for storage insects because essential nutrients are removed with the bran
coat and germ (Le Cato 1975). However, the major problems associated
with insects in milled rice derive from contamination rather than from
destruction of the commodity. The significance of contaminants such as
live and dead insects, insect fragments, excreta, webbing, cast larval skins,
eggs, etc.' varies wnh local laws and traditions, but in most countries,
allowable foreign matter, especially insect contamination, in processed
foods is strictly limited.
In the United States, infestation of milled rice is a greater problem in
rice that is exported than in rice consumed locally. Rice for local consump-
tion is usually ''well milled,'' i.e., removal of the bran coat is total and the
rice is milled, packaged, and distributed in a continuous operation. Even
if a few eggs or young larvae survive the milling process, they usually do
not have time to develop to the adult stage and increase to detectable
levels before the rice is consumed.
The infestability of milled rice relates directly to the degree of milling.
Lightly milled rice is much more infestable than highly polished rice
(McGaughey 1970, 1974) and rice for export is often more lightly
milled to accommodate the specifications of the recipient country. Since
some of the bran coat remains on the kernels, lightly milled rice
retains more nutrients and will support insect development. If the rice
is exposed to sources of infestation before or during shipment and con-
tains a few insects when it leaves the port (Cogburn 1973a,b), transit
time and rice temperature determine whether these few insects
increase to detectable populations that can damage the product. If the
destination is an area with a mild climate and transit time is short,
detectable infestations are rare. If the transit time is protracted and
crosses tropical waters, extremely large, multispecies infestations
can develop. These result in severe financial losses, international inci-
dents, ill will between all parties involved in the shipment and suspicion
of the quality of U. S. rice in general. Financial losses are real and measur-
able, but losses in terms of international relations and good will are no less
important, even though they defy quantification (Howe 1965; Cogburn
1977).
Infestation in exported rice is not peculiar to the United States (Free-
man 1965). Elimination of insect contamination in exported foodstuffs,
whether rice or other commodities, is a major concern of any country that
exports agricultural produce (Freeman 1974).
STORED RICE INSECTS
The insect species discussed in this chapter include the major pests of
stored rice, all of which occur throughout the world. References to these
species from various countries include Trinidad (Breese 1960), Ceylon
(Easter 1954), Taiwan (Li 1953), Sierra Leone (Prevett 1971), Egypt (Bish-
ara et al. 1973), all of western Europe (Freeman 1973), and many points
in Asia (Freeman 1974).
To many people, any insect that is found in grain or grain products is
a "weevil." Several species of weevil do indeed damage stored grain, but
the term is correctly applied only to members of the Sitophilus complex.
In addition, vague terms like "bran bugs" are applied to almost anything
that crawls and "millers" to any moth. Such terms often lead to misidenti-
fication of insects and/or misapplication of control measures. All people
involved in the storage, handling, or processing of grain should become
adept in the proper identification of storage insects and learn something
of the life history and habits of each important species. This knowledge
would facilitate better insect control at reduced cost.
All insect pests of stored grain are either beetles (Coleoptera) or moths
(Lepidoptera); thus, all undergo complete metamorphosis-i.e., they have
four distinct life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The type and extent
of damage that a species inflicts on rice depends on whether immature
stages develop inside or outside of the kernels.
Insects that develop from larva to adult inside kernels of rice consume
the endosperm. Thus, each one that develops in a bin of rice is equivalent
to the loss of one grain. Not only do these "primary" insects consume
rice, heavy infestations produce heat which induces moisture gradients
and spoilage. Most species develop outside of the kernels and feed on the
bran coat, germ, dust, or other debris. These do relatively little damage
to the endosperm but are noxious because of contamination. Heavy infes-
tations of these "secondary" species can also cause grain to heat and
spoil. Some moth larvae form clumps of kernels by webbing individual
grains together. These clumps are removed from the rice and discarded
with straw and trash when the grain is cleaned before processing. Infesta-
tions in milled rice necessitates fumigation and then remilling to remove
insect carcasses.
Insects That Develop Inside Kernels of Rice

Weevils
The weevils that infest rice belong to the family Curculionidae and are
characterized by the elongation of the front part of the head into a snout
or proboscis, the tip of which bears the mouthparts. This structure is
utilized for both feeding and to facilitate oviposition (egg laying). All
weevils have similar habits and inflict the same type of damage on grain.
The female chews a hole into a kernel of rice, inserts her ovipositor, and
deposits an egg at the bottom of the hole. As the ovipositor is withdrawn,
she secretes a mucouslike substance that fills the hole to the surface of the
grain and dries into a hard plug which protects the egg and, later, the
young larva from desiccation. The larva feeds on the endosperm, hollowing
out most of the kernel as it grows. The pupal and early adult stages are
also spent inside the kernel. After the exoskeleton hardens, the adult
weevil chews its way out of the kernel, seeks a mate, and the cycle begins
anew.
Three species of weevil can attack stored rice: the rice weevil, the
maize or corn weevil, S. zeamais, and the granary weevil, S. granarius
(L). The rice weevil (Fig 7-lA) is the most common. Maize weevils are
less common. Granary weevils are rarely if ever found in rice in the
southern United States but are widely distributed and are significant pests
in other grains.
Rice and maize weevils are strong fliers, but granary weevils have no
functional flight wings. All are dark brown to black and about 3 mm long,
although the size can vary with the type of grain on which the insects devel-
oped and possibly among different strains of the same species. Rice weevils
and maize weevils have four lighter colored spots on the back, two on each
wing cover. The granary weevil is a uniform color. The species can be sepa-
rated by the shape and arrangement of the pits on the pronotum, the shape
of the genitalia, and other characteristics (Boudreaux 1969).
Lesser grain borer

The lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Fig. 7-lB), is poten-
tially the most destructive insect pest that infests stored rice. A member
of the family Bostrichidae (powder post beetles), it has the characteristic
shape of this family-elongated and cylindrical, with the head deflexed
beneath the hoodlike prothorax. Lesser grain borers are about 3 mm long,
1 mm wide and are dark brown. They can live deep within a grain mass,
develop large populations and destroy many kilograms of rice before
their presence is noticed. The relatively long-lived adults feed and repro-
duce for several months. Each female deposits 300 to 500 eggs that are
deposited loose in the grain mass (Cotton 1956). When the larvae hatch,
they bore into individual kernels and then develop much as weevils do.
The adults are strong fliers and can migrate over large areas (Cogburn
1988), easily spreading infestations from isolated populations to newly
harvested grain.
Figure 7-1. A: Adult rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae, with kernels of long-grain rice
showing iypical damage. B: Adult lesser grain borers, Phyzopertha
dominica, with kernels of long-grain brown rice showing iypical dam-
age. C: Adult angoumois grain moth, Sitotroga cerealella, with kernels
of medium, grain rough rice showing iypical damage. D: Adult red
flour beetles, Tribolium castaneum, on kernels of long-groin brown
rice. E: Adult cigarette beetles, Casioderma serricorne, on grains of
long-grain rice. F: Adults of Crypto/estes Spp. with long-groin rice. G:
Adult almond moth, Ephestia cautella, on kernels of long-grain brown
rice. H: Adult Indian meal moth, P/odia interpunte/la, on kernels on
long-grain brown rice. 1: Larvae of almond moth, Ephestia caute/la,
on kernels of long-grain brown rice.
Angoumois grain moth

The Angoumois grain moth (Fig. 7-lC) is abundant in stored rough rice in
the southern United States. Its capacity for damage is limited by an inabil-
ity to penetrate deep into a grain mass, infestations being confined to the
top 30 or 40 em of the grain surface and to other accessible surfaces around
doors or perforated bin floors.
The moth is small (5-6 mm), tan or buff in color, and the posterior
edges of the wings are fringed with fine hairs. Females deposit eggs, usually
in clusters, in protected places in the grain or storage structure (in the
interstices between grains, beneath the husk of grains with broken hulls,
small crevices in bin walls, etc.). When the eggs hatch, each larva bores
into a rice kernel and consumes the endosperm as it grows. Just before
pupation, the larva cuts a circular "window" to the outside of the grain
and webs it over lightly. The adult moth pushes the window aside and
emerges from the grain, leaving a neat, round hole in the hull, damage
unique to the Angoumois grain moth.
Insects That Develop Outside Kernels of Rice

Other insect pests of rice do not penetrate the kernels but are common in
stored paddy, brown rice, milled rice, rice bran, consumer packages, and
processed products such as breakfast cereals. Over half the rice produced
in the United States is exported as milled or brown rice, and the following
species are particularly troublesome to the export industry.
Flour beetles
The flour beetles, Tribolium spp., are among the most common of the
stored-product insects. The red flour beetle, T. castaneum (Herbst) (Fig.
7-lD), is by far the most abundant in the southern United States. The
confused flour beetle, T. confusum Jacquelin duVal, is generally more
abundant in cooler regions. Each species is about 3 to 4 mm long, 1
mm wide, dark reddish brown, and somewhat flattened. Magnification is
required to distinguish between the species, the distinguishing characters
being the shape of the antennal segments and the structure of the com-
pound eye. The red flour beetle is a strong flier, but the confused flour
beetle, though its wings appear functional, is flightless.
Neither species consumes the endosperm of rice. Adults and larvae
of both feed on the bran coat, germ, loose flakes of bran, or on grain dust.
The red flour beetle is abundant in rough rice stored on farms or in
commercial silos, in mills and milling machinery, and in rail cars, ships,
and warehouses.
Two other species of Tribolium infest grain in the United States (Cot-
ton 1956) but are rare in rice. These are the black flour beetle, T. Audax
(Halstead), and T. destructor Uyttenboogaart. Presumably, either species

will infest rice if it is available.
Cigarette beetle
As the name implies, the cigarette beetle (Fig. 7-lE) is a major pest of
tobacco but is an omnivorous feeder and extremely abundant in rice mills
and port warehouses on the U.S. Gulf Coast (Cogburn 1973a). Strangely,
it was relatively uncommon in boxcars that delivered rice and wheat flour
to Gulf Coast ports (Cogburn 1973b). Between 1953 and 1963, it was the
third most common insect found infesting cargoes of rice and rice bran
shipped from the United States to Great Britain (Freeman 1965).
The insect is about 2.5 mm long, more or less rounded, and reddish
brown. It is a strong flier, and in badly infested tobacco warehouses, large
numbers can be caught in light traps (Childs 1958). In rice mills and
warehouses, it breeds in farinaceous debris of all kinds and migrates to
clean rice that is being processed, stored, or transported.
Sawtoothed grain beetle
The sawtoothed grain beetle is occasionally found in rice mills and ware-
houses (Cogburn 1973a) and was reported by Freeman (1965) to occur
frequently in milled rice imported into England. The adults are about 2.5
mm long and flattened, and the lateral edges of the thorax bear six toothlike
spines on each side, which explains the insect's name. A closely related
species, the merchant grain beetle, 0. mercator, is superficially identical
to the sawtoothed grain beetle and inflicts identical damage in identical
habitats. The species cannot be separated without a microscope. Both
feed and breed similarly to the flour beetles.
Cryptolestes complex
The smallest of the grain-infesting beetles are several members of the

genus Cryptolestes (Fig. 7-1F). Three species have been identified from
stored rough rice in Texas: the flat grain beetle, C. pusillus; the rusty grain
beetle, C.ferrugineus; and the "flour mill beetle," C. turcicus. The adult
insects are 1.5 to 2 mm long and less than 1 mm wide. For specific
identification the reader is referred to Biege and Partida (1976). All three
species do similar damage, and although small, they can increase to huge
populations that cause heating, spoilage and contamination of stored grain.
Cryptolestes larvae normally crawl about among the interstices be-
tween kernels of grain and feed on flakes of bran, grain dust, etc. Occasion-
ally, however, a larva will tunnel into the germ of a rice kernel and thus
be hidden from inspectors or others examining the grain for infestation.
They do not normally pupate inside the germ or damage the endosperm.
These insects infest rough or milled rice, rice bran, rice flour, or other
processed rice products.
Moths
Except for the Angoumois grain moth, which was discussed previously,
Lepidoptera (family-Pyralidae) that infest stored rice do not penetrate
the kernels and usually do little damage to the endosperm. Rather, they
feed on the bran, germ, grain dust, or other debris. However, heavy
infestations can and do cause severe financial losses for those who store,
process, or transport rice. In bulk storage of rough rice, infestations are
restricted to the grain surface. In bagged milled rice, the surface of the
bags may be webbed over, but sometimes the larvae will penetrate
throughout the bag, webbing together kernels and leaving frass and cast
skins in the rice.
In the southern United States, the almond moth, Ephestia cautella
(Fig. 7-lG), accounts for most infestations, but the Indian meal moth,
Plodia interpunctella (Fig. 7-lH), is also significant. The "rice moth,"
Corcyra cephalonica, is often thought to be a pest of rice in the southern
United States, but in 20 years of experience, this author has never encoun-
tered the species. It apparently is a major pest of rice in other areas ofthe
world because it is listed by Freeman (1974) in his tabulation of insects
found in foods imported into Britain. In addition to those species named,
other members of the Ephestia genus, such as E. kuhniella (Zeller), E.
elutella (Hubner), and E.figuliella (Gregson), probably can infest rice but
rarely do so in the United States.
Regardless of the species, the habits and the damage caused by the
Pyralid moths are similar. An adult female produces about 200 eggs (rarely,
as many as 400) that are laid singularly, scattered at random over the
surface of the commodity. These usually hatch in about 4 or 5 days. The
larval stage of Ephestia cautella (Fig. 7-11) lasts about 4 weeks. Spinnerets
are located near the mouthparts of the larvae, and as they feed, they weave
together particles of dust, bran, or kernels of rice with fine, silken threads.
This habit accounts for most of the damage other than contamination.
Heavy infestations can completely mat over the surface of grain in a bin
(Cotton 1956), which restricts air movement in the grain mass, increases
moisture content and promotes heating and spoilage. Even in less severe
infestations, clumps of webbed grain are removed during cleaning and
discarded along with straw and other trash. Thus, moth infestations cause
the loss of far more grain than is consumed by the insects. The pupa
transforms into the adult sta1w in ahout 7 d~vs.
Insects That Feed on Fungi

The hairy fungus beetle, Typhaea stercorea, and a sap beetle, Carpophilus
pilosellus, are extremely abundant in rail cars, warehouses, and sometimes
farm storage units. Both species feed on fungi or other microorganisms

and do not damage rice. Rather, their presence indicates that the grain is
going out of condition or that unsanitary conditions exist somewhere in
the storage facility. The species occasionally cause financial losses, not
from any damage that they do, but because they are misidentified as
damaging pests and expensive control measures are applied unnecessarily.
For example, when rice lodges in the field, molds grow on some of the
fallen panicles moistened by rain or irrigation water, thus providing a
source of food for fungus-feeding insects which proliferate in the field.
When the grain is harvested, fungus beetles are collected by the combine
along with the rice. When drying is begun, heat and desiccation drives the
insects to the surface of grain where they are often mistaken for damaging
species and unnecessarily fumigated. Both species are common in rail cars
(Cogburn 1973b), and the adults are active insects. Movement of the car
stimulates them to migrate throughout the car and over the load where
they are seen by inspectors and often mistaken for damaging species. As
a result, the rice is fumigated unnecessarily.
ORIGINS OF INFESTATIONS
Residual Insect Populations

Most infestations of storage insects initiate when a clean commodity is
stored or processed near residual infestations in trash grain or grain prod-
ucts that were not removed from storage areas when they should have
been. For example, rough rice in the United States is frequently stored on
farms in cylindrical metal bins with perforated metal floors that are ele-
vated about 0.5 m above a concrete slab. The bins, which double as grain
driers, are equipped with heaters and fans that force heated air into the
void beneath the perforated floor and through the grain mass. Dust, flakes
of bran, particles of grain, etc., fall through the perforations into the void
area and remain until the bins are cleaned. If the bins are not cleaned, the
trash becomes infested and the insects invade new grain as soon as it is
stored.
Residual infestations will remain in any type of storage area or trans-
portation carrier unless the unit is cleaned between uses. For example,
77% of the boxcars delivering commodities to Gulf Coast ports were found
to contain farinaceous debris (Cogburn 1973b). Grain dust that collects in
elevators or rice mills is sufficiently nutritious to support infestation.
Spillage and trash of any kind is potential harborage for insects.
Migration
"Cross-contamination" occurs when clean commodities are stored adja-
cent to infested ones, and many storage insects that are strong fliers
migrate across open areas to infest new grain. Rice weevils, lesser grain
borers, red flour beetles, and all moths are capable of sustained flight, but
relatively little is known of the migratory ability of storage insects, how
they locate new food sources, or the conditions that stimulate migration.
Field Infestation
Before the advent of combine harvesting, rice was cut, tied into bundles,
and left in the field to dry where it frequently became infested before
threshing. Today, rice with a moisture content of about 20% is harvested
by combine and then dried with heated air to about 12.5% moisture. High-
moisture rice in the field seemed to be unsuitable for insect development
until Chau and Kunze (1978) showed that grain maturity and moisture
content varies widely between panicles in the same field and even between
grains on the same panicle. Also, Angoumois grain moths and lesser
grain borers frequently are captured in pheromone-baited traps in fields of
standing rice (Cogburn 1988). Undoubtedly, some eggs, larvae, and/or
adults are harvested with the grain and some survive harvesting and dry-
ing. In countries where mechanized harvesting equipment is uncommon,
field infestation may be of even greater significance. Studies with phero-
mones show that some species are distributed over wide geographical
areas and apparently survive and breed in woodlands and other places
remote from rice production and storage. Captured individuals from these
"wild" populations reproduce in rice and undoubtedly can migrate to
freshly binned grain.
CONTROL OF STORAGE INSECTS
Cultural Control
Sanitation is a cheap and effective way of minimizing the impact of storage

insects. The rationale is quite simple: insects deprived of food and harbor-
age cannot survive, breed, and disseminate. Remove all trash grain, grain
dust, or other farinaceous debris from the storage premises, and clean
all bins, floors, windows sills, milling machinery, harvesting machinery,
conveying equipment, etc., on a regular schedule. Destroy trash by bury-
ing or burning it at a place remote from the storage facility. The importance
of sanitation cannot be overemphasized. Not only does it enhance food
quality and safety, it is the most economical and widely applicable method
of pest control. Also, sanitation deprives other pests such as rodents and
birds of food and harborage, thereby reducing problems with them as well
as insects.
Chemical Control
Sanitation programs include the judicious use of chemical pesticides as
supplemental measures, but chemicals cannot overcome dirty conditions.
Space does not permit a comprehensive discussion of insecticides and
fumigants or of methods of application. For more information on useful
chemicals, see Monro (1961) and Harein and de las Casas (1974).
Insecticides
Insecticidal sprays, usually formulated as water emulsifiable liquids or
powders, are applied as residual treatments to the exposed surfaces of
empty grain bins, warehouses, mills, or other areas after the facilities
have been cleaned and before new commodities are stored or processed.
Carefully treat all cracks and crevices where farinaceous debris lodges
and is difficult to remove.
Malathion, methoxychlor, synergized pyrethrins, synthetic pyre-
throids, lindane, fenitrothion, pirimiphos methyl, chlorpyrifos methyl, and
dichlorvos all have been used as residual sprays for grain storage facilities
at one time or another somewhere in the world. Specific materials cannot
be recommended here because labeled chemicals, methods of use, dose
rates, and residue tolerances are strictly governed by local laws and change
frequently. Any user of an insecticide must identify those approved for
use in his country or area.
Materials called "protectants" are applied directly to bulk rough rice
as it goes into final storage. Only rough rice (paddy), not brown or milled
rice, may be so treated. Protectants are meant to prevent infestation, not
to eliminate established infestations. Malathion, the preferred protectant
for many years, was remarkably successful (Freeman 1974), but many
species of storage insects around the world have developed resistance to
malathion (Bengston et al. 1975; Zettler 1975). Thus, the utility of this
chemical is threatened, and alternative materials such as pirimiphos methyl
and chlorpyrifos methyl are being developed and used in some areas
(Cogburn 1976; Cogburn et al. 1983b).
Insecticides applied as aerosol space treatments for control of flying
insects, particularly moths, in mills and warehouses supplement sprays
and protectants. Aerosols are mists, fogs, or vapors blown into a building
with specialized equipment using special formulations of the insecticide.
Aerosol particles impinge on the setae of insects and puddle on the mem-
branes at the base, where the insecticide enters the insect through the
integument (Anon. 1971). Dichlorvos was an especially effective aerosol
(Cogburn 1975), but concerns about human safety have restricted its use
in the United States. Commodities stored in areas treated with aerosols
must be protected from contamination, and no personnel other than the
applicator can be present. Automatic systems dispense aerosols at prede-

termined times in the absence of all personnel.
Fumigants
Aerosols consist of very small droplets of solutions suspended in air and
are sometimes confused with fumigants. Fumigants are gases that act as
individual molecules (Monro 1961) and enter the insect almost entirely
through the respiratory system.
Fumigation is the preferred method of eliminating an established infes-
tation from stored rice or rice products. Mills and warehouses, if properly
sealed, can be fumigated to clean up indigenous populations of insects that
were not eliminated by sanitation procedures. A successful fumigation,
regardless of the fumigant, always depends on holding a lethal concentra-
tion of the fumigant in air long enough to kill all metamorphic stages of all
insects. Eggs and pupae are the stages most difficult to kill by fumigation
because respiration and metabolism proceed more slowly than in larvae
or adults. Although some fumigants may penetrate the chorion of the egg
or the integument of the pupa, it is best to continue fumigation until eggs
become larvae or pupae become adults-stages that are highly susceptible
to the lethal action of fumigants.
Fumigants forrimlated as liquids or solids must become gases to be
effective. Liquid fumigants, mixtures of highly volatile substances like
carbon tetrachloride, carbon bisulfide and ethylene dichloride, volatilize
into gases that are heavier than air and, when applied to the grain surface,
penetrate downward through the grain mass by gravity. They were particu-
larly useful in farm bins and very tall concrete silos, but all liquid fumigants
have been banned from use in the United States. They still may be used
in some other countries.
Methyl bromide is widely used for space fumigation of mills, ware-
houses, etc.; fumigation of grain in large, flat storages equipped with
recirculation systems; fumigation of bagged rice under plastic tarpaulins;
and fumigation of various carriers such as rail cars, ships, trucks, and
barges. Pressurized canisters containing 454 g to 170 kg or more retain
methyl bromide as a liquid. The low boiling point (3.6°C) causes volatiliza-
tion to the gaseous state immediately when the cylinder is opened and the
pressure released.
Methyl bromide is colorless and odorless; therefore, it is usually for-
mulated with about 2% chloropicrin (tear gas) as a warning agent for the
applicator or others that accidentally enter an area under fumigation.
Methyl bromide is extremely dangerous. Not only is it acutely toxic to
man and other mammals, but sublethal exposure can result in permanent,
chronic damage to the liver and other organs. In addition, the liquid or
high concentrations of the gas may cause severe skin blisters (Monro
1961).
Phosphine gas, introduced in the mid-1950s, now is used worldwide.
Aluminum phosphide (or magnesium phosphide) chemically reacts with
atmospheric moisture and releases hydrogen phosphide, also called phos-
phine gas (PH3). Phosphine is flammable and, under certain conditions,
can ignite spontaneously; thus, the precautions on the label must be fol-
lowed explicitly. The gas has a distinctive odor that can warn people
of its presence, but the odor is not imparted to the product being fumi-
gated.
Phosphine is used to fumigate rice in bags and in bulk (Cogburn
and Tilton 1963; Tilton and Cogburn 1965). Successful fumigation with
phosphine is sensitive to temperature. Thus, applicators must monitor
ambient conditions and take appropriate steps to insure the lethal concen-
trations of gas are maintained long enough to kill all stages of the target
insects.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1971. Nat. Pest Control Operators Newslett. 31(10):3-7.

Bengston, M., L. M. Cooper, and F. J. Grant-Taylor. 1975. A comparison of
bioresmethrin, chlorpyrifos methyl and pirmiphos- methyl as grain protectants
against malathion-resistant insects in wheat. Queensland J. Agric. Animal
Sci. 32(1):51-78.
Biege, C. R., and G. H. Partida. 1976. Taxonomic characters to identify three
species of Cryptolestes (Coleoptera: Circujidae). J. Kan. Entomol. Soc.
49:161-64.
Bishara, E. 1., A. Koura, and M.A. El-Halfawy. 1973. Oviposition preference of
the granary and rice weevils on Egyptian rice varieties and recommendations
for grain protection. Bull. Soc. Entomol. Egypte 56:145-50.
Boudreaux, H. B. 1969. The identity of Sitophilus oryzae. Ann. Entomol. Soc.
Amer. 62:169-72.
Breese, M. H. 1960. The infestibility of stored paddy by Sitophilus sasakii (Tak.)
and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.). Bull. Entomol. Res. 51:599-630.
Chau, N. N., and 0. R. Kunze. 1982. Moisture content variation among harvested
rice grains. Trans. ASAE 25:1037-40.
Childs, D. P. 1958. Warehouse fumigation of flue-cured tobacco with HCN to
control the cigarette beetle. J. Econ. Entomol. 51:417-421.
Cogburn, R. R. 1973a. Stored-product insect infestations in port warehouse of the
gulf coast. Environ. Entomol. 2:401-7.
Cogburn, R. R. 1973b. Stored-product insect infestations in boxcars delivering
flour and rice to Gulf Coast ports. Environ. Entomol. 2:427-31.
Cogburn, R. R. 1974. Domestic rice varieties: Apparent resistance to rice weevils,
lesser grain borers and Angoumois grain moths. Environ. Entomol. 3:681-685.
Cogburn, R. R. 1975. Dichlorvos for control of stored-product insects in port

warehouses: Low-volume aerosols and commodity residues. J. Econ. Ento-
mol. 69:361-65.
Cogburn, R. R. 1976. Pirimiphos-methyl as a protectant for stored rough rice:
Small bin tests. J. Econ. Entomol. 69:369-73.
Cogburn, R. R. 1977. Susceptibility of varieties of stored rough rice to losses
caused by storage insects. J. Stored Prod. Res. 13:29-34.
Cogburn, R. R. 1988. Detection, distribution and seasonal abundance of Sitotroga
cerealella and Rhyzopertha dominica as indicated by pheromone-baited sticky
traps. In Proc. XVIII Int. Congr. Entomol., Vancouver, BC, Canada.
451.
Cogburn, R. R., and E. W. Tilton. 1963. Studies of phosphine as a fumigant for
sacked rice under gas-tight tarpaulins. J. Econ. Entomol. 56:706-8.
Cogburn, R. R., C. N. Bollich, and S. Meola. 1983a. Factors that influence the
relative resistance of rough rice to Angoumois grain moths and lesser grain
borers. Environ. Entomol. 12:936-42.
Cogburn, R. R., D. L., Calderwood, B. D. Webb, and M.A. Marchetti. 1983b.
Protecting rough rice stored in metal farm bins from insect attack. J. Econ.
Entomol. 76:1377-83.
Cotton, R. T. 1956. Pests of Stored Grain and Grain Products. rev. ed. Minneapo-
lis, MN: Burgess Publishing Co.
Easter, S. S. 1954. Infestation control in stored rice. Trop. Agric. Peradeniya
110:217-19.
Freeman, J. A. 1965. On the infestation of rice and rice products imported into
Britain. In Proc. 12th Int. Congr. Entomol., 1964, London.
Freeman, J. A. 1973. Problems of infestation by insects and mites of cereals stored
in Western Europe. Ann. Techno/. Agric. 22(3):509-30.
Freeman, J. A. 1974. A review of changes in the pattern of infestation in interna-
tional trade. Eur. Mediterr. Plant Prot. Organ. Bull. 4(3):251-73.
Harein, P. K., and E. De Las Casas. 1974. Chemical control of stored grain insects
and associated micro- and macro-organisms. In Storage of cereal grains and
their products. V, rev. St, Paul, MN: Amer. Assn. Cereal Chern.
Howe, R. W. 1965. Losses caused by insects and mites in stored foods and feeding
stuffs. Nutr. Abst. Ev. 35:285-93.
Le Cato, G. L. 1975. Red flour beetle: Population growth on diets of corn, wheat,
rice or shelled peanuts supplemented with eggs or adults of the Indian meal
moth. J. Econ. Entomol. 68:763-65.
Li, C. S. 1953. A preliminary study with stored rice insect pests and their control
in Taiwan. Memoirs Nat. Taiwan Univ., College of Agric. 2(5):99-103.
McGaughey, W. H. 1970. Effect of variety and degree of milling on insect develop-
ment in milled rice. J. Econ. Entomol. 63:1375-76.
McGaughey, W. H. 1974. Insect development in milled rice: Effects of variety,
degree of milling, parboiling and broken kernels. J. Stored Prod. Res.
10:81-86.
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F.A.O.
Prevett, P. F. 1971. Storage of paddy and rice (with particular reference to pest
infestation). Trop. Stored Prod. Inf. 22:35-49.
Tilton, E. W., and R. R. Cogburn. 1965. Phosphine fumigation of rough rice in

upright bins. Rice J. 69(11):8-9.
USDA/ARS. 1986. Stored-Grain Insects, Agric. Handbook 500. Washington, DC:
U.S Gov. Printing Office.
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8
Weed Management
D. E. Bayer
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF WEED MANAGEMENT
Cultural methods for controlling weeds have been used since the beginning
of systematic rice production and remain an integral part of successful
weed management programs. Cultural methods aid not only in suppressing
weed growth but may be equally beneficial in enhancing rice seedling
establishment and growth. Intensively farmed rice fields are areas of me-
dium to high disturbance and low stress to achieve maximum yields.
Disturbance may be viewed as partial or total elimination of the weed
biomass, while stress functions to reduce photosynthesis or productivity
of the crop. Weeds are plants that can adapt to areas of high disturbance
and/or high stress and plague the grower, regardless of the weed manage-
ment program employed. The selection of the methods used to control
rice weed problems depends on the type of rice culture, the technology
available, and the resources of the grower. The selection of weed manage-
ment inputs should emphasize maximum returns to the grower with the
lowest cost.
Landforming and land preparation are important components of rice
weed control programs. Land preparation provides favorable conditions
287
for the growth and development of rice, as well as a weed-free condition

at planting. Proper field preparation discourages the subsequent growth of
weedy plants by allowing rice to establish itself and use the available
resources before weeds germinate and emerge. This forms the basis for
competition, because later emerging plants must garner sufficient re-
sources to allow them to support some type of interference. Given this
concept, then, competition between crops and weeds may be referred
to as the capture and utilization of resources and depends on time of
germination, rate of growth of the plants and the spatial arrangement of
their foliage and roots.
The competition between rice and weeds is most severe during early
growth of the rice when yield components (tillers, panicles, kernels, etc.)
are being formed. Limiting crop growth at this time will have a negative
effect on the rice yield. Limiting resources during the reproductive phase
may also negatively impact yield but, more typically reduces grain quality
and harvestability. The competitive ability of a weed may be viewed as the
overall integration of root and shoot growth or surface area, the metabolic
activity, and the distribution in time (when the weed is growing in relation
to the rice plant) and space (location of roots and foliage in relation to the
rice plant) of the organs that acquire the resources. The onset of competi-
tion is determined by the time when a resource becomes limiting to either
the weed or rice plant.
Seedbed Preparation
The seedbed should be prepared in a manner that will enhance the estab-
lishment and growth of rice while suppressing, delaying, or eliminating
the growth and development of weeds. The major weeds in drier upland
rice are primarily C4 plants, while C3 weedy plants tend to dominate in
submerged rice culture. Competition between rice, a C3 plant, and C4
weeds may be very severe in dry land rice or in rain-fed wetland rice where
rainfall is limited. C3 weeds tend to be more prevalent in submerged
conditions.
Land preparation on dry soils is of little value in reducing annual
weed problems because most seed will not germinate under low moisture
conditions, especially the aquatic weed species. However, dry tillage at
this time may aid in killing vegetative organs of perennial weeds, provided
that the storage organs can be exposed to the sun and dried. In the more
temperate climates where soils dry between crops, tilling the soil will
increase aeration, temperature, and the rate of drying. Deep plowing where
the soil is completely inverted will bury weed seeds lying on the surface
deep enough to inhibit germination and/or emergence. Weed seed burial,
however, should be done with the knowledge that deep burial may reduce
WEED MANAGEMENT 289
Figure 8-1. Grass weeds growing on large clod exposed above water surface.
oxygen and/or buildup carbon dioxide or other gases around the seed that
will induce a secondary dormancy. Seeds with a secondary dormancy
could be returned by subsequent tillage to a zone where germination could
occur. Deep plowing is an effective method of reducing the soil weed seed
bank, provided that the seeds are left buried in the soil until they lose their
viability.
The rice seedbed should be tilled to eliminate as many weeds and
germinating weed seedlings as possible before the rice is planted. Smooth,
compacted seedbeds create an environment that favors weed seed germi-
nation and seedling establishment , thus reducing the soil weed seed bank,
while rough, loose, cloddy seedbeds tend to discourage weed seed germi-
nation and seedling establishment and thus is favorable for increasing the
soil weed seed bank. Large clods should be broken up by tillage operations.
Clods so large that they are exposed above the water surface provide an
excellent site for growth and development of grassy weeds (Fig. 8-1). If
rice is grown under flooded conditions, decomposition of crop residue
should be encouraged prior to flooding to decrease the incidence of algae
and other weed problems. Cover crops and other green plant material used
for green manure should be incorporated and allowed to decompose before
the field is flooded.
Fertilizer Management
Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers and manure should be incorporated
into the soil 5 to 10 em deep to reduce their availability to weed seedlings
that germinate at or near the soil surface. In upland or unflooded rice
culture, decomposition of animal and green manure crops incorporated
into the soil prior to planting rice is not as critical as for rice grown
under flooded conditions. Most weeds including submersed weeds, such as
southern naiad (Najas guadalupensis) and algae, grow very vigorously
when nitrogen is applied in the flood water or left on the soil surface.
Barnyardgrass or watergrass (Echinochloa Sp.) and algae are also stimu-
lated to grow and develop when phosphate fertilizers are left on the soil
surface. Applications of fertilizers after the rice crop has become estab-
lished and the weeds have germinated encourages rapid growth of the
weeds. Fertilizers applied in excess will stimulate weed growth to outcom-
pete rice. The yield of rice is enhanced as nitrogen is increased in the
presence oflow infestations of weeds provided sufficient nitrogen is added
for both the rice and the weed. However, as the level of the weed infesta-
tion increases, it becomes impossible to add sufficient fertilizer for both
the weeds and the rice. With the added fertilizer most rice weeds will
become so aggressive they will outcompete the rice plants for other re-
sources such as space and light.
Weed-Free Rice Seed

The use of good quality rice seed free of weed seeds helps prevent the
spread of weed infestations. Weeds have been reported to move from
one continent to another in rice purchased for seed. Late watergrass
(Echinochloa phyllopogon) has reportedly been introduced from Italy and/
or France into Morocco around 1986 when Morocco expanded its rice
acreage. Both early watergrass (Echinochloa oryzoides) and late wa-
tergrass were introduced into California through importation of rice seed
from Asia. More localized spread of weeds occurs from grower to grower
and field to field through the use of seed rice infested with weed seed, dirty
equipment carrying weed seed, and weed seed floating from field to field
in irrigation water.
Weeds often mimic the crop in maturity, seed size, and seed shape
which enhances their opportunity to contaminate rice seed and spread.
Weeds that mature and shatter before the crop tend to spread more slowly
and are more localized than weeds that mature at the same time as the
rice crop. Early-shattering weeds are spread mostly by the movement of
equipment and in water and air. Weeds that mature with the crop tend to
spread as a contaminant in the harvested rice crop and in subsequently
planted seed.
WEED MANAGEMENT 291
Crop Rotation
Carefully planned crop rotation is among the most effective cultural tech-
niques for controlling rice weeds and should be used whenever feasible.
Weeds are often associated with specific crops because of similar growth
requirements and/or similar plant characteristics. Because weeds vary in
their growth habits and life cycles, it is essential to select rotation crops
with dissimilar life cycles and cultural requirements to interrupt the domi-
nant weed complex.
Both crops and weed control measures should be changed in long-
term crop rotation programs. If the same crops and weed control practices
are used in the rotation year after year, weeds associated with the entire
rotation complex will be as severe as in a monoculture cropping system.
Water Management
The use of water in the production of rice can have a profound influence
on the weed spectrum that will be present as well as the program employed
to manage or eliminate their growth. Plants that possess the C3 photosyn-
thesis apparatus tend to be found more frequently in rice grown under
continuous flooded conditions, and plants possessing the C4 photosyn-
thetic apparatus tend to be more common in rice grown under dryland
conditions for at least a portion of the cropping season. Rice is a C3 plant
and has the same basic photosynthetic restrictions as C3 weeds, while C4
plants have higher photosynthetic activity, higher light and temperature
optimum and lower moisture requirement (see Table 8-1).
Weed problems may be expected to be more varied in species and
intensity in dry-seeded rice than in wet-seeded or transplanted rice because
Table 8-1. Characteristics of C 3 and C4 Plants

C3 Plants C4 Plants
Leaf anatomy chloroplasts in chloroplasts in
mesophyll cells bundle sheath
Photosynthesis (ttmol C0 2 mg- 1 chlorophyll h-I) 15-50 50-100
PEP carboxylase (ttmol C0 2 mg- 1 chlorophyll h- 1) 25-50 800-1200
Optimum temperature (0 C) 15-25 30-45
Light saturation (ttmol photon m- 2 s- 1) 400-1200 1500-2500
C0 2 compensation point (ppm) 30-70 0-10
Water use efficiency (g water/g dry wt) 400-1000 250-400
Growth rate (g m- 2 day- 1) 5-20 40-60
Percent inhibition of photosynthesis by 40 0
normal (21%) atmospheric 0 2 concentrations
Source: Modified from Matsunaka and Saka (1977).
of differences in seedbed preparation, the presence or absence of moisture

during germination, and early growth stages of the rice.
Competition
The most critical period for competition between rice and weeds is when
the rice is in the vegetative phase and the yield components of the rice
plant are being differentiated. Worldwide yield losses attributed to weeds
average approximately 10%, while on individual fields losses may range
from 40 to 100%. Competition varies widely from situation to situation
and from culture to culture. Short weeds and those that germinate late in
the cropping season tend to compete less than tall weeds or those that
germinate at the beginning of the cropping season. The replacement of the
older tall-statured rice cultivars with the modern short-statured cultivars
has created a situation more favorable for tall-growing weeds. Shorter
growing broadleaf and sedge weeds traditionally infesting the older culti-
vars are being replaced by grassy annual weeds in many areas. A good
stand of rice can withstand competition from weeds better than a thin
stand of rice.
Use of Herbicides
Although herbicides are considered by some to be an essential component
of rice weed control programs, they should be considered as another viable
component to use in an overall weed management program and should be
used in combination with good agronomic practices. No one weed control
practice will effectively and economically provide consistent control of all
weeds in all situations. Continued use of a single herbicide will result in a
shift of weed species to those that are tolerant or resistant to the herbicide
or to individuals within the same species that are resistant to the herbicide.
The type of use and the method of application are listed on the label but
generally involve an application of the herbicide prior to seeding (preplant)
or following seeding (postplant).
Preplant applications are sprayed on the foliage of existing vegetation
prior to planting or they are made to the soil and may be incorporated
(mixed into the soil profile) in areas where rainfall is unpredictable or if the
herbicide is volatile or is subject to rapid photodecomposition. Postplant
applications may be made to (1) the soil surface following planting and
prior to emergence of either crop or weeds (preemergence) or (2) to the
weed and crop seedling whether in contact with the plant foliage or into
the water (postemergence).
The movement of the herbicide during and following an application
is an environmental concern that should always be addressed. Proper
application procedures are essential to prevent symptoms or injury to
adjacent crops as a result of herbicides drifting either in the gaseous
WEED MANAGEMENT 293
(volatile) phase or as discrete particles. Drift can be significantly reduced

when proper attention is given to the method of application, the formula-
tion, and the environmental conditions. The size and density of the herbi-
cide particle released by the application equipment is a major factor affect-
ing movement. The smaller and/or less dense the droplet or particle, the
farther it will drift. When foliar sprays are used, a compromise must be
reached between the potential for herbicide movement off target (drift)
and the good coverage or distribution on the weed foliage necessary for
sufficient uptake and control. Large droplets tend to provide poorer cover-
age of weed foliage than fine droplets from a given volume. Weather plays
a major role in herbicide drift. Herbicides should never be applied in winds
greater than approximately 30 km/h. Whenever possible, avoid applying
materials during air temperature inversions because even a slight wind can
move an inverted air mass, transporting the suspended herbicide off target.
It is always advisable to spray with at least a slight positive wind speed to
avoid significant movement onto susceptible crops.
Contamination of rice floodwater resulting from herbicide application
is unavoidable with certain rice production systems. Treated floodwater
in these systems should be maintained on the field or paddy until the
herbicide has dissipated to avoid contaminating nontarget water supplies
and to maximize the effect of the herbicide for controlling the weeds in
the treated field. In some rice-producing systems, tail or drainwater leaving
a rice field may be reused to irrigate other crops. This practice may cause
injury to that crop or result in illegal residues if the herbicide has not
dissipated from the water prior to its use on the crop being irrigated. Even
discharging water containing herbicide into drainage systems should be
controlled, as these systems often provide habitat for aquatic organisms
that may be affected by the herbicide or are food for other organisms and
the herbicide may thus enter the food chain. The potential for herbicides
used in rice floodwater to leach through the soil profile and enter the
groundwater is always present. Whenever possible, select herbicides that
have low water solubility, high adsorption to soil colloids, and relatively
short soil residual time (no longer than is required to provide the desired
amount of weed control). Be aware of water movement patterns through
the soil profile, and avoid treating areas with high percolation rates if it is
possible for the herbicide to be leached through these soil profiles to the
groundwater table.
TRANSPLANTED RICE
Transplanting is the most widely used cultural system for producing rice
(Fig. 8-2). Competition from weeds is generally less in this than in other
rice culture methods because the rice plants are established in a transplant
bed and grown to the three- to four-leaf stage before being transplanted
Seedbed Preparation -> Irrigation-> Transplanting-> Pesticide Application-> Harvesting

(Plowing) (Puddling) (Herbicide)
(Harrowing) (Insecticide)
(Fertilizer) (Fungicide)
Figure 8-2. Generalized production scheme for growing transplanted rice show-
ing major input areas.
into a weed-free paddy or field. Under these conditions the rice plant has
a major head start on any germinating weed seeds. When rice plants
free of weeds are planted, weed control becomes easier whether it is
accomplished by mechanical or chemical methods.
Good seedbed preparation should always be the first consideration of
any rice weed management program. The seedbed should be weed-free at
the time of planting and prepared in a manner that will enhance the growth
and development of the rice plant and suppress the development of weeds
as much as possible. Crop residues and weeds should be plowed under to
a depth of 15 to 20 em. Plowing at shallower depths encourages the growth
of both annual and perennial weeds.
After plowing, the field should be flooded. One week later, two or
three puddling operations are recommended at weekly intervals to reduce
weed seedling establishment and to level the field. Puddling the field results
in shifting the weed spectrum more toward broadleaf weeds than grassy
weeds which predominate if the seedbed is prepared dry. The degree of
weed infestation is directly related to the quality of seedbed preparation.
The poorer the preparation, the more weeds will be present; the better the
seedbed preparation, the fewer weeds will be present.
Fertilizers should be applied in a manner and at a time when they will
be most beneficial to the rice plant and least beneficial to the weeds.
Fertilizer placed several centimeters below the soil surface will be less
available to germinating weed seedlings. Growers frequently will fertilize
their rice following the first cultivation or weeding operation to allow the
rice to become established and to minimize weed growth and competition.
Weeds are extravagant users of fertilizers and, unless controlled, will
increase proportionately with increasing fertilizer rates.
Rice is more competitive as plant density is increased. However,
spacing may be limited by the method of weed control used. Wider spac-
ings are necessary when mechanical implements are used. When herbi-
cides are used, closer spacings are advantageous because the rice canopy
will close in more quickly, enhancing competition for light which will allow
the grower to use shorter soil residual herbicides or reduced herbicide
WEED MANAGEMENT 295
Table 8-2. Major Herbicides Used in

Transplanted Rice and Principle
Weeds Controlled
Herbicide Primary Species Controlled
Oxadiazon Grass, broadleaf, sedge
Butachlor Grass
Piributycarb Grass
Pretilachlor Grass
Thiobencarb Grass
Chlomitrofen Grass, broadleaf, sedge
Dymron Broadleaf, sedge
Bensulfuron-methyl Broadleaf, sedge
Pyrazolate Broadleaf, sedge
Pyrazoxyfen Broadleaf, sedge
Bromobutide Broadleaf, sedge
rates. Modern cultivars require more input into weed management than
was necessary with the older, traditional cultivars.
Water management is a major aspect of any weed control strategy.
One major reason for flooding rice fields is to decrease weed problems.
Many weed seeds are unable to germinate under flooded conditions, and
exposing the soil after transplanting will increase weed seed germination.
Once the field is flooded, the water should not be removed. Alternate
wetting and drying of the soil encourages weed seed germination and
seedling establishment. Good water management is essential in minimizing
the influence of weed competition. Emerged weed populations decrease
as water depth is increased.
Weed control is enhanced under flooded conditions. Mechanical weed-
ers work better in soft saturated soils when the weeds are 4 to 5 em or less
in height. Hand pulling continues to be a major method of removing weeds
in areas where the pulled weeds are used for fodder for animals. However,
there tends to be a conflict where this occurs between early removal of
the weeds to reduce competition with the rice plant and letting the weeds
grow larger to provide more forage for the animals.
Although water management is especially critical with the use of
herbicides, maintenance of 4 to 5 em of floodwater is equally important for
enhancing and maintaining weed control when using mechanical methods.
Herbicides (Table 8-2) should not be used as the exclusive method of
controlling weeds. A well-planned program integrating several control
methods will provide the most economical and effective control and will
retard the buildup of resistant weeds. Some herbicides ar~ registered
for use prior to transplanting; however, the majority of herbicides are
registered for post-transplanting use (see Fig. 8-3).
Chlornitrofen + Thiobencarb
Dymron
Oxadiazon
t t
Seedbed Preparation __,. Puddling__,. Transplanting---~ Harvesting
i
I Butachlor Bensulfuron-methyl Bromobutide I
Piributycarb + Pyrazolate + Dymron
Pretilachlor Pyrazoxyfen
Thiobencarb
Figure 8-3. Herbicide application timing in transplanted rice culture.
The list of major weed problems in transplanted rice (Table 8-3) is not
complete and will vary from region to region as a result of crop rotations,
environment, weed management, etc. Weeds are opportunistic and invade
any niche where resources are available. However, if the crop is well-
established, competition that would reduce rice yield will come too late,
and the major impact will occur in grain quality and harvesting.
Application of any herbicide presents an environmental concern, espe-
cially if it is applied to water. Caution should be used when applying
herbicides in paddy floodwater to avoid movement of the herbicide into
groundwater or to keep treated water from contaminating other water as
it drains from the treated paddy.
Table 8-3. Ten Common Weeds Infesting Transplanted

Rice Fields
Scientific Name Common Name L!fe Cycle
Echinochloa oryzoides Early watergrass Annual
Echinochloa crus-galli Barnyardgrass Annual
Scirpus juncoides Rush Perennial
Cyperu.1· rotundus Purple nutsedge Perennial
Cyperu.1· d!fformis Smallftower Annual
umbrella sedge
Sa[?itaria py[?mae Arrowhead Perennial
Monoclwria vaf?inalis Monochoria Annual
Lindernia pyxidaria False pimpernel Annual
Rota/a indica Indian toothcup Annual
Ammannia sp. Ammannia Annual
WEED MANAGEMENT 297
UPlAND RICE
Although rice yields are lower in upland rice culture (Fig. 8-4) than in
other cultures where the rice is flooded during the growing period, approxi-
mately 10 to 15% of the total rice area is devoted to growing upland rice.
Weed management programs vary largely from country to country, ranging
from highly mechanized systems to individually operated systems utilizing
human and animal labor.
Besides unpredictable rainfall, inadequate weed control is the major
cultural characteristic limiting upland rice yields. The problem weeds are
more diverse in upland rice than in flooded rice cultures. Most of the major
weeds are C4 plants which are extremely competitive (Table 8-1), and
because floodwater levels are not maintained, grass weeds tend to predom-
inate. Because of variation in edaphic and climatic conditions and the
varied agriculture in the upland rice-growing regions, weed problems vary
widely. Table 8-4 lists 10 of the common weed problems in upland rice.
The time of emergence and number of weeds depends on soil moisture.
Because the weeds start growing with the rice, the intensity of the weed
problem may be extreme, resulting in 80 to 100% rice yield loss. The cost
Land Preparation---> Fertilizer---> Seed---> Fertilizer---> Weed Control-> Harvesting

(Plow and Harrow) (Dibbled)
(Slash-and-Burn) (Broadcast)
(Drilled)
Figure 8-4. Generalized production scheme for growing upland rice showing
major input areas.
Table 8-4. Ten Common Weeds Infesting Upland

Rice Fields
Scientific Name Common Name Life Cycle
Echinochloa colona Junglerice Annual
Cyperus rotundus Purple nutsedge Perennial
Eleusine indica Goosegrass Annual
Cyperus iria Rice flatsedge Annual
Cynodon dactylon Bermudagrass Perennial
Rottboellia exaltata Itchgrass Annual
Echinochloa crus-galli Bamyardgrass Annual
Ageratum conyzoides Tropic ageratum Annual
Digitaria sanguinalis Large crabgrass Annual
Portulaca oleracea Common purslane Annual
Table 8-5. Major Herbicides Used in Upland Rice Culture

and Principle Weeds Controlled
Butachlor Grass
2,4-D, MCPA Broadleaf, sedges
Propanil Grass
Oxyfluorfen Grass, broadleaf
Oxadiazon Grass, broadleaf
Thiobencarb Grass
Pendimethalin Grass, broadleaf
Piperophos-dimethametryn Grass, broadleaf
Bifenox Grass, broadleaf
of the weed control program, whether it be handweeding, mechanical

cultivation, or the use of herbicides, must be carefully evaluated in terms
of the resulting yield increase.
The rain-fed environment where upland rice is grown is so varied that
land preparation differs from area to area. In rain-fed rice-growing regions,
the land is generally left fallow during the dry season and plowing and
harrowing begins at the beginning of the rainy season. Weed growth should
be kept under control during the dry season by harrowing or by the use
of herbicides to prevent the weeds from completing their life cycle and
producing large numbers of seed. The land should be deeply plowed
(approximately 30 em) and harrowed to prepare the seedbed. Minimum
tillage or no tillage practices have produced inconsistent results because
of the rapid invasion of perennial weeds.
The use of fertilizer has a major bearing on the weed management
program. Weeds are extravagant users of both nitrogen and phosphorous.
Both placement and timing of the fertilizer application are important in
preventing the enhancement of weed growth and development and in
maximizing the benefit in terms of rice yield. With no or low weeding
levels, rice yields will be unaffected by increasing fertilizer levels, and
weed biomass will be significantly enhanced. However, with an effective
weed management program, it is possible to enhance rice yields by increas-
ing the rate of fertilizer.
Herbicide usage (Table 8-5) in upland rice has been limited in many
areas due to the cost of herbicides, their application, and lack of predict-
able control. Figure 8-5 illustrates application timings for some of the
major herbicides.
Weed seedling emergence is strongly influenced by the frequency and
amount of rainfall, and competition can be critical during the early growth
WEED MANAGEMENT 299
Land Preparation--~ Seeding - - - - - - - - . . . ; . Harvesting

i i i
Preplant Incorporated Preemergence Postemergence
Herbicide Herbicide Herbicide
Figure 8-5. Herbicide application timing in upland rice culture.
and development of the rice plant. Since more weeds emerge under high
moisture levels than low moisture levels and moisture levels may fluctuate
widely during the cropping season, a combination of control methods will
be the most effective and economical. Herbicides applied on dry soil or
followed by an extended dry period will be less effective than those applied
to moist soil or followed by rainfall. However, excessive rainfall can leach
the herbicide into the rooting zone of the developing rice plant and may
injure the rice plant.
Where upland rice is grown on a large scale or where economics
permit, the use of herbicides has been increasing. Preemergence applica-
tions that control weeds during the period of rice seedling establishment
eliminates weed competition during the most critical period of rice plant
development and may conserve moisture and nutrients for the rice plant.
Postemergence applications allows the grower to assess the weed problem
before investing in the herbicide; however, often the weed problem is too
advanced, and the benefit of using a herbicide is much reduced.
Because of the expense of the herbicide, the availability of cheap labor,
and the unpredictability of the weather, hand and mechanical weeding are
still the most widely used weed control methods in upland rice culture.
Although the timing for physical weed control varies, the first weeding
generally occurs early in the seedling stage, approximately 3 weeks after
seeding.
Integration of more than one proven method of weed control is the
best weed management system for upland rice. Rotating crops and varying
weed control methods will prevent the buildup of species resistant or
tolerant to a specific practice and will tend to reduce perennial weed
problems. Applications that allow the herbicide to escape into the environ-
ment should always be avoided. Caution should be used to prevent drift
from contaminating nearby crops or allowing the herbicides to reach sur-
face or groundwater. Sound integrated weed management programs tend
to minimize these problems.
WATER-SEEDED RICE
Water-seeded rice culture (Fig. 8-6) was developed as a method for reduc-
ing weed problems where dry-seeding rice had encouraged the develop-
ment of a major grassy weed problem. This culture requires high energy
input while minimizing labor input and is increasing in popularity through-
out much of the world.
Cultural methods for weed control are essential parts of a successful
integrated weed management program in water-seeded rice. Every man-
agement practice affects the competitive ability of both the rice and weeds.
In this system, a good integrated pest management program is essential
for satisfactory weed control as neither herbicides nor cultural practices
alone can provide satisfactory weed control.
The rice seedbed should be tilled 15 to 20 em deep as early as possible
to allow sufficient time for crop residue decomposition and to allow the
seedbed to dry. The seedbed should be left in a cloddy condition with clod
sizes ranging from 4 to 7 em in diameter. Large clods or high spots in the
field that are exposed above the water surface (Fig. 8-l) are excellent sites
for grassy weeds to become established. Smooth, compacted fine textured
seedbeds favor germination and establishment of small seeded weeds. A
dry seedbed is desirable because weed seeds cannot germinate and become
established until the soil is flooded, which is just prior to seeding.
Nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers should be incorporated into the
soil 5 to I0 em deep to reduce the availability of the nutrients to weed
seedlings that germinate near the surface and to algae that forms on the
soil surface.
Proper water management is a major component of a successful weed
control program in water-seeded rice and laser leveling has improved the
precision for water manipulation. A continuous water depth of 10 to 20
em is essential for reducing the severity of competition from weeds. Low-
ering the floodwater or growing rice under upland conditions favors com-
petition from grass, sedge, and many broadleaf weeds. Exposure of soil
Land preparation ~ Irrigation ~ Seed~ Fertilize~ Harvest

(Plowing) (Flood) (Soaked or
(Leveling) Weighted Seed)
(Fertilizer)
Figure 8-6. Generalized production scheme for growing water -seeded rice show-
ing major input areas.
WEED MANAGEMENT 301
Table 8-6. Herbicides Commonly Used for

Weed Control in Water-Seeded
Rice
Molinate Grass
Thiobencarb Grass, some broadleaf and
sedges
Propanil Grass, broadleaf, sedge
Bensulfuron-methyl Broadleaf, sedge
Bentazon Broadleaf, sedge
MCPA, 2,4-D Broadleaf, sedge
to air as a result of draining a rice field greatly increases the diffusion of

oxygen into the soil. This increase in oxygen concentration in the soil
initiates the germination of many weed seeds that otherwise would not
have germinated. A continuous flood restricts oxygen diffusion into the
soil and contributes to a reduced-oxygen or anaerobic environment. Flood-
water alone, maintained 8 to 10 em deep, will provide partial control of
many weeds, especially grassy weeds, if water temperature is in the range
of 20 to 30°C.
Herbicides have become an integral part of weed management pro-
grams in water-seeded rice. To be effective, they must be used in combina-
tion with good cultural and water management practices. The list of herbi-
cides (Table 8-6) available for use in water-seeded rice is limited because
of the restrictions associated with this system of growing rice. If the
herbicide is applied preflood, it may be leached into the soil profile; how-
ever, if the herbicide is applied after flooding, its movement into the soil
profile will be limited because of limited percolation of water through the
heavy impervious clay soils commonly associated with rice culture. When
the rice seed is dropped into the water, it comes into direct contact with the
herbicide, eliminating several of the bases for selectivity (i.e., placement).
Herbicides for a continuous-flood system are restricted to (1) the preplant
type applied to dry soil before flooding and possibly incorporated into the
soil or applied following flooding but before seeding; (2) the postplant type
applied before the weeds and/or rice plants emerge above the water; and
(3) the postplant type applied after the weeds and rice plants have emerged
above the water surface.
Herbicides should be applied during the early growth stages of the
rice plant, approximately the first 30 days following seeding or when the
rice plant is still in the vegetative phase and the major yield components
either have not been initiated yet or are just being developed. Competition
from weeds (Table 8-7) is most limiting during this period. Each herbicide
controls a slightly different spectrum of weeds and should be selected on
Table 8-7. Ten Common Weeds Infesting Water-Seeded

Rice Fields
Echinochloa oryzoides Early watergrass Annual
Cyperus difformis Smallflower Annual
umbrella sedge
Scirpus species Bulrush Annual,
Perennial
Ammannia species Ammannia Annual
Heteranthera limosa Ducksalad Annual
Sagittaria species Arrowhead Annual,
Perennial
Leptochloa fascicularis Bearded sprangletop Annual
Bacopa species Waterhyssop Annual
Alisma species Waterplantain Annual
Potamogeton species Pond weed Perennial
the basis of this activity. This is why it is important to keep records on

weed infestations from previous years. All herbicides can be phytotoxic
to rice plants when used improperly or under certain environmental condi-
tions. Hot weather may enhance uptake and/or cause contact burn, re-
sulting in injury to the rice plant and frequently reduced weed control.
Cool temperatures reduce the effectiveness of all rice herbicides. One of
the most important considerations when using herbicides is the timing of
the application. To be effective and not injure the rice plant, herbicides
must be applied at the proper growth stage of both crop and weed. If
applied at other stages of growth, the herbicide may injure the rice plant
or provide poor control of the weed. Figure 8-7 provides examples of
proper growth stages of rice when certain herbicides may be applied
without injuring rice. Figures 8-8 and 8-9 show when these herbicides
should be used to be most effective for controlling two of the major weed
problems. If the correct stage of growth of the rice and proper stage of
weed development do not occur simultaneously for a specific herbicide,
be prepared to select an alternative; otherwise, the use of the herbicide
may injure the rice and/or provide less than optimal results.
Poorer control or higher herbicide rates are frequently associated with
foliar applied herbicides in continuous-flood rice because the weedy plants
are physiologically more advanced by the time sufficient foliage has
emerged above the water surface and sufficient herbicide is not absorbed
and translocated to kill the plants. To spray less developed plants, the
floodwater level must be manipulated in such a manner as to expose the
weed foliage of these younger plants so sufficient herbicide can contact
the foliage for uptake and translocation.
WEED MANAGEMENT 303
Rice
j prellood
MOUNATE
i
germ1nat•on
~rrT t1ler ll'lltlahon td n~ pan•ete 1M1aoon flowenng
BENSULFURON
ii:Oel :l4~11f·i;!:
MCPA
Figure 8-7. Rice development in relation to when herbicides should be applied.

If these herbicides are not applied at these times, they may injure rice
or provide less than optimal control. Propanil may be used as early as
third leaf stage if weather is cool. In hot weather, leaf burn may occur.
Adapted from Bayer et al. (1983).
BARNY ARDGRASS (Watergrass)
germonabon 1 leal 2 leal 3teat 41eal 51eat elongation
THIOBENCARB
MOLINATE
PROPANIL
Figure 8-8. Stages of barnyardgrass or watergrass development and herbicide

timing for most effective control. If propanil is applied earlier than this,
floodwater must be lowered to expose foliage . From Bayer et al.
(1983).
Smallflower Umbrella Sedge
1s1 10 3rd leal 4Ulleal
THIOBENCARB
BENSULFURON
BENTAZON
MCPA
conuol • kJU
c:=:::J
bum back only
[PROPANIL
Figure 8-9. Herbicide application timing for smallflower umbrella sedge at various
growth stages. Adapted from Bayer et al. (1983).
Proper application procedures are essential if herbicides are to be used

successfully. Prevent unwanted release into the environment. Hold treated
water on field or in paddy until the herbicide dissipates to enhance weed
control and to eliminate contamination of other water.
DRY SEEDING AND FLOODED RICE
The most effective weed control system must integrate preventive, cul-
tural, mechanical, chemical, and biological methods of weed control.
Omission of one or more of these components frequently results in less
than optimal control. Conditions favorable for growing rice in this system
are also favorable for the growth and development of many terrestrial
weeds, especially grasses that will tolerate flooding after germination, as
well as aquatic and semiaquatic weeds (Table 8-8). Broadcast seeding and
drill seeding rice into narrow row spacings eliminates most opportunities
for cultivation after the rice emerges.
Both the density of weeds in a rice field and the duration of time weeds
are allowed to compete with the rice plant are important in weed-rice
WEED MANAGEMENT 305
Table 8-8. Ten Common Weeds Infesting Dry-Seeded and

Flooded Rice Fields
Echinochloa crus-galli Barnyardgrass Annual
Commelina di.ffusa Spreading dayfiower Annual
Ipomoea sp. Morning glory Annual
Oryza sativa L. Red rice Annual
Aeschynomene sp. Join tv etch Annual
Heteranthera sp. Ducksalad Annual
Ammannia sp. Ammannia Annual
Leptochloa sp. Sprangletop Annual
Brachiaria platyphylla Broadleaf signalgrass Annual
Sesbania exaltata Hemp sesbania Annual
competition. Most terrestrial weeds germinate in moist soil prior to flood-

ing while aquatic weeds germinate and grow after the soil is flooded. The
complexity of these weed mixtures vary from country to country and from
field to field.
Thorough seedbed preparation is as important in dry seeding and
flooding systems as it is for all rice-producing systems, and the goal is the
same: to eliminate and suppress the growth and development of weeds
and to enhance the establishment and development of the rice crop (Fig.
8-1 0). Repeated cultivations during seedbed preparation reduce such ter-
restrial weeds as barnyardgrass. The last cultivation should be shallow,
approximately 5 em deep, to avoid bringing buried weed seeds to the soil
surface where they may germinate. Drying of the soil prior to seeding
is an effective method for preventing germination and establishment of
seedling weeds and discourages development of many perennials. How-
ever, in many areas or years, rainfall prevents sufficient drying of the
Land Preparation ......, Seeding ......, Irrigation ......, Fertilizer......, Flooding......, Harvest
(Plowing)
(Disking)
(Harrowing)
(Rotary Tilling)
Figure 8-10. Generalized production scheme showing major input areas for grow-
ing rice using dry-seeded and flooded methods.
Table 8-9. Common Herbicides Used in Dry-

Seeded and Flooded Rice Systems
Propanil Grasses, broadleaf, sedges
Molinate Grasses
Benthiocarb Grasses, some broadleaf and sedges
MCPA, 2,4-D Broadleaf, sedges
Bentazon Broadleaf, sedges
Pendimethalin Grasses, broadleaf
Butachlor Grasses, broadleaf, sedges
soil and germination and growth of weeds are continuous, reducing the
effectiveness of this technique.
Rice may be drilled or broadcast and disked or harrowed to cover the
seed with soil. This method of rice culture has become more popular with
the advent of safe and effective herbicides that will selectively control the
weedy grasses. When short-statured varieties are planted, weed control
becomes more critical because these short-statured cultivars do not com-
pete with weeds as effectively as the tall and leafy varieties. Since most
weed seeds germinate at or near the surface of the soil, placing phosphate
fertilizer below the drilled rice seed is an effective method for making it
readily available to the rice seedling and less available to the weeds. In
fields with light weed infestations, fertilizer applications may be delayed
until just prior to flooding to take advantage of the inhibition of weed
growth resulting from flooding.
Although some herbicides (Table 8-9) may be used before the rice has
been planted, most herbicides are applied preemergence or postemergence
to the rice plants (Fig. 8-11). Combinations of pre- and postemergence
herbicides have been particularly effective where the postemergence her-
bicide controls the weeds that are present, and the preemergence herbi-
cide, in combination with the floodwater, will control the subsequent
Postemergence
Preplant Preemergence Postemergence + Preemergence
~ ~ ~ ~
Land Preparation ~ Seed~ Irrigate~ Flood~ Harvest
Figure 8-11. Generalized production scheme showing primary application timings

for herbicide usage.
WEED MANAGEMENT 307
germinating weed seedlings. As with any application of herbicide, caution

should be exercised to prevent movement of the herbicide off the treated
field, whether in the atmosphere as drift or in the floodwater.
OTHER RICE-PRODUCING SYSTEMS
There are many other systems for growing rice, and well-planned and
executed weed control programs are critical for maintaining adequate
yields of rice grain. Since most other methods for producing rice are
reasonably close variations of the systems described, the principles dis-
cussed can be extrapolated to the new system. Before a herbicide can be
used for weed control in rice, it must be registered for that use. The
label will provide precise instructions for its application. Always read the
herbicide label and follow the label instructions. Additional instructions
can be obtained from local authorities and should be relied on when
available.
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rice (Oryza sativa). Philippine J. Weed Sci. 11:83-93.
Moody, K., and D. Drost. 1983. The role of cropping systems on weeds in rice,
Moody, K., S. De Datta, V. Bhan, and G. Manna. 1986. Weed control in rainfed
lowland rice. In Progress in rainfed lowland rice, 359-70. Los Banos, Philip-
pines: IRRI.
Mukhopadhyay, S. 1983. Weed control technology in rainfed, wetland rice,
Nantasomsaran, P., and S. De Datta. 1988. Effect of cultivar, rotovation interval
and nitrogen fertilizer management on weed control in upland rice. In Proc.
2nd Tropical Weed Science Conf. 2:128-46.
WEED MANAGEMENT 309
Pathak, A., S. Sankaran, and S. De Datta. 1989. Effect of herbicide and moisture
level on Rottboellia cochinchinensis and Cyperus rotundus in upland rice.
Tropical Pest Management 35:311-5.
Radosevich, S., and J. Holt. 1984. Weed ecology-Implications for vegetation
management. New York: Wiley.
Sankaran, S., and S. K. De Datta. 1985. Weeds and weed management in upland
rice. Advances in Agron. 38:281-336.
Sarkar, P., and K. Moody. 1983. Effects of stand establishment techniques on
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Philippines: IRRI.
Smith, R. J., Jr., W. T. Flinchum, and D. E. Seaman. 1977. Weed control in U.S.
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Yamasue, T., Y. Asai, K. Ueki, and T. Kusanagi. 1989. Anaerobic seed germina-
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Protection Center.
9
Harvest Drying/ and Storage
of Rough Rice
C. Y. Wang
Nabisco Brands, Inc.
Bor S. Luh
The importance of postharvest management of food grains is underscored

by the fact that large food losses occur in the world due to poor grain-
handling techniques. Therefore, the harvesting, drying, and storage of rice
should receive serious attention. This chapter provides some guidelines
for achieving this goal.
The harvesting of rice is carried out by manual labor in most rice-
growing countries. On the other hand, combines are used to harvest and
thresh rice in developed countries with mechanized agriculture. The sec-
tion on harvesting in this chapter addresses the mechaniZed rice harvesting
conditions prevalent in California. Pillaiyar (1988) has discussed posthar-
vest operations in underdeveloped countries.
Rice processing consists of several unit operations such as drying,
husking, milling, and polishing. During these operations, various parts of
the kernel are removed. Over the years, a terminology has developed to
describe the grain at different stages in the process. The grain, after it
comes from the field, is called rough rice or paddy. Amounts of rough rice
may be expressed as bags (100 lb), bushels (45 lb), or barrels (162 lb).
After the hull or husk is removed, the product is called brown rice. Milled
or white rice is what remains after the bran and part of the germ have been
removed during milling. White rice is composed of whole and broken
kernels. Whole kernels are referred to as head rice, and head yield is the
311
100 kgs ROUGH RICE
~
20 80
HULLS BROWN RICE
70 10
WHITE RICE BY-PRODUCTS
~ ~
48 22 3 7
HEAD RICE BROKEN RICE POLISH BRAN
~
8 10 4
SECOND SCREENINGS BREWERS
Figure 9-1. Product fractions from standard milling of rice. From Henderson (1976).
quantity of unbroken kernels milled from a specified amount of rough rice.

The various parts of rice during processing are shown in Fig. 9-1.
An important quantitative factor in drying rice is moisture content.
The measure of moisture content can be expressed as a wet-basis or a dry-
basis number. The wet -basis measure specifies the quantity of water in a
solid as a percentage of the total wet weight. Thus, the percentage of wet-
basis moisture content (%MCwb) is
%MCwb = total wet weight-~ry weight x 100 (l)

total wet weight
and the percentage of dry-basis moisture content (%MCdb) is
%MCdb = total wet weight~dry weight x 100

(2)
dry weight
The relationship between wet- and dry-basis moisture content is

shown in Fig. 9-2. Moisture content expressed on a wet basis has tradition-
ally been used by rice growers, drier operators, and processors. Dry-basis
moisture content is generally used in research on drying rice because the
denominator in the working equation is independent of the quantity of
water in the grain.
HARVEST, DRYING, AND STORAGE OF ROUGH RICE 313
100
-.
-
f - - - 1--~
..
~ +---
80
"
.c I-
;;
v """
v
~
60
"':::>
0:
...
Ill
0 40
7
:=; 1/
....
z
"'u 20
I
0: I
"'
Q_
IJ
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
PER CENT MOISTURE (dry basis)
Figure 9-2. Relationship between wet- and dry-basis moisture contents.
RICE HARVESTING
Many factors must be considered to obtain an optimum rice harvest. The

grain must be mature, high in quality, and have the proper moisture
content. The soil should also be sufficiently dry to support the harvesting
and field transport equipment. Careful planning can help to insure that
these conditions prevail simultaneously. However, in spite of all precau-
tions and the best planning, unusual or unexpected weather conditions
may upset good harvesting.
The cultivation of early maturing rice varieties may be desirable be-
cause they help to extend harvest periods and allow grain to be gathered
under favorable weather and field conditions. In California, the rice head
yields of early-maturing varieties may be reduced by high daytime temper-
atures and dry north winds that can dry the rice field rapidly and make it
difficult to harvest the crop at an optimum moisture content. Late-maturing
varieties are not exposed to the extreme variations in the day-night tem-
peratures and humidities that cause rapid field drying.
Preharvest Quality
The preharvest quality of paddy rice helps its postharvest quality, which
in turn determines the income rice growers receive in the United States.
Maximum head yields are next to crop yields in economic importance. The
physical quality of rough rice is dependent on variety, stage of maturity at
harvest, moisture content, and physical damages (impact, abrasion, and
stress) caused during the harvest, handling, transport, processing, and

storage of the grain. All varieties of rice tested in California reach a
maximum head rice yield at a moisture content slightly higher than when
maximum crop yield occurs. Variety, day and night grain temperatures
during the maturing period, planting rates, germination rates, water man-
agement, plant population, and weed competition all affect the uniformity
of maturation and consequent grain quality.
Rice is harvested at 20 to 27% MCwb in most countries. Rice does not
mature simultaneously in an entire field, an individual plant, or even on
individual panicles. Chau and Kunze (1982) measured the moisture con-
tents of grains from a rice plot during a harvesting period. They found that
differences of 1S to 20% MCwb existed between panicles in the same
plot. If the harvest were delayed until all kernels were mature, the early-
maturing kernels would become overripe and the overall quality would
decrease. Overripe kernels, generally identified by moisture contents be-
low 22% MCwb for early-maturing varieties in California, are subject to
field cracking if not harvested promptly when they are mature. Most
early-maturing rice grown in California should be harvested at an average
moisture content of 24 to 26% MCwb when the highest daytime tempera-
tures are over 23.9°C (7S°F). Later in the season (after October 10 in
California), when maximum daily air temperature drops below 23.9°C
(7S°F), the late-maturing rice varieties can be harvested at low cylinder
speed (609.6 m/min) even wheh the grain moisture content is as low as 13
to 14% MCwb and still maintain high head rice yields.
Research on rice grown in the southern United States, India, Surinam,
and the Philippines shows that most varieties have reduced head yields
after reaching a certain maturity. Kunze (1979) demonstrated that the
exposure to varying temperatures and humidities results in lower head
yield as lower moisture contents are reached. It appears that harvesting
procedures should be determined for each variety grown in each climatic
region. Appropriate harvest timing, harvester cylinder speed, and clear-
ance adjustments should be prescribed to minimize impact damage in the
harvester at various stages of maturity.
Harvest Preparation
Various harvest-relatedfactors such as variety, planting time, local weather
patterns, soil type, field water temperature and management, and date of
heading affect maturity. After the planting date is fixed, the next critical
observation regarding harvest is the date of the "first heading" when ap-
proximately 10% of rice heads have emerged. In California, crops of average
yield should bereadyfor harvest4S toSS days after the first heading. Tropical
rice is usually harvested 30days after flowering (50% flowering is considered

as the first day), but in cooler climates maximum head yield is attainable by
harvesting up to 60 days after flowering (Juliano I972).
After the date of maturity is estimated, field draining is given primary
consideration. This draining must be related to the maturation characteris-
tics of the variety, the expected weather, the soil type, the field characteris-
tics for draining surface water, and the effects of plant evapotranspiration
on drying the soil surface. The proper selection of a draining date is
important because the soil must be sufficiently dry to support the harvest-
ing and transport machinery when the grain is ready to be harvested. The
final decision for draining is made with the knowledge and experience of
individual growers and farm advisors. If the field is drained too early, the
rice plants will run short of moisture before maturing.
After the field has been drained, the moisture content of rice is moni-
tored as it reaches maturity. When draining, the moisture content may be
40 to 50% wb. The grain moisture content will drop approximately I% wb/
day when the grain has a high moisture content and the weather is hot and
dry. When the weather is cool and overcast or the rice moisture content
is 20 to 25% wb, the moisture loss may be as low as 0.5% wb/day. Rain
or dew may cause an increase in grain moisture content.
Harvesting should commence at 24 to 26% MCwb, particularly with
early-maturing varieties harvested during hot dry periods in California.
Minimum cylinder speed should be used except in an emergency, espe-
cially when moisture contents drop below 22% wb and daytime tempera-
tures exceed 23.9°C (75°F). This precaution is not so important when the
moisture content is 24 to 26% wb. Research carried out at the International
Rice Research Institute (IRRI) on cylinder types and speeds indicates that
about 25% of the kernels will be ruptured if the rice is at 22% MCwb and
the cylinder speed is I280.2 m/min, compared to 5% at 609.6 m/min.
Related work being conducted at the Agricultural Engineering Department
at the University of California, Davis, indicates similar trends. A relation-
ship appears to exist between the rate of drying resulting in internal kernel
stresses and the potential for damage from impact in the cylinder of the
rice harvester.
Harvesting begins each day when the dew is off the plants. In Califor-
nia, this is usually at about IO to II A.M. Pacific Standard Time (PST).
Harvesting is usually stopped when dew begins to form at 8 to 9 P.M. If
the sky is overcast or a dry north wind has been blowing all night, these
schedules may change. Operators will adjust the height of cut, forward
speed, and reel speed to reflect changes in the height of the plants. Other
factors affecting the harvesting operation include stem thickness, lodging,
yield, and rice variety.
Figure 9-3. Combine in grain field with 4.87-m header.
Rice Harvesters
Rice harvesters have been developed over the years from the binders and
stationary-type threshers used in the early days of grain threshing to self-
propelled combines that directly cut and thresh rice. Most of the major
farm machinery manufacturers make grain harvesters for small-grain har-
vesting. With certain modifications and special traction units, headers,
conveyors, straw walkers, and shoe design, these machines are used
for rice harvesting. In use in California are combines designed and built
specifically for harvesting rice. They are large, high-capacity, self-pro-
pelled combines with full track support that can generally operate under
wet field conditions (Figs. 9-3 and 9-4).
Two types of cylinders are available for rice harvesting in the United
States. These are the rasp bar and the spike-toothed cylinder. Practically
all rice in California is harvested with spike-toothed cylinders. This is
partially due to the large volumes of straw produced in the high-yielding
California rice fields and the easier cleaning a spike-toothed cylinder
allows. In addition, the harvesting process may be a little more efficient
with the spike-toothed cylinder in removing the grain from the straw.
Figure 9-4. Rice combine with 5.48-m header.
Small Japanese harvesters often have wire loop cylinders which, for slow-
speed cylinder operation with hold-on systems (the straw does not pass
through the cylinder), result in an efficient harvest with a high-quality
product.
IRRI has been conducting research on axial-flow-type harvesters and
stripper harvesters for a number of years. Axial-flow harvesters feed the
grain and straw through inclined cylinder(s) mounted longitudinally in
the harvester as compared to conventional cylinders that are mounted
crosswise to the movement of the harvester. This method eliminates the
conventional straw walker.
Research on stripper harvesters, conducted at the University of Cali-
fornia, Davis, indicates that they have the advantage of removing the
grain from the plant without cutting the stem. This allows the grain to
be removed at lower cylinder speeds with less grain damage. The total
machinery and overall weight are considerably less than the conventional
harvesters. These harvesters appear to operate well but have problems
with lifting lodged rice and feeding it into the stripper cylinder. New short-
statured varieties that have more standing rice at harvest may improve the
prospects for this type of machine, although the shorter stem may create
feeding problems.
For the present, it appears that the conventional spike-toothed cylin-
der harvester, with suitable modifications made by manufacturers and
growers, will be used for harvesting most of the rice in the highly mecha-
nized agricultural areas of the world. Manual methods and small hand-
feed machine harvesters continue to be best suited for areas where rice is
grown on small individual plots of ground and where labor is available.
For more information on rice harvesting methods in developing countries,
the reader may refer to Araullo et al. (1976) and Pillaiyar (1988).
Postharvest Management
When widely varying maturity occurs in a rice field at harvest, the har-
vested grain should be quickly transported to the drier and given priority
in the drying schedule. The importance of this has been demonstrated by
Kunze and Parsad (1976). In their tests, grain ruptured in storage when
high moisture kernels were stored in contact with low moisture kernels.
The high humidity produced in the vicinity of the high moisture grain was
sufficient to rupture low moisture kernels. This may occur within a few
hours, depending on the moisture differentials.
Field transport equipment has been developed for the bulk handling
of rice. These units allow high-speed transport from the harvester to
waiting trucks while keeping the harvester in continuous operation. Road
transport trucks move the crop to the driers, since the rice moisture must
be reduced from approximately 24 to 26% MCwb down to 13 to 14%
MCwb for safe storage. The risk of heat damage (i.e., discoloration of
milled rice grains, altered texture, rapid growth of microorganisms, and
low milling yield) is always present in high-moisture rice and early trans-
port to the drying facility is therefore important.
RICE DRYING
Equilibrium Moisture Content

The equilibrium moisture content of rice, commonly abbreviated as EMC,
refers to the quantity of moisture in the product when it is at equilibrium
with the surrounding air. The EMC of rice will depend on the air tempera-
ture and humidity, grain variety, maturity, and previous history. In addi-
tion, EMC will depend on whether or not the rice had to adsorb or desorb
moisture to achieve equilibrium. The EMC achieved by desorption will be
higher than that achieved by adsorption. This phenomenon is referred to
as a hysteresis effect.
25
"'
·-
"'0
.0 20
>-
.._
"0
0~
w 15
0:::
:::>
l-
en
-
0
:::!; 10
::;;
:::>
-
0:::
Q)
- 5
...J
:::>
0
w
0
20 40 60 80 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY{%)
Figure 9-5. Equilibrium moisture content of rough rice. From Pfost et al. (1976).
Zuritz and Singh (1978) reviewed various methods described in the

literature for evaluating EMC. They experimentally determined constants
in the following EMC equation for medium grain rough rice. Figure 9-5
shows EMC curves generated by Pfost et al. (1976).
(3)
where
RH relative humidity, decimal

TA temperature (K)
T, = 647.1K, critical temperature of water
f = -26.1911
g = 4.49488 x Io-s
k = 2.2244 X 106
m = -2.4160
Mep equilibrium moisture dry basis (percent)
Rough rice consists of an outer husk layer made of Si02 , a middle

layer of fibrous bran, and an inner core of white rice (mostly starch and
some protein). The EMC of rice obtained in laboratory is an overall
average moisture content of these three different materials and is called
the static EMC. During multipass drying operations, only the husks on
the surface are at equilibrium with the local air temperature and relative
humidity. To account for the differences, Wang (1978) used a dynamic
EMC in the simulation of a thin-layer rice-drying process.
Rice-Drying Methods
In this section different types of rice driers are discussed, and some
recommendations for operating them are presented. Note that no single
set of operating instructions applies to any particular type of drier. Estab-
lishing a drying procedure is a situational proposition; many factors such
as ambient air conditions, the quantity of grain which has to be dried, and
the expected use of the grain must all be considered. Drier operating
methods established for a certain location, rice variety, and time of year
may be inappropriate for another situation. Two types of mechanical driers
are in use in various parts of the world: fixed-bed driers and continuous-
flow driers.
Fixed-bed driers
Fixed-bed driers are used for complete on-farm drying, or for finish drying
after the major step of moisture removal has been completed in a continu-
ous-flow drier. After drying, these driers may also be used for grain stor-
age. Two common types of fixed-bed driers used in California, having
either circular or rectangular bins, are shown in Figs. 9-6 and 9-7. The
depth of grain in fixed-bed driers may vary, but 4.3 to 6 m is the maximum
practical depth (Henderson and Parsons 1974). Grain in a fixed-bed system
is dried with forced air, which may or may not be heated. Grain quality
and drying time are affected by the temperature and relative humidity of
the drying air. Figure 9-8 indicates that the number of whole kernels in
milled rice increases with the humidity of the drying air and decreases
with the drying air temperature. Figure 9-9 shows the effect of air tempera-
ture and humidity on drying time.
Circular bins (Fig. 9-6) are constructed with perforated floors, and a
high-pressure area is created under the grain by a fan attached to the
structure. Stirring devices may be added to the bin to aid drying by grain
mixing. Drying air is pulled in from outside and forced up through the rice;
. _. . . . . . . . . . ___ NL
Figure 9-6. Circular bin with stirring device.
the moistened air exits through the top of the bin. Supplemental heaters
are usually added to systems of the type shown in Fig. 9-6. These heaters
are used when the relative humidity of ambient air is too high to make it
suitable for drying. When high-moisture air is used in a fixed-bed drier, it
can rewet the rice and cause serious quality deterioration.
Large rectangular bins (sometimes called flats) of the type shown in
Fig. 9-7 are usually not designed with supplemental heating equipment.
These systems are used for finish drying (removal of moisture after column
drying) and storage of rice. The walls and floor of these structures are
normally made of concrete. Large fans are located outside the bin and air
distribution tunnels are placed from wall to wall on the floor of the bin.
Maintaining the proper air flow when drying rice is vital. If the air flow
is insufficient, the rice may spoil before the storage moisture content is
reached. Rice provides a resistance to air flow that must be overcome by
applying positive pressure at the air inlet to the grain or negative pressure
at the air outlet. Resistance to air flow is evidenced as a drop in pressure
as the air travels through the bed.
Figure 9-7. Rectangular bin for drying rice.
Continuous-flow driers
Most of the rice produced in the United States is dried commercially in
continuous-flow driers. These driers use forced heated air as drying me-
dium . Two common continuous-flow driers are the mixing and nonmixing
types. A nonmixing columnar-type drier is shown in Fig. 9-10. The rice
flows by gravity in a straight path between two screens. The grain flow
rate is controlled by a variable-speed discharge roll. The grain is taken
away from the drier with a screw conveyor. This drier is sometimes called
a "cross-flow" drier because air is forced to flow across a moving bed of
rice . The screens are generally 15.2 to 22.9 em apart, and the drier may
be 12.2 m high and 3 to 3.7 m wide. The nonmixing column-type drier is
probably the most common commercial rice drier in use today.
A mixing-type columnar drier that uses baffles is presented in Fig.
9-11 . Another mixing-type drier designed at Louisiana State University is
shown in Fig. 9-12 . In this drier , rice flows downward over inverted V-
shaped air channels . Air flows in and out alternate rows of channels, and
100
I" thick rice bed
80
~
0
I I 0° F
Ui
__J
<t bO
z
0::
w
~
w 40 ./
__J
0 •~30° F
I
:s: ./
20
./
/
0 ~------~------~------~----~
0 20 40 60 80
RELATIVE HUMIDITY(%)
Figure 9-8. Effect of drying-air temperature and relative humidi1y on percentage
of whole kernels in milled rice. From Henderson (1957).
mixing is accomplished because the inlet and outlet air ducts are offset
from one another.
In terms of grain quality the mixing-type driers have an advantage
over the nonmixing type. In the nonmixing columnar drier (Fig. 9-10) the
grain flows straight downward, continuously exposing the grain on the air
inlet side of the screen to the hottest air. Thus, the grain on the air exit
side of the drier will be cooler and wetter than the grain on the air inlet
side. This may result in some of the rice being overdried while the re-
maining portion would be underdried. The mixing-type driers do not have
this limitation. In the baffle-type drier (Fig. 9-11) rice takes a zig-zag
path downward. With this type of movement, individual kernels are not
continuously exposed to the hottest drying air. The same effect occurs in
the Louisiana State University drier (Fig. 9-12) because the air channels
divert the path of any particular kernel. Grain mixing promotes more
uniform drying of rice.
14
Removed from test

at 18.4 % MC wb ~0
I" Thick rice bed
Air flow greater than
I
200 cfm /ft 2 I
I
I
I
1/)
~
8
I
.t:.
w
I
::!!: I
1-
0
(!) 6
z
>-
0:::
0
13y·"
•
2 • ~·.,.,., 150°
0~------~------~------~-------J
0 20 4 0 60 80
RELATIVE HUMIDTY (%)
Figure 9-9. Time required to dry rough rice from 24% to approximately 13.5%
moisture content at air temperature and relative humidity noted.
From Henderson (1957).
....
Figure 9-10. Nonmixing-type rice drier.
No single set of operating instructions can be formulated for control-

ling a continuous-flow drier. Optimum conditions must be determined at
each site by test drying the particular variety of rice being processed. The
procedure basically involves determining the head yield obtained when
rice is dried under various drier conditions.
Continuous-flow rice driers are usually operated on a multipass basis.
The moisture content of rice may be reduced 2 to 4% (dry basis) each time
it passes through the drier. Between passes, rice is held for a short period
to allow the kernel moisture gradients developed during drying time to be
reduced. This holding period, which may be as long as 24 h, is referred to
as tempering. To increase drier output, it may be desirable to temper the
rice for as short a period as possible. Figure 9-13 shows the effect of time
and temperature on the head yield of short grain rice. The data indicate
that 4-h tempering periods may be adequate if the rice is tempered at
40.6°C (105°F). Steffe et al. (1979) determined that a tempering time of less
than 3 h was adequate in multipass drying of medium-grain rough rice.
Fast drying induces rice checking which ultimately reduces head yield.
--
" .
Figure 9-11. Mixing-type (baffle) rice drier.
In multipass drying, the number of drier passes and the quantity of mois-
ture to be removed during each pass is usually determined by the individual
drier operator. Many factors, such as drier capacity, quantity of rice to be
dried, and moisture to be removed, should be considered in making this
decision. When deep-bed driers are used for finish drying, only one pass
may be necessary. According to Kunze and Calderwood (1985), typical
air flow rates are 187 x w-s to 416 x ro- 5 m3/s·kg in nonmixing driers
and 73 X 10- 5 to 161 X IQ- 5 m3/s·kg in the mixing type; air inlet tempera-
tures up to 65.6°C (150°F) in mixing driers and 54.4°C (130°F) in nonmixing
driers are common.
Drier configurations other than cross-flow, such as concurrent-flow
and counterflow, have been investigated for drying corn. Thompson et al.
(I 969) made a comparison of cross-flow, concurrent -flow, and counterflow
grain driers. Counterflow and concurrent-flow driers are shown in Fig.
9-14. In a counterflow drier, the grain and the air flow are in opposite
directions; in a concurrent flow drier the grain and the air flow are in the
same direction. The concurrent flow drier has the advantage of causing
WET
RICE IN
_.s- Air Inlet
DRY RICE OUT

Figure 9-12. Mixing-type drier designed at Lousiana State University.
the hottest air to come in contact with the wettest grain. Bakker-Arkema
et al. (1982) described a commercial-sized concurrent-flow rice drier con-
sisting of three heat-then-tempering stages with the final tempering being
replaced by a counterflow cooling. The counterflow drier appears to have
the potential for removing more moisture per meter of drying bed than
concurrent-flow or cross-flow driers.
62 of 105° F
/Temp:red
I 0
~ A
58 I ll
0 I ' - - - - Tempe:tld offer cooling to 75° F

..J
LLJ I
I
;: I
54 I
0
I I
<(
LLJ I I Drying air temperature rto• F
:r: I I Dried in 3 posses
50
I I ni I i a I me 20% wb
I Fin pI me I3 "'o wb
46
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
TEMPERING TIME BETWEEN PASSES (hours)
Figure 9-13. Head yield when tempering short-grain rice at various times and
temperatures. From Wasserman et al. (1964).
CONCURRENT COUNTERFLOW
FLOW
Moist
rI
/Exhaust
Air
I
(
Air
Figure 9-14. Concurrent-flow and counterflow grain-drying systems.
HARVEST. DRYING, AND STORAGE OF ROUGH RICE 329
.
·-
0
.Q
period
1--
z
u.J
1--
z
0
u
lLJ
a:: ~Falling rote period
:::>
I-
(/)
-
0
:::;:
TIME
Figure 9-15. Drying rate periods.
Individual kernel drying
The drying of a solid material involves the simultaneous processes of heat

and mass transfer. During the drying of rice, air is used to convey heat to
the grain and take moisture away from it. Heat is required to evaporate
moisture from the kernel. Mass transfer of water occurs within the kernel
as well as on the grain surface.
Drying can be divided into three periods (Fig. 9-15): initial, constant
rate, and falling rate. In the constant rate period, the quantity of water
removed per unit time per unit quantity of dry matter is constant. This
pattern may occur in high-moisture foods where the product surface will
remain saturated with water. Rice may exhibit a constant rate period if it
is very wet at the onset of drying. Such conditions could prevail if rice is
harvested after rain or heavy dew. In the falling-rate drying period, the
quantity of water removed per unit time per unit quantity of dry matter is
not constant. In this case, the product surface is no longer water-saturated,
and the rate of drying is governed by the movement of internal moisture.
The initial period, which is short and occurs at the start of drying, should
be considered as a kind of warmup time. In the constant-rate period, the
mathematical derivative of moisture content in relation to time is constant.
This derivative steadily decreases during the falling-rate period. The mois-
ture content which makes the change from the constant-rate to the falling-
rate period is generally referred to as the "critical point."
The drying of a rice kernel occurs principally in the falling-rate period.
The inner movement of moisture within a grain kernel during the falling-
rate period controls the drying process. The internal moisture movement
is a complex phenomenon that is not clearly understood. Hall (1957)
listed the following physical mechanisms as possibilities in controlling the
transfer of moisture within agricultural products:
l. diffusion (liquid or vapor)

2. capillary action
3. shrinkage and vapor pressure gradients
4. gravity
5. vaporization of moisture
In their studies with rice, Yamazawa et al. (1971) found capillarity to

be the principal mechanism of moisture transfer between the hull and
kernel during the initial stage of drying. They also discovered that moisture
was transferred by vapor diffusion through the gap between the hull and
the kernel. It is generally accepted that moisture movement in a grain
kernel is a diffusion (liquid or vapor) process.
Brooker et al. (1974) and Henderson and Perry (1976) have discussed
the shortcoming of the theoretical diffusion-type approach in grain drying.
The problems are centered around the simplifying assumptions made in the
development of diffusion models. These simplifications have introduced
significant error into the theoretical diffusion analysis. Thus, most of the
drying equations that have appeared in the literature over the years are of
an empirical nature.
Thin-layer drying
One approach in analyzing grain drying is considering thin-layer drying.

The term "thin layer" refers to a bed of grain that is approximately one
kernel deep. Many empirical studies have been conducted using thin layers
of grain to examine the drying behavior of the particular product in ques-
tion. Data are collected specifying the quantity of moisture removed from
the grain as a function of time when dried with air having certain psychro-
metric properties such as temperature and relative humidity. When thin
beds of grain are dried with air at different conditions, the resulting data
can be treated to yield an equation that specifies moisture removal as a
function of time and air properties. The equation may take various forms
and is accurate within a specific range of drying air velocities, air tempera-
tures, relative humidities, and grain moisture contents.
Many thin-layer drying simulation models have been developed in the
past 15 years. Due to the availability of computers, complex mathematical
equations have been used to simulate drying processes. Gunasekaran
(1986) has reviewed many of these simulation models.
Many authors have discussed Newton's law of cooling in reference to

the thin-layer drying behavior of small grains. Newton's law states that the
rate of change of temperature of a body is proportional to the temperature
difference between the body and the surrounding medium. The analogy of
drying to heat transfer is made by substituting a moisture content differ-
ence for a temperature difference. Thus, moisture instead of temperature
would be the driving force. The drying equation obtained from the Newton
analogy would be
dM
(4)
dt
Integration yields
M-M
M
o
_ Al
e
= K exp(- kt) (5)
where
dM Idt = drying rate

M0 = initial moisture content at time 0 (% MCdb)
M = moisture content at time t (% MCdb)
Me = equilibrium moisture content(% MCdb)
t = time (h)
k = drying rate constant (h-I)
K = constant of integration
The drying equation (4) was used by Kachru et al. (1970) to analyze
the thin-layer drying of four rice varieties. They found a close relation
between this equation and the drying rate of paddy rice. The authors also
concluded that the drying rate constant k was a characteristic of the paddy
and not a function of the drying rate or grain moisture content. The drying
rate constants determined for the varieties of paddy rice considered were
IR8: k = 0.6504 h- 1; Dular: k = 0.8040 h- 1; Patnai-23: k = 0.8424 h- 1;
and Taichung Native 1: k = 0.6480 h- 1• Henderson and Pabis (1961) also
applied a Newton-type equation and studied the effect of temperature on
the drying rate constant k. They concluded that k was related to tempera-
ture by an Arrhenius-type equation stating that In k is proportional to the
negative inverse of the absolute temperature.
The Newton-type drying equation has also been discussed by Allen
(1960) with regard to shallow-bed drying (1.9-cm-thin layer) of rice. He
found from experimental work that modifications and restrictions would
be necessary before the equation could be applied to the drying of rice.

He concluded that moisture content and the drying rate constant are
functions of the drying air temperature, drying air humidity, the quantity
of drying air supplied, and the initial and instantaneous values of the grain
moisture content. Due to this variability in Me and k, he suggests that the
first drying period (up to 1/2 h) be given a treatment different from the
latter drying period. The Newton-type equation was applied to each drying
period but with different values of k and Me.
A number of equations describing the thin-layer drying of rice can be
found in existing technical literature. Henderson and Henderson (1968)
presented the following equation to describe the drying history of rice
(Colusa 1600) when the drying was carried out with air at 41. 7°C (l07°F):
M-M
M _ ,.J = 0.650 [exp( -0.220 t) + M-0.220(9) t)] (6)
o e
During thin-layer rice drying studies, relative humidity from 3 to 60%,

air velocity from 0.025 to 0.5 m3/s.m 2 and air temperature from 35 to 7SOC
were used by Verma et al. (1985). They found that the drying rate is
independent of the relative humidity of the drying air and only slightly
affected by air velocity. Air temperature was the main factor in controlling
the drying rate. Based on this result, Noomhorm and Verma (1986) pro-
posed a generalized single-layer rice drying model. Their model is valid
for thin-layer drying of rice in a one-pass drying operation.
In multipass commercial drying operations, rice is exposed to heated
air for less than 40 min for each pass. Wang (1978) experimentally deter-
mined a thin-layer dry equation for medium-grain rough rice at 30 to 5SOC
and 15 to 95% RH conditions. He found that the diffusion model was not
suitable for drying time of less than 40 min. He suggested the following
thin-layer drying equation at various air temperatures and humidities
(Wang and Singh 1978).
(7)
where
t = time, minute
P = 0.01579 + 0.0001746 T - 0.01413 RH
Q = 0.65450 + 0.0024250 T + 0.07867 RH
T = temperature, oc
RH = relative humidity
M = moisture content, dry basis
There is no universally accepted equation to describe thin-layer drying

of rice. The reason for this is that the drying characteristics of rice may
vary with types of rice (short, medium, or long grain), its variety, previous
grain history, and drying environment.
Deep-bed drying
A deep-bed drier may be defined as one in which there is a finite moisture

gradient through the drying layer at any time except time 0 (Henderson
and Perry 1976). Deep-bed drying occurs in all situations where the drying
bed is more than thin-layer deep. All fixed-bed and continuous-flow driers
are of the deep-bed type.
Thin-layer drying models could be used to simulate deep-bed drying
processes. The drying rate simulation of a deep-bed drier has been per-
formed by dimensional analysis (Nelson 1960; Kachru and Matthes 1976),
experimental models and graphical approach (Hukill 1954), and com-
puters.
Computer modeling of rice-drying operation was evaluated in the late
1970s and early 1980s by many researchers. In most cases, simulation of
heat and mass transfer equations were used to find the solutions of the
diffusion law for spheres or infinite cylinders (Aguerre et al. 1982; Steffe
and Singh 1982; Hendrickx et al. 1986).
Drying simulation models are valuable as an aid in obtaining optimum
drier design and for increasing our basic understanding of the drying
process. Insight into the drying behavior of a bed of rice can be gained by
looking at the results of a fixed-bed drier simulation (Fig. 9-16). Simulation
models can also be used to predict drier performance. Some driers use
computer controls which allow careful monitoring and controlling of pro-
cess parameters. Online simulation and optimization procedures are used
(Nybrant and Regner, 1985). Singh et al. (1978) presented a numerical
approach to simulate rice drying and predicted moisture content, head
yield, and energy consumption of a cross-flow rice drier.
Energy consumption during drying operations is a very important
factor in designing and operating a rice drier. Gunasekaran (1986) gave
a detailed review of several grain-drying systems and optimal energy
management procedures.
RICE CRACKING
Suncracks, fissures, and checks are some of the names given to the cracks
always found in rice. The word "suncrack" is a misnomer because it
implies that cracking is simply the result of sun-drying. Although sun-
t-- 36
z
w
t--
z
0 28
u
w ·-
1/1
0::1/1
::::> 0
20
t-- .c
(f)
-
0 ""
~
'0
~
12
0~
w
(!)
<1:
0::
w 4
>
<1:
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
TIME (hours)
Figure 9-16. Relationship between rice moisture content and bed position.
drying is an important factor that causes field cracking, there are many
other factors which cannot be ignored. This is particularly true when rice
is commercially dried because it is removed from the field when it still has
a high moisture content. In this case, mechanical drying and not natural
sun-drying is the contributing factor.
Rice cracking structurally weakens the kernel, making it more suscep-
tible to breakage during milling and handling operations. The economic
consequences of this are significant because the value of broken rice is
much less (1/3-1/2) than that of whole rice. Cracked rice is also more
susceptible to insect infestation. Cracking has the added limitation that it
may reduce the vitality of the seed rice. Cracks that occur across the
kernel, as most cracks do, may reduce seedling vigor by decreasing endo-
sperm availability.
The mechanism of rice cracking has been studied by a number of
researchers. Henderson (1954), in his studies with short-grain rice con-
cluded that cracking during fast drying was due to an increase in tempera-
ture rather than a decrease in moisture in portions near the surface of the
kernel. He found that cracking could also be caused by a rapid increase
in moisture which could occur in the field if dew accumulated on the
kernels. Kunze and Hall (1965) found that cracking occurred when brown
rice, equilibrated at a particular humidity, was subjected to a high-humidity
environment. The degree of cracking was dependent on the magnitude of
change in relative humidity. The researchers hypothesized that adsorptive
fissures were caused when external cells expanded by adsorbing moisture

and produced compressive stresses in surface layers. The internal parts
of the kernel would resist these stresses and fail if the material tensile
strength was exceeded.
Rhind ( 1962) mentions that moisture changes in rice result in unequal
volumetric changes that induce internal stresses. He reports that the high-
est tensile stresses can be expected in the surface layers during drying and
in the inner grain parts during adsorption. A similar conclusion has also
been reached by Nayato et al. (1964) and Kunze and Choudhury (1972).
They found that cracking from hydration and drying was due to unequal
swelling or shrinking within the rice kernel. The force distribution within
a rice kernel was more fully explored in a hypothetical two-dimensional
stress analysis presented by Kunze and Choudhury (1972).
Rhind (1962) suggests that a change in the physical behavior of rice
starch occurs at 15% MCwb, and this change of state is a factor in the
cracking phenomenon. MacDonald (1967) has suggested that a physical
change within the rice kernel may also be a factor that contributes to rice
cracking. This author observed that cracks usually occur between the cell
walls of the endosperm and rarely pass through them. He hypothesized
that it is not the cell walls which fail when overstressed but the gum holding
the walls together. MacDonald (1967) also mentions that the intercellular
gums are somewhat plastic above 21% MCwb and become increasingly
inelastic with lower moisture contents.
Ban (1971) found that rice cracked after high rate of drying, not during
drying. He suggested that the head yield should not be determined until
48 h after drying. Kunze (1979) and Sharma and Kunze (1982) confirmed
this finding. They hypothesized that moisture gradient after drying caused
the cracking. Cracking continued until the moisture gradient disappeared
across the grain. Higher tempering temperature can increase moisture
diffusion and reduce the moisture gradient. Lower breakage was found
by Wasserman et a!. (1964) and Steffe and Singh (1980) when higher
temperature was used during tempering stages.
Rice cracking may occur in the field, during drying, storage, milling, or
handling. Kunze and Parsad (1976) considered situations where moisture-
adsorbing environments may occur which can cause rice cracking. They
suggest that harvested rice may have grains sufficiently dry that they will
fissure when subjected to an environment conducive to the adsorption of
moisture. The researchers specified two situations where the low moisture
rice in harvested grain may experience a moisture-adsorbing environment:
(1) in the combine hopper or holding tanks before drying, and (2) in a drier
where the drying air has become highly humidified before reaching the
gram.
In his review of rice-drying researchers, Mossman (1986) indicated

that drying temperature has been shown to have no effect on rice breakage
if the rate of drying is held to a minimum.
A number of authors have made recommendations to reduce cracking.
Itoh et al. (1974) found that rice temperature at exit of the drier was closely
related to the number of checked kernels; the authors suggested 35°C
(95°F) as a safe limit for rice temperature during drying. Arora et al.
(1973) recommend that a temperature difference larger than 43°C (l 09 .4°F)
between rice and the drying air temperature may result in serious cracking
and suggest that the drying air temperature be kept below 53°C (127.4°F).
Henderson (1954) has advised that the following steps should be taken to
minimize thermal strain, minimize cracking, and achieve the highest head
yields: (I) harvest at a high moisture content, (2) dry at as low an air
temperature as possible, and (3) use as many passes as convenient in
multipass continuous-flow drying. Nguyen and Kunze (1984) found that
rice stored at 10% RH and 45°C temperature had less cracking after rapid
drying.
RICE STORAGE
A commercial bulk storage system designed for long-term safe storage of

rough rice must (1) provide proper aeration to prevent spontaneous heat-
ing, and (2) maintain the rice grain at low moisture content to protect it
from fungi and insects. Cogburn (1985) summarized control methods for
fungi, insects, rodents, and birds for the storage of rough rice. Rough rice
can be stored up to 5 years at 12% MCwb in Texas (Calderwood et al.
1984), but only 2 to 3 months at 14% MCwb (Wimberly 1983).
The operation of aeration systems for bulk storage in high-humidity
environments calls for the operator's constant care and attention. The
following discussion is aimed at developing engineering parameters for the
design and selection of an aeration system for storing rough rice.
Storage structures, usually classified as "flat" or "vertical," are used
to store rice for long durations. Flat storage refers to a structure with
height less than the width or diameter, whereas vertical storage entails
height greater than width or diameter. Vertical storage has the advantage
of easy unloading by gravity via hopper bottoms. Mechanical means, such
as power shovels or sweep augers, are needed to unload flat bins.
Respiration of rice grain must be taken into account when designing
storage systems. Since rice is a biological product, some deterioration will
occur during storage, even if the rice is stored at the 13.5% ''safe'' moisture
content.
Aerobic respiration, requiring atmospheric oxygen, can be expressed

as
(8)
The respiration process as expressed by Eq. (8) involves the utilization

of oxygen, evolution of carbon dioxide, liberation of thermal energy, and
decrease in weight. The spontaneous generation of heat is of serious
consequence in bulk storage, since rice has a porous, granular structure
and low thermal conductivity. If no convective currents are present, the
grain mass practically insulates itself. Thus, respiration could lead to heat-
damaged grain if proper care is not taken.
Cogburn et al. (1983) states that higher temperature during storage
causes moisture migration, and recondensation at the surface of the rice
bed creates a zone of wet rice. The combination of heat and moisture
produces ideal conditions for fungi growth, and results in discolored
grains. Gras et al. (1989) conducted a quantitative study of the rate of
yellowing. He concluded that the storage temperature was far more signi-
ficant for the yellowing of rice than the concentration of oxygen in the
storage atmosphere, or even the moisture content of the stored grain. The
results were consistent with nonenzymic browning as the mechanism of
yellowing (such as caused by fungi).
An aeration system for storage, if provided, has several advantages
including (1) equal storage temperatures, thus avoiding the occurrence of
hot spots, (2) cooling of rice (depending on the weather), thus minimizing
insect activity and mold growth, (3) removal of odors from stored rice,
and (4) distribution of fumigants inside the stored product.
Schroeder and Calderwood (1972) recommend that aeration for cool-
ing dry rice during the winter months or for equalizing temperatures during
other months can be accomplished with airflow rates as low as 1.3 x 10- 6
m3 /s·kg. Although typical airflow rates for aeration range between 1.0 x
10- 6 to 2.1 x 10- 6 m3/s·kg, a higher airflow rate is needed to prevent
spontaneous heating.
An excellent discussion on aeration-system design is given by Holman
(1960). In the following discussion, a summary of Holman's recommenda-
tions, applicable to designing aeration systems for rice, is presented.
The grain must be adequately cooled during storage to prevent mold
growth and insect activity. Typically, during late summer and fall harvest,
rice dried with heated air may go into storage with grain temperature up
to 37.8°C (100°F). Although there is no one optimum storage temperature,
mold growth is inhibited below 21.1°C (70°F) (for rice at 13% MCwb).
Insect activity is considerably reduced at temperature below l5.6°C (60°F).
Figure 9-17. Fixed fan for each storage.
It should be emphasized that aeration will not entirely replace fumigation

as a means of insect control.
The selection of aeration systems for rice requires consideration of (l)
type of storage structure in which the aeration system is to be installed,
(2) airflow rate (e.g., m3/s·kg), and (3) number of storage structures and
quantity of grain to be aerated. Based strictly on the above information,
the following should be determined: (I) total air volume to be supplied,
(2) static pressure against which the fan must operate, (3) size and type of
fan and motor, and (4) size of ducts and supply pipes.
Types of Aeration Systems

Satisfactory aeration of grain in upright and flat storage can be accom-
plished through the following arrangements of fans and ducts.
A fixed fan for each storage or for each duct in the storage is simple
and efficient, as shown in Fig. 9-17. The disadvantage of the system is its
high cost since several fans and motors are required. In addition, fumigants
must be introduced into each individual fan.
Figure 9-18. Manifold system for several storage structures.
A manifold system consists of one fixed fan connected to several

storages or ducts with one manifold, as shown in Fig. 9-18 . This type of
system is less expensive. The use of dampers allows aerating one or several
storages at the same time. In designing such a system, friction losses
in the manifold and pressure losses in the bends and dampers must be
considered. The manifold systems are usually poor air distributors.
A relatively cheaper system uses a portable fan to aerate several
storages. In such a system, the fan and motor are mounted on wheels and
moved to an adjoining storage space when aeration of one is complete.
An airflow rate of 1.3 x to - 6 m3/s·kg is suitable for purposes of
cooling dry rice during winter months or for equalizing temperatures in
the storage unit during other months. A higher airflow rate is needed to
prevent spontaneous heating for undried rice. In addition, higher airflow
rates are required when the aeration system is used for supplementary
drying by cooling rice after a drier pass. In selecting an airflow rate, proper
consideration must be given to the lowest rate that can be permitted in
any portion of the stored grain.
The lowest airflow rate in a well-designed aeration system for upright

storage is usually not less than 90% of the selected rate. However, in flat
storage, the lowest airflow rate may be only 112 or less of the selected
rate. This emphasizes the importance of considering the lowest airflow
rate when designing aeration systems.
Fan Selection
The following parameters are important in the selection of fans for an
aeration system: (1) the volume of air to be moved, (2) the static pressure
at which the fan must operate, and (3) the noise level of the fan. The
factors influencing static pressure include airflow rate, grain depth, variety
(such as rough hulled or smooth hulled), and size of the grain. The fan
speed influences the noise.
Both propeller (axial flow) fans and centrifugal (radial flow) fans are
used for aeration where the static pressure of the grain and system is less
than 10 em of water. Centrifugal fans are used to obtain higher pressures.
A "forward-curve" centrifugal fan, consisting of a large number of
blades, operates at a relatively low speed. The motor in this fan may
overload if the static pressure is decreased. A centrifugal fan with straight
blades also overloads when static pressure is reduced. A "backward-
curve" centrifugal fan is a high-speed fan. It is more efficient but more
expensive than the previously described centrifugal fans. Operating back-
ward-curve centrifugal fans near the point of greatest efficiency will avoid
the danger of overloading the motor.
The performance of the aeration system can be seriously affected if
the fan is not properly connected. Short elbows at fan inlet and exit restrict
the fan output. It is important to keep the pipe size uniform.
Duct Design and Selection
Semicircular and inverted V-shaped perforated ducts are most common.
Perforated false floors are relatively expensive. In perforated ducts the
area of the perforations should equal at least 10% ofthe total duct surface
area.
The following three dimensions are important in designing a duct
system. (I) Both the cross-sectional area and length of the duct influence
the uniformity of airflow and air velocity within the duct. (2) The circumfer-
ence of the duct influences static pressure losses in grain surrounding the
duct. (3) The distance between the ducts influences the uniformity of
airflow through the grain between ducts.
The duct cross-sectional area can be determined by the following:
. 2 _ total air volume (m 3/s)
cross-sectiOnal area, m - . . ( ) (9)
a1r ve1oc1ty m1s
HARVEST. DRYING, AND STORAGE OF ROUGH RICE 341
Table 9-1. Recommended Maximum Allowable Air

Velocities within Ducts Installed in Flat Storages
CORN. SOYBEANS, AND OTHER LARGE GRAINS
Airflow
Rate Per Air Velocity Within Ducts (m/s)
tn1 qf for Grain Depths 4
Product 3.05 m 6.1 m 9.14 m 12.19 m 15.24 m
m 3/s x 104 m/s m/s m/s m/s m/s

6.70 5.08 7.62 8.89 10.16
13.40 3.81 7.62 10.16
26.79 5.08 10.16
Source: Holman (1960).
An air velocity of 10.16 m/s/min is permissible for vertical storages.

The maximum recommended air velocities in ducts for flat storage are
given in Table 9-1,
Excessive pressure losses in grain surrounding the duct can be avoided
by limiting the velocity of air entering or leaving the grain. It is obvious
that this velocity will be influenced by both the surface area of the duct
and the airflow rate.
For upright storages, the duct surface area should be selected to limit
the air velocity through the grain near the duct to 0.15 m/s or less. For flat
storage, the air velocity through the grain near the duct should be limited
to 0.1 m/s by selection of the proper duct surface area.
A maximum velocity of 12.7 m/s is permissible in supply pipes that
provide for the passage of air between the duct and the fan.
Fan Horsepower and Static Pressure Requirement

The information for determining fan horsepower and static pressure re-
quirements can be obtained from Fig. 9-19. This figure is drawn from data
by Shedd (1953) for long-grain rice. Since Shedd's data on basic pressure
drops are for loose-fill rice, the values were increased by 40% to account
for packing. In addition, a total of 2.54 em static pressure was added to
all values to account for radial pressure drop through the rice immediately
surrounding the perforated duct and friction in the supply pipe and other
components of the system. The fan horsepower was computed assuming
62.8% static efficiency, The following formula was used:
HP = static pressure (Pa of water) x m3 /s

(10)
34,065
As an illustration, for a 6.1-m depth of rice, the airflow rate is 1.04 x

lo-s m3 /s·kg. The fan power requirement is 1.0 HP.
30
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UJ 6.0
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~ .,.,/~
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::> 5.0
en
en
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UJ
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.,fl
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en /
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10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 8090100
ROUGH RICE DEPTH, FT

Figure 9-19. Static pressure and fan horsepower required for aerating rough rice
(long grain, Blue Bonnet) at different rates of airflow and at depths
from 10 to 100 ft (consult Appendix for appropriate table on metric
conversions).
REFERENCES
Aguerre, R., C. Suarez, and P .E. Viollaz. 1982. Drying kinetics of rough rice
grain. J. Food Techno!. 17:679-86.
Allen, J. R. 1960. Application of grain theory to the drying of maize and rice. J.
Agric. Eng. Res. 5(4):363-86.
Araullo, E. V., D. B. Depadua, and M. Graham. 1976. Rice Postharvest Technol-
ogy. Ottawa, ON, Canada: Int. Dev. Res. Cntr.
Arora, V. K., S. M. Henderson, and T. H. Burkhardt. 1973. Rice drying crack
versus thermal and mechanical properties. Trans. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng.
(ASAE) 16(2)320-23.
Bakker-Arkema, F. W., C. Fontana, R. C. Brook, and C. M. Westlaken. 1982.
Concurrent-flow rice drying. Amer. Soc. Agric. Eng. Paper 82-3068.
Ban, T. 1971. Rice cracking in high rate drying. Japan Agric. Res. Q. 6:113-16.
Brooker, D. B., F. W. Bakker-Arkema, and C. W. Hall. 1974. Drying Cereal
Grains. Westport, CT: A VI Publishing Co.
Calderwood, D. L, R. R. Cogburn, B. D. Webb, and M. A. Marchetti. 1984.
Aeration of rough rice in long-term storage. Trans. ASAE 27:1579-85.
Chau, N. N., and 0. R. Kunze. 1982. Moisture content variation among harvest
rice grains. Trans. ASAE 25:1037-40.
Cogburn, R. R. 1985. Rough rice storage. In Rice:Chemistry and Technology
edited by B. 0. Juliano, 265-87. St. Paul, MN: Amer. Assoc. Cereal Chemists
Inc.
Cogburn, R. R., D. L. Calderwood, B. D. Webb, and M. A. Marchetti. 1983.
Protecting rough rice in metal farm bins from insect attack. J. Econ. Entomol.
76:1377-83.
Gras, P. W., H. J. Banks, M. L. Bason, and L. P. Arriola. 1989. A quantitative
study of the influences of temperature, water activity and storage atmosphere
on the yellowing of milled rice. J. Cereal Sci. 9:77-89.
Gunasekaran, S. 1986. Optimal energy management in grain drying. CRC Critical
Rev. Food and Nutrition 25(1):1-48.
Henderson, S. M. 1954. The causes and characteristics of rice cracking. Rice J.
57(5): 16, 18.
Henderson, S. M. 1957. Milled rice yields. Calif Agric. (7):6.
Henderson S.M. 1976. Calif. Agric. Agric. Eng. Dep., Univ. of California, Davis.
Unpublished data.
Henderson, J. M., and S. M. Henderson. 1968. A computational procedure for
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Henderson, S.M., and R. A. Parsons. 1974. Rice drying and storage. Unpublished
Res. Rep., Dept. of Agric. Eng., Univ. of California, Davis.
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Hendrickx, M., C. Engels, P. Tobback, and P. Johns. 1986. Transmission modeling
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10
Milling
James I. Wadsworth
Southern Regional Research Center,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
The purpose of rice milling is to remove the hulls and bran from harvested,
dried rough rice and to produce a milled, polished, or white rice. The meaning
of the term milling varies appreciably, not only in the many different indus-
tries in which the term is used, but also within the grain industry. In the
rice industry, milling can refer either to the overall operations in a rice
mill-cleaning, shelling, bran removal, size separation, etc.-or it can refer
simply to the one operation of removing of the bran or outer layers from the
brown rice to produce a whole grain white rice product.
The following terminology is also somewhat specific to the rice indus-
try; clarification at this point may help to understand better the discussions
on rice milling in this chapter. Rough rice, which is also known as paddy
rice, is the harvested, unshelled rice as it comes from the field. Shelling
refers to the removal of the outer shell. The operation is conducted in
machines known by many different names such as shellers, hullers, husk-
ers, dehuskers, and decorticators. Similarly, the shells are also known as
hulls, husks, and chaff.
In most parts of the United States, the term hulling has the same
meaning as shelling; however, in some areas of the United States and
other countries hulling also refers to the removal of both hulls and bran.
This probably stems from the fact that earlier machines such as the Engel-
berg Huller removed either the bran or both hulls and bran in one opera-
347
tion. After removal of the hulls, the rice is called brown rice. This terminol-
ogy does not refer necessarily to the color of the rice but simply infers
that the bran has not been removed. The brown rice is also known as
shelled rice, husked rice, cargo rice, and loonzian (Houston and Kohler
1970). The brown rice is milled in a milling machine whereby all or most
of the bran is removed to produce the white milled rice. The term bran
includes the soft germ and several histologically identifiable soft layers
surrounding the hard starchy endosperm. This milling operation to remove
the bran is sometimes called scouring or whitening. In polishing the milled
rice, traces of bran that may remain on the rice after milling are removed
and the rice surface is given a smoother finish. Total milled rice includes
both the head rice and the broken rice. Head rice or head yield refers to
the milled whole rice grains (unbroken kernels and broken kernels which
are at least three-fourths of an unbroken kernel). The broken rice (kernels
which are less than three-fourths of an unbroken kernel) is generally
subdivided into three sizes-second heads, which are the largest of the
broken kernels; screenings, which have an intermediate size; and brewers
rice, consisting of the small broken kernels. It should also be understood
that, in the rice industry, a rice mill performs a series of processing
operations which, in general, include cleaning, shelling, milling, polishing,
separation of whole and broken rice, sizing of broken rice, packaging, and
several auxiliary operations such as husk aspiration, paddy separation,
bran processing, and rice coating.
Milling is of great economic importance to the rice industry, particu-
larly since broken rice is worth about half as much as whole rice. The
objective of these rice mill operations is to produce a white, whole grain
or head rice product that is essentially free of bran and foreign matter and
which contains a minimum of broken kernels.
In this chapter emphasis will be placed in the following related areas
of rice milling. A brief review of the early milling equipment and a descrip-
tion of current milling equipment will be presented. Factors that affect rice
breakage will be discussed such as the condition of paddy rice, harvesting,
drying, handling, and milling machine settings. The advantages and disad-
vantages of lightly milled rice as related to legal requirements, nutrition,
and cooking characteristics will be presented. Deep milled rice and the
production of high protein flour, techniques for measuring degree of milling
and the process for solvent extractive milling-its products and advan-
tages and disadvantages-will also be included in this discussion.
RICE-PROCESSING MACHINERY
In some rice-growing areas, milling is accomplished by very primitive

methods such as pounding the rough rice in a wooden mortar and pestle
MILLING 349
followed by winnowing. At the other extreme are very modern methods

where milling is accomplished in large, highly automated plants with the
manifold operations being monitored from a central console (Tolson and
Robe 1977). Thus, there is no typical rice mill. In addition, rice-processing
equipment is manufactured in a number of countries throughout the world
with minor to major differences in the design of individual pieces of ma-
chinery. However, the modern processing of rice consists of essentially
the same steps: (l) cleaning the incoming rough rice, (2) shelling the rough
rice, (3) milling to remove the bran from the brown rice, (4) sizing the
milled rice by length into whole grain and different sizes of brokens, (5)
mixing milled whole grain and brokens to meet specifications of buyers,
and (6) packaging. Other descriptions of rice milling equipment include
those by Witte (1970, 1972) and Van Ruiten (1976, 1985).
Cleaning
Dried rough rice is first cleaned to remove foreign material such as straw,
soil particles, and weed seeds. Cleaning is an important step in producing
a high quality milled rice. According to USDA standards (USDA 1976),
the highest grade (U.S. no. 1) of milled rice has a maximum limit of one
weed seed in 500 g. If the milled rice contains two weed seeds in 500 g,
the rice is downgraded to aU .S. no. 2 rice, even if all other specifications
of no. I rice are met. Separation of foreign matter is based on differences
in gross size, weight or density, and shape (principally length) of the
impurities compared to the rough rice.
Figure 10-1 shows in cross section a scalping machine (scalperator)
which removes straw and other large objects by screening and dust and
light weight material by aspiration. Rough rice enters through hopper (1).
The feed rate is regulated by the gate (2). The rice falls on the rotating
cylindrical screen or scalping reel (4). The mesh size of the screen is such
that straw, sticks, and other large foreign matter are carried over the
screen to discharge (13), while the rice falls through the screen. The rice
is then subjected to a stream of air which removes low-density matter such
as dust, sterile florets, and stemmers and discharges these in settling
chamber (8).
Flat inclined screens (screen separators) having a horizontal recipro-
cating motion may be used to clean the rice further. The separating action
of screens is based on length of the objects to be separated. A roughly
spherical weed seed having a diameter equivalent to the width of a rough
rice kernel may fall through the round perforations of a screen; the rough
rice laying flat on the screen will not pass through because its length is
longer than the diameter of the perforations. The rough rice thus bridges
across the perforations in its movement down the inclined screen. In the
Figure 10-1. Scalping mac hine (scalperator). (1) Feed hopper. (2) Feed regulation
gate. (3) Adjustable rack. (4) Wire mesh scalping reel. (5) Baffle plates.
(6) Grain receiving rack. (7) Seal gate. (8) Aspirating leg and settling
chamber. (9) Screening screw conveyer. (10) Air outlet baffle p lates.
(11) Suction fan. (12) Grain outlet. (13) Scalp ing outlet. (14) Screenings
outlet. (15) Machine frame and housing. Courtesy of Food and Agricul-
ture Organization of the United Nations (Borasio and Garibaldi 1957).
same fashion sticks or straw longer than the rough rice may be separated
by passage over a slotted screen. Indented disk separators may also be
used to separate rough rice from longer or shorter impurities. The opera-
tion of indented disks is discussed in more detail in connection with the
separation of whole grain milled rice from broken pieces. Permanent or
electromagnets are generally installed in the stream of rice to remove
ferrous metals. Stoners may also be included to remove dense materials.
These machines essentially operate by aspirating the rough rice away from
the denser objects.
MILLING 351
Figure 10-2. Rubber roll sheller. (1) Feed hopper. (2) Feed roller. (3) Fast roll.
(4) Slow roll. (5) Rubber surface. (6) Roll shifting arm. (7) Roll clearance
adjustment. (8) Roll tension spring. (9) Husker housing. (12) Husked
rice and husk outlet. (13) Machine base and frame. Courtesy of Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Borasio and
Garibaldi 1957).
Shelling
The next step is to remove the hulls (shelling). In Fig. 10-2, a cross-
sectional side view of a modern rubber roll sheller is illustrated. The feeder
(2) meters a falling stream of rough rice between two closely spaced rubber
rollers that are turning in opposite directions and at different speeds. As
the rice passes between the rollers it is subjected to a shearing force that
separates the two hulls (glumes) from the brown rice, as shown in the
exploded view on the right of Fig. 10-2. The distance between the rollers
may be regulated by a handwheel (7), as illustrated, or, in the most modern
machines, by a pneumatic mechanism that automatically separates the
rolls and turns off the driving motor if the rice flow through the machine
is interrupted. Excessive pressure can cause excessive breakage of the
grain. The main disadvantage of this type of sheller is that the rollers
wear rapidly and must be replaced or have the surfaces renewed quite
frequently, particularly in hot weather. However, the efficiency of the
rubber roll sheller in shelling grain of widely varying thickness more than
offsets the expense of the rollers. Prior to the introduction of the rubber
roll sheller an earlier design called a stone sheller or under-runner disk
sheller was used. This sheller is discussed in detail by Garibaldi (1974).
The stone sheller has the disadvantages of being dependent on a uniform
length of the grain to be shelled, breaking more grain than the rubber roll
sheller, and abrading the bran on the brown rice. However, the disk sheller
is still very commonly used in developing countries and has the advantage
that the abrasive surfaces of the machine can be repaired by the miller
himself using a mixture of emery or silicon carbide and an appropriate
cementing compound. Centrifugal or impact shellers are also available
(Masumoto 1989).
The product of the sheller is a mixture of whole grain brown rice,
broken brown rice, unshelled rough rice and hulls. The hulls, which have
a large surface area for their weight, are removed from the mixture by
aspiration. The remaining mixture of brown and rough rice is conveyed to
a paddy machine (paddy separator).
Paddy Separators
The paddy machine separates the brown and rough rice received from the
aspirator. There are two types of paddy machines in general use. The
compartment type is illustrated in Fig. 10-3. The upper diagram shows a
top view of the separator which has a horizontal reciprocating motion in
the plane of the paper in the directions of arrow A. The table (1) is divided
into compartments (2) extending crosswise to the direction of motion.
Each compartment has zig-zag sides and a smooth steel bottom slightly
inclined with the higher side being on the left. The grains slide from side
to side of the compartment. The lower density rough rice stratifies as a
layer above the brown rice. The oblique sides of the compartment tend to
impart an upward thrust to all the grains. However, the greater density of
the brown rice causes it to slide down the incline and be discharged into
the collecting trough (5) while the rough rice is discharged at the top of
the incline into collecting trough (4). The lower diagram of Fig. 10-3 is a
cross-sectional view with the direction of motion being perpendicular to
the plane of the paper. The stroke length, frequency of strokes, and the
inclination of the table may be adjusted to achieve the separation. The feed
to each compartment is adjustable by feed gates so that each compartment
receives the same amount of rice. The table may have a number of tiers
(usually three to five). The collecting troughs may be inclined in various
MILLING 353
O---. UNHUSKED GRAINS

- - - HUSKED GRAINS
4 a+----------.b 1 5
5
i~~~~~~~~ L~---1
Figure 10-3. Compartment separator-1ype paddy machine. (1) Table (arrow shows
direction of motion of table). (2) Compartments. (3) Triangular raised
portions of table (in solid black). (4) Unhusked grain outlet. (5) Husked
grain outlet. (6) Intake hopper. Courtesy of Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (Garibaldi 1975).
ways so that the discharge may be at either end or at the middle of the
machine to suit space requirements in the mill.
A more recent Japanese design of a paddy machine is called an oscillat-
ing tray or gravity-type separator (Fig. I0-4). Briefly, this machine consists
of several tiers of indented steel trays (3) inclined at an angle. The mixture
of brown and rough rice (I) from the sheller is introduced at the top of the
tray. The tray oscillates with an upward and forward motion toward the
top of the incline. The kernels of rice bounce up and down on the trays
1 2
Figure 10-4. Oscillating tray-type paddy separator. (1) Feed from sheller. (2) Recy-
cle stream. (3) Tray surface. (4) Brown rice discharge. (5) Paddy rice
discharge. (6) Mixture of brown and paddy rice for recycle.
which impart an upward motion to the denser brown rice while the rough
rice tends to slide over the brown rice and down the incline. This machine
discharges three streams of material: pure brown rice (4), pure rough rice
(5), and a mixture of brown and rough rice (6) which is recycled through
the machine (2) to achieve a complete separation. Das (1986) analyzed in
detail the operation of the tray-type separator.
Commercial machines are large and expensive and are not suitable for
laboratory use. Kunze et al. (1989) developed an inexpensive laboratory
size paddy separator.
The rough rice from the paddy machine is sent back to the shelling
machines or, in many instances, to what is called a return sheller set aside
MILLING 355
for the specific purpose of shelling rough rice returned from the paddy
machines. The brown rice is conveyed to rice milling machines which
remove the bran to produce milled rice.
Milling Machines
Rice mills are of basically two types: the abrasive type and the friction
type. In the abrasive type, the bran is removed by contact against a moving
rough surface as shown in Fig. 10-SA. The friction type functions by
rubbing one kernel against another while the rice is subjected to a slight
pressure, as illustrated in Fig. I 0-5B.
Abrasive types
An example of the abrasive-type machine is a vertical cone mill shown in
cross-sectional side view in Fig. 10-6. The feed of brown rice through
hopper (1) is regulated by raising or lowering sleeve (2). The rice falls on
the top of iron cone (4) and then on the abrasive surface of the cone (5).
The rice passes between the abrasive cone and screen (6) (see exploded
view on the left). The abraded bran passes through the screen where it is
conveyed by the rotating blades (22) to the bran outlet (23). After passing
through the polishing section, the milled rice is conveyed by moving blades
(19) to the milled rice discharge (20). Provision is made for elevating or
lowering the cone, altering the distance between the abrasive cone and
screen, and thereby regulating the degree of bran removal. In addition, at
periodic intervals around the screen are adjustable rubber brakes (shown
in top view at the bottom of Fig. 10-6) which project into the space between
l.SIVE SURFACE
A 8
Figure 10-5. Milling principle of (A) abrasive- and (B) friction-1ype rice mills.
10 6
Figure 10-6. Abrasive cone mill. (1) Feed hopper. (2) Feed control handwheel.
(3) Rotating cone clamping level. (4) Iron cone. (5) Cone abrasive
surface. (6) Screen case (independent segment 1ype) (bottom
right). (7) Rubber brakes. (8) Rubber brake frame. (9) Rubber brake
regulation handwheel. (10) Rotating cone housing. (11) Frame. (12)
Cone shaft. (13) Upper bearing (central bearing-1ype cone). (14)
Drive belt. (15) Drive pulley. (16) Lower bearing. (17) Screen and cone
clearance adjustment handwheel. (18) Shaft supporting arm. (19)
Milled rice conveyor. (20) Milled rice outlet. (21) Bran conveyor drive
pulley. (22) Bran conveyor flight. (23) Bran outlet. (24) Air suction
outlet. Courtesy of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (Borasio and Garibaldi 1957).
MILLING 357
IMIII IICI
Figure 10-7. Horizontal abrasive-1ype mill. Courtesy of Satake Engineering Co.
cone and screen. The brakes retard the motion of the rice against the
abrasive cone and thus help to regulate the degree of bran removal. The
sides of the machine are provided with doors for periodic inspections of
the screens and adjustment of the brakes by means ofhandwheels (9). Air
is pulled through exit (24) to remove the warm moist air generated by the
heating of the rice in the mill. Heat and moisture cause the bran to cake
and thus to clog the holes in the screen.
In a horizontal abrasive mill (Fig. 10-7), brown rice is conveyed under
a slight pressure into the space between a cylindrical abrasive surface
and screen. No provision is made for altering the distance between abra-
sive surface and screen. Suitable brakes (resistance pieces) are provided.
After passing through the mill, the rice emerges against an outlet plate
which provides an adjustable back pressure by means of the weight to
retain the rice in the mill. The pressure and retention time in the mill
control the degree of milling of the rice.
Generally, rice is not milled in one pass through an abrasive mill but
rather by passing the rice through two, three, or four mills in series. With
several mills in series the pressure may be decreased and clearances in
each mill increased with less breakage of rice . With increased clearances,
mills in series have a larger throughput than a single mill producing the
same degree of milling.
Friction type
A friction-type mill is illustrated in Fig. 10-8. Brown rice enters the mill
through an adjustable feed gate. A short screw conveyer propels the
rice under slight pressure into the milling chamber. A rotor (roller) with
BROWN RICE
{>
SCREWED IRDM ROLLER
WEIGHT
WHITE RICE
Figure 10-8. Friction-1ype rice mill. Courtesy of Satake Engineering Co.
projecting ridges imparts motion to the rice within a hexagonal slotted

screen, as shown in the cross section perpendicular to the shaft (on the
left of Fig. 10-8). The rotor in this case rotates clockwise. The rice emerges
from the mill against a plate which is adjustable by weights to provide
back pressure. The amount of back pressure affects the retention time in
the mill and, in conjunction with the pressure applied by the screw con-
veyer, regulates the degree of bran removal. The rotor is hollow and is
mounted on a hollow shaft so that air can be passed through the milling
chamber. The air serves several functions: (1) it prevents the parts of the
mill from heating up; (2) it cools the rice during passage through the mill;
and (3) most importantly, it assists in separating the bran from the milled
rice by blowing the bran through the slotted screen. This machine is
capable of producing well-milled rice in one pass and is frequently used in
this manner. However, two machines in series reduce breakage because
pressures in the two machines can be decreased. A recent development
in friction-type mills was reported in a patent (Meinardus 1985) that claims
reduced breakage and greater milling efficiency.
Since rice bran is relatively soft compared to the hard endosperm, the
frictional type machine has an advantage in that there is a sort of natural
stopping point in producing well-milled rice. Removal of peripheral endo-
sperm layers for various purposes, as discussed in the section on degree
of milling, must be accomplished with abrasive-type machines.
MILLING 359
The bran of parboiled rice is very sticky and must be removed in small
increments using a series of abrasive-type mills. However, a frictional-
type mill is frequently used in the last pass of milling parboiled rice to
impart a smooth glossy surface to the rice. Frictional-type mills may also
be used following abrasive milling of raw rice for the same purpose.
Polishing
As a final step, the milled rice is aspirated to remove loose bran. In
addition, the milled rice may be passed through a machine called a brush
or polisher to remove particles of loose bran. One type of polisher resem-
bles the vertical cone mill except that leather strips replace the abrasive
surface. By rolling the rice between the leather strips and the screen under
very mild pressure, remaining loose bran is removed, and the rice is given
a more polished surface. Passing the milled rice through trumbles, which
causes the mass of grains to slide over one another, also helps to impart
a smooth surface to the rice.
Sizing
The milled rice is sized by length to separate the whole kernels (head rice)
from the "brokens." Based upon length, the brokens in the United States
are separated into second heads, screenings, and brewers rice. U.S. stan-
dards for these classes are discussed further in Volume II, Chapter 5. A
preliminary separation of whole grain from brokens may be made by
use of screens. However, final separation is made by means of indented
cylinders or indented disks shown in Figs. 10-9 and 10-10, respectively.
Milled rice is introduced into the indented cylinder through hopper (1) to
form a bed of rice along the bottom of the cylinder as shown in the bottom
illustration of Fig. 10-9. The inside surface of the cylinder consists of small
indented pockets whose size determines the separation made. As the
cylinder turns clockwise, the indents become filled 'with both the shorter
kernels to be separated and the longer kernels. As the side of the cylinder
approaches a vertical position, the longer kernels fall out because the
weight of the kernel extending past the lip of the indent is heavier than the
portion within the indent. The shorter kernels fit within the indent, are
carried further up the side of the cylinder, and fall into the collecting tray
when the indent bGcomes inverted and unable to hold the shorter kernel.
The position of the tray (6) is adjustable by handwheel (10). A screw
conveyer (7) inside the tray discharges the shorter kernels through outlet
(13). A grain spreader (12) helps to insure contact of all the grains with the
indented surface. The longer kernels are discharged through outlet (14).
An indented disk separator consists of a number of indented disks
rotating (counterclockwise in Fig. 10-10) through a bed of rice in the
t3 11
7 11.,
Figure 10-9. Indented cylinder separator. (1) Feed hopper. (2) Indented cylinder.
(3) Cylinder supporting roll. (4) Outer cylinder ring. (5) Speed reduc-
tion unit. (6) Collecting tray. (7) Screw conveyor. (8) Screw conveyor
and spreader driging gears. (9) Screw conveyor and spreader drive
pulley. (10) Tray position adjustment handwheel. (11) Machine frame.
(12) Grain spreader. (13) Liftings outlet. (14) Grain outiet. Courtesy of
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Borasio and
Garibaldi 1957).
bottom of aU -shaped trough. Depending on the size of the indent pockets

the short kernels are picked up as the disk turns through the bed of rice.
The short kernels remain in the indents until the turning of the disk results
in an inverted (upside down) position of the indent. At this point the grain
falls out into the collecting trough (4). The longer kernels are conveyed by
conveying flights (3) to grain outlet (9).
MILLING 361
Figure 10-10. Indented disk separator. (1) Feed hopper. (2) Undercut pocket disks.
(3) Grain conveying flights. (4) Liftings collecting trough. (5) Liftings
trap door (closed). (6) Liftings trap door (open). (7) ~iftings return
screw conveyor. (8) Liftings discharge hopper. (9) Grain outlet. (10)
Machine housing and frame. Courtesy of Food and Agriculture Or-
ganization of the United Nations (Borasio and Garibaldi 1957).
After separation, the whole grain and the various classes of brokens
are weighed on automatic dump scales and then conveyed to separate
bins. Bins are arranged along a conveyer belt so that rice from one or more
bins can be combined and mixed to meet a buyer's specifications. The
final step is to package the milled rice.
Photoelectric Sorting
In the case of parboiled rice, the percentage of breakage with modern
processing is very small. However, parboiling enhances the discoloration
of grains that have been damaged (discolored) by insects and/or microflora

in the field. Thus, to produce a high quality parboiled rice, the discolored
grain must be removed by photoelectric color sorting machines.
Bran Stablilization
When bran layers are removed from the endosperm during milling, the
individual cells are disrupted, and the rice bran lipids come into contact
with a highly reactive lipase enzyme. The resulting lipid hydrolysis reac-
tions result in a very rapid increase in the free fatty acid content of the
bran, making it unsuitable for the economical extraction of edible rice oil.
A recent development (Sayre et al. 1982) has been the stabilization of rice
bran by extrusion cooking. This stabilization takes place within minutes
after milling, thereby minimizing the development of rancidity. After pack-
aging the extruded bran product can be stored for several months. The
stabilized bran is an excellent source of fiber for human consumption.
Recent studies have shown that its cholesterol-lowering effect is equivalent
to oat bran (Gerhardt and Gallo 1989; Kahlon et al. 1989). Also, the oil
can be easily extracted from the bran with hexane, with excellent percola-
tion rates, and refined to produce an excellent quality food-grade vegetable
oil. A number of rice mills have recently acquired extruders and are
evaluating their operation. Rice bran extruders seem likely to become
standard equipment in rice mills.
Automation
As new rice mills are built and older mills modernized, more automation
and computer control will be applied. Not much has been published in
this area. Van Ruiten (1984) reviewed recent developments in equipment
automation for the rice-milling industry. He discusses automation of indi-
vidual pieces of rice-processing equipment as well as entire rice mills.
Much of this information was obtained directly from equipment manufac-
turers.
Small Capacity Mills

In developing countries, small-capacity mills operated by local entrepre-
neurs may omit several steps of the milling process discussed above. Of
particular note is the Engelberg huller mill. This is a friction-type mill
MILLING 363
which simultaneously removes both hulls and bran from rough rice. This
machine has the disadvantages of producing high percentages of broken
rice and discharging a byproduct mixture of bran and hulls. The bran is
thus not as useful as a feed supplement or as a source of vegetable oil.
These mills frequently only act as service mills to the farmer for home
consumption. The mill has the advantages of minimizing the necessary
investment in storage facilities and machinery and, being in proximity to
producing areas, reducing the cost of transportation of the bulky rough
rice. Another small mill uses a rubber roll sheller, an aspirator to remove
loose hulls, and a friction-type machine to mill the approximately 95%
brown-5% rough rice mixture from the sheller. In making well-milled rice,
the rough rice in the mixture is shelled during the bran removal process
and does not appear in the final product.
Coated Rice
Some rice consumers prefer a very glossy or shiny rice called coated or
glazed rice. This rice is produced by adding calcium carbonate and corn
syrup or a glucose solution to well-milled rice in a trumble. Rotation of
the trumble evenly distributes the coating mixture over the grain. This
technique is also used to fortify rice with vitamins and minerals. In the
past, talcum powder was used in coating formulations for rice. However,
this practice is now prohibited by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA).
RICE BREAKAGE DURING MILLING
The factors contributing to rice breakage during milling may be classified

into two general categories: (1) those related to the properties of the rice
grain itself, and (2) those related to the conditions of milling. The properties
of the grain itself at the time of milling are determined by both the inherent
varietal properties of the rice kernel and by the conditions to which the
rice is subjected during growing, harvesting, drying, storage, transporta-
tion, and other handling (Kunze 1985). The conditions of milling affecting
breakage are the rice temperature and moisture content during milling, the
temperature and humidity of the milling environment, the degree of mill-
ing, and the operating conditions and mechanical settings of the milling
machinery.
Factors Before Milling

Harvesting
To obtain high quality as well as high yield, rice must be harvested at the
proper stage of maturity. If the crop is harvested too early (while imma-
ture), breakage during milling is excessive due to the large quantity of
thin, light, and chalky kernels which are very fragile. If it is harvested too
late, breakage during milling is excessive due to a phenomenon known as
"sun checking" which is the development of cracks in the individual
kernels. Smith et al. (1938) reported that delayed harvesting, which led to
increased breakage of individual grains, was accompanied by decreased
moisture content of the paddy rice.
Rice varieties differ in the range of harvest-time moisture content, or
harvest moisture, at which they yield the best quality milled rice. Davis
(1944) found that the optimal range for Caloro was 20 to 24%. Kester
(1959), Kester and Pence (1962), and Kester et al. (1963) reported the
optimal range for Calrose was 22 to 27%. Working with various short-
and medium-grain varieties they found that milling head yields decreased
between 0.9 and 1.7 percentage points for each one percentage point
decrease in harvest moisture content within the harvest moisture range of
26 to 14%. When they hand harvested rice over a period of time while the
field moisture content was decreasing from 47 to 15%, the milling head
yields were best between field moisture contents of 32 and 25%. McNeal
(1950), working with medium-grain (Zenith) and long-grain (Rexark, Nira,
and Prelude) varieties, reported maximum milling head yields were ob-
tained when the harvest moisture content was between 16 and 24%. Morse
et al. (1967) reported maximum milling head yield for Caloro at between
26 and 30% harvest moisture. However, he also reported that total milled
rice yield per acre continued to increase as the harvest moisture decreased
to 12%. Below 26% harvest moisture, the increase in total yield was not
very rapid. Johnston and Miller (1973) concluded that the optimal harvest
moisture, considering both milling head yield and total milled rice yield
per acre, is between 18 and 24%. New information continues to be released
on the relationship between harvest moisture and milling yields for com-
mercial and experimental rice lines (Miller et al. 1988; Dilday 1987).
Another harvesting factor that affects milling head yield is the mechan-
ical action of the combine on the rice kernels. Matthews and Spadaro
(1975) measured the effects of combining on rice breakage and head yield.
In each of five fields, one rice sample was collected from a combine and
another was collected by hand harvesting. X-ray photographs were used
to determine the percentage of cracked and broken rough rice kernels. The
combine-harvested samples averaged over five percentage points more
MILLING 365
cracked and broken rough rice kernels than the hand-harvested samples.
This difference in breakage carried through the subsequent milling opera-
tions with the combine-harvested samples averaging 11.2% breakage while
the hand-harvested samples averaged only 6% breakage. Dilday (1987)
reported on both the influence of cylinder speed and the moisture content
of the grain at harvest on the milling yields of rice. The current practice
is to allow a small percentage of the kernels to crack during combining in
order to obtain a maximum total yield per acre.
Drying
The optimal moisture content for harvesting rice is too high for safe
storage; thus, the rough rice must be dried. The drying conditions to which
the rice is subjected have a pronounced effect on breakage during milling.
As the rice kernel dries, the outer portion shrinks, setting up stresses
within the kernel. The magnitude of these stresses depends on the moisture
and temperature gradients within the rice kernel, while the tensile strength
of the rice kernel depends on its moisture content and temperature. If the
rice is dried too rapidly, the internal stresses will exceed the tensile
strength resulting in checking or cracking of the rice kernel (Henderson
1954, 1957; Kunze 1964; Kunze and Hall 1965; Choudhary 1970). These
checked kernels are more susceptible to breaking during milling, resulting
in reduced head yield (Rhind 1962).
The two rice-drying methods commonly used are (l) bin drying with
unheated or slightly heated air (on-farm drying), and (2) multipass drying
in continuous-flow heated air driers (commercial drying). A considerable
amount of research has been done with these methods to determine eco-
nomically feasible drying conditions that will minimize breakage during
subsequent milling operations. Wasserman et al. (l958a) reported on dry-
ing procedures that increased drier capacity and simultaneously improved
milled head yield for western U.S. rice varieties. Pominski et al. (1961)
and Spadaro (1961) extended this work to varieties grown in the southern
United States. McNeal (1961) investigated the effects of drying techniques
and temperatures on milling head yields for four rice varieties: Arkrose,
Bluebonnet, Nato, and Zenith. Sorenson and Crane (1960) reported on
the practicality of drying rice in storage bins and presented equipment
requirements and operating conditions to prevent loss in grade and milling
yields. Calderwood et al. (1975) summarizes the methods and adjustments
for increasing capacity of continuous-flow heated-air dryers without loss
of milling quality.
Wasserman (1960) reported that tempering rice after drying without
cooling (40.SOC) gave higher head yields than when the rice was cooled
immediately after drying (23.8°C), and then tempered. Nguyen and Kunze
(1984) reported on grain fissures related to post-drying treatments in rough
rice.
Stipe et al. (1976) reported on a radically different method of drying
rough rice which actually increases the milling head yields. Before drying,
the naturally moist rough rice is exposed to live steam for a short time
interval. The effect is to parboil lightly the undried rice. The steam-treated
rough rice is then dried in a single pass with high-temperature air (80°C)
to a moisture level of less than 13%. The key step in the process, the step
that prevents breakage during milling, is to temper the rice immediately
after drying for I h at 70°C in a sealed vessel. Wadsworth (1984) and
Wadsworth et al. (1989) reported on the effects of microwave drying on
milling yields. Green rice and parboiled rice could be microwave dried in
a single pass without adversely affecting head yields.
Storage and handling
The conditions to which rice is subjected during storage and transportation

also have an influence on the milling head yield. Several investigators have
studied the effects of storage time after drying on milling quality with
varied results. Wasserman et al. (1958a) reported that rice grown in the
western United States could be milled immediately after drying without
any loss in milling yields. Five lots of rice were each milled after drying
and after 3, 6, and 9 weeks of storage. Milling yields did not change during
these periods. Pominski et al. (1965), studying long- and medium-grain
rice grown in the southern United States, also concluded that rice can be
milled immediately after drying with no loss in head yield. He found that
milling yields did not significantly change over a 4-week storage period.
In addition, he reported some indication that higher head yields could be
obtained with medium-grain rice by milling immediately following drying.
The data of Wasserman (196 I) on short -grain rice also shows higher head
yields immediately after drying. Sorenson (1973) reported substantial in-
creases in milling head yields (four to six percentage points) for rice stored
over a 10-month period. This is in agreement with the work ofChoudhary
(1970), who found that the tensile strength of rice increased during storage.
He concluded that during storage in a constant environment, the residual
stresses induced by moisture gradients during drying may be gradually
relieved, resulting in a stress-free kernel that has a higher tensile strength
and therefore less likelihood of breaking during milling.
McNeal (1960) studied the milling of rice that was harvested and stored
without drying for various periods of time at various moisture levels. He
reported that the undried rice declined in grade before declining in milling
yields. Wadsworth and Matthews (1985) reported that head yields in rice
MILLING 367
that was held 24 h between harvesting and drying were slightly higher
than those for rice dried immediately after harvesting. Calderwood and
Schroeder (1975) investigated the use of chemical preservatives for main-
taining undried rough rice in storage. They found that propionic acid, at
levels sufficient to prevent moist rough rice from deteriorating, did not
affect milling yields.
The environmental conditions to which the rice is exposed during
storage and transportation are very important factors affecting milling
yield. A significant amount of rice breakage during milling is due to rice
kernels that have been weakened by stress cracks resulting from moisture
adsorption or desorption. Kunze (1964) observed the development of fis-
sures when rice kernels, equilibrated at storage moisture, were exposed
to higher relative humidities. Kunze and Hall (1965, 1967) investigated the
moisture adsorption characteristics of brown rice and relative humidity
changes that cause brown rice to crack. They found that approximately
50% of the rice kernels, initially at storage moisture content, fissured
within a 0.8 to 1.6-h period when exposed to 100% relative humidity at
33.3°C. The exposure time required for fissuring depended on the rice
variety. Stermer ( 1968b) developed a relationship between stress crack
damage and the magnitude of the change in equilibrium moisture content.
Kunze and Choudhary (1971) found that the tensile strength of the rice
kernels gradually decreased as the time of exposure to moisture adsorbing
conditions increased even before physical fissures appeared. Therefore,
even the kernels that have not developed cracks are more susceptible to
breakage after exposure to adverse environmental conditions.
Since most rice is stored and transferred in bulk or in 45.4-kg burlap
bags, minimizing its exposure to environments where moisture transfer
may occur is important. Storage bin design and size are important for
controlling the environment and preventing moisture migration. Bin height
must be limited to prevent excessive breakage due to the weight of the
stored rice. Transfer by belt, screw conveyors and bucket elevators can
also lead to added kernel breakage by mechanical action. Louvier and
Calderwood ( 1972) studied the breakage of rice due to falling impact such
as would occur in the bulk loading of a ship. They reported that (I) the
amount of breakage increased with dropping height up to 18.3 m; (2) long-
grain rice was more susceptible to impact breakage than medium-grain
rice; (3) breakage increased as the moisture content of the rice was re-
duced; and (4) the relative humidity and temperature of the air through
which the rice fell had little effect on impact breakage.
Kernel damage due to improper storage and/or insect infestation can
lead to increased breakage. Schroeder (1967) reported reduced head and
total milling yields resulting from invasion by storage fungi in experimental
rice storage studies. Calderwood et al. (1984) reported that the milling
yields of rice in long-term storage at 12% moisture content could be

maintained by aeration.
Parboiling
It is common knowledge that parboiling will greatly improve the milling
quality of rice such that head yields will approach total yields (i.e., zero
breakage). Bhattacharya and Subba Rao (1966) and Bhattacharya (1969)
have conducted comprehensive quantitative studies on the effects of par-
boiling on the breakage of rice. They reported that kernel defects such as
cracks, chalkiness, and incomplete grain filling are completely healed
during the parboiling process. When properly dried, the rice kernels are
very resistant to mechanical breakage. Thus, the milling quality of par-
boiled rough rice is determined by drying conditions following parboiling
and is independent of the previous history or condition of the rice. Conse-
quently, for rough rice that is to be parboiled, the optimal harvesting,
drying, and storage conditions should be selected on some basis other than
that of preserving the milling quality. For the same reasons, parboiling is
an excellent means for salvaging rice whose milling quality has been
inadvertently damaged by improper handling or processing.
Milling Factors
During the shelling and milling (bran removal) operations, the rice kernels
are subjected to mechanical forces to remove the husk and bran and
produce white milled rice. Milling will cause breakage of some kernels
even in rice lots which have been harvested, dried, and stored with extreme
care. For lots that have been subjected to poor treatment, milling may
break every grain. The ideal milling operation is one in which the mill
environment, rice properties, and machine settings are controlled to mini-
mize breakage (maximize head yield) while producing rice with the desired
degree of milling.
Defective kernels
Several investigators have studied the relationship between the amount of
checking or cracks in the rice kernels and the amount of breakage occurring
in the milling operations. Reports on the degree of correlation between
defective kernels and breakage vary. Autrey et al. (1955) did not find any
correlation for medium- or long-grain rice between the percentage broken
during shelling and that broken during milling. Nor was any correlation
seen between the defective kernels as received and breakage during mill-
ing. Hogan et al. (1954), using X-ray technique (radiographs) to evaluate
the percentage of cracked rough rice, also did not find a correlation be-
MILLING 369
tween the percentage of cracked before milling and broken milled rice. He
concluded that either the grain had cracks which could not be detected
radiographically or milling head yields were affected by other factors.
McDonald (1967), who studied factors influencing rice checking in Austra-
lia and the effects of checking on milling quality, concluded that milling
quality (head yield) is not related to the percentage of cracked rough rice
kernels, and the only way of assessing it is by test milling.
In contrast to the above findings, Ten Have (1958) found for five
varieties of long-grain rice that the percentage of cracked rough rice ker-
nels, determined by hand shelling and visual inspection of the brown rice,
had a good correlation with breakage during milling. In rice lots with
low percentages cracked and low breakage, the percentage of brokens
generally exceeded the percentage cracked. In rice lots with 20% or more
breakage during milling, the percentage of brokens was less than the
percentage of cracked rough rice kernels. Henderson (1954), who deter-
mined cracks in rough rice by X-ray examination, reported that many of
the internally or incipiently cracked rough rice kernels of short-grain Ca-
loro did not break when milled. The amount that may be cracked but
unbroken after milling may range from 0 to 86%. He examined a sample
of short -grain rice obtained from a local retail grocer and found 65% of the
whole kernels had cracks. Stermer (1968b), who determined stress cracks
with transmitted polarized light, reported that in limited mechanical break-
age tests on long-grain Belle Patna and medium grain Nato varieties, rice
kernels showing stress-crack damage were easily shattered. Bhattacharya
(1969), using transmitted light to determine cracked kernels visually, re-
ported that breakage during milling was related quantitatively to the
amount of cracked and immature kernels. He concluded that it is princi-
pally the defective grains that ultimately fail in rice milling.
Matthews et al. (1970) made a comprehensive investigation of the
relationships between breakage during milling and defective rough rice
kernels as determined by X-ray examination. He reported that grain type
(long, medium, or short) is extremely important in the relationship between
defective kernels and milling breakage. For long-grain rice he demon-
strated a proportionality between the percentage of cracked rough rice
kernels and the percentage of broken brown and milled rice. Only one-
third of the breakage after milling could be attributed to rough rice kernels
that had an observable crack in a position to give rise to a broken milled
rice kernel. The low proportion of cracked rough rice to broken milled
rice could be due to the inability of the X-ray technique to show all cracks.
An alternative explanation is that the percentage of cracks is indicative
of a residual stressed condition in the apparently sound kernels. They
recommended additional research to determine the relationship between
cracks observable by X-ray examination and cracks observable by such
visual methods as described by Stermer ( 1968b) and to determine the

nature of the fragility of long-grain kernels which break but do not have
an observable crack. For medium-grain rice, Matthews et al. ( 1970) re-
ported that the percentage of cracked rough rice kernels was approxi-
mately equal to the percentage of those broken after milling. About one-
half of the cracked kernels broke during shelling. The greater resistance
to breaking of cracked medium-grain kernels is probably related to the
thicker, more rounded kernel as compared to long-grain rice. Henderson
(1954) has shown that cracked short-grain rice kernels can be very resistant
to breakage with a high percentage of them surviving milling intact. Soren-
son (1973) confirmed the importance of grain type in the relationship
between cracked rough rice and broken milled rice. He reported that long-
grain stress-cracked rice kernels are very fragile and break easily during
milling. The medium-grain stress-cracked kernel very often withstands
milling without breaking. He concludes that breakage is only partially
related to the quantity of cracked kernels in the rough rice.
Kernel size
Several investigators have reported that long-grain rice is more susceptible
to breakage during milling than medium-grain rice, which in turn is more
susceptible than short-grain rice. Matthews and Spadaro (1976) investi-
gated the relationship between kernel thickness and breakage for long-
grain rice. Six lots of three varieties of long-grain rough rice were each
separated by thickness into four fractions. X-ray photographs were used
to determine the percentage of cracked kernels in each rough rice thickness
fraction. They demonstrated that, for a given lot of rice, the thinner kernels
are more susceptible to breakage during milling. They also demonstrated
relationships between cracked rough rice and broken milled rice that were
dependent upon the thickness of the kernels.
Wadsworth et al. (1982) and Wadsworth and Hayes (1989) reported
on the variation of milling performance and quality characteristics oflong-,
medium- and short-grain rice related to the thickness of the rough rice
kernels. They found significant differences in shelling efficiency, brown
rice yield, total and head yields, processing losses, and milled rice quality
associated with kernel thickness. Their results identified several advan-
tages that could be realized by rice processors if they separated the paddy
rice by kernel thickness before milling. These include the reduction of
processing losses, improved efficiency, improved milled rice quality, and
production of a new higher protein rice raw material suitable for develop-
ment of new food products (Wadsworth and Hayes 1986). The processor
would have additional flexibility to blend rice to obtain specified grades or
meet buyers' specifications based on factors other than percentage of
MILLING 371
broken kernels. The rice-cleaning equipment .currently in place at most

modern rice mills should be suitable for separating paddy rice into fractions
of differing thickness.
Rice moisture content
The effect of rice moisture content on milling head yield has been the
subject of several investigations. Pominski et al. (1961) reported that mois-
ture content had a very significant effect on milling yields of Bluebonnet
50 long-grain rice. Over the range of 10 to 14% moisture, head yields
and total yields increased by approximately 3 and 0.7 percentage point,
respectively, for each one percentage point decrease in rice moisture.
Wratten (1960) also reported that lower moisture content increased the
milling yields of Bluebonnet 50. Wasserman (1960, 1961) demonstrated
that milling yields ofCaloro short-grain rice varied inversely with moisture
content. Over the range of 10 to 14% moisture, the head and total yields
increased by 1.8 and 1.2 percentage points, respectively, for each one
percentage point decrease in moisture. He obtained similar results with
California Pearl short-grain rice. He also showed that the total yield of the
milled rice could be further increased by remoistening it to normal moisture
content. The remoistening was done by exposing the milled rice to humidi-
fied air under carefully controlled conditions such that there was little
increase in breaking or cracking. Bhatia (1969), using Saturn medium-grain
rice, found that with each one percentage point decrease in moisture from
12 to 10%, the breakage decreased by 1.6 percentage points.
Webb and Calderwood ( 1977) investigated the relationship of moisture
content to the degree of milling in rice. They reported that rice with
low moisture levels (6-10%) was markedly more resistant to milling at a
specified mill setting than samples at higher moisture levels. The low
moisture samples required considerably more milling pressure to obtain an
equivalent degree of milling. As expected, head yield of the low moisture
samples at a conventional mill setting was greater than that of the higher
moisture samples, but the difference in head yield between low moisture
and higher moisture samples was greatly reduced or eliminated when mill
settings were adjusted to obtain an equivalent degree of milling.
Stipe et a!. (1972) investigated the effects on milling yields of shelling
rough rice at higher than normal moisture content, drying the brown rice
to normal milling moisture content, and milling. They found that, with
Saturn medium-grain rice, a considerable decrease occurred in both total
and head yields when the moisture content was above 18% during shelling.
Shelling tests with two long-grain varieties, Dawn and Starbonnet, showed
significant reductions in head yields when shelled at moisture contents of
16 to 18% as compared with the 12 to 14% levels. Kassem and Kunze
(1984) reported on flash drying techniques that enabled them to shell high-
moisture rough rice efficiently without affecting head yields.
Temperature
Autrey et al. (1955) investigated the effect of temperature on breakage
during milling. He reported that, while the actual temperature of the rice
or the mill room was not related to breakage, the difference between the
temperature of the rice entering the mill and the temperature of the mill
room itself could be correlated with head yield. When the temperature of
Zenith medium-grain rice was 5.SOC higher than that of the mill room,
head yields decreased by an average of 1.6 percentage points. When the
rice temperature was 5.5°C below the room temperature, the decrease in
head yield averaged 0.9 percentage points. Rexark variety rice was less
sensitive to temperature than was the Zenith. Rhind and Tin (1933) re-
ported that for each degree centigrade higher rice temperature at time of
milling, there was a decrease in whole kernel yield of between 0.5 and 1.0
percentage points. Henderson (1954) also observed that higher tempera-
tures enhanced breakage. Sorenson (1973) milled rice with liquid nitrogen
being passed through the mill rotor and through the rice while it was being
milled. He found that higher head yields were realized with the liquid
nitrogen cooling; however, because of mechanical problems encountered
during milling, he believes that the study is inconclusive and the use of
liquid nitrogen is impractical for cooling rice during milling. Bhatia (1969)
varied the temperature of rice before milling from 21.l to 32.2°C with
various rice moisture contents. His data showed that breakage during
milling actually decreased slightly as the initial rice temperature increased.
Later work has indicated that the effects correlated with temperature
changes may actually be related to moisture gain or loss in the rice kernel
which accompanies the temperature changes. Kunze and Hall (1967) re-
ported that subjecting rice kernels to a large temperature change-up
to 34.4°C degrees-while controlling the relative humidity such that no
moisture changes occurred, did not produce any cracks in the kernels.
They concluded that the effect of temperature gradient on breakage is
small. Matthews et al. (1971) subjected long-grain rough rice to a combina-
tion of time-temperature treatments in hermetically sealed containers to
minimize moisture transfer. Duration of heat treatments varied from 2 to
19 hand temperature from 60 to l20°C. Results indicated that heat by itself
was not detrimental.
Relative humidity
In the rice industry, moisture changes in the rice kernel are recognized
to be closely related to stress cracking. The relative humidity of the
environment in which the rice is milled can be an important factor in the
MILLING 373
moisture changes, and several investigators have studied the effect of this
aspect of milling on head yield. Autrey et al. ( 1955) investigated this in a
pilot plant with closely controlled humidity, using three varieties of raw
rough rice and one sample of parboiled rice. The mill room temperature
was maintained at 29.4 ± 1.1 oc. The optimal relative humidity (RH) for
processing the rice was found to be approximately 70%. The rice used in
these tests had a moisture content of around 13% and, thus, was in mois-
ture equilibrium with 29.4°C air at about 70% RH. These conditions would
minimize moisture transfer to or from the rice. When relative humidities
above or below 70% were used, the resulting head yields decreased. The
effect of humidity on head yield was different for different rice varieties.
For Bluebonnet, the range in head yield was 3.2 percentage points over a
range in humidity from 50 to 70%; for Zenith, 1.8 percentage points over
the same humidity range. The relative humidity had little effect on the
head yield of the parboiled sample. The results obtained in the pilot plant
were verified in commercial mills where a pronounced decrease in head
yields was found when milling was done on days with low relative humidi-
ties. In another series of pilot-plant experiments, Autrey regulated the
humidity in various pieces of equipment at 70% while the mill room was
at 30%. He concluded that near optimum head yields could be obtained
by regulating the humidity just in the pieces of equipment where the rice
is exposed to large volumes of air.
Aeration during bran removal
Several investigators have reported increased milling head yields due to

blowing air through the rice while the bran is being removed. Bhatia
(1969), who studied milling in a ventilated Engelberg huller, reported
that breakage could be reduced by approximately 3 percentage points by
providing 4.34 m 3/s ventilating air per m 3 of annular space in the huller.
The aeration lowered the temperature of the rice during milling. He con-
cluded that breakage is a function of the increase in temperature of the
grain during the milling process. Bhatia also controlled the humidity of the
ventilating air. The controlled-humidity air was in contact with the rice
only for the short time the rice was in the mill. While Bhatia concluded
that the effect of humidity on head yields was negligible, his data show that
the trend is similar to that found by Autrey et al. (1955). With ventilating air
at 50% RH, the average breakage during milling was 13.7%, with 70% RH,
the breakage was 12.8%, and with 90% RH, the breakage was 14.3%.
Wasserman et al. (1974) reported that aerating the rice during milling with
a CeCoCo continuous abrasive-type mill decreased milling time by 6% but
had little effect on head yield. Matthews and Spadaro ( 1974) reported that
for the Satake Jet Pearler, the head yield increased as the ventilating
airflow rate through the mill was increased. Childers et al. (1975) studied
the effects of aerating during milling in a McGill Number 3 batch-type

mill. In tests with long-grain rice, head yields increased from 2.0 to 4.5
percentage points with aeration. For medium-grain rice the increase in
head yield was about 3 percentage points. Childers et al. also controlled
the relative humidity but did not find any relationship between humidity
and head yield. However, the rice was aerated for only I min at a relatively
low airflow rate (0.0033 m3/s), and they believe additional tests at higher
flow rates are needed to determine the full effect of relative humidity on
head yield with a batch-type mill.
Both Childers et al. (1975) and Bhatia (1969) concluded that, because
the unaerated rice reached higher temperatures during milling, it was
subjected to greater thermal stresses, which probably caused the rice
kernels to be broken more easily. Another possible explanation for the
decrease in breakage with aeration is that the lower breakage is the result
of decreased moisture gradient stresses rather than thermal stresses. Mat-
thews et al. (1971) and Kunze and Hall (1967) reported that subjecting rice
to large temperature gradients but under conditions where no moisture
transfer occurred did not result in the development of cracks due to thermal
stresses. Mannapperuma (1974) analyzed the stresses inside a rice grain
due to temperature and moisture gradients. An axisymmetric model with
an elliptical longitudinal section was developed using finite difference
methods to represent the rice kernel. He calculated that exposure to a
41.7°C temperature gradient results in a thermal tensile stress of 1.72 x
106 Pa (250 lb/in 2) at the center of the kernel-well below the rupture
stresses in tension and compression. Several investigators have shown
that moisture-gradient stresses alone can cause a rice kernel to crack.
When the rice heats up during milling, the vapor pressure of the water in
the rice increases, resulting in a higher rate of water transfer from the rice
kernel to the surrounding air. Aerating the rice during milling reduces the
rice temperature and removes heat which would otherwise be available to
evaporate the rice moisture, thereby reducing the rate of moisture transfer
and the stresses resulting from the moisture gradient. To clarify this point,
additional precise experimental data need to be collected on the changes
occurring during milling in rice moisture content and temperature as well
as changes in the temperature and humidity of the air surrounding and
flowing through the rice.
Milling time
One area of milling which has considerable conflicting information in the

literature is the effect of the duration of milling on breakage. Autrey et al.
(1955), working with both medium- and long-grain rice, reported that only
about one-fifth of the breakage occurs during the time period required to
MILLING 375
remove 75% of the bran. When the milling time is extended to remove the
remaining 25% of the bran, about four-fifths of the breakage occurs. Rhind
(1962) stated that, in his experience, the stress-cracked kernels are present
in every sample, and these defective grains break as soon as milling starts.
Thereafter, breakage proceeds steadily as the rice is subjected to more and
more force as milling continues. He believes that badly cracked kernels are
destined to break and do so with a minimum of milling. Smith and McCrea
( 1951) milled numerous large samples of many different varieties of rice
for times ranging from 15 to 90s. They reported that the highest percentage
of breakage occurred during the first 15 s of milling in all of the tests, and
from that time on, the breakage was small. Bhattacharya and Subba Rao
( 1966) reported that most of the breakage in a lot of rice occurred at the
earliest stage and increased little with continued milling. Bhatia (1969)
concluded that, on the average, 70 to 80% of the total breakage occurs
during the first 5 s of mill operation, and from that time on, the breakage
is comparatively small. Matthews et al. (1970), working with both long-
and medium-grain rice, reported that almost all of the breakage occurred
in the first 10 s of milling. About 70% of the bran was removed in the first
10 s. Bran removal continued, although at a decreasing rate for the entire
milling period. The polishing period could be extended for about 150 s
without increasing breakage significantly over that taking place in the first
10 s of milling. They concluded that the breakage is due to mechanical
stresses and not to moisture or thermal stresses which develop continu-
ously as milling proceeds. They hypothesized that the major reason that
breakage is not completed in the first I s of milling is probably that not all
ofthe kernels have been mechanically stressed by this time. For example,
the rice kernels at the end of 5 s of milling consisted of about 40% well-
milled grains and 60% which had hardly been milled at all, rather than
consisting of a uniform collection of grains, each having about 40% of the
bran removed (such as might be inferred from the 40% total bran removal
achieved with 5-s milling time). Hogan (1969), investigating the effects of
deep milling rice by abrasion to produce a high-protein rice flour, reported
that kernel breakage progressively increased as overmilling proceeded.
The breakage of the long-grain types was greater than that for medium-
and short-grain varieties. Bajaj and Sidhu (1984) also reported gradually
decreasing head yields in their study on extended milling of Indian rice.
Additives
Matthews et al. (197la) stated that, in present commercial practice, the
amount of long-grain rice broken at the end of the shelling process repre-
sents only 25 to 45% of the total broken rice after milling. Therefore, a
chemical or physical treatment of the brown rice to facilitate bran removal
could potentially reduce a major portion of the total breakage occurring

in conventional milling.
Autrey et al. ( 1955) studied the effects of steaming brown rice before
milling. While steaming, they found that droplets of water should not be
allowed to come into contact with the rice and that the temperature of the
rice should not be allowed to rise appreciably. When either of these
conditions occurred, the result was a decrease in the head yield. Optimum
results were obtained when the brown rice came out of the steam bath
slightly damp and at a temperature near its entering temperature. With
properly dried rice, steaming had no significant effect upon head yield;
however, the mill capacity was increased. With rice that had low head
yield due to improper drying or storage, the head yield was increased
significantly by steaming. They conclude that steaming results in lesser
adherence of the bran to the endosperm, thus requiring less mechanical
force for bran removal. Obtaining higher head yields by exposing the
brown rice to moisture before milling appears to be in direct conflict with
the work of Kunze and Hall (1965) who showed that moisture adsorption
caused brown rice to develop stress cracks. However, Choudhary (1970)
reported that the initial short-term effect of moisture adsorption was an
increase in the tensile strength of the rice kernel. He stated that this
behavior was not anticipated, and additional research is required for an
explanation of this phenomenon.
Autrey et al. (1955) also studied the effects of adding abrasives (cal-
cium carbonate, fine bauxite, coarse bauxite, and Attaclay) to the rice
during milling. The most efficient milling additive was calcium carbonate.
However, like steaming of properly dried and stored rice, abrasive had no
significant effect on head yield but did increase mill capacity. The head
yield was increased by using abrasives on rice that had been improperly
dried or stored. When both steam and calcium carbonate were used to-
gether, there was greater improvement in mill capacity than when either
was used alone.
Matthews et al. (1971 b) reported on the treatment of rough rice with
ammonia and sulfur dioxide gases to loosen or soften the bran. Treatments
ranged from 3 to 15 h in hermetically sealed containers. Milling yields
were not improved over the untreated control. Ammonia-treated samples
acquired a yellow color in the endosperm, and expelling the gas from the
rice under vacuum was difficult. Sulfur dioxide bleached the endosperm,
and the resulting milled kernels were an attractive white color, but ridding
the rice of the residual gas odor was no easier.
Roberts and Wasserman (1977), Wasserman and Roberts (1972), and
Wasserman et al. (1974) investigated wet milling with and without various
additives including calcium carbonate, whole or ground rice hulls, and
rough rice. The effects of most of the additives showed reductions in
MILLING 377
milling time and energy consumption and increases in total and head rice
yield when compared to runs with no additives. The addition of water
gave favorable results in every case. The addition of 5% rough rice was
not as effective as whole or ground hulls. Because mill settings were
changed for the tests using calcium carbonate, the effect could not be
directly compared with those of other additives, but in combination with
water the results improved markedly. In the case of water addition, break-
age was reduced as holding time between the water addition and the milling
operations was shortened. When abrasive solids were used, with or
without water, the Engle berg mill settings had to be adjusted to remove
less bran and polish per pass in order to prevent stalling of the equip-
ment.
Morgan et al. (1966) reported on the chemical milling of rice. The bran
is chemically loosened by strong warm lye and then physically removed
by vigorous water washing. The product retains all the endosperm, includ-
ing the aleurone layer, but loses most or all of the colored bran layers.
Warm dilute acid restores the surface whiteness and the grain is dried in
warm air.
Solvent extractive milling

Radically different in rice-milling technology is the solvent extractive
milling (SEM) process (Wayne 1965a, b, 1966, 1968). The SEM process
differs from conventional rice milling in the method of bran removal and
in the processing of byproducts. With the SEM process, the bran layers
are first softened, then wet milled in the presence of a rice oil-hexane
miscella. In addition to milled rice, byproducts, crude rice oil, and defatted
rice bran are obtained.
Lynn (1966) reported details of the SEM process, and Lynn and
Lawler ( 1966) presented a detailed flow sheet for the 1.5 million bbl/yr
plant at Abbeville, LA. This plant closed recently because it would have
been prohibitively expensive to install the environmental controls neces-
sary to meet new hexane emmission standards.
In the SEM process, the bran softening is accomplished by spraying
warm rice oil onto the brown rice in closely controlled amounts (approxi-
mately 0.5%) and with uniform distribution. The treated brown rice is held
for 2 to 4 h to allow the rice oil to permeate the bran membranes and soften
them. After the holding period, the treated rice with the softened bran is
conveyed to Satake Rice Pearling machines which have been sealed and
provided with solvent ports to permit the flow oflarge volumes of tempera-
ture-controlled solution of rice oil in hexane (miscella) throughout the rice
during milling. the miscella acts as a washing and rinsing medium to aid
in flushing the bran from the rice endosperm as well as a conveying medium
for continuously transporting the removed bran away from the rice. In
addition, the miscella lends additional lubricity to the rice. These factors
reduce the amount of pressure required during the bran removal operation
which significantly reduces the amount of breakage.
Following the bran removal step, the rice is rinsed with additional
hexane on vibratory screens. It is then drained of the excess solvent and
conveyed to desolventizing equipment. Superheated hexane vapor is used
to flash evaporate the bulk of the hexane remaining on the rice. Then the
rice is treated with flowing inert gas which removes the last traces of
solvent. At this point, the SEM process for the milled rice is completed,
and the rice is sized, graded, and packaged with conventional mill
equipment.
The slurry of bran, rice oil, and hexane (15-20% bran) is pumped from
the milling equipment to vessels where it is allowed to settle and the
extraction of the oil from the bran is completed. The remaining bran-
processing steps are used to separate the solid bran from the liquid
stream.
The SEM process has some advantages over conventional abrasion
and frictonal pressure milling (Lynn and Anderson 1967). The rice is
whiter and more attractive than conventionally milled rice and has a
significantly lower fat content. The white color is believed to result from
more complete removal of the surface fats and color bodies by exposure
to solvents.
Consumer evaluation of the SEM rice in direct comparison with con-
ventionally milled rice has shown no major dissimilarities between the two
products. The color of the SEM rice is generally cited as a preference
factor. Taste and smell are about the same as with regularly milled rice.
The SEM product has less "stickiness." The cooked flavor, texture, and
appearance have not been altered materially.
The lower fat content of SEM rice contributes to excellent storage
stability. This is particularly important in packaging rice, since problems
of fat "bleedthrough" frequently occur, resulting in the obliteration or
smearing of the printed labels on transparent packaging materials. Conse-
quently, fewer packaging plys are required for SEM rice.
Improved brewing performance because of reduced fat content is an
indirect product advantage of SEM rice. Excessive fat level interferes with
the fermentation process in brewing beer.
A significant difference in the SEM process and conventional milling
is that two essentially new products are directly produced from SEM:
defatted rice bran and crude rice oil. The defatted rice bran produced by
SEM contains 17 to 21% protein and approximately 1.5% fat. The SEM
crude rice oil produces a light colored edible oil when refined by conven-
tional alkali methods followed by customary bleaching and deodori-
zation.
MILLING 379
Machinery settings
Other factors that affect breakage during milling are the mechanical set-
tings. In commercial mills, the mill settings are adjusted by the operator
based on his visual inspection of the milled rice, a technique that can be
inconsistent. Ideally, the mill should be adjusted such that a given degree of
milling (percentage of bran removal) is obtained while minimizing breakage
and maximizing milling capacity. The adjustable settings vary with the
type of mill being used.
Matthews and Spadaro (1974) investigated the factors contributing to
breakage in a Satake Jet Pearler Model BA-3 which is a small model of
the Satake BA-15 used in many rice mills. They reported on the effects of
rotor speed, feed-gate opening, back pressure, and number of passes on
breakage, degree of milling, energy consumption, and production rate.
Higher rotor speeds resulted in less breakage. The wider feed-gate open-
ings increased both production rate and breakage. Higher back pressures
resulted in a greater degree of bran removal and breakage. Two passes
were superior to one pass in effecting the same degree of bran removal
with less breakage.
Wasserman et al. (1974) and Roberts and Wasserman (1977) investi-
gated the effects of mill settings for a CeCoCo mill which removes bran
by abrasion against an emery cone, and a small Engelberg mill which rubs
grains against each other under pressure. They found that mill settings had
little effect in the CeCoCo. Mill settings in the Engelberg were more
critical. As the feed gate was adjusted from half open to fully open, milling
time and energy use were reduced 23% and 21%, respectively, but head
yield decreased about 1.5 percentage points. As the discharge gate was
opened gradually over its operating range, milling time was shortened up
to 60%, and energy requirements were reduced up to 55%. Yields of total
rice changed very little, but head rice yields increased by about five
percentage points. As the milling pressure was increased by moving the
pressure bar closer to the rotor, milling time was reduced up to 59%, and
energy consumption was reduced up to 34%. However, total yield was
about one percentage point lower, and head yield decreased about six
percentage points.
DEGREE OF MILLING
The term "degree of milling" refers to the percentage of bran removed on

a rough rice basis. In USDA grading practice, the degree of milling is one
of the factors that determines the grade assigned to the milled rice. For
each grade there are maximum limits of objectionable factors such as weed
seeds, damaged (discolored) kernels, chalky kernels, etc. The maximum
allowable limits of these objectionable factors increase with decrease in

degree of milling so that the less well-milled rices are of generally lower
quality and bring a lower price in the market.
Effect on Nutritional Properties

Generally, a well-milled rice is preferred by the majority of rice consumers.
Brown rice is preferred by a relatively small percentage of consumers even
though it contains more protein, vitamins, minerals, and lipids than milled
rice. Part of the reluctance of consumers to eat brown rice is its chewier
texture and strong flavor. Brown rice also requires a cooking time of about
45 min compared to about 20 min for milled rice. Between the extremes
of brown rice and well-milled rice is rice that has been lightly milled or
undermilled, thus retaining part of the bran. In some developing countries,
such as India (Desikachar 1967), the government has enforced the produc-
tion and consumption of undermilled rice to make the maximum possible
use of rice resources and improve the nutritional value of the rice. The
Indian government has fixed as a maximum a 3 to 4% degree of milling for
rice to be consumed in India. These figures may be compared to the 8 to
9% degree of milling of a well-milled rice. The 3 to 4% degree of milling
allows for rapid water penetration and a cooking time comparable to well-
milled rice. The main drawback oflightly or undermilled rice is its tendency
to become rancid, particularly after storage of about two months. Since
in developing countries the rice is generally consumed within this period,
there are no practical difficulties encountered. Bajaj and Suhid (1984, 1989)
and Bajaj et al. (1989) reported on the effects of milling time on quality
characteristics and nutrient composition of several varieties of Indian rice.
As milling time increased, the cooking quality of the rice, as measured by
elongation ratio and water uptake, improved, but the nutritional quality,
as measured by protein and mineral contents, decreased.
Measurement of Degree of Milling

In conventional rice milling and grading practice, the degree of milling is
estimated subjectively by visual observation and comparison with stan-
dards. However, this subjective means of measurement is not considered
completely satisfactory. A number of investigators have been concerned
with the development of objective methods for evaluating degree of bran
removal. These methods may generally be classified as chemical or physi-
cal in nature.
Chemical methods that have been investigated consist of differential
dye staining procedures to enhance the visual differences between endo-
sperm and bran, and chemical analysis for constituents that occur predomi-
nantly in the bran. Desikachar ( 1955a) and Borasio ( 1955) developed differ-
MILLING 381
entiat dye staining techniques. Although the detection of bran is enhanced,

the assignment of a degree of milling still has an element of subjectivity.
Differential dye staining has been developed into a quantitative procedure
by Barber and Benedito de Barber (1976). Milled rice kernels are stained
with a methylene blue and eosine solution in methyl alcohol. Areas cov-
ered with bran stain blue while the endosperm stains pink. The bran and
total kernel areas of magnified plane images are measured by planimetry.
Colored bran balance (CBB) values range from 100 for brown rice to 0 for
complete milled rice. This method is of particular interest in that it permits
evaluation of the homogeneity of milling. Measurements of the degree of
milling through analysis of constituents that occur predominantly in the
bran include assays for thiamin (Kik 195la; Desikachar 1955b), phospho-
rus (Desikachar 1955b), surface lipid (Autrey eta!. 1955; Hogan and Deo-
bald 1961), surface lipid, ash, and protein (Watson et al. 1975).
Physical methods for determining the degree of milling have generally
utilized the optical characteristics of the kernel. These methods depend
upon the reflection of light from and the transmission of light through the
milled rice at selected wavelengths. Kik (195 I b) and Angladette (I 957)
were developers of optical devices for measuring the degree of milling.
Stermer and co-workers (1962, 1968a) developed improved optical instru-
ments. The main difficulty encountered in the use of optical devices is the
presence of chalky kernels in the rice to be measured. The chalky kernels
are not optically translucent and thus interfere with accurate measure-
ments. This drawback can be remedied by removing the chalky kernels
by photoelectric sorting machines before making the measurement of
degree of milling.
A new physical method that shows promise is based on the total lipid
content of the rice measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (Pomeranz
et al. 1975). Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy is also being used to
estimate degree of milling in rice (Hopkins and Keneaster 1980; Stermer
et al. 1977; Kao 1986, 1988; Wadsworth et al. 1990).
Deep Milling
The removal of peripheral layers of well-milled rice (endosperm) is termed
deep milling or overmilling. Because of the hardness of the rice endo-
sperm, deep milling must be accomplished with abrasive-type mills. Re-
search on deep milling (Hogan 1969) has shown that (l) there is a heteroge-
neous distribution of protein and other major noncarbohydrate nutritional
constituents in the milled rice kernel; (2) below the bran coat and aleurone
cells, which are removed during conventional milling, is a peripheral layer
unusually high in protein, minerals, lipids, and vitamins; (3) the high
protein and naturally enriched layer may be removed by presently avail-
able commercial machinery in the form of a finely divided rice flour, which
may be considered an extension of the regular milling operation; and (4)
the intact residual kernels, although reduced slightly in the nonstarch
nutrients, are essentially an attractive white and well-milled rice suitable
for regular table and food uses.
Normand et al. (1966) determined the amount of certain nutrients and
the amino acids pattern in high protein rice flour produced by deep milling.
They reported that the prepared material, which was removed in 12 frac-
tions from successive layers of commercially milled rice, consisted of
approximately 18% of the original kernel weight as finely divided flour
with a 22 to 12% protein content. Fat, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, phospho-
rus, and calcium similarly decreased progressively from outside layers
toward the center of the kernel. Starch and amylose, by contrast, progres-
sively increased toward the center of the rice kernel. The increase (approx-
imately 19%) in amylose content of the rice starch from outer to inner
layers reflects a significant difference in rice starch composition. The
data indicated no essential differences in amino acids content of the rice
protein except for a decrease in tryptophan toward the center of the
kernel.
Sensory evaluation of the residual kernels remaining after different
degrees of deep milling showed an increase in cooking quality preference
with increasing degrees of milling up to a maximum, after which further
milling gave a loss of quality (Hogan 1969). Cooked rice samples were
evaluated for cohesiveness (i.e., lack of tackiness), integrity of the kernels
(i.e., degree of fragmentation), color, flavor, and texture by a taste panel.
An optimum preference was expressed by the panelists for those residual
kernels resulting from between approximately 4 and 9% weight removal
by overmilling.
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11
Properties of the Rice Caryopsis
Shin Lu
National Chung-Hsing University
Bor S. Luh
INTRODUCTION
Rice is a very important cereal that can be grown under various degrees
of flooding (De Datta 1981). It is the staple food of over half the human
race and is largely consumed as a boiled, milled grain. Knowledge of the
structure and composition of the rice kernel is important to the understand-
ing of its physicochemical and biochemical properties during processing
(Bean et al. 1984; Bhattacharya et al. 1978, 1982; Juliano 1980; Lu et al.
1988, 1989).
Detailed ultrastructure of the rice caryopsis (brown rice) has been
obtained by scanning electron microscopy (Evers and Juliano 1976; Wat-
son and Dikeman 1977) and transmission electron microscopy (Bechtel
and Pomeranz 1977, 1978a,b). Reviews on rice composition and structure
have been published by several researchers (Bechtel and Pomeranz 1980;
Juliano 1980, 1985). The correlation between physicochemical and func-
tional/nutritional properties of the rice grain has been studied (Juliano
1972a,b, 1977b; Chang et al. 1985; Damardjati 1983; Lii et al. 1984, 1986;
Morrison and Nasir 1987; Mosse et al. 1988; Proctor and Goodman 1985).
389
PERICARP
SEED COAr
{ ~£lsPERM
NUCEWJS
ALELRJNE
LAYER
ENDOSPERM
SUBALEURONE - - t i l - - - - - " VENTRAL

LAYER
DORSAL
Figure 11-1. Diagramatic representation of rice caryopsis. Adapted from Juliano

(1972b).
STRUCTURE OF THE RICE CARYOPSIS
In general, the rice grain consists of the hull or husk (the outer covering
structure), and the enclosed edible portion, with the rice caryopsis con-
sisting of about 80% of rough rice weight. The rice grain may vary from
5 to 9 mm in length, and 20 to 30 mg in weight, depending on the varietal
characteristics. The weight distribution of the various parts of the rice
caryopsis is as follows: pericarp (1-2%), seed coat and aleurone (5%),
starchy endosperm (89-91%), and embryo (2-3%).
Hull
The mature rice grain is harvested in the form of rough rice or paddy in
which the caryopsis is enclosed in the hull (husk). The caryopsis is a
single-seeded fruit, wherein the pericarp is fused to the seed coat, nucellus,
endosperm, and embryo (Fig. 11-1).
The weight of the rice hull is approximately 20% of the rough rice
weight. The hull protects the caryopsis from mold (Ilag and Juliano 1982)
and insect infestation during storage. The chemical, physical, and utiliza-
tion aspects of rice hulls are presented in Chapter 12 of Volume II, Rice:
Utilization.
Pericarp, Seed Coat, and Nucellus
Inside the hull there are three distinct layers that make up the caryopsis
coat, namely, the pericarp, seed coat (tegmen), and nucellus. The pericarp
is the mature, ripened ovary wall, which undergoes extensive degeneration
PROPERTIES OF THE RICE CARYOPSIS 391
during caryopsis development. It consists of several layers of crushed

cells that are about 10 f.Lm thick. The outer surface of the pericarp has an
undulate appearance and a thin cuticle. Next to the pericarp is a single
layer of cells, the seed coat which has a thick cuticle (0.5 f.Lm) located on
the inner side of the cells. Abutting the seed coat cuticle is another thick
cuticle (0.8 f.Lm), that of the crushed nucellar cells. The nucellus in mature
rice is about 2.5 f.Lm thick (including the cuticle).
Aleurone
The next layer is the aleurone which completely encloses the endosperm
and the embryo. It is thicker on the dorsal than along the lateral and ventral
(front embryo) sides. Various rice cultivars differ in thickness of the
aleurone layer, varying from one to seven cell layers. Short-grain cultivars
tend to have more cell layers than the slender, long-grain cultivars.
The aleurone layer is tightly bound to the underlying cells of the
starchy endosperm and to most of the embryo. However, the aleurone
cells are not bound to the embryo at the region extending from the ventral
scale of the scutellum to the point where the coleorhizajoins the scutellum.
Bechtel and Pomeranz (1977) found two types of aleurone cell: one type
around the endosperm and the other around the embryo. The cells sur-
rounding the endosperm are cuboidal and have densely packed cytoplasm.
Two storage structures exist: the aleurone grains (protein bodies) and lipid
bodies. Aleurone grains are membrane-bound and contain globoids. Lipid
bodies are not bound by a typical bilayer membrane. Other organelles
include the nucleus, microbodies, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum,
vesicles, and plastids.
The second type of aleurone cell, that surrounding the embryo, has
been termed the modified aleurone layer. These cells differ substantially
from the other aleurone cells in that their modified cells have less densely
packed cytoplasm, contain fewer and smaller lipid bodies, lack aleurone
grains, and have numerous vesicles and filament bundles.
Isolated spherical globoids, 1 to 2 f.Lm in size, with a smooth surface,
are readily isolated from the rice aleurone layer (Ogawa et al. 1975). The
globoids are electron-dense bodies in the transmission electron micro-
scope and are identical to the electron-dense material observed in the
aleurone protein bodies of the rice grain (Tanaka et al. 1973).
Embryo
The embryo or germ is extremely small and is located on the ventral side
of the caryopsis (Barber et al. 1976). In a longitudinal section, the outlines
of the embryonic leaves (plumules) and the embryonic primary root (radi-
cle) are joined together by a very short stem (hypocotyl). The plumule is
enclosed by a protective covering, the coleoptile, and the root is enclosed

by a root cap and the coleorhiza. The embryo is bound on the inner distal
side by the scutellum which lies next to the endosperm. The parts of the
embryo are classified as follows.
1. Embryonic Axis. The C-shaped embryonic axis of the embryo is
separated from the starchy endosperm by the scutellum proper. The plu-
mule has two to three embryonic leaves 0.3 mm in diameter and 0.4 mm
in height. The coleoptile covers the plumule and has a pore in its apex.
2. Scutellum. The scutellum acts as an absorption organ and is located
between the embryonic axis and the endosperm. An epidermis surrounds
the scutellum which is modified to form the scutellar epithelum; three
appendages of the scutellum partially sheath the coleoptile. The structure
of the rice scutellum had been observed by scanning electron microscope;
the scutellar cells contain rounded particles, ranging from 2 to 3 J.tm in
diameter (Tanaka et al. 1976).
3. Radicle. The radicle consists of a root cap, root apex, epidermis,
and subepidermal region. The radicle is separated from the plumule by the
mesocotyl, a small region of parenchyma cells, and anastomosing proras-
cular tissues.
4. Coleoptile and Epiblast. The coleorhiza surrounds the radicle and
is continuous with the scutellum proper (Bechtel and Pomeranz 1978a,b).
It consists of parenchymatic cells similar in size to those of the epiblast
and is protected by thinly cuticled epidermis.
Three categories of parenchymatous cells are identified based on pro-
tein body characteristics and on lipid body distribution: (1) cells with
inclusions of protein bodies and numerous lipid bodies scattered through-
out the cytoplasm; (2) cells with protein bodies with or without electron-
dense inclusions but with peripheral lipid bodies with or without electron-
dense deposits on the sectioned surface. These cells are primarily in
epidermal regions in the root meristem; and (3) cells lacking protein bodies
but having peripheral lipid (Bechtel and Pomeranz 1978a). Plastids are
similar in all cells; many have osmiophilic globules and phytoferritin.
Endosperm
The endosperm consists of thin-walled parenchyma cells, usually radially
elongated and heavily loaded with starch granules and some protein bod-
ies. Starch constitutes the major storage component of endosperm. The
compound starch granule consists of amyloplasts containing many individ-
ual starch grana. Protein bodies are more abundant in the subaleurone (Fig.
11-2) or two outermost cell layers where the compound starch granules are
smaller. Protein bodies are single-membraned, whereas compound starch
granules are in double-membraned amyloplasts.
Figure 11-2. Protein bodies and compound starch granules in subaleurone layer
of developing IR26 rice grain. Sample was fixed in glutaraldehyde,
posttixed in osmium tetroxide, and stained with uranyl acetate and
alkaline lead citrate (Juliano 1980).
Harris and Juliano (1977) reported that the protein bodies were mem-
brane-bound and located within the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
On the other hand, Wu and Chen (1978) reported that two types of protein
bodies were found: one type was round, and the other was angular, but
neither was bound by a limiting membrane. They hypothesized that the
protein bodies grew by involvement of vesicles from the Golgi apparatus
and by ER, and concluded that the vesicles ruptured to incorporate the
proteins. Bechtel and Juliano (1980) made a developmental study on pro-
tein body formation and suggested that there are three types of membrane-
bound protein bodies in the subaleurone region but only one in the central
endosperm region of the mature rice. Large spherical protein bodies,
common to both regions, measure 1 to 2 J.Lm in diameter, are susceptible
to pepsin hydrolysis, but are only partially digested by pronase. The small
spherical protein bodies of the subaleurone region measur(! 0.5 to 0.75 J.Lm
in diameter, and are digested completely by pepsin and pronase. The
third type of protein body of the subaleurone region is crystalline. The
crystalline protein bodies display a crystal lattice, measure 2 to 3.5 ILm in

diameter, are digested completely by pepsin, but are somewhat resistant
to pronase degradation. These crystalline protein bodies correspond to
the crystalline protein bodies of the developing grains (Harris and Juliano
1977) and probably to homogeneous types of protein bodies (Tanaka et al.
1980). Tsen (1987) made a comprehensive study of rice protein fractions
and their effects on the pasting of rice flour.
The central endosperm region is composed of large, polygonal, com-
pound starch granules, 3 to 9 f.tm in diameter, surrounded by densely
staining proteinaceous material localized in small pockets (Bechtel and
Pomeranz 1978b). The cytoplasm is not as well preserved as that of the
subaleurone region. The main protein bodies in the central region resemble
the large spherical protein bodies of the subaleurone region. Pepsin also
hydrolyzes these structures, whereas pronase only digests the rough endo-
plasmic reticulum and free ribosomes.
Chalky regions are present in the endosperm of some nonwaxy rice
cultivars. When the chalky region extends to the center of the endosperm
and the edge of the ventral side, it is called a white core. An opaque region
at the middle of the ventral (embryo) side is called a white belly. Some
cultivars such as Taichung Shen 17 have opaque areas or white belly. The
opaqueness is caused by air space in the endosperm (Lu et al. 1988). The
starch accumulates from the inner to the outer part of the endosperm
while protein accumulates in the reverse direction. The protein bodies are
uniformly dense in young endosperm tissue but develop concentric ring
zonation in the middle and late developmental stage. A long white streak
on the dorsal side is called a white back. This chalkiness has been shown
to be due to the loose packing of starch granules in the region. Utsunomiya
et al. (1975a,b) reported that starch granules are loosely packed and some-
what spherical in the chalky regions of non waxy endosperm. Similar obser-
vations were made by Evers and Juliano (1976) in "crumbly" rice, where
many of the granules are well-rounded on one or more faces. The soft
regions contribute to grain breakage during milling.
Waxy cultivars have an opaque endosperm. The starch granules are
compound and closely arranged except on the ventral side (Evers and
Juliano 1976). Scanning electron microscopy shows that waxy-rice starch
has micropores on the inside surface of the single starch granules and
hollows on the outer surface of compound granules. These are absent in
the endosperm of nonwaxy rice.
Changes During Grain Development

The rice caryopsis becomes structurally mature 14 days after fertilization.
It attains full length first, then full width, and then full thickness. Tropical
rices are usually harvested 30 days after flowering when they have opti-
mum moisture content for drying with minimum cracking. The pericarp is
initially well-developed but degenerates later. The aleurone layer and
embryo are fully developed earlier than the endosperm. Translocation of
nutrients occurs through the vascular bundle in the nucellar tissue on the
dorsal line of the endosperm.
Starch granules are first seen in the endosperm 4 days after flowering,
while protein bodies are seen 7 to 8 days after flowering (Harris and Juliano
1977).
PROCESSING EFFECTS
Milling
In the embryo fraction of brown rice, the weight distribution is 0.26%
epiblast, 0.34% plumule, 0.18% radicle, and 1.18 to 1.4% scutellum. Abra-
sive milling removes the outer layers of the rice caryopsis, producing
milled rice, bran, and polish, with 6 to 10% by weight of brown rice being
removed on milling. With a McGill mill, the yield of bran is about 8%,
polish 1 to 2%, and milled rice 89-90%.
Parboiling
The process of steaming wet grain (parboiling) gelatinizes the starch gran-
ules and destroys the spherosome structure, but protein bodies remain
intact on cooking. The degree of parboiling determines the puffed volume
of parboiled rice.
Gelatinization temperature
Biswas and Juliano (1988) compared the effect of parboiling procedures

on rice varieties. Differences in rate of water absorption during the steep-
ing and steaming of rough rices, whose starch gelatinization temperature
(GT) differ, may be minimized by soaking for 8 hat 60°C and steaming for
10 min at 1.0 kg/cm2 steam pressure (120°C) or 30 min at 100°C. The water
content of parboiled rice was higher for low-GT rice than for intermediate-
GT rice steamed at 100°C only. In 12 rice samples, parboiled at 100°C,
l20°C, and l27°C, the amylose content was the major constituent influenc-
ing parboiled rice properties such as bending hardness, head rice yield,
equilibrium water content, gel consistency, and cooked rice hardness.
Thus, the GT is an important factor only in rices parboiled at 100°C,
because it affects the parboiling rate at that temperature.
Differences in degree of parboiling because of differences in GT re-
sulted in different relations between parboiled rice properties and raw rice
quality factors in samples parboiled at 100, 120, and 127°C. Generally, raw
rice quality factors, particularly apparent amylose content, may be used

in breeding programs as an index of parboiled rice quality.
Effect of soaking temperature and steaming

Ajayi and Agun (1989) characterized the effects of soaking temperature
and steaming period on quality parameters of rice such as grain breakage,
swelling capacity, and test water absorption ratio. For a 16-h steeped
paddy, favorable parboiling qualities are obtained with a 65 to 75°C soaking
temperature and a steaming time between 90 and 110 min. A higher soaking
temperature results in lower breakage, lower swelling capacity, and water
absorption ratio; a longer steaming period lowers the breakage, swelling
capacity, and water absorption ratio.
Parboiling essentially results in starch gelatinization, water absorp-
tion, and volume expansion splitting of cell walls. In most varieties, the
expansion is girthwise, but in certain low-to-intermediate amylose varie-
ties of low-to-intermediate gelatinization temperature, expansion is
lengthwise.
Rice Protein and Nutritional Quality

The nutritional quality of rice grain measured by energy and protein ab-
sorption seems to be predictable from the protein content of the grain, due
to the low content of antinutritional factors in milled rice. Brown rice had
only slightly lower digestible energy than milled rice, despite its higher
levels of fiber, phytin, and other inhibitors. The reduction in protein digest-
ibility from wet heating such as parboiling and cooking is due to disulfide
bonding among the low-lysine core proteins of protein bodies, which
results in higher biological value and no net drop in net protein utilization.
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE
Proximate Analysis
Proximate analyses of brown rice and its milling fractions show an uneven
distribution, with the outer layers richest in nonstarch constituents and
the endosperm richest in starch (Table 11-1). In brown rice samples,
protein content does not correlate with oil content. The first or second
outer 5% had the highest protein content, but only the third outer 5% had
the highest protein content in high-protein rice (Fig. 11-3).
Starch Granules
The major constituent of the rice endosperm is starch, which makes up
about 90% of milled rice dry weight. It exists in the form of polyhedral
granules 3 to 10 JLm in size. The cluster of starch granules within an
Table 11-1. Proximate Analysis of Brown Rice and Its Milling Fractions
at 14% Moisture
Nutrient Brown" Milled"·b Bran"·b Embryo" Polish"·c
Protein (%N x 5.95) 7.1- 8.3 6.3 - 7.1 11.3-14.9 14.1-20.6 11.2-12.4
Crude fat 1.6- 2.8 0.3 - 0.5 15.0-19.7 16.6-20.5 10.1-12.4
Crude fiber 0.6- 1.0 0.2 - 0.5 7.0-11.4 2.4- 3.5 2.3- 3.2
Crude ash 1.0- 1.5 0.3 - 0.8 6.6- 9.9 4.8- 8.7 5.2- 7.3
Available carbohydrates 72.9-75.9 76.7 -78.4 34.1-52.3 34.2-41.4 51.1-55.0
Starch 66.4 77.6 13.8 2.1 41.5-47.6
Neutral detergent fiber 3.9 0.7 - 2.3 23.7-28.6 13.1
Pentosans 1.2- 2.1 0.5 - 1.4 7.0, 8.3 4.9, 6.4 3.6- 4.7
Hemicelluloses 0.1 9.5-16.9 9.7
Free sugars 0.7- 1.3 0.22- 0.45 5.5- 6.9 8.0-12
Lignin 0.1 2.8- 3.9 0.7- 4.1 2.8
a Juliano (1985), Houston and Kohler (1970), Willis et a!. (1982).
b Alvarez and Rook (1978), Mod eta!. (1978).
c Houston (1972), Schaller (1978), Rasper (1979), Maningat (1981).
PROTEIN (%wet basis)

25
0 10 20 30 40 50 75
Outer layer Center
PROPORTION OF THE CARYOPSIS (%)
Figure 11-3. Protein distribution in milling fractions from brown rice of low protein
(7.4%) rice IR32 and high protein (10.7%) rice IR480-5-9 (Harris and
Juliano 1977).
Table 11·2. Physicochemical Properties of Rice Starch and the Fractions

Property Waxy Nonwaxy
BEPT eq 58 - 78.5 58 - 79
Granule size (J.tm) 1.9 - 8.1 1.6 - 8.7
Density (xylene displacement) 1.48- 1.50 1.49- !.51
Iodine binding capacity (%) 0.15- 0.86 2.36- 6.96
Residual protein (%N x 5.95) 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 - 0.7
Residual phosphorus (mg/g) 0.02- 0.03 0.12- 0.45
Gel (6%) viscosity (centipoises) 64 -1890 140 -1200
[7JJo.t5N KOH (mL/g) 46 - 164 160 - 194
Starch Fractions Amylopectin Amylopectin Amylose
S0 zO,DMSO (Svedbergs) 28 -500 30 -1400 3.5- 5.8
Szo,oMso (Svedbergs) 27 -242 73 - 237 2.0- 6.6
['l)]o !5N KOH (mL/g) 46 -164 83 - 221 55 -242
Mean chain length 20 - 27 20 - 28 No data
(anhydrogluose units)
,a-amylolysis limit (%) 49 - 56 49 - 58 73 - 76
Iodine binding capacity (%) 0.07- 0.09 0.37- 2.74 17.4- 20.2
Gel (6%) viscosity (centipoises) 19 -330 290 - 740 13 -160
Source: Juliano (1980); Juliano and Perdon (1975); Perdon and Juliano (1975a); Kongseree
and Juliano (1972); Tabata et a!. (1975).
amyloplant is spherical to ellipsoidal, varying from 7 to 39 1-Lm in diameter

(Hayakawa et al. 1980). Each amyloplast contains 20 to 60 small polyhedral
granules, covered by a thin electron-dense matrix that is in contact with
proteinlike bodies. The pits on the surface of the individual granules are
presumably formed by the removal of protein bodies (Evers and Juliano
1976). In waxy rice, the polyhedral nature of the granule remains, but
pores are noted on the surface. Waxy starch granules have lower specific
gravity than nonwaxy starch (Table 11-2). The properties of rice starch
have been reviewed by Juliano (1980, 1984, 1985), and a general reference
on starch was published by Banks and Greenwood (1975).
Birefringence Endpoint Temperature

Starch granules exhibit birefringence under polarized light and an A-type
pattern on X-ray diffraction; these are characteristics of cereal starches.
Differences are noted in final gelatinization or birefringence endpoint tem-
perature (BEPT) when at least 95% of the granules have swollen irrevers-
ibly in hot water with loss of birefringence and crystallinity. Final BEPT
ranges from 58 to 79°C and is classified as low, 58 to 69SC; intermediate,
70.5 to 74oC; and high, > 74°C. BEPT is a varietal characteristic but can
be affected directly by ambient temperature during grain development
(Resurreccion et al. 1977). BEPT is estimated by the alkali test in which the
chemical gelatinization of head milled rice in 1. 7% potassium hydroxide is
read after a 23-h soaking. The degree of disintegration correlates negatively
with BEPT (Juliano 1980). BEPT correlates with cooking time during
boiling of rice. The extent of 2.2 N-hydrochloric acid corrosion correlates
negatively with BEPT regardless of starch composition (Evers and Juliano
1976). Although maximum varietal spread of acid corrosion in 2.2 N acid
at 35°C occurs after 4 days, corrosion rate levels off at about 15 days when
residual starch ranges from 6 to 22%. Residual starch is directly affected
by BEPT and amylose content (Juliano 1980).
Amylopectin and Amylose

Rice starch is composed of a branched fraction (amylopectin) and a linear
fraction (amylose). The major linkage is a-1,4-D-glucopyranosidic, but
amylopectin contains, in addition, the a-1 ,6-D-glucopyranosidic linkage
at branched points. The degree of branching of amylopectin is 4 to 5%; a
mean chain length of 20 to 28 anhydroglucose units has been determined
by periodate oxidation. Amylopectin is the major fraction of rice starch.
In waxy rice, the amylose content ranges between 1 and 2% only. The
amylose content of nonwaxy milled rice is classified as follows: low (10 to
20%), intermediate (20-25%), or high (25-33%). The amylose content
varies directly with ambient temperature during grain development, partic-
ularly in low amylose rices (Resurreccion et al. 1977). It is usually deter-
mined by iodine colorimetry, and amylopectin can be calculated indirectly.
The amylose:amylopectin ratio is the most important factor determining
the eating quality or texture of cooked milled rice and rice cakes (Perdon
and Juliano 1975b).
Amylopectin interferes with amylose-iodine colorimetry at the pH 4.5
used in the simplified assay. By the use of a carbonate-bicarbonate buffer
at pH 10.2, a deep blue color is obtained, as in the original Williams
method, instead of the greenish blue at pH 4.5. In addition, similar ab-
sorbtance of starch-iodine color can be obtained at 590 and 630 nm. Resid-
ual fat or lipid in the endosperm, however, can reduce the iodine blue
color probably by forming a helical complex with amylose; the decrease
is more pronounced at pH 10.2 than at pH 4.5. "Absolute" amylose values
are obtainable by defatting rice flour with a 95% ethanol reflux, or by
ambient temperature defatting with water-saturated butanol (Bolling and
El Baya 1975).
Starch is normally prepared from milled rice by using 0.1 N sodium
hydroxide or 1.2% sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate-0.12% sodium sulfite
to remove protein (Juliano 1984).
Bound lipids (fat-by-hydrolysis) occur in rice starch at about 0.6 to
1.0% after ether extraction of0.6% lipids and are only extracted with 85%
methanol or 95% ethanol, or with water-saturated butanol. Bolling and El
Baya (1975) found lysocephalin in addition to lysolecithin in the butanol-
water extract of milled rice, together with a variable amount of lecithin.
Hirayama and Matsuda (1973) reported 61% of phospholipids of rice
starch to be lysolecithin.
Fractionation of Starch
Starch fractionation can be achieved by gelatinizing and dispersing starch,
in water or dimethylsulfoxide-water, and the precipitation of amylose
occurs with slow cooling after addition of 1-butanol, isoamyl alcohols or
thymol (Juliano and Perdon 1975). Amylose can be further purified by
recrystallization from 1-butanol saturated water. Preferably, the first crys-
tallization is done with isoamyl alcohol or thymol to obtain pure amylopec-
tin. Amylopectin is precipitated as amorphous powder from the mother
liquor, with three to four volumes of ethanol.
Waxy Rice Starch

Among waxy starches, molecular weight based on intrinsic viscosity and
sedimentation constant correlates positively with BEPT (Perdon and Ju-
liano 1975a). Gel consistency, which measures the relative rate of retrogra-
dation of waxy rice gels, also correlates with BEPT. In waxy rice, gel
consistency is best determined by dispersing 200 mg milled rice flour in 2
mL 0.15 N potassium acetate and measuring the length of the cooled gel
after 30 min in a horizontal position. For rice cake, the rices with a BEPT
of 64 to 66°C had better cake quality than those with a BEPT of 57 to 60°C.
High-BEPT rices produce processed (gelatinized) products that harden
faster during storage, particularly under refrigeration.
Nonwaxy Rice Starch

Among nonwaxy starches, gel consistency correlates with molecular
weight of amylopectin but is not simply correlated with BEPT (Juliano
and Perdon 1975). Amylopectin contributes to a greater extent to gel
consistency and viscosity than amylose. Gel consistency is determined in
nonwaxy rices by dispersing 100-120 mg of flour in 2 mL 0.2 N potassium
hydroxide and measuring the dispersion of the cooled gel. After 1 h in a
horizontal position, the gel is scored as hard (27-40 mm); medium (41-60
mm); and soft (61-100 mm) (Cagampang et al. 1973). Hard gel consistency
is observed exclusively in high amylose rices with high Brabender amylo-
graph consistency (>400 Brabender units or BU) and setback (> 300 BU)
and low BEPT. In the alkaliviscogram, those rices with hard gel consis-
tency have exceptionally high peak viscosity (Suzuki and Juliano 1975).
These rices also have a lower content of both amylopectin and the amylose
soluble in boiling water (Maningat and Juliano 1978). They are generally
less preferred than those of the same amylose content with a softer gel
consistency (Juliano et al. 1974).
Cellulose and Hemicellulose

The distribution of cellulose in brown rice is 62% in bran, 4% in the
embryo, 7% in polish, and 27% in milled rice. High cellulose content in
the bran is consistent with the thick cell walls of the pericarp, the seed
coat, and the aleurone layer. The mean carbohydrate content for five
milled rice samples was 89% starch, 0.4% pentosans, 0.3% sugars, and
0.4% dietary fiber. Brown rice contains 84% starch, 1.2% pentosans, 0.9%
dietary fiber, and 0.7% sugars.
The hemicellulose constituents of dietary fiber are highest in the rice
bran. Leonzio (1967) reported 1.4 to 2.1% pentosans in brown rice, 0.6
to 1.1% in milled rice, 8.6 to 10.9% in bran, and 3.2 to 6% in polish. The
embryo has 4.8 to 7.4% pentosans. The corresponding distribution of
pentosans is 43% in bran, 8% in embryo, 7% in polish, and 42% in milled
rice.
Milled rice contains 0.02% water-soluble and 0.1% 0.5N-sodium-hy-
droxide-soluble hemicelluloses. Enzymic studies indicate that rice hemi-
celluloses are of the arabinoxylan type containing galactose in the bran
polish fraction and galactose and glucose in the milled rice fraction. The
water-soluble hemicelluloses are probably more branched arabinoxylans,
as is evident from their higher arabinose:xylose ratio.
Proteoglycans
Proteoglycans have been isolated and characterized from rice bran by
Yamagishi et al. (1975, 1976). They are rich in hydroxyproline and arabi-
nose. Pronase and hemicellulase hydrolysis of proteoglycans yielded a
sugar-amino acid compound, 0-a-L-arabinofuranosyl hydroxyproline.
Free Sugars
While the rice embryo and endosperm contain sucrose, glucose, and fruc-
tose, with small amounts of raffinose, free sugars are concentrated in the
aleurone layer with higher levels in waxy (0.52%) than in nonwaxy (0.25%)
rice (Singh and Juliano 1977; Pascual et al. 1978). The principal reducing
sugars are glucose and fructose, together with melibiose and maltooligo-
saccharides.
Phytin
Phytin or myo-inositol hexaphosphate salt is an important constituent of
the aleurone layer and embryo. Reported phytate phosphorus contents
are as follows: brown rice 0.21 to 0.28%; milled rice 0.04 to 0.06%; bran
polish 2.0 to 2.6%, and embryo 0.8 to 1.9% (Juliano 1972b; Hayakawa
1977). At least 80% of the phosphorus content of brown rice, 90% of
bran phosphorus, and 40% of the phosphorus in milled rice is phytate
phosphorus. Phytate phosphorus in a nonwaxy Japanese rice accounted
for 78% of the total phosphorus of brown rice, 38% of milled rice phospho-
rus, 94% of bran phosphorus, and 88% of embryo phosphorous.
Nitrogenous Compounds
Protein
The protein content of brown rice is about 8%, and that of milled rice is
6 to 7%. As the second major constituent of milled rice, it is the major
protein source in the diets of tropical Asians. The factor 5.95 converts
Kjeldahl nitrogen to rice protein based on the 16.8% nitrogen content of
the major rice protein, glutelin.
Milled rice protein consists of 5% albumin, 10% globulin, >80% glu-
telin (alkali soluble protein), and <5% prolamin. An increase in protein
content, whether genetic or environmental, is in the glutelin content; bran
and embryo proteins have more albumin and globulin than milled rice
protein.
Rice protein has a lysine content of about 4 g/16.8 g of nitrogen, one
of the highest among cereal proteins. Lysine is the first limiting essential
amino acid of rice protein as in other cereals. The amino acid score of
milled rice protein ranges from 58 to 74% of the pattern based on lysine
at 5.5 g/16 g N as 100% (FAO 1973). The amino acid score estimates
protein quality of rice and reflects the utilizable protein of milled rice
(Eggum and Juliano 1975; Murata et al. 1978). The waxy gene has no effect
on amino acid composition of rice caryopsis (Juliano 1985).
Protein bodies
Protein bodies, or aleurins, in the aleurone layer have been characterized
by Tanaka et al. (1973). The aleurins are 1 to 3 J.tm in size and contain
11.7% protein, 7.9% carbohydrate, and globoids or phytate bodies (9.4%
myo-inositol and 11.3% acid-soluble phosphorus). They differ distinctly
from the protein bodies of the endosperm in the absence of strata struc-
tures and the presence of globoids. About 70% of its protein is water-
soluble.
Table 11-3. Amino Acid Composition (g/16.8 g of N) of Rough Rice

and Its Fractions
FRACTION
Amino Rough
Acid Rice Brown Milled Hull Bran Embryo Polish
Alanine 4.5- 6.7 5.8 5.6- 5.8 6.4- 7.4 6.2- 6.7 6.6- 7.2 6.2- 6.3
Arginine 7.2-10.0 8.5-10.5 8.6- 8.7 4.2- 4.9 8.2- 8.7 9.7-10.4 8.5- 8.6
Aspartic 7.2-11.0 9.0- 9.5 9.1- 9.6 9.0-10.9 9.5-10.5 9.1-10.6 9.2-10.2
Cystine 1.2- 3.0 2.2- 2.4 1.8- 2.6 1.9- 2.1 2.4- 2.7 7.6- 2.8 2.6- 2.7
Glutamic 15.4-20.5 16.9-17.6 18.3-18.5 10.9-13.8 13.9-14.3 15.1-17.3 15.3-16.8
Glycine 4.1- 5.7 4.7- 4.8 4.5- 4.8 5.7- 6.3 5.5- 5.9 6.0- 6.6 5.3- 5.4
Histidine 1.6- 2.9 2.4- 2.6 2.3- 2.7 1.7- 2.1 2.8- 3.5 3.4- 3.8 2.7- 2.8
Isoleucine 3.2- 5.0 3.6- 4.6 3.7- 4.8 3.4- 4.2 2.8- 4.3 3.2- 3.8 2.8- 4.0
Leucine 7.2- 9.2 8.3- 8.9 8.4- 8.6 8.4- 8.6 7.2- 8.0 6.9- 7.0 6.9- 8.0
Lysine 3.4- 4.9 3.9- 4.3 3.4- 4.2 4.0- 5.7 5.0- 5.7 6.2- 7.4 4.4- 4.9
Methionine 1.6- 3.6 2.3- 2.5 2.3- 3.0 1.6- 1.9 1.8- 2.4 1.4- 1.9 2.3- 2.9
Phenylalanine 3.3- 6.1 5.0- 5.3 5.3- 5.5 4.6- 5.4 4.7- 5.0 4.0- 4.5 4.4- 4.8
Proline 3.9- 6.3 4.8- 5.1 4.6- 5.1 6.8-10.8 4.4- 5.8 4.3- 5.0 4.0- 5.4
Serine 4.2- 6.0 4.8- 5.8 5.3- 5.9 4.8- 5.7 4.9- 5.7 4.8- 5.4 4.7- 5.6
Threonine 3.2- 4.7 3.9- 4.0 3.7- 3.9 4.4- 5.3 4.0- 4.4 4.2- 4.5 3.7- 4.2
Tryptophan 1.3- 2.1 1.3- 1.5 1.3- 1.8 0.6 0.6- 1.3 1.0- 1.4 1.3
Tyrosine 4.0- 5.7 3.8- 4.6 4.4- 5.5 2.3 3.3- 3.6 3.3- 3.7 3.6- 4.1
Valine 4.8- 7.4 5.0- 6.6 4.9- 6.8 5.8- 7.9 5.1- 6.3 5.1- 6.3 4.6- 5.9
Source: Houston and Kohler (1970); Baldi eta!. (1976); Cagampang eta!. (1976); Juliano (1985); Manifigat
and Juliano (1982); Tabekhia et al. (1981).
Endosperm protein bodies have been characterized as being from 10

to 28% lipids and from 12 to 29% carbohydrate. However, all preparations
have been from the outer layer of milled rice, the fraction of the endosperm
that has the highest lipid content. The increase in protein content results
mainly from more protein bodies in the endosperm (Harris and Juliano
1977; Bechtel and Juliano 1980).
Milled rice protein has a lower lysine content than brown rice pro-
tein because the protein in the pericarp, embryo, and aleurone layers
are richer in lysine due to their higher content of albumin. The amino
acid composition of rough rice and its fractions are presented in Table
11-3.
Albumin
Albumin may be prepared by direct water extraction of milled rice flour,

dialysis against water, centrifugation, and precipitation with ammonium
sulfate. This method is preferred to 5% sodium chloride extraction, dialysis
against water, centrifuging the globulin precipitate, and using the su-
Table 11-4. Amino Acid Composition (g/16.8 g of N) of Milled Rice and Its
Protein Fractions
PROTEIN FRACTION
Amino
Acid Whole Albumin Globulin Prolamin Glutelin
Alanine 5.9- 6.2 7.1- 8.5 5.6- 6.3 6.7- 7.6 5.6- 5.9
Arginine 8.5- 9.3 7.9-10.0 7.2-13.9 6.1- 6.9 9.0-10.8
Aspartic Acid 9.8-10.2 10.2-11.2 7.1-13.5 8.3- 8.7 10.2-11.2
Cystine 1.5- 1.9 1.9- 2.3 3.3- 4.0 trace-0.8 1.2- 1.8
Glutamic acid 19.1-20.8 12.7-17.8 17.4-18.8 23.2-33.4 19.2-20.8
Glycine 4.6- 5.4 6.3- 8.4 5.8- 6.4 3.0- 3.7 4.3- 5.3
Histidine 2.4- 2.8 2.9- 3.4 1.7- 2.7 1.3- 2.1 2.6- 2.7
Isoleucine 4.2- 4.9 3.5- 3.8 2.4- 4.1 4.6- 5.2 4.3- 4.7
Leucine 6.7- 8.9 6.6- 8.0 6.6- 6.8 12.8-14.6 7.3- 9.3
Lysine 3.5- 4.1 5.1- 6.4 1.9- 3.7 0.3- 1.2 2.7- 4.5
Methionine 2.5- 3.3 1.9- 2.1 3.0- 5.4 0.5- 0.9 2.0- 3.1
Phenylalanine 5.3- 5.8 3.7- 4.6 3.3- 4.8 5.8- 6.7 5.4- 6.0
Proline 4.6- 5.0 4.5- 7.1 3.8- 7.5 5.0- 6.7 4.9- 6.2
Serine 5.8- 6.1 4.2- 5.4 5.5- 6.5 4.2- 6.1 4.5- 6.2
Threonine 3.4- 3.9 4.2- 5.2 2.5- 2.7 2.5- 2.8 2.8- 5.1
Tryptophan 1.3- 1.8 1.5- 1.8 1.4- l.5 0.5- 2.6 1.0- 1.6
Tyrosine 4.9- 5.8 4.4- 5.1 5.5- 6.3 9.2- 9.9 5.3- 5.5
Valine 6.1- 6.3 5.9- 7.8 5.4- 6.5 6.5- 7.1 6.3- 6.9
Source: Juliano and Boulter (1976); Juliano (1985); Perdon and Juliano (1978); Padhye and
Salunkhe (1979); Wieser eta!. (1980).
pernate as albumin. It has the highest lysine content among the rice protein
fractions (Table 11-4).
Electrophoretically, albumin of brown rice is composed of four major
bands of intermediate mobility and six minor ones (Cagampang et al.
1976). Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-polyacryl-amide gel electrophoresis
showed 12 bands ranging in apparent molecular weight from 8500 to 95,000.
The three major subunits have molecular weights of 8500, 11,000, and
16,000. Albumin preparations readily change in solubility during storage,
even as ammonium sulfate precipitate at - 20°C.
Globulin
The y-globulins are present mainly in the bran layers of rice (Horikoshi
and Morita 1975). In milled rice, the lysine content of globulin is similar
to that of whole protein, but globulin is richer in sulfur amino acids (Perdon
and Juliano 1978). Globulin may be precipitated from 5% sodium chloride
extract either by the addition of ammonium sulfate to 30% saturation or by
dialysis against distilled water. The major fraction obtained by isoelectric
precipitation at pH 4.5 is characterized as an a-globulin, with sedimenta-
tion coefficient S~ 0 , w of 1.6. It has a subunit molecular weight (mol wt)

18,000 based on SDS-polyacrylamide disk gel electrophoresis and mol wt
20,000 based on Sephadex gel filtration. It elutes as a single peak on
diethylaminoethyl cellulose chromatography at 0.22 M sodium chloride.
The a-globulin dissociates into two components between pH 6 and 9, as
indicated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, Sephadex gel filtration
and ultracentrifugation. The higher mol wt component was estimated to
be 98,000 by gel filtration, thus indicating a pentamer.
Prolamin
Prolamin, the protein lowest in lysine-content, can be extracted directly
from milled rice with 70% ethanol (Mandac and Juliano 1978). When
extracted directly and precipitated by stripping the ethanol, the crude
prolamin (50% protein) is contaminated with 30% lipids and 6% phenolics.
Preliminary 95% ethanol extraction removes phenolic contamination,
and acetone precipitation of prolamin from the subsequent 70% ethanol
extract leaves the lipids and phenolics in solution. Prolamin purified by
repeated precipitation from 70% ethanol by acetone addition has almost
no lysine nor sulfur amino acids (Table 11-4); it gives only a single peak
eluted at 0.42 M sodium chloride in diethylaminoethyl cellulose chroma-
tography.
Prolamin shows one major band and one minor band on analytical and
SDS-polyacrylamide disk gel electrophoresis. The molecular weights are
17,000 for the major subunit and 23,000 for the minor subunit.
Glutelin
Glutelin, the major protein fraction of milled rice, has not been character-
ized due to its extreme insolubility in neutral solvents. By using 0.5%
SDS-0.6% ,8-mercaptoethanol, glutelin is readily dissolved and then alkyl-
ated with acrylonitrile. SDS-polyacrylamide disk gel electrophoresis
showed the major subunits of glutelin have mol wt 38,000, 25,000, and
16,000 (Juliano and Boulter 1976). The ratio of the subunits is similar in
12 milled rice samples tested at 1: 1: 1, but three samples of 0. nivara tested
gave a ratio of 1:1:2 (Villareal and Juliano 1978). Of the three subunits,
the 38,000-mol wt subunit had the highest lysine content, and the 16,000-
mol wt subunit had the lowest. The subunits with mol wt > 38,000 had
higher lysine content than the major subunits.
The glutelin of the aleurone layer is similar in subunit composition to
milled rice glutelin (Villareal and Juliano 1978). Those from the pericarp
and embryo showed subunit compositions differing from milled rice glu-
telin. Of the four solubility fractions of endosperm glutelin, the major
(74%) fraction extracted by 0.5 M sodium chloride-0.6% ,8-mercaptoetha-
nol-0.5% SDS in 0.1 M sodium borate buffer pH 10 was closest in proper-

ties to glutelin. Prolamin- and globulinlike fractions are first extracted with
the usual solvents in the presence of 0.6% ,8-mercaptoethanol.
Free amino acids and nucleic acids
The major free amino acids in a developing rice grain include alanine,
aspartic acid-asparagine, valine, glutamic acid, histidine, and ornithine,
whereas the principal amino acids of rice protein are alanine, arginine,
aspartic acid, glutamic acid, leucine, and valine. Free amino acids consti-
tute 0.7% of brown rice protein, 0.2% of milled rice protein, 1.35% of bran
polish protein, and 4.6% in embryo protein, equivalent to a distribution of
53% in embryo, 30% in bran polish, and 17% in milled rice.
The nucleic acid of brown rice is mainly ribonucleic acid: 0.1 to 0.3%
in brown rice, 0.9% in embryo, and 0.01% in milled rice (Juliano 1972b).
The deoxyribonucleic acid content is about 0.01% in brown rice.
Lipids
The lipids on the surface of the rice caryopsis had a composition of fatty
acids and unsaponifiable matter closer to that of the rice hull than to
bran and brown rice lipids (Hartmen and Lago 1976). It is present in
spherosomes (lipid droplets) about 0.1 to 1 ~-tm in size in the embryo and
the aleurone layer (Bechtel and Pomeranz 1977, 1978a). In the endosperm,
the lipids are associated with protein bodies and starch granules probably
in the membrane fraction as lipoprotein (Hirayama and Matsuda 1973). In
addition to membrane lipids, the starch granules contain bound lipids (fat-
by-hydrolysis), mainly phospholipids, particularly lysolecithin.
Tocopherols and Tocotrienols

The tocopherols are very important natural antioxidants present in rice.
Ito et al. (1981) reported the presence of 10.3 ppm tocopherols in brown
rice, 48.0 ppm in rice bran, and 7.0 to 9.4 ppm in milled rice. They used
TLC, GLC, and HPLC chromatographic methods to separate and deter-
mine the levels of tocopherols on a fresh weight basis.
Crude rice bran oil contains 19 to 46 mg a-tocopherol, 1 to 3 mg ,a-
tocopherol, 1 to 10 mg y-tocopherol, and 0.4 to 0.9 mg a-tocopherol per
100 g oil (Kanematsu et al. 1983; Tanabe et al. 1982), plus 14 to 33 mg of
a-tocotrienol and 9 to 69 mg y-tocotrienol per 100 g of oil (Tanabe et al.
1981, 1982). Refined rice bran oil contains fewer tocopherols, having 13
to 37 mg a-tocopherol, 1 to 2 mg ,8-tocopherol, 3 to 6 mg y-tocopherol,
and 0.1 to 0.5 mg 8-tocopherol per 100 g oil (Kato et al. 1981; Tanabe et
al. 1981, 1982; Kanematsu et al. 1983), plus 10 to 24 mg a-tocotrienol and

8 to 20 mg y-tocotrienol per 100 g of oil. The mean tocopherol content was
93 mg/100 g crude oil, and 50 mg/100 g refined oil. About 7% of the
tocopherols are in the esterified form, and the remainder in the free form
(Kato et al. 1981).
Aromatic Compounds in Cooked Rice

Yajima et al. (1978) used glass capillary gas chromatography and mass
spectrometry to identify the aromatic compounds in cooked rice. They
analyzed the aromatic compounds in the steam distillate of cooked koshihi-
kari rice by the GCMS method, and found 100 volatile compounds, includ-
ing 13 hydrocarbons, 13 alcohols, 16 aldehydes, 14 ketones, 14 acids,
eight esters, five phenols, three pyridines, and six pyrazines. Of these, 92
volatile flavor compounds were newly identified. Later study on kaorimai
scented rice revealed the presence of an unknown compound (peak 41)
and more indole than in koshihikari rice. a-Pyrrolidone was found in
kaorimai but not in koshihikari (Yajima et al. 1979). Koshihikari rice
contained more 4-vinylphenol, and 1-hexanal than kaorimai. Although the
characteristic flavor compounds were not found, differences in the balance
of volatiles were shown.
In the rice bran, the major acid component in the steam concentrate
is 4-vinylphenol, which has a characteristic unpleasant odor (Fujimaki
et al. 1977). Of 146 compounds in the neutral and basic fractions, 2-
acetylthiazole and benzothiazole were considered the key compounds of
the rice bran odor (Tsugita et al. 1978; 1979) These compounds decreased
with an increase in the degree of milling of brown rice (Tsugita et al.
1980). Data from the odor evaluation tests and chromatographic analysis
suggested that the volatiles of the surface layer of rice grain play an
important role in the formation of the odor of cooked rice.
The volatile sulfur compounds evolved from cooked rice are hydrogen
sulfide, methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulfide, n-butyl mercaptan (butane-1-
thiol), and dimethyl disulfide (Tsuzuki et al. 1978).
The compound 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline has been identified as an im-
portant aroma component of cooked rice (Buttery et al. 1982). It is present
at 0.04 to 0.09 J.tglg (dry weight) of aromatic milled rices and at 0.1 to 0.2
J.tglg of aromatic brown rices. Nonaromatic U.S. rices have less than 0.01
J.tg of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline per gram. A consumer panel describes the odor
of 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline as "popcorn like" (Buttery et al. 1983). Odor evalu-
ation of the amount of popcorn like odor in the different rice samples
ranked them closely in order of the concentration of this compound. The
compound is relatively unstable but is more stable in aqueous solution.
Pandan leaves (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb., fragrant screw pine),

which have been added during cooking to impart aroma to nonaromatic
rices contain 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline in freeze-dried leaves at 1 p.g/g.
Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins
Vitamins are generally present at higher levels in brown rice than in milled
rice (Table 11-5). The contributing factor is the concentration of vitamins
in the embryo and aleurone layer. Thus, milling results in the loss of more
than 50% of the vitamin B complexes of brown rice.
Parboiled milled rice tends to have higher vitamin content than milled
rice despite the partial thermal decomposition of vitamin during parboiling.
Parboiling results in inward diffusion of water-soluble vitamins to the
endosperm.
Minerals
The mineral composition of rice grain depends considerably on nutrient
availability of the soil in which the crop is grown. The ash distribution in
brown rice is calculated to be 51% in bran, 10% in embryo, 11% in polish,
and 28% irt milled rice. Iron, phosphorus and potassium show a similar
distribution as total ash. However, some minerals, such as sodium and
calcium show a relatively more even distribution in the grain (Table 11-6).
Phosphorus and potassium are the major mineral elements of brown rice
followed by silicon and magnesium.
Distribution of mineral elements in the bran layers parallels closely
the phytin distribution in the aleurone layer and scutellum, as shown by
electron microprobe X-ray analysis (Tanaka et al. 1976).
Changes During Grain Development

In nonwaxy rice there is an increase in amylose content during grain
development, but in waxy rice a slight decrease in amylose content is
noted (Singh and Juliano 1977). The X-ray diffraction pattern and BEPT
of starch granules remain unchanged during development. Amylopectin
shows a slight increase in intrinsic viscosity during grain development but
no change in gel consistency. Intrinsic viscosity of amylose also increases
progressively during grain ripening.
Protein accumulation has been studied in detail in developing rice
grain (Cagampang et al. 1976). Albumin and globulin are the major proteins
accumulated at early stages, together with free amino acids. The appear-
ance of protein bodies 7 days after flowering coincides with the increase
in glutelin and prolamin of the rice endosperm. Although the percentage
Table 11-5. Vitamin Content of Brown Rice and Its Fractions (J.tg/g)
Brown Milled Rice Rice Rice
Vitamin Rice Rice Bran Embryo Polish
Vitamin A 0.1 Trace 4.2 1.3 0.95
Thiamin 2.1 - 4.5 Trace-1.8 10 - 28 45 -76 16 - 30
Riboflavin 0.4 - 0.9 0.1 - 0.4 1.7 - 3.4 2.7 - 5.0 1.4 - 3.4
Niacin (nicotinic acid) 44 -62 8 -26 241 -590 15 -99 228 -385
Pyridoxine 1.6 -11.2 0.4 - 6.2 10 - 32 15 -16 10 - 31
Pantothenic acid 6.6 -18.6 3.4 - 7.7 28 - 71 3 -13 26 - 92
Biotin 0.06 - 0.13 0.005 - O.Q7 0.16 - 0.47 0.26 - 0.58 0.14 - 0.66
Folic acid 0.20;0.60 0.06 - 0.16 0.50- 1.46 0.9 - 4.3 0.4 - 1.9
Vitamin B 12 0.0005 0.0016 0.005 0.0105 0.003
Vitamin E (tocopherols) 13 Trace 149 87 63
Source: Hayakawa (1977); Juliano (1980).
~
-o
Table 11-6. Inorganic Constituents of Brown Rice and Its Fraction (~-tg/g)
Brown Milled Rice Rice Rice

Rice Rice Bran Embryo Polish
Aluminum 0.73- 7.23 54- 369

Calcium 65- 400 46 - 385 250- 1310 510- 2750 90- 910
Chlorine 203- 275 163 -372 510- 970 1520
Iron 7- 54 2 - 27 130- 530 110- 490 100- 280
Magnesium 380-1400 170 - 700 8,600-12,300 6000-15,300 5700- 7600
Manganese 13- 42 10 - 33 110- 880 120;140 50;80
Phosphorus 2500-4400 860 -1920 14,800-28,700 17,100-27,300 15,300-25,100
Potassium 1200-3400 140 -1200 13,200-22,700 3800-21 ,500 9300-18,000
Silicon 190-1900 50 - 370 1700- 7600 460- 1900 560- 2400
Sodium 31- 176 22 - 85 180- 290 160- 240 65- 210
Zinc 15- 22 3 - 21 50- 160 100;300 40;60
Source: Fossati eta!. (1976); Kennedy and Schelststraete (1975); Juliano (1980).
of glutelin in brown rice increased (Villareal and Juliano 1978), the percent-
age of prolamin in the rice dropped during grain development (Mandac
and Juliano 1978). High protein rice differs from low protein rice by a more
efficient nitrogen translocation from leaves to developing grain, not in
nitrogen absorption.
Protein content of rice grain is influenced by environmental factors
such as the time and rate of nitrogen fertilizer application, solar radiation
during grain development, and spacing and application of herbicides at
subherbicidallevels (Esmama and Juliano 1976). Such variability in protein
content in a rice variety makes breeding efforts to improve protein content
of the rice grain quite difficult (Juliano and Beachell 1975).
Changes due to Storage and Parboiling

Rice grain stored for 3 to 4 months ages and loses dormancy. The changes
include increases in volume expansion and water absorption during cook-
ing, a decrease in extractable solids during cooking, flakier cooked rice,
and increased resistance to breakage during milling (Villareal et al. 1976).
Protein and starch changes contributed to the aging of rice to a marked
extent. Waxy rice and petroleum ether surface-defatted nonwaxy milled
rice do not increase in hardness index during storage (Villareal et al. 1976).
The increase in water absorption and decrease in extractable solids during
cooking were similar regardless of the form in which the rice was stored
(rough, milled, and defatted milled) or of the amylose content of rice
(1-26%). The stickiness of nonwaxy rice decreased during storage but
that of waxy rice did not. The amylograph peak viscosity of all samples
including rice starch increased. Corresponding increases in gel viscosity
were noted for the milled rice but not for starch.
The salt-soluble protein of all samples decreased during storage at
both 2 and 29°C. The highest levels of free fatty acids and carbonyl com-
pounds were found in the stored milled rice and the lowest occurred in the
defatted milled rice. Protein and starch changes contributed to the aging
of rice to a marked extent. Lysine availability remains high during storage.
Parboiling is a modified form of aging because starch granules are
gelatinized without much volume expansion. Changes are mainly physical,
resulting from the retrogradation of gelatinized starch (Watson and Dike-
man 1977). Parboiling hardens the endosperm which improves grain trans-
lucence and hardness.
Milled parboiled rice is slower to cook and more resistant to disintegra-
tion than raw milled rice. Cooked parboiled rice is relatively shorter but
thicker girthwise than cooked raw rice. Only high amylose rices show
considerable decrease in amylograph peak viscosity on parboiling, in con-
trast to waxy and low amylose rices.
The characteristic A-type X-ray diffraction pattern of rice starch is
destroyed during parboiling, but the weak V-pattern of the amylose-helix
complex remains (Priestley 1976). The amylose helix complex is the major
factor that makes parboiled rice more water-insoluble than raw rice, and
the V-pattern is determined by both the amylose content and oil content
of the rice.
The degree of parboiling and percentage of parboiled grains are mea-
sured by a modified alkali test in 1% potassium hydroxide for 1 h, in which
only parboiled grains disintegrate. Parboiling and cooking reduce the di-
gestibility of milled rice protein for rats, but results in increase in the
quality of digested protein (Eggum et al. 1977). Hence, net protein utiliza-
tion remains high, because the proteins rendered indigestible are the
poorer quality ones.
BIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE
Compared to other cereals, rice grain development has a fast rate of dry
matter accumulation, which is complete within 14 days after anthesis
(Yoshida 1981). However, enzyme production during germination and the
subsequent breakdown of endosperm reserves in rice are not as dramatic
as in barley (Juliano 1985).
Developing and Mature Grain

The enzymes involved in starch metabolism in rice grain were reviewed
by Akazawa (1972). Phosphorylase, starch-branching enzyme (Q-en-
zyme), and debranching enzyme (R-enzyme) have peak activities 10 days
after flowering in the IR8 rice caryopsis (Baun et al. 1970). The a- and {3-
amylases have maximum activity 14 days after flowering, whereas starch

synthetase (ADP glucose-a-glucosyl transferase) bound to starch granules
increase in activity up to 21 days after flowering. The activities of the
enzymes related to conversion of sucrose to ADP-glucose are high
throughout starch deposition in developing rice grain and are highest 8 to
18 days after flowering. The content of 3-phosphoglycerate, an effector of
ADP-glucose pyro-phosphorylase, and chlorophyll was highest in the grain
7 to 8 days after flowering when starch synthesis was at a maximum
(Villareal and Juliano 1977). In the immature rice grains, a-amylase is
associated with the pericarp (MacGregor 1983).
Myo-inositol 1-phosphate synthetase has also been characterized in
mature and developing rice grain (Hayakawa 1977) and is located with the
protein bodies of aleurone layer (Tanaka et al. 1976).
The ability of the developing grain to incorporate 14 C-u-leucine into
protein was at maximum about 8 days after flowering and was higher in
the high protein rice. Protease and ribonuclease showed a similar trend,
as did ribonucleic acid and soluble amino nitrogen. Higher protein grain
had more rough endoplasmic reticulum in endosperm cells than lower-
protein grains (Harris and Juliano 1977).
Enzyme activity is relatively low in mature rice grain, as compared to
the developing and germinating grain. Shinke et al. (1973) demonstrated
that the mature rice grain has no a-amylase, but free and zymogen {3-
amylases. A limit dextranase, which hydrolyzes a-1,6-D-glucosidic link-
age, has been characterized from ungerminated rice (Dunn and Manners
1975). a-Glucosidases, which convert starch to glucose, have also been
characterized. Native lipase activity is also low, and the lipase activity in
rice bran is probably microbial in origin (Juliano 1977a). The lipolytic acyl-
hydrolases in bran and milled rice have been purified and characterized
(Hirayama and Matsuda 1975). Lipase, phospholipase, and galactolipase
were detected in both fractions. Lipase activity predominates in bran and
phospholipase in milled rice.
Dormancy and Germination Changes

Dormancy in rice is not embryo dormancy, as the embryo can germinate,
even in the developing grain, within 7 days after flowering (Navasero et
al. 1975). Peroxidase activity is higher in dormant than in nondormant
grains. Oxygen uptake is also higher in dormant grains, indicating that
nongermination of dormant grain is due to depletion of oxygen supply
to the embryo due to high peroxidase activity of aleurone layer. Slight
disruption of the aleurone layer over the embryo results in complete
breaking of dormancy. Various treatments such as dry heat, acid, and
hydrogen peroxide can break dormancy. Rice grains lose dormancy on
storage for a few weeks (Navasero et al. 1975). Maintenance of viability

of the germ requires storage below 14% moisture or 75% relative humidity.
Starch and protein reserves of the endosperm and protein and lipid
of the aleurone are broken down and utilized by the growing embryo.
Gibberellic acid from the embryo is translocated into the aleurone layer,
which activates the synthesis of hydrolyzing enzymes. Yoshida et al.
(1975) showed that phytase activity was associated with the phytin-con-
taining inclusions of aleurone protein bodies. Most of the other en-
zymes-phosphatases, protease, esterase, lipase, peroxidase and cata-
lase, ,13-glucosidase, and a- and ,13-galactosidase follow the increase in
soluble protein by the fourth day of germination.
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1
Introduction
Bor S. Luh
RICE IN RETROSPECT
Rice is considered a semiaquatic annual plant, although it could survive

as a perennial in the tropics or subtropics. Cultivars of the two cultivated
species, Oryza sativa L. and 0. glaberrima Steud., can grow in a wide
range of water-soil regimes, from a prolonged period of flooding in deep
water to dry land on hilly slopes.
The crop has remarkable diversity because of its long history of culti-
vation and selection under diverse climatic and biotic environments, fre-
quently in geographically separated areas. Today rice is grown in more
than 100 countries, extending from 53°N latitude to 40°S and from sea level
to an altitude over 3000 m. 0. glaberrima is grown only in Africa on a
limited scale. The production practices for rice in various countries vary
from extremely primitive to highly mechanized operations.
Books on rice production have been published by De Datta (1981),
Luh (1980), and Yoshida (1981). Pillaiyar (1988) published the "Rice Post-
production Manual," which deals largely with postharvest operations.
Juliano (1990) reviewed the literature on rice grain quality, with emphasis
on problems and challenges.
2 RICE: UTILIZATION
.
. \
••
............ D
..·· ..-..
...----- - - - ,
....... ...........
• • - n lfl<k:o
_
- - Snoa .........,
tT ..llpMICO
•••••• EJilet'!t of Wild

retot•ves
Figure 1-1. Extent of wild relatives and spread of ecogeographic races of 0. sativa
in Asia and Oceania. (Adapted from Chang 1976a.)
RICE CULTIVATION IN ASIA
Rice cultivation in Asia probably began independently and concurrently

at many sites within or bordering a broad belt (see Fig. 1-1) that extends
from the Ganges plains below the eastern foothills of the Himalayas,
through upper Burma, northern Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, to south-
west and south China (Chang 1976a, b, c).
The wide dispersal of rice cultivars resulted partly from the role that
rice played as an international commodity during the early days of trade
between countries and even continents. Traders brought rice from tropical
Asia and China to northern Africa, Europe, Australia, and the Americas.
The Asian traders also depended on the calorie-rich rice as one of their
main staples as they traveled afar (Chang 1989).
IMPORTANCE OF RICE AS FOOD
Rice is one of the world's most important cereals for human consumption.
In the densely populated countries of Asia, especially Bangladesh, China,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Korea, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, rice is the
INTRODUCTION 3
most important staple food. As much as 80% of the daily caloric intake of
people in these Asiatic countries is derived from rice.
Rice is also consumed in the form of noodles, puffed rice, fermented
sweet rice, and snack foods made by extrusion cooking (Mercier et al.
1989). It is used in making beer, rice wine, and vinegar. Some oriental
desserts require the use of glutinous or sweet rice, which consists entirely
of amylopectin in the starch, in contrast to the nonglutinous rice that
contains both amylopectin and amylose (10-30%).
Rice oil extracted from the bran is rich in vitamin E and has received
considerable attention by researchers as a potential source of oil for the
developing countries. Up to this time, the use of rice oil has lagged behind
its potential value (Luh 1980) because of activation oflipase and lipoxygen-
ase enzymes during milling, which caused rancidity and development of
off-flavor. Extrusion heating of rice bran immediately after milling to
inactivate the enzymes has improved the stability of rice oil. As the new
technology in oil extraction and refining becomes available to the devel-
oping countries, the consumption of rice oil should gradually increase
production cereal crops by region.
Rice, wheat, and corn are the three most important cereals in the
world. The production of rice and other cereals in million tons per annum
is presented in Table 1-1 (FAO 1982).
Rice is the staple food of East, Southeast, and South Asia, where 90%
of the world's rice crop is produced and consumed.
When the actual extraction rates of the cereals (the fraction of each
grain utilized as food) are considered, rice is calculated to produce more
food energy per hectare than the other cereals (Lu and Chang 1980). Total
food protein production per hectare is also high for rice, second only to
that for wheat. When the superior quality of rice protein is considered,
the yield of utilizable protein is actually higher for rice than for wheat.
China contributes to 38% of the world's rice production on 24% of the
world's rice-growing area, and India contributes 17% of the production on
28% of the area (Herdt and Palacpac 1983).
World rice production increased by about 40% during the 1960s and
by about 30% during the 1970s (Herdt and Palacpac 1983). The yield per
hectare increased by about 20% and the area harvested by about 10%.
China showed the most rapid rate of production growth, about 80% in the
1960s and 30% in the 1970s. The growth in China's rice output during the
1970s resulted from yield increases. India increased rice production by
22% during the 1960s and by 26% in the 1970s. Both area and yield
increased by about 10% during the 1960s, whereas yields increased by
20% and area by only 6% during the 1970s.
In Southeast Asia, rice production increased by 30% during the 1960s
and by nearly 35% during the 1970s. Both area harvested and yield contrib-
~
Table 1-1. Production of Cereal Crops by Region: Mean for 1979-81

ANNUAL PRODUCTION (MILLION TONS)
Rough
Area Wheat Rice Corn Sorghum Millet Barley Rye Oat Total
Africa 8.7 8.4 28.0 10.5 10.1 3.8 0.01 0.2 71.3
North and
Central America 89.3 9.1 212.8 24.7 0 20.4 1.1 10.4 370.0
South America 12.2 13.4 32.6 6.9 0.2 0.9 0.2 0.8 67.3
Asia 135.1 360.2 84.8 20.2 16.4 16.3 1.8 1.2 639.6
Europe 91.6 1.9 54.2 0.7 0.03 68.8 12.6 14.3 247.7
Oceania 14.8 0.7 0.3 1.1 0.02 3.5 0.01 1.4 21.9
USSR 92.1 2.5 8.6 0.1 1.6 44.8 8.9 15.2 175.0
World 443.9 396.3 421.4 64.3 28.5 158.5 24.7 43.5 1,592.8
Source: Data from FAO (1982).
INTRODUCTION I 5
uted to the growth in rice production. In eastern Asian countries other

than China, production stagnated as yield increases were offset by area
decreases. In the countries of South Asia other than India, rice production
increased by 25% during the 1960s and by 26% during the 1970s.
During 1970-1980, annual use of fertilizers containing nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium (NPK) increased about 5.5% worldwide from 46.6
kg ofNPK per hectare in 1970 to 58.9 kg in 1975 and 79.9 kg in 1980 (Herdt
and Palacpac 1983). Fertilizer use in Asia increased faster because of the
spread of semidwarf rice and wheat, growing 10.3% annually from 25.1-
kg NPK per hectare in 1970 to 66.90 kg in 1980.
RICE IN WORLD TRADE
Rice traded on the world markets ranged between 11.8 and 12.7 million
tons per annum. The volume was 4.5% of the total production (IRRI 1985;
1988). Asia remained the largest rice-importing region, followed by Africa
(over 3 million tons in 1985-86), Europe (2 million tons in 1980-84), and
South America (1.6 million tons in 1986) (IRRI 19~7; FAO 1987, 1988,
1989).
Thailand remained the top rice-exporting country (2.8-4.8 million
tons/annum), followed by the United States (2.3-3.1 million tons); China
(0.7-1.4 million tons); Pakistan (0.7-1.3 million tons); Burma and Italy
(0.5-0.8 million tons); and Australia, Uruguay, and Japan (0.1-0.7 million
tons).
Among the rice-importing countries, Indonesia ranked first
(1973-1983), followed by Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, the USSR, Senegal, and
the Ivory Coast. Brazil showed highly variable imports during the period.
Saudi Arabia has been a major rice importer.
The international market price showed a rapid drop following the 1974
peak ($542* for 5%-broken Thai white rice) and remained stable during
1978-81. A sharp decline began in 1982 and continued until the second
half of 1987, when the price of rice rallied. The average real price was
slightly over $200 per ton in 1983 (FAO, 1987, 1988, 1989).
During 1986-1987, there was a surplus of rice on the world market,
and the price was at an all-time low. The widespread drought of 1987 in
South and Southeast Asia and the erratic monsoon weather of 1988 prevail-
ing in Bangladesh, parts of India, and China, reduced the reserve stocks
to an all-time low, and the world price of rice rallied.
*U.S. dollars unless otherwise specified.

6 RICE: UTILIZATION
UTILIZATION OF RICE AND ITS BY-PRODUCTS
Milled rice and parboiled rice are consumed mainly as boiled rice. Different
rice varieties with specific amylose-amylopectin ratios are used in specific
rice products. Waxy (glutinous) rice is the staple food in China, Laos, and
Thailand and is usually prepared by steaming milled rice previously soaked
in water. Waxy rice is used also in sweets and desserts. In the United
States, medium-grain low-amylose rice (of 12-20% amylose) is used in
making baby foods and breakfast cereals. Rice in temperate countries
(Japan, Korea, and northern China) are low-amylose varieties. Intermedi-
ate-amylose (20-25%) rices are used mainly for fermented rice cakes and
in making canned soups. Intermediate-amylose rices are preferred over
high-amylose rices in China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Malay-
sia, and Vietnam. In the United States, the short- and medium-grain
varieties have low amylose content, and the long-grain varieties have
intermediate amylose content. High-amylose (>25%) rices are used for
extruded rice noodles. Among high-amylose rices, soft-gel consistency is
preferred to hard-gel consistency.
Various processed rice products are presented in the subsequent chap-
ters of this book. They include "Rice Flours in Baking" (Chap. 2); "Rice
Enrichment" (Chap. 3); "Parboiled Rice" (Chap. 4); "Quick-Cooking
Rice" (Chap. 6); "Canning, Freezing, and Freeze-drying" (Chap. 7); Rice
Breakfast Cereals and Baby Foods" (Chap. 8); "Fermented Rice Prod-
ucts" (Chap. 9); "Rice Snack Foods" (Chap. 10); "Rice Vinegar" (Chap.
11); "Rice Hulls" (Chap. 12); "Rice Oil" (Chap. 13); and "Rice Bran"
(Chap. 14). In addition, there are chapters entitled "Rice Quality and
Grades" (Chap. 5), and "Nutritional Quality of Rice Endosperm" (Chap.
15).
REFERENCES
Chang, T. T. 1976a. Rice, In Evolution of Crop Plants, edited N. W. Simmonds.
New York: Longman, pp 98-104.
Chang, T. T. 1976b. The rice cultures. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. B
275:143-157.
Chang, T. T. 1976c. The origin, evolution, cultivation, dissemination, and diversi-
fication of Asian and African rice. Euphytica 25:425-441.
Chang, T. T. 1989. Rice-the starchy staple, In Plants and Society, edited by
M. S. Swaminathan and S. L. Kochhar. London: Macmillan, pp. 127-150.
Wiley.
FAO. 1982. 1981 FAO Production Yearbook. F AO Statistics Ser. 40, Rome: Food
and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.
INTRODUCTION 7
FAO. 1987. World Crop and Livestock Statistics. 1948-1985. Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO. 1988. Quart. Bull. Stat. 1(3)
FAO. 1989. Quart. Bull. Stat. 2(1).
Herdt, R. W., and Palacpac, A. C. 1983. World Rice Facts and Trends. Los Banos,
Philippines: International Rice Research Institute (IRRI).
Hsieh, S.C., Flinn, J. C., and Amerasinghe, N. 1982. The role of rice in meeting
future needs. In Rice Research Strategies for the Future. Los Banos, Philip-
pines: IRRI, pp. 29-49.
IRRI. 1985. International Rice Research: 25 Years of Partnership. Los Banos,
Philippines: IRRI.
IRRI. 1988. World Rice Statistics 1987. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI.
Juliano, B. 0. 1979. The chemical basis of rice grain quality. In Proceedings of
the Workshop on Chemical Aspects of Grain Quality. Los Banos, Philippines
IRRI, pp 69-90.
Juliano, B. 0. 1985. Rice Chemistry and Technology. St. Paul, MN: AACC.
Juliano, B. 0. 1990. Rice grain quality: Problems and challenges. Cereal Foods
World 35(2):245-253.
Lu, J. J., and Chang, T. T. 1980. Rice in its temporal and spatial perspectives. In
Rice: Production and Utilization, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT:AVI,
pp. 1-74.
Luh, B. S. 1980. Rice: Production and Utilization. Westport, CT:A VI.
Mercier, C., Linko, P., and Harper, J. M. 1989. Extrusion Cooking. St. Paul, MN:
AACC.
Pillaiyar, P. 1988. Rice Postproduction Manual. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern.
IRRI. .
2
Rice Flours in Baking
Bor S. Luh
Yuan-Kuang Liu
Del Monte Corporation Research Center
There are two types of commercial rice flour available in the United States
(Hogan 1977). The first is produced from waxy or glutinous rice, which is
grown in limited quantities in California. The waxy rice flour has superior
qualities for use as a thickening agent for white sauces, gravies, and
puddings and in oriental snack foods. It can prevent liquid separation
(syneresis) when these products are frozen, stored, and subsequently
thawed. A characteristic of waxy flour is that it has little or no amylose.
Since the waxy rice starch is essentially amylopectin, flour prepared from
it has this unique food use property. The other type of rice flour is prepared
from broken grains of ordinary raw or parboiled rice. The flour prepared
from parboiled rice is essentially a precooked flour. It differs from wheat
flour in baking properties because it does not contain gluten, and its doughs
do not readily retain gases generated during baking. There is, however, a
steady basic demand for rice flours for use in baby foods, breakfast cereals,
and snack foods; for separating powders for refrigerated, preformed, un-
baked biscuits, dusting powders, and breading mixes; and for formulations
for pancakes and waffles (Luh and Liu 1980; Bean and Nishita 1985).
These uses are sufficient to sustain a market for rice-flour production.
Rice is consumed largely as a whole grain. Some breakage, however,
is unavoidable. Some of the rice kernels are cracked while still in the
husk, and some breakage occurs during harvesting, handling, drying, and
9
10 RICE: UTILIZATION
milling. The amount of broken rice produced annually in the United States
ranges from 263,000 to 408,000 tons, about 15% of the rice milled.
The larger pieces of broken rice sell for a little more than half the price
of whole rice, whereas the smaller fragments sell for less than half of
comparable whole grains. Therefore, these smaller pieces are used for
grinding into rice flour or for brewing. Second heads are also used for rice-
flour production in the United States.
About a third of the broken rice produced in the United States is used
by brewers and a small portion by cereal manufacturers and baby-food
formulators. The amount of rice used in the brewing industry is generally
a function of the price of broken rice. The brewing industry would use
more broken rice if the price were competitive with that of other grains,
such as corn grits. Lewis (1988) reported that rice appears to be as good
as corn grit as an adjunct for brewing.
Some of the broken rice is ground into flour. The amount used is
determined by the price paid for the flour, which must be high enough to
cover the cost of grinding and related changes, since there is a ready
market for this fraction at a lower price in the brewing industry.
PROPERTIES OF RICE FLOURS
Rice flours made from long-, medium-, and short-grain and waxy rice are
available commercially. Since rice flours are made from broken milled
rice, their chemical composition is the same as that of whole rice. There
are, however, varietal differences in protein, lipid, starch contents, and
the amylose and amylopectin ratios in the starch. The proximate analyses
of some rice are presented in Table 2-1 (Ejlali et al. 1978). Composition
differences contribute to the diversity of chemical and physical properties
of various rice flours, such as viscometric properties, starch gelatinization
temperatures, bifringence end-point temperatures, water absorption, and
other characteristics. The rheological properties of starch slurries and gels
have been reviewed by Kruger and Murray (1976) and Juliano et al. (1985).
Table 2-1. Proximate Analyses of Four Rice Varieties Grown In California

Amylose, Amylopectin, Protein, Fat, Ash,
Variety Grain Type % % % % %
S-6 Short 19.0 56.5 6.50 2.05 1.22
M-5 Medium 22.5 54.7 6.60 1.50 1.07
74-y-52 Medium 24.0 56.2 6.75 1.82 1.55
72 3764 Long 27.8 54.2 7.07 1.88 1.65
Source: Ejlali et al. (1978).
RICE FLOURS IN BAKING 11
Developers of new rice foods should recognize the wide diversity in

composition and properties of various rice flours. Occasionally, discovery
of a unique property of a variety has led to new uses for rice flours made
from it. For example, the freeze resistance of waxy rice-flour pastes led
to their use in frozen gravies (Hanson et al. 1953). The viscosity behavior
of rice-flour pastes provides information for the application of rice flour
to food formulation. The varieties used in pancake mixes and expanded
breakfast cereals are examples. Rice flours from each variety, with the
exception of the waxy type, have characteristic viscosity patterns during
the heating and cooling cycles of their pastes. The changes in viscosity
depend largely on the composition of the starch and, to a lesser extent, on
the protein and oil components. Usually, long-grain rice containing starch
with an amylose content of over 22% has a relatively low peak viscosity
and forms a rigid gel on cooling (high setback viscosity). Those with
starches low in amylose have high peak and low setback viscosities.
Determination of Rice-Flour Properties

Bifringence end-point temperature (BEPT) of rice flour can be determined
on a 1% slurry using a polarizing microscope equipped with a Kofler hot
stage and set at a heating rate of 5°C/min. BEPT is usually recorded at
95-98% loss of bifringence.
Amylograph pasting curves of 10% flour slurries (50 g of rice flour to
450 ml of water) give useful information on rice starch characteristics
important in baking applications. Test on 20% flour slurries (100 g of
rice flour to 400 ml of water) can give estimates of initial gelatinization
temperature of rice starch within± 0.5°C when gelatinization temperature
is taken as the point of initial increase in viscosity. These values correlate
significantly (r = 0.94), with BEPT determined microscopically.
Nishita and Bean (1979) used these techniques to characterize rice
varieties that gave contrasting texture results in yeast-leavened rice
breads. Figure 2-1 shows representative results with four flours. The short
curves (20% slurries) indicate distinctly different temperatures for initial
viscosity increase (i.e., estimate of gelatinization temperature) among
the rices. The full curves (10% slurries) show initial viscosity increases
occurring much later in the heating cycle; this is because the amylograph
lacks the sensitivity to detect small increments in viscosity in less concen-
trated slurries. However, the 10% slurries do provide a complete pasting
history that can be correlated with the textural properties of the baked
products. For example, sample B (IRS variety) had a low initial gelatiniza-
tion temperature, which is favorable for baking, but a high final viscosity
and high positive setback (viscosity at 50°C minus peak viscosity), which
adversely affect bread texture. Sample B had a high amylose content,
1800
8
GRAIN LENGTH AMYLOSE LEVEL
1600 A CALROSE MEDIUM LOW
8 IR-8 LONG HIGH
:::> c LABELLE LONG INTERMEDIATE
1400
a:i D CENTURY LONG LOW
>- PATNA 231
!:: 1200
VI
0
u 1000
!!! A 8 cl D
c
I
> I I
I
_, _,
_,.-
J: 800 I I .... D
c.. _,..-
;'
<( I I /
co: I I _, _,
600
I ....
(!) I I /
/
0
~
I I /
I I
>- 400 I
~ I I
<( I I
200 I I
I I
I I
TEMPERATURE, °C
Figure 2-1. Amylograph curves of roller-milled flours from four contrasting rice
varieties. Sample B is a Philippine variety; the others are U.S. varieties.
Short curves, 20% slurries; full curves, 10% slurries. (Reprinted, with
permission, from Nishita and Bean 1979.)
which results in increased retrogradation of starch. Bread made from this

variety had a harsh, dry, crumbly texture within 24 hr.
Other amylograph methods have been adopted by researchers of rice
flour. Variations include changes in slurry concentration, starting tempera-
ture, heating rate, and end-point temperature. They are usually designed
to reflect processing conditions for individual products and, hence, predict
functional performance of the rice flour for each application. Suzuki (1979)
provides an in-depth review of amylograph methodology and discusses
factors important for interpreting results.
A practical consideration related to pasting properties of raw milled
rice flour is the need to assess changes occurring during storage of the
flour or whole-grain rice. Flours from freshly harvested milled rice will
increase in viscosity during storage. Conversely, flours from well-aged
rice will have higher viscosities than their fresh counterparts. The pasting
properties of the starch granule do not change during storage, but the cell
wall materials are altered, and these affect pasting properties of the starch.
Bran and endosperm hemicelluloses have been shown to change the vis-
cosity of rice flours but in different directions (Mod et al. 1981).
THROUGH SIEVE NUMBER

_,
Ill
200 140120100 70 50
D. 100
~
<
II)
II.
80
0
....
zIll 60
u
Ill:
Ill
D. 40
Ill
>
t=
<
_, 20 t:. PINMILL, I X
+ HAMMERMILL
:I 0 ROLLER (QUAD. JR.)
~ 0 BURR (BAUER)
:I 0
u 0 100 200 300
PARTICLE DIAMETER {JJ)
Figure 2-2. Cumulative particle-size distribution by weight for rice flours ground
on various mills from the same lot of medium-grain rice. (Reprinted,
with permission, from Nishita and Bean 1982.)
At 32°C, off-odors were noted in flours stored for six months, and
bread-making properties began to deteriorate. Brown-rice flours have stor-
age problems related to the presence of bran lipids and enzymes.
Flours from parboiled and other precooked rices have very different
pasting properties than those of raw-rice flour. Measurements of these
properties have been reported by Ali and Bhattacharya (1976).
Milling Effects
Rice flour can be produced from whole grains or broken pieces of brown
or milled rices by dry or wet milling processes. In the United States, most
rice flour is produced from untreated broken grains (second heads) left
after milling of white rice. Specialty rice flours are obtained from parboiled
rice. These have modified properties, depending on the degree of pre-
treatment.
The type of mill profoundly affects the functional properties of rice
flour. Using raw, untreated second-head rice, Nishita and Bean (1982)
studied physicochemical properties of flours obtained with seven mills.
The particle-size distribution of four flours is shown in Fig. 2-2. Flours
ranged from coarse, produced on burr mills, to very fine, produced on
hammer or pin mills. Turbomilled flour, determined by microscopic exami-
nation to have the finest particle-size distribution, could not be measured
DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING CALORIMETRY

TYPE
OF TMAX ENTHALPY
MILL •c J/g
A TURBO 65.9 8.4
~ 1200 B ROLLER (Quad. Jr.) 67.0 10.5
.,_
> C PIN, IX 66.8 10.0
;;; 1000 _ D BURR (Bauer) 67.4 10.9
0
u
>
en 800-
ABCD
:
:
i ,I
..,,
::E:
A. 600-
1 rj
: ,.
<C
Dl:
~ •oo-
'"
i 'i
:J.
ill
0.... : J•
: Jl
> 200- j Ij
:I·
~ ! I
<C 0
.... i
50 60 70 90 97 - 20 MINUTES- 97 80 50
TEMPERATURE (°C)
Figure 2-3. Amylograph pasting curves and differential scanning calorimetry data
for rice flours ground from the same lot of medium-grain rice on
four different mills. Short curves, 20% slurries; full curves, 10% slurries.
(Reprinted, with permission, from Nishita and Bean 1982.)
accurately by sieve analysis. The fine particles agglomerated on the top

screens and would not pass through during sieving. Conventional roller
mills provided rice flours with the best overall performance for baked
products. The optimum particle-size distribution was about 50% through
a 100-mesh (0.15-mm) sieve and more than 90% through a 70-mesh (0.21-
mm) sieve. Such flours produced good yeast-leavened breads and baking
powder-leavened layer cakes. Coarser flours produced acceptable breads
of lower quality. Finer flours, ground on hammermills or turbo mills, had
high levels of starch damage, were heated during milling, and did not
function in breads; i.e., the dough did not rise during fermentation. Layer-
cake systems were more tolerant to variations in particle size and to starch
and heat damage produced in turbomills and hammermills.
The type of mill used produced differences in amylograph pasting
curves of the rice flour slurries (Fig. 2-3). The initial viscosity increase
(estimated from 20% slurries) was lOSC higher for the coarse, burr-milled
flour than for the fine turbo milled flour. The coarse flour also had lower
peak viscosity and lower final viscosity at 50°C. This could be attributed
to the delayed swelling of granules embedded in large endosperm chunks
of coarse flours compared with the earlier onset of swelling for smaller
chunks or damaged individual granules in finer flours. Starch properties
measured by differential scanning calorimetry (Fig. 2-3) showed that gelati-
nization temperatures were considerably closer for these flours (T0max
within l.SOC). Enthalpy values, which measure the heat (in joules per
gram) necessary to melt the crystalline starch structure, give an indication
of relative starch damage occurring to a flour during grinding. The lower
enthalpy value for the turbomilled flour reflects the high starch damage
(disruption of the native crystalline structure) occurring during milling.
A cooperative study by Juliano et al. (1985) confirmed the effect of
the type of mill or grinder used, and hence particle size, on the amylograph
pasting characteristics of the resulting flours.
Brown-Rice Flour
Whole-grain brown-rice flours add a different flavor and chewy texture to
baked products. Such flours from raw, untreated rice grains have limited
shelf-life stability because of lipase activity initiated in bran layers during
flour milling, which causes enzymatic hydrolysis of lipid components to
free fatty acids. Several methods exist for stabilizing rice bran separated
during the milling of raw milled rice (Sayre et al. 1982). A stabilized bran
can be ground to flour and blended with raw milled rice flour in the proper
ratio to achieve the original whole-brown-rice composition or in other
amounts to create higher or lower bran contents, thus tailoring specific
end-use characteristics. Oxidative rancidity occurs slowly; this can be
retarded by storage in cool, dry atmospheres having minimum available
oxygen.
In parboiled rice, lipase activity is sufficiently inactivated to stabilize
the bran. However, the starchy endosperm is cooked in the process. The
resulting pregelatinized whole-grain flour provides an array of functional
effects different from those of raw-rice flours.
Wet Milling
Small-scale milling of rice to a flour or coarse meal is used in many
procedures for making traditional rice dishes that resemble baked prod-
ucts. Milling to flour usually occurs when the rice is well hydrated.
Wet milling of rice is the traditional method for preparation of idli, a
fermented food oflndia resembling a steamed sourdough bread. Hydrated
rice is ground in a mortar, then added to a similarly processed legume
flour and allowed to ferment overnight. The legumes contribute a unique
lactic acid bacterial fermentation that provides a sour flavor, production
of C02 gas for leavening from the bacterium L. mesenteroides, and a
glutinous consistency in the batter desirable for gas retention. The bacte-
rium is known to produce dextrans, which may provide a matrix in the
dough that aids in the retention of leavening gases.
Wet milling of rice to provide flour is a technique sometimes used in
laboratory sample preparation. Bean et al. (1983) observed a noticeable
improvement in bread texture when wet-milled flour was substituted for

dry-milled flour in a 100% rice bread. They took advantage of the improve-
ment by hydrating rice flour (intensely mixing it with water) before use in
100% rice-flour layer cakes. Improvements in texture and volume of the
cakes were governed by three interdependent variables: intensity of mix-
ing, water temperature, and time and temperature of holding the hydrated
mixture. High-speed mixing during hydration was effective. A holding
time of 6-12 hr produced improvements at room temperature; a holding
time of 1-2 hr was sufficient when the water or holding temperature was
near 60°C.
Wet milling of rice to flour might be a viable economic option for
improving rice-flour properties if it could be integrated into a processing
scheme that precluded redrying and remilling to flour. Alternatively, start-
ing with flour and hydrating at preparation time with sufficient water for
batter or dough requirements eliminates the costly removal of excess
water.
The a-amylase content of milled rice, unlike that of wheat, had a
negligible effect on the amylogram, except in the case of waxy rice, which
contains appreciable amounts of a-amylase in the endosperm. Water-
washing flours from waxy rice increased their peak viscosities by removing
a large portion of the amylolytic activity.
Besides varietal differences in the properties of rice flours, other
modifications can be induced by processing the rice before grinding. Rice
flours are used in the preparation of snack and convenience foods. Com-
mercial pregelatinized flours made from parboiled rice and from various
quick-cooking rices are used in the meat industry because of their bland
taste, high water absorption, and improvement in texture.
Lynn and Anderson (1969) patented a process for making modified
rice flours by partially or totally gelatinizing rice through cooking in an
excess of water for various lengths of time, followed by water-washing,
drying, and grinding. Flour made by controlled, limited gelatinization of
rice may offer texturizing properties for baby foods and breakfast foods.
The extent of steaming in the parboiling process can be estimated by the
amount of reduction induced in the amylograph peak viscosity of the
original sample (Ferrel and Pence 1964). Bean (1986) reported on the
importance of amylose/amylopectin ratio and gelatinization of starch in
influencing suitability of rice flour for particular applications. She also
reviewed the literature concerning the effect of storage and milling on
amylograph viscosities of rice flour, and the use of differential scanning
calorimetry to provide new information on functional properties of rice
flour.
For baking applications, starch granule properties play an important
role in dictating the suitability of a rice flour, especially if it is present
over 10% messing test amylose content and gelatinization temperature, as
measured by birefringence end-point temperature (BEPT), are the more

important factors that must be considered. Pasting behavior, as measured
in an amylograph, is an important functional property that reflects the
combined effects of amylose content, BEPT, particle-size distribution,
pretreatment, and physical state of the starch granules after milling to
flour. Juliano (1979) classified rice samples by amylose content and BEPT.
Gelatinization temperature was as follows: Low amylose (9-20%), BEPT
55-69SC; intermediate amylose (20-25%), BEPT 70-74°C; high amylose
(25-33%), BEPT 74.5-79°C. The grain length alone will not predict the
properties of the flour.
Waxy-Rice Flour
Waxy-rice flour, or sweet-rice flour, has the usual viscosity characteristics
of waxy-type flours from corn or sorghum (Whistler and Paschall 1967).
It contains less than 2% amylose in the starch and an appreciable amount
of a-amylase. This flour has a lower peak viscosity than some of the
short-grain rices, probably because of its amyloytic activity, and it has
practically no setback viscosity.
Waxy-rice flour is different from other rice flours or starches in its
resistance to liquid separation (syneresis) during freezing and thawing.
The remarkable stability of cooked waxy-rice flour pastes after repeated
freeze-thaw cycles was observed during a study of factors determining
the stability of white sauces and gravies commonly used with frozen,
precooked meat and vegetables (Hanson et al. 1953).
Waxy-rice flours and starches are superior to other grain starches and
flours because they are more stable under freeze-thaw treatment than any
other flours or starches. This behavior may be attributable to the virtual
lack of amylose starch. This flour, mixed with wheat flour even at 40-60%
levels, stabilizes sauces and gravies held at ooc (32°F) for 5-6 months.
When waxy-rice flours are used as a sole source of starch, stability can be
maintained for a year or longer. It shows no retrogradation on cooking.
However, this lack of retrogradation is equally evident in the other waxy-
grain flours and particularly in the purified starches from these flours. The
unusual stability of waxy-rice flour over other starches of flours may be
due to its special chemical structure or to the small size of the starch
granules. The lower stability of purified waxy-rice starches compared to
the flour may be caused by incipient gelatinization induced by the exten-
sive alkali treatment employed in isolating the starch.
High-Protein Rice Flour

Air classification was very satisfactory for the separation of high protein
fractions from wheat (Pfeifer and Griffin 1960). However, this process was
tried on rice flour, without success (Stringfellow et al. 1961). The difference
may be attributed to the vitreous nature of rice, its very small starch
granules, and the intimate dispersions of the protein bodies throughout
the starch matrix in the endosperm. The phenomenon may be explained
by the fact that free rice starch granules are in the same small-size range
as the protein particles to be shifted during air classification. According
to Stringfellow and co-workers, elimination of very fine particles would
improve the usefulness of the residual fraction as a bakery dusting flour.
The lower fat content would improve its storage stability. Flours from
long-, medium-, and short-grain rices behaved similarly in the air-classifi-
cation process.
Kennedy et al. (1974) found a higher concentration of protein in the
outer layers of long-grain rice kernels than in those of medium- and short-
grain varieties. Amylograph studies on flours obtained by abrading three
successive layers from milled rice were made. Each layer represents 2-3%
of the original kernel. Kennedy and co-workers showed that the pasting
behavior was directly related to the starch content of each fraction as well
as to variety.
Primo et al. (1963) made intensive efforts to separate a high-protein
flour by peripheral abrasion of the milled rice kernel. They analyzed a
peripheral fraction of the kernel and demonstrated that the outer layer was
higher in protein. Hogan et al. (1964) constructed a rice mill consisting of
a knurled disk, about 12.7 em in diameter, which rotated in a horizontal
plane. A 7 .62-cm length of 5.08-cm-diam glass tubing was positioned verti-
cally above and to one side of the disk so that the lower end of the tubing
was almost in contact with the knurled surface. The milled rice sample
was put into the tube, and the circulating action caused by rotation of the
disk resulted in an even, mild abrasion of each kernel, with almost no
breakage or temperature change. The flour produced by the abrasion was
discharged into a hood that surrounded the entire apparatus. The protein
content of the outer layer was more than twice that of the original kernels.
This high-protein layer extended into the grain to a depth equivalent to
more than 20% by weight of the milled kernel. Flours having a protein
content as high as 20-22% were obtained from milled rices having a protein
content of 8.5%. In these experiments, removing 6.8% of the peripheral
material as high-protein flour improved the appearance and cooking char-
acteristics of the residual kernels.
Houston et al. (1964) compared the air-classification and peripheral
abrasion methods. They used a CeCoCo mill, a commercial peeling ma-
chine of Japanese origin, to produce high-protein rice flour by surface
abrasion. The protein content of the outer layers was more than twice that
of the original milled kernel. They obtained a 75% increase in protein and
an 8-10% yield of high-protein fine flour. The abrasion process was shown
to be economically more feasible than the air-classification method.
Houston et al. (1968) reported on analyses of successively removed
layers from milled rice. The flours obtained from the outer layer were very
rich in protein and other important nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus,
lipids, thiamin, niacin and riboflavin. Starch was correspondingly lower
in these peripheral layers. The concentrations of the various nutrients
extended to various depths in the kernel. Forty percent of the kernel was
removed before the protein content of the innermost layer was equivalent
to that of the whole kernel.
The amino-acid distribution in the rice protein was about the same in
all layers and in the residual kernel (Normand et al. 1966). High-protein
flour was also produced from rice processed in a commercial Satake rice
whitening machine (Hogan et al. 1968). All flours obtained from the various
abraded layers were similar to the initial laboratory and pilot-scale prod-
ucts in composition and properties. By a similar process, a low-oil, high-
protein rice flour can be made from the product of the solvent milling
process.
Hansen et al. (1981) prepared high-protein rice flour by enzymatic
digestion of gelatinized flour, followed by filtration or centrifugation of the
mixture. Mter drying, the high-protein rice flour can be used to make
instant mixes, puddings, and baked products.
Rice-Bran Flour
The solvent process for simultaneously milling and removing rice oil has
renewed interest in the possibility of obtaining a high-protein food flour
from rice bran. After oil extraction, rice bran is much more stable and
easier to grind and fractionate than rice bran that has not been defatted.
Rice bran is higher in protein content than any other portion of the rice
kernel. Houston and Mohammad (1966) tried to upgrade extracted bran
and white bran (polish) by air classification and by sieving. The 25-30%
fraction of the extracted rice bran passing through a 100-mesh screen was
a light tan flour having a protein content 50% greater than the original bran.
The crude fiber content-5-7% compared with the original11-12%-was
further reduced to 4.5% by regrinding and passing through a 140-mesh
screen.
A new approach to obtaining a high-protein food from rice bran is to
extract the protein from defatted bran. Chen and Houston (1970) reported
that as much as 80% of the protein in bran could be extracted with sodium
hydroxide solutions. They recovered 50% of the protein at pH 11, ob-
taining a 40% protein product by neutralizing and drying the extract, and
an 85% concentrate, representing 37% of the bran protein, by precipitating
the dissolved proteins at pH 5.5. These protein concentrates from rice
bran are potential sources of soluble high-protein, low-fiber products from
rice.
Several methods exist for stabilizing rice bran separated during the
milling of raw milled rice (Sayre et al. 1982). Extrusion cooking is an

effective method of inhibiting lipase activity in bran layers during flour
milling. The heat extrusion method stops enzymatic hydrolysis of lipid
components to free fatty acids. There is a need to use antioxidants to stop
oxidation reactions. There is a trend to use more rice bran in baked goods.
It has been claimed that bran increases dough yields because of increased
water absorption, contributes to an attractive tan crumb and crust, does
not disturb fermentation or mixing tolerances of the dough, causes baked
products to remain fresher and moister because of moisture retention, and
adds significant essential amino acids, minerals and vitamins to the baked
goods (Lynn 1969). Because of the dietary fiber content of rice bran, there
is an increased use of stabilized rice bran in baked foods and breakfast
cereals. The dietary fiber in oat and rice bran can lower the level of
cholesterol in humans.
Composite Flour for Baking

Composite flours for baking are blends of nonwheat flours with or without
wheat. They are blended after milling or during dough preparation at a
bakery. Such mixtures are made as adjustments to crop shortages or
surpluses.
Experimental reports on the use of rice flour in wheat-based baked
products are worldwide. In Italy, additions of 15% rice flour in bread and
60% in pastries are known. Brown-rice flour was preferred for the better
nutritive value needed by yeasts during fermentation. In Venezuela,
Mosqueda-Suarez (1958) developed a nutritionally improved bread using
30% rice flour with 70% wheat flour. Increases in yeast level and fermenta-
tion time, along with 3% shortening in the formula, alleviated most of the
problems due to substitution of rice. Although the protein content of the
bread was diminished, the quality, as measured by its protein efficiency
ratio, was increased as a result of the better balance of amino acids supplied
by the rice.
Composite flours and baked products were extensively developed
in the 1960s to increase the nutritional and caloric intake in developing
countries. A comprehensive review of composite flours can be found in
de Ruiter's work (1978). Small amounts of rice flour from indica orjaponica
types can be added to wheat flour if dough improvers are included to
compensate for the dilution of the wheat gluten protein. These include
ascorbic acid, potassium bromate, lipid-based surfactants, solid shorten-
ings, and vegetable oils. These additives strengthen and enhance the car-·
rying capacity of the wheat flour for the nongluten flour diluent.
Takano et al. (1979) applied 10, 15, and 20% substitutions of rice flours
in a wheat-flour pan-bread formula containing 4% shortening. Untreated
rice flour from brown or white milled rice showed a typical dilution effect
at 20% substitution. Loaf volumes were lower, and farinograph and exten-
sigraph curves show~d slightly less strength. Amylograph viscosities were
higher presumably because of less amylase activity from 80% wheat than
from 100% wheat.
El Saddany et al. (1975) added as much as 8% extracted rice starch to
an Egyptian durum wheat flour in an effort to improve its suitability for
bread making. Several functional properties were modified by the rice
starch, and the authors considered that these changes improved dough-
handling properties and bread-loaf volumes.
Rice Starch
Rice starch is a special product used as a major component of face powder.
The fine particle size of rice starch makes it especially suitable for cosmetic
use. According to Matz (1970), simple washing methods will not telease
rice starch granules from their protein matrix. Chemical treatment is neces-
sary to disperse the rice proteins. For example, broken rice may be steeped
at ambient temperature for 24 hr in 5 times its weight of a 0.3% caustic
soda solution as the first step in rice-starch production. The soaking solu-
tion may be heated to 48.8°C to speed up the extraction process.
The caustic-treated granules are washed and then dried before being
ground into flour. The flour is then mixed with 10 times its weight of0.3%
caustic soda solution and stirred for 24 hr. The starch is allowed to settle,
and the supernatant solution, which contains most of the rice protein, is
removed. Washing with water, settling, and decanting are employed to
remove most of the soluble materials frorh the starch granules. The washed
starch is dewatered by filtering or centrifuging; complete removal of resid-
ual alkali is a very important step, which must be carefully controlled. The
washed starch is dried in ovens or rotary-drum driers; the rice starch cake
is ground to the desired particle size and sieved (Hogan 1967, 1977).
The rice protein in the combined effluent is precipitated by the addition
of hydrochloric acid. The supernatant fluid is discarded, and the precipi-
tated material is partially dewatered in a filter press and finally dried in a
rotary drier. The product can be used as a protein supplement for cattle
feed (Matz 1970).
Terminology and Methodology Associated

with Basic Starch Phenomena
Atwell et al. (1988) reported on terminology and methodology associated
with starch at the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC)
meeting. An ad hoc committee was formed at the Starch Science and
Technology Conference to obtain information concerning the methodology
currently employed in studying these phenomena. Survey results indicate

that broad definitions, unrelated to a specific event in the processes, were
favored in all cases. Results indicate that differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) is the preferred method for evaluating retrogradation and that DSC
has attained approximate equality with polarized light microscopy as the
preferred method for evaluating gelatinization temperature. The viscoamy-
lograph is by far the preferred method for evaluating pasting.
Gelatinization
Gelatinization is the collapse (disruption) of molecular orders within the
starch granule along with concomitant and irreversible changes in proper-
ties such as granular swelling, crystallite melting, viscosity development,
starch solubilization, and loss of birefringence. The point of initial gelatini-
zation and the range over which it occurs is governed by starch concentra-
tion, method of observation, granule type, and heterogeneities within the
granule population under observation.
Pasting
Pasting is the phenomenon following gelatinization in the dissolution of
starch. It involves granular swelling, exudation of the granular molecular
components, and eventually, total disruption of the granules.
Retrogradation
Retrogradation is the event that occurs when starch molecules begin to
reassociate in an ordered structure. In its initial phases, two or more
molecules may form a sirnple juncture point, which then may develop into
more extensively ordered regions. Ultimately, a crystalline order appears,
and precipitation from "solution" occurs.
RICE FLOUR PRODUCTS
Rice Snack Foods

In the Oriental countries, sweet-rice flour is a very important raw material
for making snack foods. The details of this subject are presented in Chap.
10.
Rice Cookies
Przybyla and Luh (1977) used rice flours made from medium-grain Calrose
rice in making rice-oatmeal and rice-peanut butter cookies. The results
are summarized as follows:
Table 2-2. Recipes for Rice-Oatmeal Cookies

16.4% RICE FLOUR 26.4% RICE FLOUR
Ingredients Weight, g % Weight, g %

Shortening 80 13.2 80 13.2
Sugar (granulated/brown) 90/90 29.7 60/60 19.8
Eggs 50 8.3 50 8.3
Vanilla extract 3 0.5 3 0.5
Water 20 3.3 20 3.3
Oats 100 16.5 100 16.5
Rice flour 100 16.5 100 26.4
Nonfat dry milk 40 6.6 40 6.6
Cinnamon 2 0.3 2 0.3
Baking soda 3 0.5 3 0.5
Walnuts (chopped) 28 4.6 28 4.6
Source: Przybyla and Luh (1977).
Rice-oatmeal cookies
Two typical recipes for rice-oatmeal cookies are presented in Table 2-2.
The shortening and sugar were mixed for 1 min at medium speed in a
Hobart electric mixer. Then eggs, vanilla, and rolled oatmeal were added.
The mixture was mixed in the Hobart mixer for 2 min at medium speed
and then for 1 min at high speed. The rice flour, nonfat dry milk, cinnamon,
baking soda, and chopped walnuts were then added. The product was
mixed for 1 min at low speed and then rolled out with a cloth-covered
rolling pin to a thickness of 7 mm. Wooden guides were used to ensure
even height. The dough was cut with a cookie cutter in circular pieces 60
mm in diameter, and the product was baked on a greased sheet in a rotary
oven at l77°C (350°F) for 10 min and then cooled to ambient temperature.
Rice-peanut butter cookies
The recipe for rice-peanut butter cookies is presented in Table 2-3. The
margarine, shortening, peanut butter, sugar, eggs, and water were beaten
together for 2 min on medium speed and for 1 min on high speed. Flour,
baking soda, and nonfat dry milk were added, and the mixture was beaten
for another minute on medium speed. The cookies were formed in the
same way as the rice-oatmeal cookies mentioned above and baked for 9
min at 177°C (350°F).
Spread of cookies
The dough handled well when the AACC (1962) Spread-Factor Test for
baking cookies was followed (Przybyla and Luh 1977). Nonfat dry milk
was added to increase protein content and to improve crumb color. In two
Table 2-3. Rice-Peanut Butter Cookies (27.6% Flour)

Ingredients Weight, g %
Margarine 55 7.6
Shortening 40 5.5
Peanut butter 150 20.6
Sugar (granulated/brown) 45/130 24.1
Eggs 50 6.9
Water 5 0.7
Rice flour 200 27.6
Baking soda 3 0.4
Salt 3 0.4
Nonfat dry milk 4.5 6.2
of the formulas, the percentage of rice flour was increased to make it the
major ingredient so that differences in the cookies due to rice flour versus
wheat flour would be emphasized. The rice flour cookies exhibited more
spread, as shown in Table 2-4, where the spread factors are recorded.
The spread mechanism is known to be a function of the total availabil-
ity of water and other factors subordinate to it. Flour, sugar, and water
are the major components of cookie dough. The less hydrophilic the flour
is, the more water will be available for the sugar. Spread increases when
the amount of sugar is increased. Milk solids, egg white, and whole egg
tend to decrease spread while shortening, leavening agents, and egg yolk
Table 2-4. Spread Ratio of Rice- and

Wheat-Flour Cookies
Spread Ratio:
Width/Thickness
Rice-oatmeal 10.73 ± 0.26
16.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 8.07 ± 0.18
16.4% flour
Rice-oatmeal 5.58 ± 0.12
26.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 5.13 ± 0.12
26.4% flour
Rice-peanut butter 6.93 ± 0.14
27.4% flour
Wheat-peanut butter 6.66 ± 0.13
27.4% flour
Table 2-5. Proximate Analyses of Rice- and Wheat-Flour

Cookies
PERCENTAGE
Cookies Moisture Protein Lipids Ash

Rice-oatmeal 4.72 8.77 16.79 1.71
16.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 5.07 8.83 17.03 1.79
16.4% flour
Rice-oatmeal 5.06 8.64 16.87 1.76
26.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 5.21 9.48 19.63 1.88
26.4% flour
Rice-peanut butter 4.11 10.58 22.09 2.55
27.6% flour
Wheat-peanut butter 4.22 11.64 23.81 3.00
27.6% flour
usually increase spread. The greater spread of the rice-flour cookies shows
that the rice flour is less hydrophilic than the wheat flour.
The greater spread of rice flour may also be partly attributed to the
lack of gluten in rice flour. Gluten, when mixed with water, forms an
elastic dough which is capable of holding air, resulting in a spongy structure
when baked.
Proximate analyses
Proximate analyses of the rice- and wheat-flour cookies are presented
in Table 2-5. The peanut butter cookies contained more protein than the
others.
Wheat flour cookies had a slightly higher lipid content than the rice-
flour cookies. Although rice is slightly higher in lipid content than wheat,
milled rice has a lower lipid content than wheat flour. Lipid content de-
creases as the center of the rice kernel is approached (Kennedy et al.
1974).
Ash content was slightly higher in the wheat-flour cookies than in the
rice-flour cookies. For the oatmeal cookies, ash content varied from 1.71
to 1.88% whereas, for the peanut butter cookies, it increased to 2.55 and
3%.
Riboflavin and thiamin contents
Przybyla and Luh (1977) reported the riboflavin and thiamin content of
the cookies and of the ingredients highest in those vitamins, that is, the
flours and the oatmeal. The results are presented in Table 2-6. Enriched
Table 2-6. Riboflavin and Thiamin Content of

Rice- and Wheat-Flour Cookies
Riboflavin, Thiamin,
Cookies mg/100 g mg/100 g
Rice flour 0.04 0.28
Wheat flour 0.88 1.98
Oatmeal 0.22 0.54
Rice-oatmeal 0.04 0.12
16.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 0.15 0.27
16.4% flour
Rice-oatmeal 0.04 0.10
26.4% flour
Wheat-oatmeal 0.24 0.34
26.4% flour
Rice-peanut butter 0.01 0.05
27.6% flour
Wheat-peanut butter 0.25 0.38
27.6% flour
wheat flour was used, whereas the rice flour was unenriched. The oatmeal
cookies lost approximately 10% riboflavin during baking, but the peanut
butter cookies had a slight increase in riboflavin, probably because of the
amount contributed by the peanut butter. The thiamin content of the
cookies decreased by approximately 30%. The result agrees with data on
loss of riboflavin and thiamin in baking.
Sensory analysis
A panel compared the color, texture, and acceptability of the rice and
wheat cookies on a 9-point scale. Two-by-two (with interaction) analysis
of variance tables was made to compare the rice versus wheat cookies for
each of the four attributes.
Color. There was no significant difference in color between the cookie
samples. Using rice flour instead of wheat flour did not affect the color of
the cookies.
Texture. The texture of the cookies was rated from very crispy to very
soft. Judges' scores for the peanut butter cookies and oatmeal cookies,
with 26.4% flour, did not differ significantly. Texture of the rice- and
wheat-oatmeal cookies, with 16.4% flour, differed and was significant at
the 99% probability level, with the rice cookies judged as crispier. When
the amount of flour was decreased to 16.4%, the rice-flour produced crisp-
ier cookies.
Acceptability The cookies were rated as highly acceptable. Acceptabil-

ity did not differ significantly between the rice- and wheat-flour-peanut
butter cookies. The rice-oatmeal cookies were rated more acceptable than
the wheat-flour ones, significant at the 95% probability level.
Rice Bread
The problem associated with rice-bread formulation is due to the absence
of gluten in rice flour. The manufacture of rice bread without gluten
presents considerable technological difficulties because gluten is the im-
portant structure-forming protein. Research has been done using gum or
suitable surfactants such as glyceryl monostearate (GMS) as the binding
agent. Kim and deRuiter (1968) studied the influence of various surfactants
on the loaf volume at different water levels in the making of nonwheat
bread (Table 2-7). Nishita et al. (1976, 1979) described the development
of a yeast-leavened rice-bread formula that consists of modifying a typical
wheat-bread formula in which wheat flour is completely replaced by rice
flour. They compared the effects ofhydroxypropyl-methylcellulose, locust
bean and guar, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, carrageenan, and xanthan
gum on the loaf volume of rice bread.
The bread formula consists of 100 parts rice flour, 75 parts water, 7.5
parts sugar, 6 parts oil, 3 parts fresh compressed yeast, 3 parts hydroxypro-
pyl methylcellulose, and 2 parts salt. These ingredients are mixed thor-
oughly, panned or shaped as rolls, fermented to the desired volume, and
baked.
Several gums were tested in the formula presented above as gluten
substitutes, including xanthan gum, which was successfully used in wheat-
starch breads. Hydroxymethyl cellulose provided the proper dough viscos-
ity and film-forming characteristics so that the rice-flour dough would
retain fermentation gases during proofing and expand during baking to
produce a crumb grain similar to that of typical white pan bread. Surfac-
tants that normally improve texture of wheat breads had negative effects
on rice doughs and bread because they interfere with the gum-water-rice-
flour complex such that no fermentation gases were retained and thus no
leavening occurred.
Only the short- and medium-grain rice flour had the necessary physico-
chemical properties to give the soft-textured bread crumb. The long-grain
type yielded sandy, dry crumb characteristics.
The short- and medium-grain rice kernels have sticky properties when
cooked in the traditional manner as raw milled rice. Their starches have
low gelatinization temperatures (below 70°C), with amylose contents at
20% or lower. In contrast, the long-grain types produce fluffy cooked rice,
with starches that gelatinize above 70°C, and the amylose content above
Table 2-7. Effect of Kind and Level of Various Baking Aids and of Quanti1y of
Water on Bread Loaf Volume
LOAF VOLUME
Baking Quantity, Water,
Test %on %on mllkg mllg
No. Tailoring Agent Flour Flour Flour Bread
85 2600 1.5
2 Carboxymethylcellulose 70 2400 1.5
3 85 2980 1.7
4 100 3540 1.9
5 Methylethylcellulose 70 2400 1.5
6 85 2890 1.7
7 100 3440 1.9
8 Methylcellulose 1 70 2360 1.5
9 1 85 2900 1.7
10 1 100 3380 1.8
11 Methocel 1 70 2420 1.5
12 1 85 2800 1.6
13 1 100 3220 1.8
14 Wisutal 1201 alginate 2 85 3040 1.8
15 2 100 4120 2.2
16 4 120 3440 1.7
17 8 140 2880 1.3
18 Manucol SS LL alginate 2 85 3200 1.9
19 2 100 3800 2.1
20 4 120 4000 2.0
21 8 140 4200 1.9
22 Guar gum 1 100 3360 1.8
23 4 120 4140 2.1
24 8 140 4600 2.1
25 Locust bean gum 1 100 3290 1.8
26 2 100 3400 1.9
27 4 120 4060 2.0
28 8 140 4640 2.1
29 Pregelatinized potato starch 5 100 3700 2.0
30 10 130 4360 2.1
31 20 140 4200 1.9
32 Pregelatinized tapioca starch 10 130 4220 2.0
33 Pregelatinized com starch 10 130 3680 1.7
34 Pregelatinized wheat starch 10 130 4360 2.1
35 Potato starch phosphate 2 100 3260 1.8
36 8 140 4200 1.9
37 Soya lecithin 1 100 3440 1.9
38 4 100 3920 2.1
39 Soya lecithin + manucul 4+4 140 5300 2.4
40 4+4 120 4400 2.2
41 2+4 120 4400 2.2
42 2+2 100 3120 1.7
43 Glyceryl monostearate 0.5 85 3380 2.0
44 0.5 100 3920 2.1
45 85 3600 2.1
46 100 3800 2.1
47 120 4300 2.1
Source: Kim and deRuiter (1968).
23% (Bean and Nishita 1985). The cooking characteristics of the long-
grain types appear to be directly related to the unacceptable crumb grain
properties of baked products made from the flour.
Investigation was carried out by Delgado (1977) to improve bread
formulations. By adjusting the levels of sucrose, yeast, water, and metho-
cel, an improved recipe was developed. An enriched bread was obtained
by introducing nonfat dry milk (Table 2-8). Comparisons of the specific
volume, protein, and moisture content were made on the improved, en-
riched, and commercial wheat bread. The primary results showed that rice
bread made from these improved and enriched formulas was acceptable
to the sensory-evaluation panel.
Rice Cakes
Rice cakes have a wide range of processing and product characteristics.
In the United States, "cake" generally refers to angel, sponge, or layer
types in a variety of sizes and shapes. Angel and sponge cakes depend on
egg whites or whole eggs for the major structural foundation, with flour
supporting and strengthening the foamlike structure, and are leavened
primarily by steam and air. Layer cakes can be made without eggs; they
depend on flour as the main structural component and are leavened primar-
ily with carbon dioxide provided by baking powder. Layer cakes character-
istically contain high levels of sugar, shortening, butter, or oil (Bean and
Nishita 1985).
Layer cakes containing 100% rice flour were developed, using 100
parts rice flour, 80 parts sugar, 80 parts water, 15 parts oil, and 5-7 parts
double-acting baking powder (Bean et al. 1983). Rice flours from short- and
medium-grain rices having low amylose contents and low gelatinization
temperatures were preferred over those from long-grain rices.
Layer-cake formulas typically contain a high level of sugar, which
markedly increases the gelatinization temperature of the starch. In a bat-
ter, the ratio of sugar to water should be such that starch gelatinization
and granule swelling can occur and set the structure during baking when
the leavening action has expanded the batter to its maximum volume.
The cake formula described above has equal parts of sugar and water,
resulting in a 50% sucrose solution. For a flour from short- or medium-
grain rice with an estimated gelatinization temperature of 62°C in water,
the gelatinization temperature was 80°C in a 50% sucrose solution when
pasted as a 20% slurry. Under the same conditions, a flour from long-grain
rice gelatinizing at noc in water gelatinized at 92°C in a 50% sucrose
solution. Substitution of the long-grain rice flour in the above formula,
optimized for medium-grain rice, yielded a collapsed cake. This indicated
too high a sugar concentration, resulting in too high a gelatinization temper-
ature (Bean et al. 1983).
~
Table 2-8. Comparison of Three Formulas Used for Baking Rice Breads
Commercial
Basic Improved Enriched White Wheat LSD LSD LSD
Formula Formula Formula Bread ( p = 0.05) (p = 0.01) (p = 0.01)
Rice flour, g 100.0 100.0 100.0
Compressed yeast, g 3.0 5.0 5.0
Sucrose, g 7.5 12.5 12.5
Salt, g 2.0 2.0 2.0
Vegetable oil, g 6.0 6.0 6.0
Methocel, g 3.0 4.0 4.0
Water, ml 75.0 90.0 90.0
Nonfat dry milk, g - - 3.0
Wheat gluten, g - - 1.0
Specific volume (ml/gm) 2.0 ± 0.3 4.5 ± 0.4 4.1 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.1 0.5 0.9 1.9
Moisture loss on baking, % 15.9 ± 0.3 21.5 ± 1.4 20.9 ± 0.6 - 4.0 NS NS
Total moisture in bread,% - 25.7 ± 0.4 24.8 ± 0.8 35.6 ± 0.6 2.2 5.1 16.3
Protein content (D.B.),% - 7.4 ± 0.1 11.0 ± 0.2 13.5 ± 0.1 0.4 0.8 2.6
Sensory score average 6.3 ± 0.7 7.3 ± 0.1 7.3 ± 0.4 7.0 ± 0.9 NS NS NS
(scale 1-10)
Source: Delgado (1977).
When the sugar in the formula was decreased to adjust the estimated
temperature of gelatinization close to 80°C, the volume and contour of the
cakes were acceptable, but the sandy texture remained.
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3
Rice Enrichment with Vitamins
and Amino Acids
Robert R. Mickus
Rice Growers Association of California
Bor S. Luh
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Rice is the staple food for more than half the world's population. However,
it is deficient in some nutrients. Diseases such as beriberi are common in
areas where large amounts of rice are consumed. This is due in part to the
practice of polishing the grain to remove the bran layer and germ, which
contain the B-complex vitamins. Table 3-1 shows how the nutritional value
of rice is altered by milling. The levels of thiamin, riboflavin, nicotinic
acid, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, and iron decrease markedly
during the polishing process.
The nutritional value of rice may be further diminished because of the
method used to prepare the grain. In many countries, rice is packaged in
cloth bags, which allow the rice to become dirty and infested with insect
eggs. The grain must therefore be washed before cooking. Rice is usually
cooked in excess water, which is subsequently discarded.
Malakar and Baneijee (1959) studied the effects of washing and cook-
ing on the vitamin and mineral content of rice. It was found that one-third
of the minerals and almost half of the water-soluble vitamins were lost
when the rice was washed and cooked in eight volumes of water. Table
35
~
Table 3-1. Effect of Milling on B Vitamins and Iron Contents of Rice and Rice Products, mg per 453.6 g of Dry Weight
Nicotinic Pantothenic
Milled Product Thiamin Riboflavin Acid Acid Pyridoxine Biotin Iron
Brown rice 1.1- 2.3 0.21-0.34 18-29 7.2-8.4 4.3-5.1 0.052-0.057 7.0-8.0
First break 0.4- 0.8 0.09-0.22 10-15 3.7-4.8 2.0-4.0 0.028-0.037
Second break 0.3- 0.7 0.09-0.22 9-14 3.4-3.6 1.2-3.5 0.023-0.027
Brushed 0.2- 0.5 0.08-0.18 5-10 3.2-4.4 1.2-3.3 0.022-0.024
Finished head 0.2- 0.5 0.08-0.14 5-9 2.9-3.0 0.9-2.8 0.015-0.023 3.0-4.0
Bran 5.4-15.0 0.7 -1.5 117-221 30-37 11-18 0.17 -0.25
Polish 6.8-13.0 0.5 -1.4 94-195 33-50 13-15 0.24 -0.38
Source: Juliano 1980; Fossati et al. 1976.
ENRICHMENT WITH VITAMINS AND AMINO ACIDS 37
Table 3-2. Loss of Vitamins by Cooking Rice in Excess Water

THIAMIN RIBOFLAVIN NIACIN
Type of Rice
and Method Content, Loss, Content, Loss, Content, Loss,
of Cooking p,g/g % p,g/g % p,g/g %
Brown
Double boiler" 4.40 9.0 0.81 6.2 54.0 4.0
Open vesselh 4.40 32.2 0.81 26.0 54.0 31.0
"Earle" undermilled
Double boiler 2.94 1.4 0.38 5.2 50.0 3.0
Open vessel 2.94 42.2 0.38 36.0 50.0 37.7
White
Double boiler 0.65 1.3 0.27 7.4 20.6 3.4
Open vessel 0.65 54.0 0.27 18.2 20.6 41.0
"Malekized" parboiled
Double boiler 2.01 6.5 0.40 7.5 40.2 2.2
Open vessel 2.01 57.2 0.40 50.0 40.2 37.8
"Converted" parboiled
Double boiler 3.02 5.3 0.41 7.3 49.0 2.0
Open vessel 3.02 43.7 0.41 29.4 49.0 37.6
Package recipec 3.02 19.2 0.41 26.8 49.0 25.1
White enriched
Double boiler 1.40 2.8 0.29 6.8 19.5 4.5
Double boiler 3.20 4.7 0.32 6.2 19.2 3.6
Open vessel 1.40 53.6 0.29 37.9 19.5 41.0
Open vessel 3.20 50.0 0.32 37.5 19.2 47.9
Brand enriched
Double boiler 3.00 3.3 0.25 8.0 20.0 4.0
Open vessel 3.00 45.7 0.25 36.0 20.0 40.0
Package reciped 3.00 63.7 0.25 32.0 20.0 47.0
a One cup rice and 1 1/2 cups boiling water placed in the top of double boiler. All water is
absorbed, and cooked rice is not rinsed.
bOne-half cup rice is placed in an open vessel with 8 cups boiling water, cooked, placed in
a colander, and drained.
c One cup rice is cooked in 1 quart of boiling water, drained in a colander, and quickly rinsed
in cold running water.
dOne cup enriched rice is placed in an open vessel with 10 cups of boiling water, cooked,
placed in a colander, and drained.
Source: Houston and Kohler (1970).
3-2 shows the loss of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin by various cooking
methods. Loss of vitamins is greatly minimized when just enough water
is added to be totally absorbed by the rice.
Kik and Williams (1945) studied the methods for cooking rice in vari-
ous countries and noted that the amount of water used in washing and
cooking the rice had a tremendous impact on vitamin and mineral reten-
tion. They reported:
People who persist in drastic rinsings and in discarding of cooking

water will of necessity sacrifice a large part of any nutritional improve-
ment that can be achieved with present known methods. The custom-
ary discards of cooking waters from these foods are so large as to
cause a loss of nearly half the nutrients added. No measure other than
re-education in cooking methods will supply an adequate remedy for
this defect.
In 1943, the Food and Nutritional Board of the National Research
Council expressed the desirability of developing physiologically active and
rinse-resistant vitamin derivatives. These derivatives could then be added
to grains, thus increasing their nutritional value.
ENRICHMENT PROCESSES
Premix Kernels
Several processes have been developed for the production of rice premix
kernels. One of these, the HLR-Mickus process, was developed by
Roffman-LaRoche in 1946 and later described by Mickus (1955). This
enriched rice was fed to a population in Baatan Province, the Philippines,
during 1948-1950 and resulted in a significant decrease in mortality from
beriberi.
This process involves the application of an acidic solution containing
thiamin and niacin to the surface of the milled rice kernel. Mter air-drying
two coats of an alcoholic solution of stearic acid, zein and abietic acid are
applied. Finally, a ferric pyrophosphate and talc mixture is dusted over
the grains. The product, called the premix, is added to milled rice in a
ratio of 1: 200.
Table 3-3 shows the composition of a premix prepared by Cort et
al. (1976), and Table 3-4 shows its stability. Mter six months at room
temperature there was a 4% loss of vitamin A and a 10% loss of folic acid
and pyridoxine. No significant loss in vitamin E was found.
Merck & Company developed a similar process for making a rice
premix several years later. A zein solution containing vitamins and iron is
applied in thin layers. Several coats of shellac and tricalcium phosphate,
a whitening agent, are next applied. A high-gloss finish is provided in the
final coat by the addition of talc. To one part of fortified kernels, 199 parts
of enriched rice are added to provide the final product.
Cort et al. (1976) have produced a premix by this method, referred to
as the Wright procedure. Table 3-5 shows the results of storage of Wright
rice premix for three months at room temperature. The retention of the
various nutrients is quite high.
Table 3-3. HLR-Mickus Rice Premix Formulation

LEVEL FOUND
Amount Label
Added Claim Per 1b Rice
Per 1b Per 1b After 1:200
Additives of Rice of Premix Per 1b Premix Dilution
Thiamin, mg 840 580 550 2.75
Pyridoxine-HCI, mg 620 360 400 2.1
Niacin, mg 6,000 4,800 Not run 24
Vitamin E, IV 3,800 3,000 3,240 16
Vitamin A, IV (5.8g) 1,460,000 1,200,000 6,000
Folic acid, mg 82 60 46 0.23
Iron (ferric
orthophosphate), mg 38,000 8,000 5,070 25
Calcium phosphate, mg 54,000 Not run 60
Zinc oxide, mg 2,500 2,000 Not run 10
Talc, mg 38,000 Not run (Some mg)
Source: Cort et al. (1976).
The addition of riboflavin by the above methods presents a problem.

The vitamin-covered kernels are yellow and, as they are cooked, the color
spreads to the surrounding grains of rice. The colored grains are quite
often discarded by the consumer, thus defeating the purpose of enrichment.
Lease et al. (1962) have devised a process that permits inclusion of ribofla-
vin. Kernels are first coated with vitamins and then soaked in a solution
of polyethylene glycol or methyl cellulose and ribofiavin-5' -phosphate
sodium. The solvent gives rapid dispersion of the riboflavin derivative,
which is quite soluble. The grains are then coated with iron pyrophosphate,
a color-masking agent. The premix is added to milled rice in a 1: 100 ratio.
Table 3-4. Stabilify of HLR-Mickus Rice Premix

LEVEL FOUND
PER 1b OF PREMIX Per lb of Per 1,382 g

Uncooked Rice of Cooked
6 moat 4 wk at With Premix Fortified
Nutrients Initial r.t. 45°C (ll3°F) Diluted 1 :200 Ricea
Vitamin A, IU 1,200,000 1,050,000 1,050,000 6,000 5,800
Pyridoxine, mg 400 400 390 2.1 2.5
Folic acid, mg 46 44 41 0.23 0.27
Vitamin E, IV 3,240 3,210 3,200 16 15.9
Thiamin, mg 550 530 Not run 2.6 Not run
aOne 1b of uncooked rice yields 1380 g of cooked rice.
Source: Cort et al. (1976).
i')
Table 3-5. Wright Rice Premix Formulation

Amount LEVEL FOUND PER 1b PREMIX %Loss on
Added Label Cooking in
Per lb Claim Per 3 Moat Rice at I :200
Additives of Rice lb of Premix Initial r.t. Dilution
Thiamin, mg 840 580 680 680 Not run
Pyridoxine-HCl, mg 620 360 141 140 0
Niacin, mg 6,050 4,800 Not run Not run Not run
Iron (ferric orthophosphate), mg 38,000 8,000 Not run Not run Not run
Vitamin E (tocopberyl acetate), mg 3,800 3,000 3,000 3,000 0
Vitamin A (250 SD), IU 1,950,000 1,460,000 1,450,000 1,440,000 1
Folic acid, mg 82 60 40 40 0
Zinc (oxide), mg 8,290 2,000 Not run Not run Not run
Calcium (phosphate), mg 50,000 15,000 Not run Not run Not run
Talc, mg 20,000 - Not run Not run Not run
Source: Cort eta!. (1976).
Rice enriched by this process gives good resistance to washing for niacin
and thiamin, but not for riboflavin. The yellow color is not observed in the
raw rice, nor are spots produced during cooking.
Powdered Premix
A powdered premix has been produced that is added to milled rice at a
ratio of 0.5-1.0 part premix to 16,000 parts rice. Ordinary handling of the
rice does not cause the powder to separate from the kernels. However,
the enriched product will not withstand any washing procedures.
Simulated Rice
A totally different method for enriching rice involves the manufacture of
an artificial kernel premix (Bauernfeind 1974). A dough is prepared by
adding water to wheat flour previously blended with the desired vitamins
and minerals. The mixture is put through a device under pressure and cut
and dried to form the simulated kernels. The process is very similar to
that used to make pasta (spaghetti, noodles, etc.). The kernels contain 200
times the amount of unpolished rice; therefore, one part of simulated
grains is added to 200 parts of milled rice to obtain the final product. One
advantage of using this method is that the composition of the premix can
be altered, depending on the nutrient deficiencies of a particular country.
Also, rice flour or meal may be used instead of wheat flour. The major
drawback of the simulated rice premix is that there is a high loss of added
nutrients during washing and cooking. In addition, the simulated premix
tends to spoil the palatability of boiled rice. Water-insoluble vitamin deriv-
atives are now being used to minimize washing losses.
Acid-Parboiling
In Japan in 1948, it was found that the vitamin contained in the bran and
embryo of brown rice could be transferred to endosperm by soaking in
aqueous acetic acid. This resulted in a soaking method for producing
vitamin B1-enriched rice. The product of this process is called acid-par-
boiled rice.
In the original method, polished rice was soaked in a 1% aqueous
acetic solution to which vitamin B 1 was added. The rice was then drained,
steamed, and dried to minimize vitamin loss from washing and cooking.
The resulting enriched rice was found to be digestible and tasty and,
when mixed in a 1: 100 ratio with milled rice, provided adequate amounts
(recommended daily requirements) of vitamin B1•
A major disadvantage of this procedure is that cracks in the grain
result. The grains appear to be of inferior quality, and the nutrients are
Table 3-6. Solubili1y of Vitamin B1 Derivatives in Organic Solvents at 30°C

(g/100 ml)
B1 DERIVATIVES
Solvent
Concentration, % BrHCl DBT' Cetyl-B/ Brnaph.c
Acetone 100 0.00 1.08 0.16 0.00
90 1.76 2.18 0.96 0.004
80 3.20 1.76 1.24 0.047
70 10.81 1.03 0.97 0.16
60 22.07 0.57 0.58 0.362
Ethanol 99 0.22 0.35 1.82 0.044
90 2.14 0.68 2.20 0.025
80 8.59 0.70 2.37 0.105
70 20.40 0.61 1.65 0.181
60 34.27 0.36 0.85 0.31
Chloroform 100 0.00 27.67 2.12 0.00
90 0.00 3.05 0.00
80 0.00 1.52 0.00
70 0.00 0.85 0.00
60 0.00 0.51 0.00
5% chloroform in
70% acetone 0.00 1.79 3.31 0.13
aDibenzoylthiamin. b Thiamin dicetylsulphate. c Thiamin naphthalene-2,6-disulfonic acid.
Source: Mitsuda (1962).
more readily lost in washing. Soaking in organic solvents such as ethanol,

acetone, and chloroform does not result in crack formation. This is true
even when the water content of the solvent is 40% by volume. By using
these organic compounds, the process of steaming, which was introduced
to prevent cracking, may be eliminated.
Vitamin B1 derivatives have been produced that are soluble in acetone,
ethanol, and chloroform but not in water (Table 3-6). When these deriva-
tives are used along with organic solvents, vitamin loss during washing
and cooking can be significantly reduced.
The widespread use of an acid-soaking technique in Japan has replaced
the old method of undermilling rice to retain more of the vitamins.
Vitamin and Mineral Fortification

The ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal and rice manufacturers have several options
available for fortification. The method selected must be based on sound
manufacturing practices as well as a good understanding of the nutrient
chemistry and of the product and process. Cereal product characteristics
that must be considered include the desired nutrient claim (Raab and Luh,
1988), product formulation, pH, moisture content, processing tempera-
ture, storage temperature, storage time, and packaging.
The most commonly used technique for fortifying RTE rice and other
cereals is to add the minerals and the more stable vitamins such as niacin
and riboflavin to the basic formula mix and to spray the more labile
vitamins, such as vitamin A and thiamine, onto the product after pro-
cessing. Anderson et al. (1976) recommend that vitamins A, D, and C be
added to RTE cereals via a spray solution or suspension after processing.
Niacin, riboflavin, vitamin B, and vitamin E (as the acetate) can be added
to the mix before processing with satisfactory stability results. A blend of
the nutrients can be prepared in-house or purchased from a supplier. A
second approach is to spray a suspension of all the vitamins (obtained as
a premix) onto the cereal and take full advantage of simplicity in processing
and quality monitoring.
Spray system
Labile vitamins such as thiamine and ascorbic acid are added via the spray
method to avoid the deleterious effects of pH and temperature in the case
of the former and of oxygen and temperature in the case of the latter
(Johnson et al. 1988). The critical factors in designing the spray systems
are: (1) optimizing protection of vitamins A and D, which pose unique
stability problems, and (2) obtaining uniformity in spray coverage. Spray
coverage is an engineering problem that has been resolved through the use
of a rotating drum blending method. The hot cereal from the oven enters
a rotating drum that has stationary nozzles positioned at its entrance. By
proportioning the spraying rate with the volume of hot rice cereal entering
and leaving the drum, uniform coverage and accurate fortification levels
are achieved.
Protection Against Atmospheric Oxidation

Vitamins A and D cannot be added directly to the cereal mix because they
are both oxygen- and temperature-sensitive. Spraying, however, exposes
them to oxidative degradation. An effective antioxidant system involves
the use ofbutylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) or a blend ofBHT/BHA in the
presence of 15-25% sucrose as oxygen barrier in the vitamin spray solu-
tion. The readers may refer to the report by Johnson et al. (1988) on
the vitamin stability in cereals as affected by sugar in the vitamin spray
solution.
Amino Acid Fortification

Since rice is naturally deficient in lysine and threonine, many studies have
been carried out to determine the actions of these amino acids. Pecora
and Hundley (1951), followed by Harper and co-workers (1955), have
shown that a combination of lysine and threonine has a marked effect on
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Figure 3-1. Time course for the impregnation of rice kernels with lysine: Polished
rice, 100 g, was soaked in 1% acetic acid solution (200 ml) containing
L-lysine (A) (1.1 M) at 23oC (73.4°F); or (B) 2.1 Mat 23°C (73.4°F), (C)
37°C (98.6°F), and (D) 50°C (122°F). respectively. (From Mitsuda 1969.)
growth of weanling rats. Administration of either amino acid by itself does

not show this effect. Sure (1955) has reported that 0.4% L-lysine plus 0.3%
DL-threonine as a supplement to milled rice and processed milled rice
(Minute Rice) at 5% protein level increases the protein efficiency ratio
(PER) by 64% and 75%, respectively. Rosenberg and Culik (1957) found
that the total diet including lysine-to-threonine was optimal at 1.4, in
contrast to the 1.66 or 2.0 suggested earlier by Rose et al. (1949). The
supplementary value of the lysine-threonine combination is well known.
Although the protein quality of rice can be enhanced by supplementa-
tion with lysine, it is technically difficult to apply large amounts of this
amino acid to the kernels. As a consequence, no premix formula has yet
been commercialized.
Mitsuda reported in 1969 that the soaking method designed for the
production of vitamin-enriched rice can be modified to include lysine.
Kernels soaked in a 1% acetic acid solution containing lysine can be
enriched with up to 66 mg of the amino acid per gram of kernel. Figure
3-1 shows the time course for the impregnation of rice kernels with lysine.
Washing losses of the amino acid may be drastically minimized by em-
ploying the steaming process, as can be seen in Figure 3-2. Threonine,
another amino acid found in low quantities in rice, may be introduced
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INCUBATION PERIOD (MIN)
Figure 3-2. Prevention by steaming process of lysine loss in washing. The enriched
rice, 10 g, obtained by steaming for (A) zero, (B) 3, and (C) 10 min,
respectively, was rinsed with fresh water, 50 ml at room temperature.
(From Mitsuda 1969.)
along with lysine. The product obtained by the process diagrammed in

Figure 3-3 is wash-resistant, appears very similar to plain white rice, and
displays neither discoloration nor cracking.
In 1975, the Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama
reported the results of a study designed to determine the conditions re-
quired to maximize the threonine and lysine content of rice kernels by
infusion. The amino acid concentration in the infusion solution and the
temperature and time of infusion affected the amount of infused amino
Insoluble vitamin 81
Polished rice Lysine ( D8T or Cetyl ~81) a Starch
layer
DBT or
Cetyl-8 1
Lysine
Figure 3-3. Production of lysine- and vitamin B1-enriched rice by double-soaking

method. (From Mitsuda 1969.)
Table 3-7. Weight Gain, Feed Intake and Protein Efficiency Ratio of Rice
Fortified with Amino Acids in the Synthetic Form and from Infused
Rice Kernels
Average Weight Average Food
Treatment Gain, g Intake, g PER
Rice 45.0 ± 5.9c 302.0 ± 38.3 1.90 ± 0.10
Rice + lysine" 61.1 ± 7.9 307.0 ± 19.1 2.59 ± 0.26
Rice + L-lysineh 60.0 ± 5.8 309.0 ± 42.6 2.55 ± 0.20
Rice + L-threonine" 41.0 ± 7.4 277.0 ± 53.4 1.94 ± 0.13
Rice + L-threonineh 47.0 ± 12.0 264.0 ± 39.3 2.06 ± 0.36
Rice + L-lysine + L-threonine" 99.0 ± 13.5 375.0 ± 46.7 3.47 ± 0.26
Rice + L-lysine + L-threonineh 102.0 ± 9.1 379.0 ± 46.7 3.42 ± 0.32
Casein 92.0 ± 14.2 365.0 ± 39.8 2.93 ± 0.45
aFortification by addition of infused kernels. b Fortification by addition of synthetic amino
acids. c Standard deviation.
Source: Brenes eta!. (1975).
acid in the kernel. Initial moisture content below 18% caused the kernels
to crack after drying. The best infusion conditions for lysine are: a 10%
concentration, neutral pH of the solution, and four hours of infusion at a
temperature of 40°C (104°F), for kernels having initial moisture content of
18% or more.
L-threonine has the same optimum infusion conditions, with the ex-
ception of temperature of infusion, which is 18°C (64.4°F).
To determine biological availability of the infused amino acid in rice,
infused kernels were added to milled rice to provide 0.25% L-lysine and
0.10% L-threonine. Table 3-7 shows the effect of various diets on weight
gain, food intake, and PER. The results indicate that the infused amino
acids were totally available to animals. The results also serve to reempha-
size the fact that the first limiting amino acid in rice is lysine. Addition of
this amino acid to the diet caused a marked increase in the PER. This
increase was not seen when threonine alone was added. In combination,
the two amino acids improved the protein quality significantly.
FORTIFICATION STANDARDS
On February 27, 1958, the U.S. Standard Identity for Enriched Rice went
into effect. This order, issued by the FDA, prescribed the minimum and
maximum levels of thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron that should be
added to rice. Calcium and vitamin D levels were also given, although
these ingredients were optional.
The proposed addition of riboflavin met with heavy opposition. Ribo-
Table 3-8. Original (1958) and Revised (1972) Levels of

Nutrients in Enriched Rice
Nutrients Original Revised
Thiamin, mg/lb 2.0- 4.0 2.9
Riboflavin, mg/lba 1.2- 2.4 1.8
Niacin, mg/lb 16 -32 24
Iron, mg/lb 13 -26 40
Calcium, mg/lb 500 - 1,000 960
Vitamin D, USP units/lb 250 - 1,000
a The requirement for riboflavin is stayed until final action to dispose
of objections after final hearing thereon.
Source: Brooke (1972).
flavin gives a yellow tint to raw rice and, upon cooking, causes yellow
splotches to develop around the premix kernels. Millers and processors
feared that consumers would object to the colored rice. The requirement
for riboflavin was ''stayed'' until a public hearing can be held and continues
to be "stayed" to date.
A new Standard of Identity was issued in 1972. Table 3-8 compared
the updated values with those published in 1958. Vitamin D was dropped
from the list and riboflavin was retained.
In 1974, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of
Science proposed fortification of cereal products with eleven nutrients,
five of which are being included for the first time. Table 3-9 shows the
current nutrient levels and the proposed levels. The low values in the first
column are the currently used minima for baked goods; the high values
Table 3-9. Fortification Levels for Cereal

Products in mg/lb
Nutrients Presently Used" Proposedb
Thiamin 1.1- 5.0 2.9
Riboflavin 0.7- 2.4 1.8
Niacin 10 -34 24
Iron 8 -26 40
Calcium 500 -1500 900
Vitamin A 2.2 (7300 IU)
Pyridoxine 2
Folic acid 0.3
Magnesium 200
Zinc 10
a Range of minima to maxima listed in Code of Federal
Regulations (1973).
b National Academy of Science (1974).
Source: Cort eta!. (1976).
are the maxima for macaroni and rice. It should be noted that fortifying
rice with the proposed levels of calcium and magnesium is not possible
(Cort et al. 1976). To one pound of premix, 800 g of calcium phosphate
would have to be added so that, after a 1 : 200 dilution, the final product
would contain the appropriate levels of calcium. Even if all the powder
were to adhere to the kernels, they would be two to four times their usual
size.
South Carolina passed a law in 1956 that prohibits the sale of plain
white rice. Since then, other states, including Arizona and California, have
enacted similar laws stating that milled rice must be enriched to the nutrient
levels outlined in the Federal Standard of Identity.
Two types of enrichment are allowed under law. Packaged rice may
be treated with non-rinse-resistant ingredients provided it bears the label
"To retain vitamins, do not rinse before or drain after cooking." Rice
that contains premix kernels must not lose more than 15% of the added
nutrients.
REFERENCES
Anderson, R. H., Maxwell, D. L., Mully, A. E., and Fritsch, C. W. 1976. Effects
of processing and storage on micronutrients in breakfast cereals. Food Tech.
30(5): 110-114.
Bauernfeind, J. C., and Cort, W. M. 1974. Nutrification of food with added vitamin
A. Grit. Rev. Food Tech. 4:337-375.
Bramall, L. D. 1986. A novel process for the fortification of rice. Food Tech.
Austral. 38(7):281-284.
Brenes, R. G., Elias, L. G., Ruiloba, M. H., Bressani, R. 1975. Report from
Institute of Nutrition of Central America and Panama (IN CAP). In Rice Report
1975. S. Baker, H. Mitsuda and H. S. R. Desikachar (Eds.). International
Union of Food Science Technology Instituto de Agroquimicay Tecnologia de
Alimentos, Valencia, Spain.
Brooke, C. L. 1972. Rice enrichment. In Rice Chemistry and Technology. D. F.
Houston (Ed.). St. Paul, Minn: AACC.
Cort, W. M. et al. 1976. Nutrient stability of fortified cereal products. Food Tech.
30, 52-58.
Furter, M. F., and Lauter, W. M. 1946. Enrichment of rice with synthetic vitamins
and iron. Ind. Eng. Chern. 38:486-492.
Harper, A. E., Winje, M. E., Benton, D. A., and Elvehjem, C. A. 1955. Effect of
amino acid supplements on growth and fat deposition in the livers of rats fed
polished rice. J. Nutr. 56:187-198.
Houston, D. F., and Kohler, G. 0. 1970. Nutritional properties of rice. Nat/.
Acad. Sci. Washington, D.C.
Johnson, L., Gordon, H. T., and Borenstein, B. 1988. Vitamin and mineral fortifi-
cation of breakfast cereals. Cereal Foods World, 33(3):278-283.
Kik, M. C., and Williams, R. R. 1945. The nutritional improvement of white rice.
Natl. Acad. Sci. Nat!. Res. Council Bull. 112.
Lease, E. J., White, H., and Lease, J. G. 1962. Enrichment of rice with riboflavin.
Food Tech. 16:146-158.
Malakar, M. C., Baneijee, S. 1959. Effect of cooking rice with different volumes
of water on the loss of nutrients and digestibility of rice in vitro. Food Res.
24:751-756.
Mickus, R. R. 1955. Seals enriching additives on white rice. Food Eng. 27:91-93.
Mitsuda, H. 1962. Enrichment of rice by soaking method. In First International
Congress of Food Science and Technology. London.
Mitsuda, H. 1969. New approaches to amino acid and vitamin enrichment in Japan.
In Protein Enriched Cereal Foods for World Needs, edited by M. Milner
St. Paul, MN: AACC.
National Academy of Science. 1974. Proposed fortification policy for cereal grain
products. Publ. 2232. National Academy of Science, Washington, DC.
National Research Council. 1958. Cereal enrichment in perpective 1958. Commit-
tee on cereals. Food and Nutrition Board. Washington, DC.
Pecora, L. J., and Hundley, J. M. 1951. Nutritional improvement of white polished
rice by the adding of lysine and threonine. J. Nutr. 44:101-112.
Raab, C. A., and Luh, B. S. 1988. Nutrition labeling. In Commercial Vegetable
Processing, edited by B. S. Luh and J. G. Woodroof. An AVI Book. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, pp. 713-725.
Rose, N. C. et al. 1949. The utilization of the nitrogen of ammonium salts, urea,
and certain other compounds in the synthesis of nonessential amino acids in
vivo. J. Bioi. Chern. 181:307-316.
Rosenberg, H. R., and Culik, P. 1957. The improvement of the protein quality of
white rice by lysine supplementation. J. Nutr. 63:477-487.
Sure, B. 1955. Effect of amino acid and vitamin B12 supplements on the biological
value of protein in rice and wheat. J. Am. Dietet. Assoc. 31:1232-1234.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1958. Standard of identity for enriched rice.
In Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21. Part 15. Sec. 15.525. Washington,
DC: U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1981. Nutrition Labels and U.S. RDA, HHS
Publication (FDA) 81-2146.
4
Parboiled Rice
Bor S. luh
Robert R. Mickus
Rice Growers Association of California
INTRODUCTION
The rice caryopsis varies widely among cultivars in shape and size. The
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) classifies
milled rice by length into sizes of extra long, more,than 7 mm; long, 6.0-7.0
mm; medium or middling, 5.0-5.9 mm; and short, less than 5 mm (Chang
and Bardenas 1965). The caryopsis of the Indica group is usually long,
slender and rather flat. These varieties are used more often for parboiling
because the operations of steeping and heating are quicker and easier as
water and heat rapidly reach the center of the endosperm. Long-grain
rice is quite distinct from medium- and short-grain rice in cooking and
processing characteristics. Long-grain varieties usually cook dry and
flaky, with a minimum of splitting, and the cooked grains tend to remain
separate. Short- and medium-grain varieties, referred to as "soft-rice,"
are moister and firmer when cooked, and the grains tend to stick together.
The long-grain varieties are characterized by a comparatively high amylose
content and a medium-high gelatinizing temperature. Medium- and short-
grain varieties have lower amylose content and lower gelatinizing tempera-
ture than long-grain varieties. Long-grain rices are used for canned soups
51
and quick-cooking products. Medium- and short-grain varieties generally

are used for making dry breakfast cereals and baby foods, and as an
adjunct in brewing.
Parboiling is a hydrothermal process in which the crystalline form of
starch present in the paddy rice (the rice grain from the field) is changed
into an amorphous one as a result of the irreversible swelling and fusion
of starch. This is accomplished by soaking, steaming, drying, and milling
the rice. The parboiling process produces physical, chemical, and organo-
leptic modifications in the rice, with economic and nutritional advantages
(Gariboldi 1972, 1974, 1984; Luh and Mickus 1980; Kasasian 1982; Bhatta-
charya 1985; Pillaiyar 1988, 1990). The major objectives of parboiling are
to: (1) increase the total and head yield of the paddy, (2) prevent the loss
of nutrients during milling, (3) salvage wet or damaged paddy, and (4)
prepare the rice according to the requirements of consumers (Ali and Ojha
1976). The changes occurring in the parboiling process are as follows:
1. The water-soluble vitamins and mineral salts are spread throughout
the grain. The riboflavin and thiamin contents are four times higher in
parboiled rice than in milled rice. The thiamin is more evenly distributed
in the parboiled rice, and the niacin level in this rice is eight times greater
(Kennedy et al. 1975).
2. The moisture content is reduced to 10-11% for better storage.
3. The starch grains embedded in a proteinaceous matrix are gelati-
nized and expanded until they fill up the surrounding air spaces.
4. The protein substances are separated and sink into the compact
mass of gelatinized starch, becoming less liable to extraction. Dimopoulos
and Muller (1972) reported that the parboiling process alters the solubility
of rice protein in various solvents.
5. The enzymes present in the rice kernel are partially or entirely
inactivated. Shaheen et al. (1975) found a reduction in the free fatty acid
content of parboiled rice that has been stored for 10 months, presumably
resulting from the inactivation oflipase. Anthoni and Singaravadivel (1982)
found a decrease in free fatty acid in rice as a result of parboiling.
6. Proliferation of fungus spores and growth of eggs, larvae, or insects,
etc., are prevented.
7. The solids leached into the cooking water and the extent of solubili-
zation of the kernels on cooking are considerably reduced.
After rice is parboiled, the milling yield is higher (Filho 1986) because
there are fewer broken grains. The grain structure becomes compact,
translucent, and shiny. The milled parboiled rice keep longer and better
than in the raw state since germination is no longer possible. The grains
remain firmer during cooking and are less likely to become sticky. The
nutritional value of parboiled rice is greater because of the higher content
of vitamins and mineral salts that have spread into the endosperm. The
PARBOILED RICE 53
starchy endosperm of parboiled rice has a greater resistance to milling

and, therefore, the bran and germ are more effectively separated.
Several workers have studied the improvement in rice kernel charac-
teristics following parboiling. Rao and Juliano (1970) offer retrogradation
as an explanation for the effect of parboiling on iodine staining, amylograph
characteristics, resistance to breakdown during cooking, and reduced solu-
bility of the starch. Studies of amylose solubility and hydration characteris-
tics of parboiled rice have led Ali and Bhattacharya (1980a, b) to a similar
conclusion.
Priestley (1976a, b) has suggested that the resistance of parboiled rice
paste to swelling and solubilization may be attributed to the presence of
associative bonding in the starch. To test whether this bonding is a result
of retrogradation or the formation of an insoluble amylose complex, he
studied the X-ray diffraction pattern of cereal starch with peaks at 3.84 A
(Angstrom) and 5.85 A. Following parboiling, the A-type pattern is re-
placed by a V-type pattern with diffraction lines at 6.80 A and 4.42 A.
These peaks confirm the presence of a helical amylose complex. There
was no evidence of a B-type pattern characteristic of retrograded starch
that would be expected to give peaks at 15.8 A and 5.2A.
The changes parboiling brings about in the rice are closely related
to the techniques used. Lack of experience may nullify the advantages
described, even reducing the food value of the cereal originally possessed.
If the paddy is allowed to ferment during or after steeping, the sensory
quality of the rice will be unacceptable for consumption. There are prob-
lems hindering the more extensive consumption of parboiled rice. Better
technical knowledge in processing, packaging, and storage is needed to
improve the quality of parboiled rice. Ohta et al. (1985) reported on the
advantages of parboiling on the stability of the grain during storage.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PADDY RICE FOR PARBOILING
The rice varieties used for parboiling are those that are more brittle because
of the soft structure of their endosperm. Long-grain paddy rice that gives
a low output on milling is preferred for parboiling. The long and slender
rice varieties are usually parboiled because they are fragile compared with
the short or medium-length grains. Varieties that have good milling quality
are generally not parboiled (Ali and Ojha 1976).
Some characteristics of paddy rice that affect the yield and quality of
parboiled rice are:
1. Partially or fully shelled grains may be present.
2. The awn and hairiness of the husk may make the soaking operation
difficult because of the tendency of the grains to float on the surface of the
water.
3. The pigments of the husk and pericarp may be dissolved during the
soaking and steaming operations, causing discoloration of the endosperm.
4. Microbial infestation may cause a partial or total darkening of the
endosperm.
5. Some injuries on the seed caused by mechanical impact or by insects
may lead to partial discoloration of the parboiled rice.
Bhattacharya (1985) and Pillaiyar (1990) reviewed the literature on
rice parboiling, including conventional home-style and modern processes.
Biswas and Juliano (1988) studied properties of parboiled rice from varie-
ties differing in starch properties. Differences in rate of water absorption
during steeping and steaming of rough rice stemming from differences in
starch gelatinization temperature (GT) may be minimized by soaking for
8 hr at 60°C and steaming for 10 min at 1.0 kg/cm2 steam pressure (120°C)
or 30 min at 1oooc. The water content of parboiled rice was higher for low-
GT rice than for intermediate-GT rices steamed at toooc only.
Shelled Grains
The grains that are not protected by hulls absorb more water and heat,
and this may alter their shape. They stand out in the milled product because
of their darker color resulting from the greater quantity of heat absorbed.
The grains that are not shelled, but with the hulls loosened or partly pulled
off during threshing, are likely to deteriorate in shape and color.
Mold Infestations
Mold infestation leaves spots on the paddy, shelled, and milled rice. The
grains become colored or stained. It may affect the outer surface of the
hull, with spots visible on the paddy, or the outer layers of the caryopsis,
with spots visible on the shelled rice. In severe cases, the mold may reach
the starchy part of the endosperm.
The paddy must be shelled in order to see whether the surface of the
caryopsis is stained or discolored. Polishing the grain will also reveal the
presence of any caryopses with yellow or amber endosperms formed by
enzymic amylolysis and lipasic action of the enzymes in the fungi on the
grain. Parboiling can further accentuate the color change in the grains to
form a dark or reddish shade.
Injuries Caused by Insects or Threshing

Infestation by insects, as well as threshing, may injure the caryopsis. The
caryopsis will appear pitted, and stains will be seen after shelling or milling.
The injury will lead to darkening of the grains during steaming.
PARBOILED RICE 55
Chalky, Green, and Red Grains

Chalky or green grains are caused by imperfect ripening for morphological
reasons or by certain growth conditions. The chalky kernels present in a
glassy- or waxy-textured variety of paddy assume importance in relation
to parboiling operations. In order to gelatinize them completely, steeping
and steaming conditions must be altered. Chalky or green grains are gener-
ally not immune to attacks by fungi, which can cause partial or complete
darkening of the milled rice grains. Green or red grains turn dark in
response to the parboiling process. Mter parboiling, those with a red
pericarp and white endosperm show a deep or dark red pericarp with
an endosperm that is slightly darker than normal. Thorough polishing is
necessary to remove the colored pericarp completely.
Mechanical grading will remove the chalky or green grains and some-
times part of the red ones. When stored for some time, the unripe grains
shrink considerably so that they can be easily sorted out by mechanical
sizing according to thickness.
To make a qualitative examination of the paddy and the parboiled rice,
a shelling and polishing machine must be available, together with sorting
trays. The operations are as follows:
1. The raw paddy is visually e~amined to ascertain the amount of awn

and empty glumes present, as well as the color and hairiness of the
hulls. Notice should be taken of any spots that may denote fungal
infections or damage. The percentage of shelled grains (whole or
broken) and of partly cracked hulls can be determined by hand sorting.
2. After shelling part or all of the paddy, the shelled sample is exam-
ined to see whether fungi or lesions have damaged the caryopsis or
the germ. If this has happened, the affected grains will be discolored
after parboiling. When these grains have been picked out by hand
or electronic sorting, the quantity by weight of shelled caryopses
showing the characteristic colored spots can be determined.
3. Another unshelled sample is polished to see the texture of the
caryopsis and to find discolored and chalky grains. Any defects in
regard to texture and color due to fungal attack and deep-seated
injuries are recorded.
4. The yield of milling, including total yield and percentage of broken
grains, must be ascertained. This is important in calculations of the
cost of the process.
CLEANING
The impurities present in paddy rice are varied; weeds, animals used for
threshing, and natural drying all account for the extraneous materials
found in the paddy. Impurities and seeds other than rice are usually
removed during milling. Some are removed before shelling, and others
after polishing along with the broken and damaged grains.
To ensure high grading, several machines are needed, with each one
operating on a different principle.
Mechanical cleaning may be completed by washing and floating the
paddy in water before it is put into the steeping tanks. This operation,
called water flotation, is used to remove stones and sand. Straw and
defective grains (chalky, empty, unripe, etc.) are light enough to float
away in the process.
The equipment used for cleaning is similar to that employed in flour
mills for separating stones from wheat and for dampening the wheat before
grinding it. If paddy grains (kernels) have long awns, separation by water
flotation may be impractical because even ripe grains will float on the
surface of the water, together with the lighter impurities.
In some modern processes, separation by water flotation is preceded
by mixing the rice with water and whirling it to free the surface of the
paddy grain from air bubbles.
GRADING
The thickness of the grain is very important to the parboiling process,

as the necessary period of steeping and steaming increases with grain
thickness. If the grains are of different thickness, gelatinization of the
starch will be uneven. If steeping and steaming times are prolonged and
temperatures raised so as to gelatinize the thicker grains completely, the
thinner ones will be gelatinized to a greater degree. The thinner grains will
be darker, more compact, and harder. The resulting product will look
uneven in color.
Sorting on the basis of kernel thickness is essential for good-quality
parboiled rice. This is done by means of grading reels fitted with a steel
sheet with rectangular slots or with wire netting. Further grading may
complete the selection according to the length and bulk weight of the grain
to obtain a final product of improved and uniform quality. Sorting by bulk
weight, if necessary, is done by specific-gravity separators.
The paddy is divided into lots. Each lot with grains of similar size
is parboiled separately, with different steeping and steaming times and
temperatures. Drying and milling will thus be facilitated, and there will be
fewer broken grains. The thinner grains obtained from sorting are usually
those that are unripe or naturally misshapen. Sometimes, it may be best
to use these thinner grains for the production of low-quality raw rice
rather than to parboil them. If one lot is formed of mixed varieties, sorting
PARBOILED RICE 57
is essential to separate them according to length, thickness, and bulk

weight.
Sorting according to thickness also separates part of the shelled grains
present in the mass of the paddy. It is, however, preferable to do this in
"compartment separators," which are used to separate the shelled grains
from the unshelled. The compartment separator utilizes the difference
in the bulk weight between shelled and unshelled grains. To obtain the
best results, it is advisable to feed the separator with lots of paddy that
have been previously graded. The paddy should first be sorted and then
passed in separate lots through the compartment separator. The specific-
gravity separator, which occupies less space than the compartment sepa-
rator but uses more electricity, can also be used for separating the
shelled grains.
Extraction of shelled grains with the compartment separator also
means sorting out stones. Because of their bulk weight, stones are ex-
tracted together with shelled grains. Thus, a high percentage of stones that
must be removed on a densimetric table are removed here.
STEEPING
Different varieties of paddy rice have their own steeping characteristics.

An efficient steeping process in medium-temperature water (65°C) should
be used for the production of parboiled rice. The treatment must be done
quickly to avoid fermentation, which would adversely affect the color,
taste, and smell of the product. For effective and uniform results, the grain
size must be uniform, and the caryopsis must be entirely covered by the
hulls. If the caryopsis is exposed, the shape and color of the parboiled rice
will be unsatisfactory.
The methods used to achieve steeping include: (1) the use of high- and
medium-temperature water; (2) application of vacuum and/or hydrostatic
pressure; and (3) the addition of wetting agents to the steeping water.
These systems have been used either alone or in conjunction with one
another to increase water penetration and to reduce steeping time. Steep-
ing is needed to provide the starch with a sufficient amount of water for
gelatinization. A moisture content of not less than 30% is required to
fully gelatinize the starch in the caryopsis. Water absorption by the grain
involves spreading the water-soluble substances evenly. Steeping also
facilitates the transmission of heat from the surface of the hull to the
middle of the endosperm.
In the United States, parboiling of rice has been fully mechanized.
The facilities include 6-8 steeping vessels with built-in steam coils, hot-
water tank, boiler, rotary-drum driers with steam-heat exchangers or husk-
If'
70
/3(]
60
:1
9(]
.~ 50
c:- I
~
§ 40
I I 75° /
70°
/ /._... .··/ /65°

--
u 6(J
~
30
I 1-o::~.- so·
.3 .,./ -;::::.-- :-· 'RT
~
Vl
~ l.--
0
:2: 20 I'_.... ~~~ .........
10
2 4 6 8 10 12 25 75
'
/
Time of soaking, hours

Figure 4-1. Water absorption by paddy rice in relation to temperature of steeping
water (RT = room temperature). (From Bhattacharya et al. 1966.)
fired furnaces for drying paddy, mechanical handling equipment, rotary-

hot-air drier, bin driers, milling equipment, and packaging machinery. The
steeping vessels are fed with hot water at 80-85°C, and the raw paddy is
transferred into them from an overhead surge bin. The water is circulated
for 15 min and then maintained at 65°C for 4-5 hr, after which it is drained
off. Steam is let into the built-in steam coils, and the paddy is steamed for
10-20 min and then moved to the driers through belt conveyors.
If steeping is prolonged, enzymatic action in the paddy is activated.
Fermentation of the grain results in removal of the adhering organic impu-
rities.
The use of very hot water for steeping has been advocated as a means
of reducing processing times. Within certain limits, the quantity of liquid
absorbed in the time unit is in proportion to the temperature of the water.
The use of water at a temperature slightly below that of starch gelatiniza-
tion (typical for each variety, ranging from 60-70°C), increases the speed
of water absorption. If the water temperature exceeds that of starch gelati-
nization, the absorption time is reduced, but more water is absorbed than
is necessary for moistening the inner part of the kernel.
In Fig. 4-1, water absorption by paddy rice at different temperatures
is presented. A moisture content of about 30% appears to be the very
PARBOILED RICE 59
lowest for water to reach the core. This can be achieved without increasing
the quantity of water absorbed with temperatures below 50°C and steeping
times varying from 12-60 hr. If more water than necessary is absorbed,
the caryopsis swells considerably, cracking open the hull and becom-
ing exposed. Cracking of the hull is a serious drawback since many
of the substances contained in the grains will diffuse into the steeping
water.
Although hot water accelerates absorption, the milled product is more
likely to be discolored by it. The discoloration of the parboiled milled rice
increases with the duration of steeping and the temperature of the water,
subsequent steaming being the same in both cases. The color becomes
much deeper once the limit of 70°C is exceeded. It was shown that the
maximum discoloration at 70°C appears about 5 hr after the paddy has
been in water.
The time and temperature of steeping are related to the darkness of
the parboiled milled rice. When the amylase in the rice is activated, sugars
such as maltose and glucose are formed (Ali and Bhattacharya, 1980a).
Research has shown that 60°C is the ideal temperature for amylase activity
(Refai et al. 1967).
The color of the parboiled rice varies with the pH of the steeping
water. If the pH is close to 5, coloring is at a minimum. The color deepens
as the pH rises.
The smell and flavor of parboiled rice has been shown to be related to
the condition of the steeping process. Steeping time and water temperature
affect solubilization of the albuminoids contained in the outer layers of
the caryopsis. By hydrolysis, the albuminoids are split up into amino
acids.
Heating the sulfur-containing amino acids splits them to form hydro-
gen sulfide and organic sulfides of low molecular weights. These com-
pounds combine with the alcohols produced by decomposition of the lignin
in the paddy hull, producing odorous products such as thioalcohols and
thioethers, which give some characteristic odor and flavor to the parboiled
rice. If steeping at 65°C is beyond 8 hr, the steep water develops an off-
odor that is passed on to the paddy and the finished parboiled rice. An
association of this off-odor with rice parboiled by traditional methods is
one of the factors that deters wide acceptance of parboiled rice by consum-
ers (Pillaiyar 1990). Odor development is due mostly to the activities of
bacteria present in the steep water.
Occasionally, both vacuum and hydrostatic pressure methods are used
to reduce steeping time, keeping the temperature of the water within limits
that do not adversely affect the quality of the final product. By removing
interstitial air and by applying hydrostatic pressure to the steeping water,
the steeping time can be reduced.
STEAMING
The purpose of steaming is to increase the milling yield and to improve

storage characteristics and eating quality. Steaming improves the firmness
after cooking and achieves better vitamin retention in the milled rice.
These advantages are offset, however, by practical and economic disad-
vantages, which sometimes make it necessary to reach a compromise
between the two tendencies. For example, whereas complete starch gelati-
nization results in a high milling yield, the color of the final product will
be deeper.
Heating the steeped paddy with steam causes the following changes
in the paddy:
1. The moisture content of the paddy rice increases because of the

extra water formed by condensation.
2. Water-soluble substances spread inside the paddy grain.
3. The granular texture of the endosperm becomes pasty as a result of
gelatinization of starch.
4. The cracks in the caryopsis become sealed and the texture of the
endosperm becomes more compact.
5. The single parts making up the pericarp and the perisperm, the
aleuronic cells of the endosperm, and part of the germ (scutellum) become
partially softened and embedded in the amylaceous endosperm of the
caryopsis.
6. Germination, fungus spores, insects with their eggs and larvae, and
enzymes are annihilated or inactivated.
The fusion of the outer peri sperm layers and the scutellum of the germ
with the endosperm makes these parts difficult to remove during milling
if it is desired to obtain a highly milled product that keeps well without
becoming rancid during storage. Steam heating must, therefore, be applied
uniformly to have an even exposure of the rice. The heating time and
temperature must be controlled precisely in relation to the paddy variety
being processed. In some plants, the steeped paddy is steamed under
atmospheric pressure for 10 min or longer and then moved to a rotary drier
through belt conveyors.
Steam heating may be done at atmospheric pressure by injecting steam
onto the product contained in an open vessel or in an autoclave at a
pressure higher than atmospheric. Continuous steam injection devices can
be used.
When steam is injected on the rice in an open vessel, the excess water
from steam condensation is easily taken off. When heating is done under
PARBOILED RICE 61
pressure, the temperature can be varied easily, and heat distribution is

more uniform. The equipment, however, is more expensive. There are
more expenditures for mechanical installations to remove excess conden-
sate and for loading and unloading the rice.
In order to gelatinize the starch, the paddy must absorb sufficient
quantities of water and must reach the minimum gelatinizing temperature.
Steam temperature at atmospheric pressure is always higher than that
needed for gelatinization. To make sure that all starch in the rice grain is
gelatinized, sufficient moisture and heat must be applied.
If the starch in the endosperm is not fully gelatinized, there will be
white cores present in the parboiled product. The time exposed to steam
must therefore be long enough to gelatinize the whole kernel completely.
The quantity of water to be absorbed, the time of exposure to steam,
and the temperature or pressure of the steam itself provide the parameters
that will decide the quality of the parboiled rice.
Through a variation of these factors, parboiled rice possessing particu-
lar characteristics and degrees of gelatinization can be obtained. "Fully
parboiled rice" means that the starch has been gelatinized right through
the middle of the grain and "partially" or "surface parboiled rice" means
that gelatinization is only surface-deep, and the product has typical white
cores. ''Light parboiled rice'' is obtained by steaming for a minimum time
and at the lowest temperature needed. "Dark parboiled rice" is steamed
for a long time at a high temperature.
Within defined limits of temperatures and pressure of the steam used,
the milled parboiled rice shows differences in: (1) color, (2) volume after
exposure to air heated to 121°C, and (3) soluble-starch content.
A graph showing the increase in volume (as an ascertainable ratio) of
milled parboiled rice made at different steam temperatures is presented in
Fig. 4-2. An increase in expanded volume is observed when the steam
temperature during parboiling is increased from 100 to l20°C. The soluble-
starch content of milled parboiled rice after steaming at temperatures
of 65-135°C was studied by Roberts et al. (1954). It increased rapidly
from 4 mg/g at 65°C to 15 mg/g at 121°C and to 28 mg/g at 135°C. This in-
dicates that some solubilization of starch occurs at higher steaming tem-
peratures.
The relationship between the color of milled parboiled rice and steam-
ing parameters has been given by Bhattacharya et al. (1966). Color changes
are caused by chemical and physical transformations induced by heat. The
absorbed water can dissolve the coloring pigments in the hulls, and the
parboiling process drives them inward to the endosperm. Through the
parboiling process, the starch assumes a different refraction to light, which
alters the appearance and color of the product. During steeping, activation
of various enzyme actions leads to the formation of reducing sugars, which
65° 93° 121" 149° c

Steaming tempE'rature
Figure 4-2. Increase in volume of milled parboiled rice steamed at various tem-
peratures and after exposure to a stream of air heated to 121°C
(249.8°F). (From Roberts et al. 1954.)
are responsible for maillard-type browning reactions with amino acids and
protein when heat is applied during drying. Activation of the enzyme
during steeping was shown to occur at about 60°C.
DRYING
Objectives and Methods

The objectives of drying parboiled rice are to reduce the moisture content
to an optimum level for milling and subsequent storage and to obtain the
maximum milling yield.
The conditions required for drying parboiled rice differ considerably
from the processes normally used on threshed paddy direct from the field
because the moisture content of parboiled paddy is higher than that of
harvested paddy. The grain texture is also different because the starch has
been gelatinized to form a compact grain. At the beginning of the drying
process, the temperature of the parboiled paddy approaches 100°C,
whereas that of the threshed paddy is at ambient temperature. In many
cases, the hulls of parboiled paddy are cracked open to some extent. Thus,
PARBOILED RICE 63
the drying of parboiled rice requires a different process. Threshed rice

must be dried slowly at air temperatures slightly above that of the environ-
ment. Milling yield is not affected by drying temperatures when the mois-
ture content is reduced to 16-18%. More attention is given to the tempera-
ture used in reducing the moisture content to 14% or lower, which is
considered optimum for storage.
To prevent cracking, the drying process is stopped for a while when
the moisture content reaches 16% and then drying is resumed using the
appropriate temperature and drying time. This interval is called "condi-
tioning,'' which varies somewhat with the variety of rice and the severity
of the process. The optimum temperature and time needed for final drying
are related to the temperature of the paddy after conditioning. Generally,
slow and prolonged drying is essential in the final stage to ensure a maxi-
mum yield of whole grains. The cracks which develop during the final
stage are due to increased brittleness of the caryopsis when the moisture
content falls below 16%. Below this moisture level, a hardening stage sets
in whicn may lead to cracking or else set up tensions causing the grain to
break during milling.
The percentage of rice kernel breakage is related to the moisture
content and the condition period between the first and second drying
stages. After steeping and steaming, the sample was dried to the critical
moisture content of 16%. A part of it was then given a further drying while
the rest was put aside and the second stage begun after periods varying
from 2-48 hr. The percentage of broken grains after milling decreased with
the increase of tempering time and with a reduction in moisture content.
Drying in the shade with the rice spread out on roofed over floors would
yield excellent results, but the long time and large space requirements have
made this system rather unpopular. In some parts of Asia before the rice is
spread to dry naturally, while still hot from the steaming process, it is heaped
up and left for several hours. In this way the gelatinizing action is prolonged,
making the milled product harder and darker in color.
DRIERS
Various types of vertical-column driers and horizontal, continuous-flow,

rotating-cylindrical hot-air driers have been developed in modern plants
(Gariboldi 1974). The vertical-cylindrical driers are preferred where low-
temperature drying air is used and the rice is exposed to the drying air for
a long time. Horizontal-rotating, continuous-flow, cylindrical driers are
normally used when rapid drying at high temperatures is required (Fig.
4-3).
In rotary-cylindrical driers, hot air is used, and heat is also applied to
Figure 4-3. A modern rotary drier for parboiled paddy rice. (Courtesy of B. S. Luh
1986.)
the cereal by fitting an external steam jacket to the drier and a tube nest
inside it. High-temperature drying (80-100°C) with a horizontal-cylindrical
drier is used for reducing the moisture content to 16-18%. It is followed
by further drying at lower temperatures in a conventional column drier.
The vacuum drier offers savings in fuel and removal of unpleasant
smelling substances formed when the rice is steeped and steamed. Vacuum
drying is usually done inside the container in which the rice was steamed.
In the hot-air drier, the drying time is determined by the temperature
and the amount of air. In the vacuum type, the determining factors are
the temperature, the surface-heating area of the rice in contact, and the
attainable vacuum. For more detailed information, the papers by Bhatta-
charya (1985), Kunze and Calderwood (1985), Pillaiyar (1988), as well as
Chap. 9 of Rice Vol I: Production (Luh 1991), will be helpful to the readers.
TEMPERING
After drying, the parboiled paddy must be allowed to rest for a time before
milling. This time interval is called the tempering period. A tempering
period of about 48 hr is needed for the product to dissipate the heat it
PARBOILED RICE 65
received during drying. Also, the moisture content inside each grain must
become uniform throughout.
Tempering must be done to ensure dissipation of heat without speeding
up the cooling by artificial means. If the rice is arranged in small heaps or
spread out in a closed but well-ventilated storage space, 20-30 em thick,
it will consolidate perfectly. When placed in tall, narrow silos with natural
ventilation or mechanically stirred several times, the highest milling yield
will be obtained. Milling is done only when the rice has become stabilized
at an ambient level and the grains have hardened and become glassy in
texture. During tempering or cooling the rice may lose some moisture
owing to evaporation caused by the residual heat. The amount of moisture
lost is proportional to the temperature of the rice when it leaves the drier.
If the rice is to be stored for a long time before milling, it must not be left
in large stacks or stored in large silos until tempering has been completed
since the cereal might be damaged by the heat in the stack.
Parboiling can reduce or raise the moisture content of raw paddy to
levels that are most appropriate for milling and storage. The moisture
content of parboiled milled rice may be brought up to 12-14%, even if that
of the raw paddy used for the process is below these percentages.
MILLING
Parboiled rice, when properly prepared and milled, gives the maximum
yield of edible rice with a minimum amount of broken grains. Parboiling
gives hardness and seals any cracks in the caryopsis. Any breakages are
caused only by mechanical action of the milling machines. Good results
from the treatment depend to a great extent on the drying process.
Before it is parboiled, the paddy must be properly cleaned and graded
according to thickness, length, and weight. Milling will be easier, and the
chance of breakage in the machines is minimized, if the machine is cor-
rectly adjusted.
The part of the germ known as scutellum contains oil and protein. It
is partly combined with the caryopsis so that the embryo is held in place
and is usually not detached during shelling.
It is necessary to pass the product through a cone-type whitening
machine abrasive or a horizontal cylinder covered with abrasive material
in order to remove the pericarp, the perisperm, and the layer of aleuronic
cells. Polishing is done in a fraction machine.
In many cases, parboiled rice is undermilled and still carries most of
the aleuronic cells and traces of the peri sperm, as well as the germ at one
end.
When raw milled rice is compared with another lot of an identical
Vibrator troy
Chute
Fluorescent
lomp-pock
Photodetector
""[} I
•
0
{ ] - Photodetector
'""" ~-~;~'~·~.=:1
Accept commod1ty
~~-··
outlet
0 •
0 •
Reject commodity
~~------~------
outlet
Figure 4-4. Sorting device of a solid-state electronic rice sorter. (From Garibaldi
1974.)
variety that has gone through parboiling, the respective milling degrees
must first be defined in terms of the quantity of bran removed during
whitening. Milling parboiled paddy becomes a difficult operation not only
because the process has hardened and merged the outer layers with the
endosperm but also because the fatty substances, especially those con-
tained in the germ, have been dissolved and distributed throughout the
caryopsis. These substances make the grains slippery during the process
of mechanical erosion and tend to cause the bran to cake. To avoid this,
the whitening machines must be thoroughly air-cooled by means of a
PARBOILED RICE 67
central aspiration system. Between one whitening operation and the next,
the rice is allowed to stand for some time in feeding bins. When parboiled
rice is pearled, the cones are usually made to turn at 10% higher rpm than
for raw paddy. At least four whitening machines are used to get parboiled
rice completely polished.
When the paddy is put directly into the huller without prior shelling,
the hull, which came off the caryopsis during the first stage, acts as an
abrasive and, at the same time, absorbs some of the fatty substances, thus
facilitating polishing.
The bran and polish are darker in color and contain more fatty sub-
stances compared to those obtained after milling raw paddy rice as a result
of the spread of the fats in the germ toward the perispermic layers and the
aleuronic cells. The bran from parboiled rice has prolonged resistance to
the formation of free fatty acids. This makes it better and easier to use for
the extraction of edible oil. The bran obtained from raw paddy has a fat
content of 12-14%, and the bran from parboiled rice may contain 16-22%.
The bran obtained from processing raw paddy may show an increase in
fatty acids of about 1%/hr during the first 12 hr after milling. In modern
milling plants, the bran from milled rice is immediately passed through an
extruder under 2.8-7 .0-kg/cm pressure at 138°C for 5-15 sec to inactivate
the lipase activity, thus preventing the formation of free fatty acid due to
enzymic hydrolysis of the rice oil present in the rice bran. The bran so
treated is more stable during storage. The lipase was inactivated by heat
energy formed during extrusion of the rice bran.
In bran from parboiled rice, there is hardly any increase of free fatty
acids during the first 15-20 days following milling. The latter can therefore
be easily collected, transported, and stored for subsequent extraction of
its oil content. The action of heat during the parboiling process has a
stabilizing effect and inhibits lipasic action, which causes the fats to hy-
drolyze.
Color Sorting
The parboiled rice must be sorted to remove discolored grains. A flat
conveyor belt about 0.9 m wide is used. The speed of the belt is adjustable
as desired by the operator. The rice is spread on the belt in a thin layer
and inspected as it moves along by sorters who pick out the discolored
grains by suction, using a plastic or rubber tube connected to a centrifugal
air pump. The grains thus sucked up are deposited inside a cyclone separa-
tor through which the flow of air passes before reaching the pump. The
cost of sorting depends largely on the percentage of discolored grains
present.
Automatic machines based on photoelectric devices have been used
to sort the rice by color. The existence of such machines enables rapid
sorting of parboiled rice.
The automatic sorting machines have the following advantages over the
manual sorting belts: (1) the speed is faster and the rice passes through the
machine at the same speed, irrespective of its content of discolored grains,
and (2) sorting is more efficient as the grains are checked from all angles.
The photoelectrical cell consists of a metal plate covered by a layer
of oxidized selenium. Its electrical conductivity varies according to the
amount oflight striking its surface. The principles on which these machines
work are essentially as follows. The grains of rice are fed into a uniformly
lit chamber so that they can be scanned simultaneously on two sides by
two photocells. The light reflected by the grain passes through a filter and,
by means of a system of lenses, its intensity is metered by the photocell.
The color is electronically compared by reference to a standard back-
ground. Sorting is based on the ability of the photocells to determine if the
light of a certain hue reflected from a given object is more or less than
that reflected from the background selected. Any minute change in light
intensity reaching the photocells causes an electrical change within them.
This change, which is due to the photoelectric effect, causes an output
voltage to swing above or below the constant background signal level.
Whenever the output signal level for the grain being viewed is equal to or
above the background standard signal level, the grain is acceptable. An
ejection circuit is activated whenever the output signal level for the grain
in view swings below the background level.
In modern sorting machines, the rice presented for scanning is made
to slide in line down a straight slope from which it reaches the scanning
area at a previously calculated speed and curve (Fig. 4-4). The scanning
unit, the photodetectors, and the impulse amplifier are the essential com-
ponents of the machine. Transistors have completely replaced electron
tubes, and plug-in circuit boards are now commonly used. Many improve-
ments have been made in extracting the discolored grains so that the
selection between rejected and acceptable grains has become quicker and
more accurate.
Newer machines use a stream of pressurized air that knocks the grain
aside from its path. Improvements made on these machines have brought
about a continuous rise in sorting speeds and output. Running costs of
both power consumption and maintenance are low.
STABILITY OF MILLED RICE
Parboiled paddy can be shelled where it is produced, and then stored and
carried to other destinations, where it is whitened and consumed.
Mter milling, the smell and flavor of the rice may undergo changes if
PARBOILED RICE 69
the fatty substances in it become rancid. The reason why parboiled rice
turns rancid is that the antioxidants, especially the tocopherols (vitamin
E), are inactivated by the hydrothermic treatment. This is especially true
when it is packaged in paper, cardboard, or transparent materials. Antioxi-
dants such as BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and BHT (butylated hy-
droxytoluene) may be used to prevent deterioration in smell and flavor
after milling.
A factor of great importance to the keeping quality of rice is the
moisture content. The moisture content of parboiled rice both before and
after milling is not easy to determine as the texture of the grain differs
considerably from that of raw rice. Most moisture-measuring instruments
used for raw grains do not give a correct indication of the moisture content
of parboiled rice. To avoid any possibility of error, the classic method of
drying the rice in an oven for a few hours has proved to be the most
reliable.
When the solvent-extraction milling method is used, the rice keeps
much better than that given ordinary mechanical milling. The organic
solvents dissolve most of the fatty substances contained in the endosperm,
thus reducing the rancidity problem.
THE PARBOILING PROCESSES
Water or steam is required to gelatinize the starch in the rice grain during
parboiling. The water used in washing, floating and steeping must be of
potable quality. The amount of water needed for washing and floating the
paddy varies from two to three times the weight of the cleaned paddy.
Some of the washing water may be regenerated.
About 600 kg of water are needed to steep 1000 kg of rice paddy.
During steeping, 20% of the water is absorbed by the paddy. The steeping
water left behind contains the impurities in suspension and is either thrown
away or regenerated for further use.
The amount of steam needed to heat 1 metric ton of paddy varies with
the degree to which the starch in the caryopsis must be gelatinized and
with the method of heating. In a modern plant, about 80 kg of steam are
required for heating 1000 kg of paddy. If steaming is done in open contain-
ers by injection at ambient pressure, the quantity used will be considerably
larger.
The quantity of steam needed to parboil paddy rice is a mere fraction
of that required for the whole process because steam is also needed for
heating the steeping water and the air where the paddy is artificially dried.
The steam required to produce parboiled rice in modern plants is supplied
by high-pressure boilers sent to the various points at which steam is needed
at a low pressure. In some plants, steam is produced at high pressure for
power in turbines or engines before it enters the heating system of the

parboiling plant at a low pressure.
The parboiling process includes cleaning and grading the paddy, par-
boiling, steam production, drying, milling, color sorting, and packaging.
Between stages, bins are used for storing the products or by-products so
that the various operations are kept flexible.
There have been developments in industrial production of parboiled
rice. Numerous technological improvements have been accomplished to
increase the yield, improve the quality of edible rice, and save labor costs.
The plants may operate under continuous or batch processes. Some
use a long steeping and steaming cycle with low temperatures, and others
use short cycles with high temperatures and pressures.
The technique to be used depends on the variety and quality of the
paddy to be treated and the quality of the final product desired. The various
operations may be automated to reduce running costs.
When a parboiling plant is built, the continuous production system is
preferable if the paddy consists of only a few varieties grown on a large
scale. A batch production system is more suitable where the paddy is of
many different varieties and characteristics. The steeped rice should be
moved from the soaking tanks to the steaming autoclave and from there
to the driers by gravity.
Steeping the paddy in water at certain temperatures, with or without
the vacuum or pressure, is an essential step. The steeping water must be
kept at an even temperature, and the whole lot must be steeped for the
same length of time. The same principle applies to the steaming process.
It is important that saturated steam be used to avoid too high a tempera-
ture. Care must be taken to prevent the rice from absorbing impure conden-
sate, which would adversely affect the flavor and color of the product.
Different techniques may be used to provide the best possible milling
yield and a moisture level that will ensure good steeping qualities. The use
of driers constructed for drying threshed paddy should be avoided unless
their design and materials have been suitably altered.
A highly mechanized plant with automated processes may be suitable
in a country where labor costs are high but unsuitable for countries where
labor costs are cheap and maintenance facilities for sophisticated equip-
ment are not available.
EXAMPLES OF PARBOILING SYSTEMS
Schule Process
The Schule process (Fig. 4-5) was originated by a German rice-machinery
manufacturer. In this system, steam is not applied directly to the paddy
but is used to heat the water. The paddy is put into a pressure tank and is
PARBOILED RICE 71
Figure 4-5. The Schule process: (A) Raw paddy, (B) Processed paddy: (1) Feeding
bin, (2) parboiling pressure tanks, (3) preheated water circulation
pump, (4) water heater, (5) steam boiler utilizing husk as fuel, (6) air
compressor, (7) wet parboiled rice-receiving hopper, (8) vibratory
conveyor, (9) predrier, (10) drying air heater and blower, (11) column
drier, (12) tempering bins, (13) column drier. (From Gariboldl1974; FAO;
Luh and Mickus 1980.)
first soaked for about 120-160 min in water at medium temperature while
the water is kept in circulation. When the rice has reached the temperature
of the soaking water, the water supply is turned off, and hydrostatic
pressure (4-6 kg/cm2) is applied by admitting compressed air. The second
cooking period starts by lowering pressure and readmitting the water,
which has been heated to a very high temperature to ensure that the starch
gelatinizes completely. The water is then drained away, and the paddy,
with a moisture content of about 40%, is carried by a vibratory conveyor
to a predrier designed to take a full batch of wet paddy. Here the moisture
content is reduced, and the product is then unloaded into two or more
column driers, where drying is continued until a moisture content of 13%
is reached. The milled parboiled paddy is pale in color.
Central Food Technological Research Institute Process

The parboiling system developed by the Central Food Technological Re-
search Institute (CFTRI), of Mysore, India, has improved the quality of
the rice, shortened the processing times, and reduced the equipment costs.
A boiler supplies steam to the steeping and steaming containers. The
steam enters through perforated pipes running the length of the cylindrical
container. At the bottom, there are perforated pipes, arranged radially to

provide the best possible distribution. The base of the steeping and steam-
ing cylinder is cone-shaped and is closed at the bottom by a watertight
hatch. At the side of the hatch, there is a valve for draining off the steeping
water.
The steeping and steaming cylinders are raised about 1 m above ground
level. The cylinders are fed with water, which is heated by steam injection
to 85°C. The paddy is poured manually into the soaking and steaming tank.
The temperature of the water drops from 85°C to 70-75°C when all the
paddy has been poured in. Mter 2-3.5 hr of steeping the water is drained
off. Pressurized steam is then admitted, and heating is continued until the
hull begins to crack open. The condensate is drained off at the bottom of
the tank when a drain valve is opened.
The w .;t rice is unloaded by opening the bottom hatch and is trans-
ported to the drying floor, where it is spread out. In order that the steeping
water is prevented from fermenting, a pump may be provided to regenerate
the water continuously through a filter. Mter filtering, the water is kept at
high temperature by continued steam injection.
The batch parboiling process is similar to the CFTRI method but with
some improvements. A bucket elevator and a screw conveyor raise the
paddy from ground level to the steeping and steaming cylinders of the
closed autoclave type. Steeping water and steam are fed from the bottom
of the container. A valve at the top acts as a water overflow and as an air
outlet when pressurized steam is admitted. Steeping water and steam
condensate are drained off by a valve at the bottom of the container. The
wet parboiled paddy falls out by itself when the hatch is open.
Jadavpur University Process

In the parboiling process developed at the University of Jadavpur, India,
the operations are fully automatic. The average processing time is about
5-6 hr.
Steeping is completed in water at 60-70°C within 2.5-3 hr, whereas
steaming requires only from 3-5 min. The high temperature of the water
and the short steeping time contribute to the production of a good-quality
parboiled rice.
Mter steaming, the paddy is rapidly cooled. Drying takes place in a
rotary, steam-jacketed, high-temperature air drier to 13% moisture. The
rice is then milled. In this process, two different systems may be applied.
With the first, the steeping and steaming take place in the same tank
whereas, with the second, these two operations are performed separately
in a horizontal apparatus. In both cases, saturated steam is used. The
steamed paddy is rapidly cooled in a draft of cold air.
PARBOILED RICE 73
Avorio Process
The Avorio process was developed in Italy. It is a mechanized and auto-
matic process. Steeping is done by mechanically submerging baskets filled
with paddy in a tank of medium-temperature water. A chain conveyor
passes the baskets through the tank. The water is kept in continuous
circulation and aerated by compressed air. Steeping time is controlled by
the speed at which the baskets pass through the tank and varies from
50-120 min, depending on the variety of paddy used. After steeping, the
paddy is steamed in autoclaves containing rotating perforated cylinders
through which the steam spreads throughout the paddy. The paddy is
loaded and unloaded through special valves that function alternately.
Steaming times and pressures may be varied according to the variety of
the paddy. Pressure may be raised up to 1 kg/cm2 • The steamed paddy is
cooled by a stream of cold air and then transferred to a series of vertical-
column driers utilizing air at 45-50°C.
This process is well controlled at all stages and produces a parboiled
rice of high head yields with excellent properties.
Crystal Rice Process

The Crystal rice process was developed in Italy. The paddy is first washed
in cold water to remove impurities and the lighter grains. Steeping takes
place in a stationary autoclave, applying first vacuum and then high hydro-
static pressure using water at a controlled temperature. Steaming and
drying are carried out in a rotary autoclave that is fitted with a steam jacket
and coils for heating the paddy. The process permits variations in time,
temperature, and pressure and can produce various types of parboiled
rice.
Rice Conversion Process

This process was the first parboiling process adopted in the United States
in 1941-1942 (Fig. 4-6).
The entire rice kernel is completely gelatinized following a number of
operations. The parboiled product is pale in color and completely vitreous.
There are no grains with white starchy centers. Steeping is done in an
autoclave, where the paddy is deaerated under a vacuum to facilitate water
saturation. A pressure treatment is applied to the steeping water in such
a way that the combination of the vacuum and pressure processes reduces
steeping time to less than 3 hr.
Steaming is carried out in a rotating, steam-jacketed autoclave. The
pressure is kept at less than 1 kg/cm 2 for about 1 hr, after which a vacuum
is applied to free the grain of excess water. The drying takes place while
Paddy Intake
Grain Flow - - - -
~ ..... .Q:J Water Flow
: c±J Steam Flow -.- ·- ·- ·
Air Flow
j..... G:J
i. -~-,.----~
,--.1..__-----Jj - - - ..., I I
r-t;l I I
IL-~ I 1
I [JC}-J I
I I
~----cb-1 I
I I
~~---~+~------
=~--~-~i I
:...-..:.~·=j-i-·-·1
. .
~
I
I
:
I I ,.
~,-.-
ctJ
c±J_ _____1
j
I
To Mill
-·.c:TI
Figure 4-6. Rice conversion process: (1) Paddy floater (to float off shrunken and
dead grains); (2) elevator; (3) bin for paddy; (4) drier discharge hopper
with elevator feed regulator; (5) grain elevator; (6) mill feed bins; (7)
exhaust from existing steam engine; (8) economizer; (9) boiler feed
water tank; (10) boiler; (11) steam accumulator; (12) steam oil separator;
(a) stationary pressure steeping tank; (b) circulating water pump; (c)
dry vacuum pump; (d) air compressor; (e) air compressor tank; (f)
double outlet hopper with wire mesh and drain; (g) combined steam-
ing vessel and vacuum drier; (h) balanced non return valve; (i) conden-
sate collecting tank; OJ hot-water pump; (k) wet vacuum pump; (I)
water settling tanks; (m) hot-water tank, adjustable ball valve, level
indicator; (n) reducing valve cold-watertank; (o) reducing valve. (From
Gariboldi 1974.)
PARBOILED RICE 75
Cold wafer
Hoi water
*---=+-~-~
L
------
--
'--- 8
0
8
0
_ _ _ _ __)
--- -- Dro•noge
Sleom -
Aor
Figure 4-7. Rice Growers Association of California process: (A) raw paddy, (B)
Parboiled paddy: (1) cold- or hot-water soaking, (2) hot-water soaking
tank, (3) steaming autoclave (pressure steamer), (4) hot-air drier, (5)
column drier, (6) tempering bins, (7) column drier, (8) air heaters and
blowers, (9) steaming autoclave rotary valves. (From Garibaldi 1974.)
the paddy is still in the autoclave; a vacuum is applied, and the paddy is
kept hot through contact with steam-heated surfaces. The drying process
is completed in a rotating drier utilizing medium-temperature air to carry
away the moisture.
Malek Process
This process produces an amber-colored and fully gelatinized parboiled
rice. The paddy is steeped in tanks with high-temperature water for 3-6
hr. It is then steamed by injecting steam into a vertical-cylindrical auto-
clave that has a truncated conical base and is fitted with inlet and outlet
valves. The paddy is let in and taken out of the autoclave by gravity.
Drying is carried out in two stages. In the first stage, hot air is blown
into a steam-heated, rotary-cylindrical drier; in the second, air is forced
through a vertical drier at lower temperatures.
Rice Growers Association of California Parboiling Process

The Rice Growers Association of California has developed a parboiling
process at its Sacramento plant (Fig. 4-7). The raw paddy rice is soaked
in moderately warm water, depending on the variety, for several hours.
Then the rice paddy is moved to another tank, where it is soaked again in
higher-temperature water (varying from 40-90°C) for 1-10 hr. It is then
steamed under pressure in a continuous cooker for a very short time,
ranging from 15 sec to 3 min. The steam pressure varies between 1 and 5
kg/cm 2 .
Mter it is drained, the parboiled paddy is dried first with hot air,
followed by several passages through a column-drier stage. The drying
process includes long intervals of tempering. The main features of the
process are the long soaking time and the extremely short exposure to
steam at high pressure; the resulting product is very pale. The process
gives a good milling yield. The parboiled rice so obtained possesses good
characteristics. It is usually applied to rice with a short, round grain typical
of the varieties grown in California.
Similar Processes
Barber et al. (1975) developed a new hydrothermal process similar to
parboiling and have tested it for the retention of nutrients in comparison
to the normal parboiling process.
Three processes were used. Process A involves soaking the paddy for
1 min at room temperature and then autoclaving at 130°C for 3 min. With
process B, paddy is autoclaved for 8 min. With process C, the paddy is
soaked for 2 hr at 70°C and autoclaved at 121°C for 15 min. In all cases,
drying is carried out at room temperature.
All processes caused slight increases in protein concentration in the
outermost layer. These did not appreciably affect the distribution of crude
grain fiber in the grain.
The three processes caused some loss of available lysine, tryptophan,
and methionine. The losses were larger in the outermost layer than in the
intermediate layers. All three processes caused significant decreases in
thiamin content in the outermost layers and an increase in the center
portion.
The effects of the process on fat, protein, and fiber contents were
limited to the outermost layers; the contents of these constituents in the
well-milled kernel remained unchanged. Available lysine, tryptophan, and
methionine contents of milled rice from process A were similar to those
of the raw rice, but there were large losses in processes B and C. All
treatments increased the thiamin content of milled rice.
The outer brans from all the processes were richer in fat and somewhat
higher in protein than the raw rice but lower in available lysine, tryptophan,
methionine, and thiamin. In general, all treatments decreased the nutritive
value of the brans.
A summary of parboiling processes for rice is presented in Table 4-1.
PARBOILED RICE 77
Table 4-1. Summary of Parboiling Processes

Process Soaking Steaming Drying
Schule Batch system in Steaming is not In high-temperature
medium required. Starch air, followed by
temperature water gelatinization medium-
followed by a obtained by soaking temperature air
second stage in in high-temperature
high-temperature water under
water under pressure
pressure in the
same tank
CFTRI Batch system in Batch system in the Sun drying or
high-temperature open tank used for mechanical drying
water. Continuous soaking. Steam is by medium-
circulation of high- pressure-injected temperature air
temperature filtered through perforated
water pipes
Jadavpur Univ. Batch system in Batch system in the Cooling before
high-temperature open tank used for drying. This is done
water soaking. Steam is by using high-
pressure-injected temperature air,
through perforated followed by
pipes. Alternatively, medium-
continuous system temperature air
with steam at
ambient pressure in
an autoclave
equipped with a
screw conveyor
Avorio Continuous system Continuous Cooling before
in medium- steaming under drying. This is done
temperature water pressure in an by using medium-
autoclave equipped temperature air
with mechanical
conveyors
Crystal rice Batch system in Batch system in a Under vacuum in
high-temperature rotary autoclave the same autoclave.
water under under steam Final drying may be
vacuum, followed pressure done after milling
by hydrostatic
pressure
Malek Batch system in Continuous By high-temperature
high-temperature steaming under air, followed by
water pressure in a medium-
vertical stationary temperature air
autoclave
CRGA parboiling Batch system in Continuous system In high-temperature
medium- in a horizontal air, followed by
temperature water, cooker under high medium-
followed by higher- steam pressure for a temperature air
temperature water short time
Source: Gariboldi (1974).
--
Figure 4-8. Apparatus for heating quick-cooking parboiled rice developed by
Mickus and Brewer (1957). (From Daniels 1970.)
QUICK-COOKING PARBOILED RICE
One disadvantage of untreated parboiled rice is that the parboiling process

extends the required cooking time. Whereas milled rice may require 20
min of cooking, the same rice when parboiled must be cooked for 30-40
min. Mickus and Brewer (1957) have developed a patented process that
eliminates this problem. Milled parboiled rice is heated in a dry condition
after the rice has reached its normal moisture content of 14%. Such heating
has the effect of accelerating the breakdown of the starch structure of the
rice that is started by the parboiling step.
The dry-heating step may be carried out in several ways. One method
is to circulate rapidly moving hot air around the rice kernels at 149-260°C.
If the exposure of the rice to the hot air at the above temperature is
continued for a period of 30-60 sec, the resultant product may be com-
pletely cooked in a minute or less. Ifthis dry-heating step is performed on
ordinary rice that has not been parboiled, no reduction in the subsequent
cooking time is effected.
The apparatus for carrying out this step is illustrated in Fig. 4-8. A
vertically extending conduit was designed (1), in which a basket (2) of wire
mesh may be inserted for supporting the rice within the path of the airflow
through the conduit (1). A blower (3) is provided for conducting air through
PARBOILED RICE 79
a pipe (4) into the lower end of the conduit (1). Before reaching the blower
(3), the air may be heated to the required temperature by means of any
conventional type of heater (5).
The dry-heating step must be done quickly. For this reason, it is
preferable not to insert the rice into the airstream until the air from the
heater has been raised to the desired temperature. Naturally, the time
required depends on the temperature of the air but, as stated above, the
time may be made as short as 30 sec if the air temperature is around 260°C
and, if the temperature is reduced to 149°C, the time may run to as long
as 60 sec.
DIELECTRIC HEATING
Another method of carrying out the dry-heating step is to use dielectric

heating, whereby the rice is made the dielectric between a pair of opposed-
facing plates acting as a capacitor. The rice is placed in bags supported on
a conveyor belt for movement between a pair of plates. The plates are
connected to a source of high-frequency alternating current such as a
vacuum-tube oscillator so that a dielectric heating effect is imposed ort the
nee.
The dielectric heating process heats the interior of the rice first; hence,
the final temperature need not be as high as that used in hot-air heating.
When the temperature of the rice reaches 66-82°C, its condition is the
same as when it is heated by means of hot air at 149-260°C.
If various frequencies between 1 and 30 megacycles, with a power
input of 1.8 kW, are used an exposure of 30 sec is required to break
down the starch structure so that the rice may be cooked in less than 1
min.
The above description assumes a relatively lightweight package, such
as cellophane. With heavier containers, such as cardboard, a greater
amount of energy must be employed or the exposure time lengthened.
This process is particularly applicable to the processing of rice for
making breakfast cereals. Such rice cereals have been puffed or exploded
by various operations to make the kernels edible without further cooking.
Puffed rice may be made with less expensive equipment by using
parboiled rice because the dry-heating step returns the rice kernel to its
original whiteness. To puff the rice, it is merely necessary to continue the
heating step beyond 149°C for 60 sec.
The dry-heated rice may be eaten without any additional cooking and
makes a particularly tasty breakfast cereal, especially if sugar and cream
are added. Thus, whether whole kernels or broken kernels are used, the
above described process produces either a quick-cooking rice if prepared
in the conventional manner or a ready-to-eat product having a high nutri-

tive value.
Serbia and Benett (1968) patented a method for producing quick-
cooking parboiled rice. The parboiled rice is soaked in water at 71.1 oc for
10-15 min until the moisture content is 40%. It is next steamed for 18-25
min at 100°C, resulting in a 5% increase in moisture content. The steamed
rice is immersed in water at 15 .6°C to cool the rice, thereby toughening
the grains and arresting the cooking.
The rice, now containing 50% moisture, is retreated with steam and
soaked two more times. Following this treatment, the moisture content
increases to 65%.
The soaked, cooked rice is then drained of free water and fed to a
three-section, through-circulation, continuous belt drier. Air temperatures
in the drier vary from 104-121°C in the first section to 82-110°C in the
third section. The dried product has a terminal moisture content of 10-13%
and shows no evidence of puffing.
Rice treated in this manner can be immersed in gently boiling water
and allowed to simmer for 7 min in an open or covered pot. Alternately,
the rice may be added to boiling water, removed from heat and allowed
to stand for 10 min. The cooked product will have a better overall eating
quality-better texture, flavor, and aroma-than untreated parboiled
rice.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Continuous Parboiling
McPhail (1975) devised a method for introducing materials into, or remov-
ing materials from, a hermetically sealed vessel. The apparatus consists
of several sealed vessels in series, with means for transferring the contents
from one vessel to the next without breaking the seal. This device is useful
in the process of parboiling rice, where soaked rice maintained at ambient
pressure is transferred to a cooking vessel that is at a higher pressure. This
apparatus is used for continuously parboiling steeped rice with steam
under pressure.
Rubber Rollers
Sarda (1975) reported that rice milling can be carried out by traditional
disk-sheller or huller types of machines. The advantages of the rubber-
roller shellers were demonstrated during a pilot study of seven modem
mills. Based on these results, modem rubber-roller shellers were intro-
duced into several Indian rice mills.
PARBOILED RICE 81
Difficulties with the poor life of rubber rolls, black coloration of rice,
and low capacity of shelling were due to faulty adjustment and operation
and to improper cooling of the rollers.
Mter installing an air-circulation system for continuous cooling of the
rubber rolls, an output of about 250 metric tons in winter and about
200-250 metric tons of parboiled paddy in summer were obtained per pair
of rubber rolls. The moisture content of the parboiled paddy before milling
was kept at 15%.
Black color in the rice could be due to insufficient cooling of the rolls
or improper operation of the paddy separator, which returns a high propor-
tion of brown rice to the rubber rolls.
The rubber rolls can prevent removal of bran during shelling and can
increase output of rice by 0.5%. The oil content in the bran from the
polishers has been found to be slightly higher also. The use of rubber-
roller shellers in the milling of parboiled paddy has been found to be
beneficial. However, a disadvantage faced by the millers using a rubber
sheller is the presence of dark-colored or brownish-colored grain in the
milled product, caused by infested or immature grains. These are normally
removed with the hull in conventional milling of rice but are recovered
and retained when rubber rollers are used. Methods of eliminating this
problem in milling rice with rubber rollers are therefore necessary.
Parboiled Rice Bran

Haumann (1989) summarized recent developments in rice-bran stabiliza-
tion and rice-oil production.
ECONOMICS
Parboiling involves a large capital investment for machinery. The pro-

cessing cost is also higher as fuel oil or steam is used for heating the
air in the drying process. The modern mills, however, produce a clean,
wholesome product with higher milling yields.
The modern mill complex obtains freshly harvested paddy and handles
sequentially the operations of cleaning and drying, silo storage, parboiling
by the hot soaking method, mechanical drying of the parboiled paddy,
milling by a modern rubber-roller type of mill (Schule make), and extrac-
tion of purified bran with hexane by a batch extraction method. All the
processes are largely mechanized and controlled. The steam for the par-
boiling is obtained from a boiler with a capacity of 1100 kg steam/hr. The
drier is one of the LSU type, and the air is heated by mixing with burned
gases after fuel oil is turned in a combustion furnace.
The traditional mill uses an old disk-type sheller mill of the same
Schule make, and it runs on a steam engine from a boiler. Paddy hull is
used as fuel. Parboiling is carried out by the traditional method,
followed by drying. A simple huller-type mill also operates on the same
premises.
The modern mill may give lower returns than the disk-sheller mill
although the former gives higher rice yield (with fewer brokens) and better-
quality bran. The higher processing costs of the modern mill more than
offset the advantages of higher yield. The processing cost could be brought
down by (1) using hull instead of furnace oil for heating the air in the driers;
(2) using rubber rollers that will have lower wear and tear and longer life;
(3) realizing better market value for the processed rice since it has a lower
percentage ofbrokens and refractions than the usual commercial rice; and
(4) reducing high investment costs on silo storage. As a result of these
methods, it should be possible to make the economics of processing in the
modern mill more attractive than the customary methods of storage and
processing.
PRESSURE PARBOILING
A method of pressure parboiling was developed by Shivanna (1974). The

paddy is washed in water in a pressure vessel, kept under saturated steam,
and then steamed at high pressure to ensure full gelatinization of the
starch.
Gandrala (1986) made a thorough study of pressure parboiling of
paddy, with special reference to changes in starch, protein, and fat. The
process consists of wetting the paddy, followed by steaming under pres-
sures of 0, 1, 2, and 3 kg/cm2 and at steaming times of 5, 10, 15, and 20
min, respectively. Gandrala's results confirm many of the earlier findings
on the properties of parboiled rice. The properties of parboiled rice are,
in a large measure, attributable to the changes brought about during or
following the hydrothermal treatment given to the paddy in parboiling.
There is a redistribution of some nutrients. Notable among these are fats,
including fatty acids that tend to migrate outward, enriching the bran
layers. A part of the soluble proteins may move inward so that the milled
rice has a slightly higher total protein content. Hardening of the grain due
to gelatinization of starch during parboiling results in reduced breakage of
the grain and therefore a higher head rice yield during milling. The total
parboiling and drying costs are 50% lower for the pressure parboiling
process. Ali and Bhattacharya (1982) made a detailed study of the pressure
parboiling process. They studied the effect of grain moistures and the
PARBOILED RICE 83
times and temperatures of steaming on the color, hydration property, and

starch retrogradation. Grain discoloration and hardening are inherent in
the process and cannot be avoided as long as the rice is fully gelatinized
up to the center of the grain. However, the great technological advantages
of the process can be retained and the discoloration and resistance to
cooking reduced by adopting such processing conditions as leaving a small
"white belly" in the center of the grain. These conditions consist of
washing the rough rice in water and steaming under 1-2-kg/cm2 gauge
pressure for 10-20 min. The proposed modification has been tested satis-
factorily on a commercial scale.
Additional advantages of the pressure parboiling process are:
(1) The grain becomes quite hard in response to the pressure steaming,
resulting in reduced breakage during milling.
(2) Total processing time is reduced by about 50% and, therefore,
production capacity can be greatly increased.
(3) The oil content in the bran is much higher than that obtained from
the hot soaking.
Changes in Properties of Rice During Parboiling

Parboiled rice differs greatly from raw rice and its properties, depending
on the type and severity of parboiling. The changes during processing
stand out as major contributors to its properties (Ali and Bhattacharya
1980b,c; Bhattacharya and Ali 1985; Kato et al. 1983).
The most obvious change is the gelatinization of starch. The character-
istic properties of parboiled rice, such as grain translucence; milling qual-
ity; swelling and solubility; viscosity; heat-expansion behavior; and vita-
min, sugar, and amino acid content are associated with the gelatinization
process.
The important change is the retrogradation, or some form of reassocia-
tion, of the gelatinized starch during storage or drying of the grain after
parboiling. The hardness of rice, milling quality, cooking rate, starch
solubility, paste viscosity, and other properties are related to this starch
reassociation. Whereas various properties strongly suggest regular starch
retrogradation, x-ray diffractogram data suggest a lipid-amylose complex.
Different types of processes yield varieties of rice with distinct quality
profiles, presumably because they have different combinations of gelati-
nized and reassociated starch.
Another important change is alteration of oil globules in the rice kernel.
Parboiling disrupts the oil globules and tends to push the oil toward the
outer periphery of the kernel. This has a profound influence on the oil
content of the bran obtained on milling. The same change, along with the
destruction of native antioxidants by heat treatment, is responsible for an

increased susceptibility of parboiled rice to oxidative rancidity.
Another set of changes is brought about by enzyme action during the
period of soaking of paddy in water. Changes in sugars, amino acids (Ali
and Bhattacharya 1980a, 1985), and other components take place during
this period and undoubtedly affect the properties of the resulting rice. This
is evident in the observation that subsequent reheating during the process
of rice enrichment results in extra discoloration.
The discoloration is caused primarily by the maillard reaction, brought
about by the heat treatment, and by changes in sugars and amino acids,
brought about by enzyme action during soaking.
The heat treatment during parboiling disrupts and denatures the pro-
tein bodies, thus leading to considerable reduction in their solubility.
An important effect of parboiling is the presence of greater amounts
of water-soluble constituents, especially thiamin, nicotinic acid, sugars,
free amino acids, and various minerals in milled parboiled rice due to
diffusion from the outer layers into the grain interior during processing.
A number of other effects are: better stability ofthe parboiled rice and
bran due to destruction of enzymes, a vast improvement in milling quality,
and greater oil content in the bran. Parboiled rice is used for making
canned, expanded, and flaked rice, which cannot be made from raw rice.
There are, however, several drawbacks to this new process. The rice
obtained has a deep yellow-brown color that may be unacceptable in some
markets. The higher oil content in the bran tends to clog the polishing
sieves.
Physicochemical Basis of Varietal Differences in Rice Expansion

Chinnaswamy and Bhattacharya (1983a) studied the extent of expansion
of milled parboiled rice (10.5-11.0% moisture) in 35 rice varieties. They
heated the milled parboiled rice with fine sand at a rice : sand ratio of 1 : 15
at 250°C for 10-12 sec. Results indicate that the degree of expansion
correlated strongly with the amylose content, being optimum at 27% total
amylose and/or 13.5% hot-water soluble in amylose. Protein content had
a small negative correlation.
Chinnaswamy and Bhattacharya (1983b) studied the conditions for
expansion of milled, parboiled rice. Optimum puffing was obtained by
heating milled parboiled rice at a moisture content of 10.5-11.0% with 15
times its weight of fine sand at 250°C for 10-11 sec. Raw and mildly
parboiled rice gave minimal expansion, which increased with increasing
severity of parboiling up to a steam pressure of 1.5 kg/cm 2 • Because of
the difficulty in avoiding contamination with sand, the method seems
PARBOILED RICE 85
inapplicable to commercial processing. The data presented are valuable

for future research in rice puffing.
Acknowledgment This chapter was reviewed by Arlene Hamamoto,
Food Chemist, Rice Growers Association of California, Sacramento. The
authors thank her for her help in reviewing and improving it.
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5
Rice Quali1y and Grades
B. D. Webb
USDA, Rice Quality Laboratory, Texas A&M University
CONCEPTS OF RICE QUALITY
Components of rice known and referred to as grain quality largely deter-

mine market price and consumer acceptance. The most important factors
plant breeders consider in developing new rice varieties are grain quality
and yield. If consumers do not like the flavor, texture, taste, aroma,
appearance, cookability, or processability of a newly developed rice, any
other outstanding attribute of the variety may be worthless (IRRI 1985).
The term grain quality has many meanings and is perceived differently
depending on end use, field of interest, specialization, ethnic background,
etc. In marketing, appearance is of foremost importance as a quality
characteristic; producers and millers emphasize milling quality; food man-
ufacturers insist on processing quality; dietitians require nutritional qual-
ity; and consumers demand a widely divergent array of cooking and eating
*This chapter was prepared by a U.S. Government employee as part of his official duties
and legally cannot be copyrighted. Reference in this chapter to a company or product name
is intended for explicit description only and does not imply approval or recommendation of
the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to the exclusion of others that may be
suitable.
89
qualities. Thus, good quality or poor quality is greatly influenced by prefer-

ence and, when preferences differ, the same rice judged as good by one
can be rated as poor by another.
Quality in rice (Oryza sativa L.) may be categorized into four broad
areas: (1) milling quality; (2) cooking, eating, and processing quality; (3)
nutritive quality; and (4) specific standards for cleanliness, soundness, and
purity. All categories are important, collectively, in judging the suitability of
rice for a particular use. However, rice has many different uses, so that the
quality characteristics desired vary considerably, being ultimately related to
final consumer acceptance of each rice product or rice-containing food.
Essentially, all rice is used as food for human consumption in one or
more of its many forms. Boiled rice prepared in homes and institutions
constitutes by far the greatest consumption pattern (Childs 1989). Other
important and ever-increasing uses include: parboiled rice, quick-cooking
rice, dry breakfast cereals, value-added rice products, canned rice, soups,
baby foods, frozen dishes, rice flour, snack items, confections, and brew-
ing. Consequently, rice quality must be judged on the basis of suitability
for intended uses and established requirements for wholesomeness.
Characteristics that influence rice quality include those under genetic
control and those independent of genetic control, such as purity and
cleanliness. These latter characteristics are primarily a function of han-
dling and storage and, as such, are described thoroughly in United States
Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b) for rough rice, brown rice for pro-
cessing, and milled rice and in Rice Inspection Handbook (USDA 1982,
with changes 1982-1990).
The genetic makeup of the grain is a major factor influencing quality
in rice. Modern breeding programs continually refine and improve genetic
characteristics influencing quality to obtain the most desirable product. In
the United States, new rice cultivars are developed through intensive
genetic selection for all important quality attributes. Breeding and select-
ing for desirable milling, cooking, eating, and processing qualities in hybrid
selections, breeding lines, and new varieties of rice are essential compo-
nents of responsible varietal improvement programs conducted coopera-
tively by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and state agricul-
tural experiment stations in Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Mississippi,
and Texas. New varieties developed in these programs meet required
industry standards for milling, cooking, eating, and processing quality
before release to commercial production (Adair et al. 1973; Webb 1975;
Webb et al. 1975, 1979, 1985).
Another major factor influencing rice quality is the environment in
which plants are grown. Once a new variety is released for commercial
production,· it spreads to wherever it can be produced advantageously
compared to currently grown varieties, Consequently, before release,
RICE QUALilY AND GRADES 91
new varieties are tested agronomically and for quality over their likely
production area. Tests are carried out in Uniform Rice Performance Nurs-
eries and other trials in each rice-producing state (Arkansas, California,
Florida, Louisiana, Missouri, Mississippi, and Texas). These trials permit
evaluating quality characteristics of new varieties over wide ranges of
environmental modifying influences such as soil, climate, and cultural
conditions.
Rice quality characteristics range in level of heritability from very low
to very high (Webb et al. 1989). Responses of certain characteristics to
environmental and cultural conditions also vary. Some characteristics are
highly affected whereas others are minimally influenced by environmental
or cultural factors (Webb et al. 1985, 1989).
Characteristics influencing qualities in rice include: (1) hull and peri carp
color; (2) grain size, shape, weight, uniformity, and general appearance; (3)
milling outturn; (4) kernel chalkiness, translucency, and color; (5) cooking,
eating, and processing characteristics; and (6) cleanliness, soundness, and
purity (Webb 1985). Since rice is consumed and processed mainly in whole
kernel form, its physical appearance is particularly important.
This chapter identifies components of quality considered important in
rice and presents data and reference methods useful in judging quality and
grade. Discussion is confined to practices used in evaluating rice quality
in the United States; however, these concepts and principles are used in
varying degrees throughout the world.
Probably anyone concerned with rice quality will, at some time, use
most or all the quality factors and component measurements presented in
this chapter. To rank the various quality factors numerically in order
of importance is impractical because all components are cumulatively
involved in judging qualities of rice. Furthermore, values for various qual-
ity criteria presented in figures and tables of this chapter should not be
considered as iron-clad parameters but rather as indicating reasonable
ranges in line with present concepts of rice quality.
Nutritional qualities are involved in all areas of food quality, even
though there is uncertainty regarding the relationship between nutritional
quality and human preference. Just because people prefer a food does not
mean that it is nutritionally superior. By the same token, the nutritional
quality of a food may not be too important if people do not accept it.
Therefore, both nutritional quality and human preference must be consid-
ered. The many phases of rice nutritive quality are covered in appropriate
chapters in this book and in other excellent reviews (Houston and Kohler
1970; Eggum 1979; Kennedy 1980; USDA 1989a).
A wealth of information has also been published on rice quality and
testing, quality requirements for rice processing and utilization, and re-
lated areas for U.S. as well as world rices. Much of this information is
contained in seven books or handbooks, each of which lists numerous

original references of significance to the interested reader. These are Rice:
Chemistry and Technology (Houston 1972); Proceedings of the Workshop
in Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality (IRRI 1979); Rice: Production
and Utilization (Luh 1980); Handbook of Processing and Utilization in
Agriculture, Vol. II: Part I, Plant Products (Wolff 1982); Rice Chemistry
and Technology, 2nd Ed. (Juliano 1985); Proceedings of the International
Rice Research Institute Symposium on Grain Quality and Marketing (lRRl
1985); and Composition of Foods, Cereal Grains and Pasta, Agriculture
Handbook No. 8-20 (USDA 1989a).
INTERRElATIONSHIPS OF VARIETY, GRAIN TYPE, AND QUALITY
More than 99% of the U.S. rice crop is produced from varieties developed
by public rice research centers and experiment stations located at Stutt-
gart, Arkansas; Biggs, California; Crowley, Louisiana; Stoneville, Missis-
sippi; and Beaumont, Texas. These centers are operated and supported
by the five state agricultural experiment stations, the USDA-ARS, and
state and local producer organizations.
Traditionally, rice varieties in the United States are classed as long-,
medium-, and short-grain types (Fig. 5-1). Historically, and now through
,,,
I II
E
E
_,.
Figure 5-1. Rough, brown, and milled forms of typical U.S. long-, medium-, and
short-grain types.
planned breeding, varieties of each grain type (except specialty varieties)

are associated with specific cooking, eating, and processing qualities
(Adair et al. 1973; Webb et al. 1985). High-quality conventional U.S.long-
grain varieties cook dry and fluffy, with cooked grains tending to remain
separate, whereas cooked kernels of conventional high-quality medium-
and short-grain varieties are moist and chewy, with grains tending to cling
together. All three grain types, with their characteristic cooked textural
qualities, are needed for both domestic and foreign trade. Although the
percentage amount of rice produced in the United States varies from year
to year, the long-grain types usually account for over 60% of the total
production, medium-grain types less than 30%, and short-grain types the
remainder (Childs 1989).
In many rice products, qualities and grain types of conventional U.S.
long-grain varieties are preferred; in others, short- and medium-grains,
with their characteristic textural properties, are required. Thus, since
domestic and world traders (from one-half to two-thirds of the annual U.S.
rice crop is exported) associate conventional U.S. long-, medium-, and
short-grain varieties with specific cooking, eating, and processing quali-
ties, it is essential that new varieties of each grain type have the same or
improved milling, cooking, and processing qualities as the varieties they
replace. It is principally in the United States that grain type is associated
with specific cooking and processing characteristics. Worldwide, there are
short-grain varieties having cooking, eating, and processing characteristics
of long-grains and long-grain varieties possessing cooking properties of
short- and medium-grains.
Although thousands of rice varieties exist worldwide, only a few
(usually less than a dozen) varieties are grown commercially in the United
States in any one crop year. Generally, these consist of four or five long-
grain, four or five medium-grain, and one or two short-grain varieties,
which are continually replaced by new, improved varieties developed in
public breeding programs.
Virtually all rice varieties produced commercially in the United States
are classed as straw-hulled, nonpigmented pericarp, translucent, non-
scented, nonwaxy (common) types containing varying ratios of amylose
and amylopectin starch and possessing mild bland taste and flavor. An
exception is limited production of waxy (glutinous) short-grain rice. This
rice, also called "sweet rice," is characterized by an opaque endosperm
containing 100% amylopectin starch. When cooked, it tends to lose its
shape and is very sticky. Waxy rice is produced primarily for specialty
products, for use by specific ethnic groups, and in several commercial
product formulations, including sauces, gravies, salad dressing, desserts,
pizza shells, and batter dips for fried foods.
Another exception is scented (aromatic) long-grain rice produced on
small acreages as specialty products. This rice gives off an aroma similar
to that of roasted popcorn or nuts and has a flavorful nutty taste similar
to that of the much-sought-after Basmati class of varieties in Pakistan and
India. A major constituent responsible for the unique flavor of this type
of rice is 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline, present in the volatile oil fraction (Buttery
et al. 1982, 1983a, 1983b). Two aromatic rices are in limited production:
(1) Della types, characterized as intermediate-amylose/intermediate-gela-
tinization-temperature types that cook dry, fluffy, and separate like con-
ventional U.S.long-grains; and (2) Jasmine types, which are low-amylose/
low-gelatinization-temperature types and cook soft, moist, and clingy like
imported fragrant rices from Thailand.
A third exception, also produced in limited amounts for specialty
markets in the United States, is so-called Toro-type rice. This rice has the
grain size and shape of U.S. long-grains but possesses the cooking and
eating behaviors of U.S. short- and medium-grain types. Toro-quality rice
is used by segments of the population that prefer the clingy cooked texture
of U.S. short- and medium-grain rice in a long-grain type.
More recently, long-grain rices with superior processibility, referred
to as "Newrex/Rexmont"-type quality, were developed (Bollich et al.
1980, 1990) to satisfy the rice industry's need for a drier and fluffier table
rice with improved processibility for manufacturing into canned soups,
quick-cooking, and frozen types of rice products. Newrex/Rexmont-type
quality represents the first major improvement in U.S. long-grain quality
and is the forerunner of rice of superior processibility (grain stability).
Minor quantities of rice with amber and purple bran (pericarp) are also
produced, primarily for use in gourmet products.
Varieties of grain types possessing nontypical cooking and processing
qualities pose serious identity, drying, handling, storage, distribution,
blending, and end-use problems to the U;S. rice industry. Thus, rice
producers, processors, and distributors of specialty rice such as waxy,
aromatic, and Toro types are required to be extremely cautious in keeping
these types separate from conventional U.S. long-, medium-, and short-
grain rices in all stages of rice production, processing, and distribution
cycles. The need for accurate varietal identification procedures are becom-
ing more and more important (Lookhart et al. 1987; Huebner et al. 1990).
COMPONENTS OF QUALilY
Factors important to the U.S. rice industry in assessing qualities of rice

for domestic and export uses include:
Hull and bran color
Grain characteristics
General appearance
Size, shape, weight, and uniformity
Translucency
Chalkiness
Milling quality
Grain appearance (milled, brown, and parboiled)
Whole-grain (head-rice) yield
Total milled rice yield
Milling uniformity
Cooking and processing quality indexes
Appearance (cooked and processed grains)
Amylose content
Alkali spreading value
Protein content
Gelatinization temperature and type
Amylographic viscosity (peak, hot, cool)
Water uptake
Parboil-canning stability
Additional grading factors included in United States Standards
for Rice
Moisture content
Test weight
Degree of milling
Color
Dockage
Damaged grains and heat-damaged grains
Odors
Red rice
Hull and Bran (Pericarp) Color

Hull color and anthocyanin pigmentation in the apiculus are factors influ-
encing different areas of rice quality. Rice varieties produced in the United
States are classed as either light (straw)- or dark (gold)-hulled. Although
hull color is not a major concern in producing regular white milled rice, it
is important in processing parboiled rice. Varieties with light-colored hulls
are generally preferred by parboilers because light hulls tend to produce
lighter-colored parboiled products than dark-hulled varieties parboiled
under similar conditions. Most users prefer light parboiled products; thus,
genetic selection for light-hulled varieties is an important consideration in
developing new long-grain varieties suitable for parboiling. As a result,
virtually all present-day U.S. long-grain varieties are light (straw)-hulled

types.
Similarly, bran (pericarp) color affects quality in rice. It is a factor in
parboiling, where dark bran colors may be imparted to parboiled endo-
sperms, and in milling both parboiled and regular white milled rice, where
increased milling pressure (resulting in lower mill yields) must be applied to
remove colored bran streaks completely. Conventional and most specialty
U.S. varieties have light-brown, nonpigmented bran, which is also an
important selection criterion in varietal development. Exceptions are the
amber- and purple-bran gourmet rices. Selection for hull and bran color is
accomplished subjectively by close visual examination.
Grain Dimensions, Weight and Uniformity

Since rice in the United States is produced and marketed according to
three grain size and shape classes (long, medium, and short), kernel dimen-
sions are primary quality factors in most phases of processing, drying,
handling equipment, breeding, marketing, and grading (Adair et al. 1973;
USDA 1982, 1989b). Size and shape requirements are established for each
grain type, and varieties must conform to these specifications. Grain size
and shape are among the first quality characteristics considered in devel-
oping new commercial varieties. In early generation breeding material,
grain size and shape are judged by close visual comparisons. Also, in early
developmental stages, intensive genetic selection is practiced to eliminate
heritable kernel abnormalities such as: deep creases, which tend to leave
bran streaks on milling; irregularly shaped kernels; sharp-pointed extremi-
ties, which break easily in milling; and oversized germs, which detract
from milling quality and grain appearance.
Visual classification of grain type is suitable for early generation com-
parisons, but more exact measurements are needed for final classification.
The various grain types are objectively classified according to length,
width, length/width ratio, thickness, and grain weight (Adair et al. 1973).
Length is a measure of the largest dimension of the rough-, brown-, milled-
rice grain. Shape is determined by a ratio of two of the three dimensions
length, width, and thickness. The most used and significant of these classi-
fications is the length/width ratio.
Methods for measuring rice grains include use of photographic enlarg-
ers to magnify kernels or simply measuring with a ruler the length, width,
and thickness of several grains placed in adjacent positions for particular
measurements (Adair et al. 1973; USDA 1982 with changes 1982-1990).
Although it is time-consuming, probably the simplest method for length,
width, and thickness determination is the use of a grain shape tester
designed by Satake Engineering Company, Tokyo, specifically for ob-
RICE QUALITY AND GRADES 97
Table 5-1. Range of Average Grain Size and Shape Measurements Among
Conventional U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Rice0
Grain Grain Length, Width, Length/Width Thickness, Grain Weight,
Type Form mm mm Ratio mm mg
Long 6.5-7.5 1.9-2.2 3.0: 1-3.7: 1 1.5-1.8 15-21
Medium Milledb 5.4-6.0 2.3-2.7 2.1: 1-2.6: 1 1.7-1.9 17-21
Short 5.0-5.2 2.5-2.9 1.7: 1-2.0: 1 1.8-2.0 18-22
Long 6.8-8.0 2.0-2.3 3.0: 1-3.8: 1 1.6-1.9 16-20
Medium Browne 5.8-6.3 2.4-2.8 2.2:1-2.7:1 1.8-2.1 18-22
Short 5.2-5.4 2.6-3.0 1.8: 1-2.0: 1 1.9-2.1 20-23
Long 8.7-9.9 2.3-2.5 3.4: 1-4.0: 1 1.8-2.0 21-24
Medium Roughd 7.8-8.4 2.9-3.2 2.5: 1-2.8: 1 1.9-2.2 23-25
Short (Paddy) 7.2-7.3 2.9-3.4 2.1: 1-2.4: 1 2.0-2.3 24-29
aBased on measurements of clean, mature grains of conventional varieties from Uniform
Performance Trials, TX, LA, AR, and MS. Adapted in part from Webb et al. (1989). b Whole
milled kernels with hull, bran, and germ removed. c Grain with hull removed. d Unhulled
grain.
taining kernel dimensions. Another simple method for length, width, and
thickness determination is to use a grain gauge (Gariboldi 1973). Image
analyzers are used to determine grain dimensions (Cannon and Crane
1980). This technique has the advantage of rapid determination, including
histogram statistics on large numbers of grains. Probably because of cost,
image analyzers are not widely used in rice at present. Uniformity of grain
size, shape, and weight is determined by calculating the coefficient of
variation for each measurement on randomly selected grains of representa-
tive samples. Grain weight (size) is expressed in g/1000 grains or mg/grain.
The range of average values for grain size and shape of rough, brown,
and milled forms of conventional U.S. commercial long-, medium-, and
short-grain types are given in Table 5-1. Size and shape classes used as
guides in U.S. rice-breeding programs for brown-rice grains are shown in
Table 5-2, and length/width ratios used to determine grain type by United
Table 5-2. Size and Shape Classes Used as Guides in U.S.

Rice-Breeding Programs
BROWN RICE GRAIN
Length, Length/Width, Weight,

Grain Type mm ratio mg
Long 6.61-7.5 3.1 and over 15-20
Medium 5.51-6.6 2.1-3 17-24
Short Up to 5.5 2.0 and less 20-24
Source: Adapted from Adair et al. (1973).
Table 5-3. Official U.S. Length/Width Ratios Used to

Determine Rice Grain Type
LENGTH/WIDTH RATIO
Rice Form Long-Grain Medium-Grain Short-Grain

Rough 3.4 and more 2.3-3.3 2.2 and less
Brown 3.1 and more 2.1-3.0 2.0 and less
Milled 3.0 and more 2.0-2.9 1.9 and less
Source: Adapted from USDA (1982 with changes 1982-1990).
States Standards for Rice (USDA 1982 with changes 1982-1990) are listed
in Table 5-3.
Test Weight
Test weight is important to several segments of the rice industry. It is
useful as a comparative indicator of total milled rice yield. Test weight
also provides relative measures of dockage and/or foreign material present
and of proportions of unfilled, shriveled, and immature kernels. It is im-
portant in rice storage and handling to estimate weight of rice in holding
bins of known volume. Test weight of rice is the weight of a known
volume and is one of the easiest measurements to obtain. Procedures and
equipment for determining test weight are described in detail (USDA 1982
with changes 1982-1990). In the United States, test weight is expressed
in pounds per Winchester bushel. To convert to kilograms per hectoliter,
multiply by a factor of 1.287. Average test weight of U.S. rough rice is 58
kg/hl (45 lb/bu), but it varies widely, affected by factors such as pubes-
cence, amount of dockage, unfilled and immature kernels, and grain type.
Average test weight for typical U.S.long-, medium-, and short-grain types
are tabulated in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4. Range of Average Test Weight Among

Conventional U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-
Grain Rice
Average
Grain Type Bushel Weight, lb Average, kg/hi
Long 42-46 54-59
Medium 43-47 55-60
Short 43-47 55-60
Source: Based on laboratory measurements of clean, mature rough-
rice grain of conventional varieties from Uniform Performance Trials
in TX, LA, AR, and MS. Adapted from Webb et al. (1989).
General Appearance
Since most all rice is consumed in whole intact grain form, its overall
appearance is extremely important injudging quality. Many factors consti-
tute general appearance in rice. Some, including grain size, shape, and
uniformity, were discussed in previous sections. Others, such as vitreous-
ness, translucency, chalkiness, color, and damaged and imperfect kernels,
are equally important contributors to general appearance. There is, of
course, no instrument available to measure general appearance objec-
tively. This important quality characteristic is judged subjectively with the
human eye, which has the capacity to integrate factors contributing to
general appearance into a very important index of quality.
Translucency
Clear, vitreous, translucent kernels are demanded by practically all seg-
ments of the rice industry. Typical nonwaxy U.S. varieties are required to
possess these traits to a high degree. Consequently, rice breeders practice
intensive genetic selection for bright, clear, translucent kernels in new
varieties at all stages of varietal development. Exceptions are specialty
waxy varieties characterized by completely opaque endosperms.
Chalkiness
Undesirable in practically all kinds of rice, chalkiness detracts from gen-
eral appearance and usually results in lower milling yields since chalky
kernels tend to be weak and to break more during milling. Excessive
chalkiness is undesirable for many processed products because of nonuni-
formity produced by overprocessing chalky kernels under usual processing
conditions. Many processors specify amounts and types of chalky kernels
permissible in each manufactured product. Chalkiness in rice results from
many factors. It occurs when rice is harvested at too high a moisture level
or in varieties of nonuniform maturity in which excessive numbers of
immature kernels, referred to as "immature chalk," exist. Adverse
weather conditions and cultural practices also influence the incidence of
chalkiness. Both type and amount of chalk are, in many instances, highly
heritable, and intensive selection is carried out to develop varieties as free
of chalk as genetic and environmental conditions allow. Kernels inherently
free of chalkiness are one of the first quality characteristics breeders select
for in new U.S. varieties. The position of chalky areas on endosperms, as
well as the amounts of it, is important to processors of rice. Chalkiness in
rice is often referred to as "white belly," "white core," "white back,"
"germ tip," or "immature," depending on its location on or within the
endosperm. Close visual examination is used most for determining type
and amount of chalkiness. Translucency instruments, though not widely

used, offer promise as objective measures of transparency, including
chalkiness, in rice (Kushibuchi 1973; Kushibuchi and Fujimaki 1975).
Milling Yield
No rice variety can be commercially successful unless it possesses high
whole-kernel (head) and total milled rice yield. Whole-kernel (head) yield
is the quantity of intact whole kernels (including broken kernels three-
quarters or more in length) of well-milled rice obtainable from given quanti-
ties of rough (paddy) rice. Total milled rice yield includes whole kernel
(head) and all other sizes of broken kernels obtainable from specified
amounts of rough rice.
The objective of rice milling is removal of hulls, bran, and germ,
with minimum breakage of endosperms. Generally, four basic operations
(reviewed by Adair et al. 1973; Spadaro et al. 1980; van Ruiten 1985) are
involved in the conventional milling process:
1. Cleaning field-run rough rice to remove foreign materials such as

mud lumps, rice stems and leaves, weed seeds, and other extrane-
ous matter
2. Shelling cleaned rice to remove hulls
3. Milling brown rice to remove outer and inner bran layers, aleurone
layers, and germs
4. Grading the mixture of whole and broken milled kernels according
to size classes known as whole-kernel (head) rice, second head
(larger pieces of broken milled kernels), screenings (smaller pieces
of broken milled kernels), and brewer's rice (very small pieces of
broken milled kernels).
Milling quality in rice is based on yield of whole-kernel (head) rice

because it is the milled product of greatest economic value. Thus, accurate
determination of milling quality is extremely important from a marketing
standpoint. Yield of whole-kernel (head) rice varies widely, depending on
many factors, such as: variety; grain type; chalkiness; cultural practices;
other environmental factors; and drying, storing, and milling conditions
(reviewed by Spadaro et al. 1980; Adair et al. 1973; van Ruiten 1985).
Yield of total milled rice is important, too, and is influenced by proportion
of hulls and amounts of fine endosperm particles unavoidably included in
bran fractions during milling.
Because many factors affect milling yield, rigid laboratory milling tests
are required to ensure that new varieties consistently produce high yields
of whole (head) and total milled rice. Thus, milling yield is one of the
most important components of quality. Intensive genetic selection for high
milling yield is practiced in all stages of varietal development.
Table 5-5. Range of Average Milling Yields Among

Conventional U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-
Grain Rice
AVERAGE MILLING YIELDS, %
Grain Type Whole-Kernel (Head Rice) Total Milled Rice

Long 55-63 67-72
Medium 57-66 69-72
Short 57-66 69-73
Source: Based on laboratory milling of clean, mature rough-rice
grains of conventional varieties from Uniform Performance Trials in
TX, LA, AR, and MS. Adapted from Webb et al. (1989). Average
commercial whole-kernel (head) rice milling yields range from ca.
58-63% (Childs 1989).
Several laboratory instruments are available for determining milling

yield in rice. Two commonly used methods are: (1) the official grading
method for determining milling quality of rough rice by United States
Standards for Rice (USDA 1982 with changes 1982-1990), which requires
1000-g rough rice (McGill #3 Mill), and (2) a modification of the official
method requiring only 125-g rough rice (McGill #2 Mill) for analysis.
The modified method is particularly applicable for use in rice-breeding
programs. Adaptations of the modified method are widely used in rice
driers, mills, and processing plants.
In the official ap.d modified methods, whole milled kernels are sepa-
rated from broken kernels with a sizing device utilizing indented rectangu-
lar plates with flat-bottomed holes that are tilted at a slight angle and
mechanically shaken in an eccentric motion. During shaking, broken ker-
nels fall into indents, while whole kernels travel the length of the plates.
This device, as well as the McGill milling methods are described in the
Rice Inspection Manual (USDA 1982 with changes 1982-1990) and by
Adair et al. (1973).
Milling quality is usually reported as a percentage of whole-kernel
(head) rice and total milled rice obtained from a unit of rough rice. Average
range of laboratory milling yields for typical U.S. long-, medium-, and
short-grain types are shown in Table 5-5.
Cooking and Processing Behavior

Historically, cooking and processing characteristics of rice are factors
of primary importance in rice-eating areas of the world. Cooking and
processing quality, with milling quality, are fundamental components of
quality that determine and establish economic values of rice.
Concepts of rice cooking and processing quality are described in
several ways. In the United States, the most successful involves charac-
terizing cooking and processing quality in chemical and physical terms,
which serve as indices of specific rice qualities (Webb et al. 1972; Adair
et al. 1973; Webb et al. 1979, 1985; Webb 1975, 1980, 1985, 1987).
Formerly, rice quality in the United States was judged solely on milling
yield, factors affecting milling yield, and cleanliness and purity of rice.
However, in the mid-1950s, an agronomically superior long-grain variety
(Century Patna 231) was developed and released for commercial produc-
tion, which later proved unacceptable for conventional long-grain cooking
and processing uses. This emphasized the need to develop and produce
varieties with marketable qualities needed by the industry. To meet this
need, representatives of the USDA-ARS, the state agricultural experiment
stations in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas, and various segments of the
rice industry formulated plans for a Regional Rice Quality Laboratory.
The purpose of the laboratory was to conduct research, develop, and
perform specific chemical and physical tests on rice that would serve as
guides for rice breeders in developing varieties with marketable qualities
in combination with agronomic features required by the rice industry.
Consequently, in 1955, the Regional Rice Quality Laboratory began
operation at the Texas A&M University Agricultural Research and Exten-
sion Center, Beaumont, Texas. The laboratory is operated cooperatively
by the USDA-ARS, the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, the Texas
Rice Research Foundation, and the Texas Rice Improvement Association
and serves the public, state and federal varietal improvement programs in
Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.lt has the support
of all phases of the United States rice industry.
In the United States, specific chemical and physical criteria are used
to describe cooking and processing qualities desired in new varieties of
each grain type. These criteria, based on a series of physicochemical tests,
collectively, serve as indices of rice cooking and processing behavior.
New varieties under development are systematically tested for apparent
amylose content (Williams et al. 1958; as modified by Juliano 1971, 1979,
1982, 1985; or Johnson and Webb 1980); the alkali spreading reaction of
whole-kernel milled rice in contact with dilute alkali, an indirect measure
of gelatinization temperature (Little et al. 1958); amylographic gelatiniza-
tion and pasting characteristics (Halick and Kelly 1959; Halick et al.
1960); parboil-canning stability (Webb and Adair 1970; Webb et al. 1979).
Average and range of test values for these characteristics are established
for commercially acceptable varieties (Adair et al. 1973; Webb et al. 1979,
1985). An excellent review of these and other tests for quality was prepared
by Juliano (1985).
Chemical and physical characteristics of new varieties are always
compared with those of comparably grown leading commercial varieties of
the appropriate grain type. If, after a number of years at several locations,
properties of new varieties are similar or superior to those of standard
varieties, they are judged to have satisfactory or superior cooking and
processing quality; if not, they are considered undesirable or of unknown
quality.
Amylose content is considered the single most important characteris-
tic for predicting rice cooking and processing behavior (Webb et al. 1979,
1985; and Juliano 1979, 1985). Alkali spreading value, an indirect inversely
related measure of gelatinization temperature, is also important. Since
1955, all U.S. breeding material, new and standard varieties, has been
screened for these two characteristics. They are now universally used in
breeding programs in most rice-producing countries as predictive screen-
ing tests to describe rice cooking and processing behavior.
Although the chemical and physical properties of rice that have been
discussed are invaluable in characterizing and evaluating cooking and
processing quality, they do not always explain fundamental causes of
observed differences in rice cooking and processing behavior. For exam-
ple, why do certain rice varieties of similar amylose content and other
measured characteristics have substantially different cooked kernel stabil-
ity, textural quality, and mouth appeal? To answer this and other ques-
tions, need for basic research on factors and constituents responsible for
observed differences in rice cooking and processing behavior is indicated
now and for the future, as this information will accelerate breeding rice
for conventional and special uses. Also, as new uses and techniques for
processing rice are developed, quality characteristics now needed may
change or require revision. Thus, constant attention is given to qualities,
characteristics, and reaction of the rice grain.
Conventional cooking and processing U.S. rice

Average values for some comparative chemical and physical (quality)
characteristics of typical cooking and processing long-, medium-, and
short-grain U.S. rice types are given in Table 5-6. The values shown are
representative of each grain type although environmental and other factors
influence these characteristics to some extent (Webb et al. 1985, 1990).
Chemical and physical characteristics associated with traditional
cooking and processing of southern U.S.long-grain types (Table 5-6) are:
an intermediate to relatively high amylose content, a slight to moderate
reaction of whole-kernel milled rice in contact with dilute alkali (indicative
of intermediate-gelatinization-temperature types), and intermediate gelati-
nization temperatures (69-73°C). Amylographic pasting characteristics of
typical long-grain varieties usually show intermediate peak viscosities
and relatively high paste viscosities on cooling to 50°C. Parboil canning
Table 5-6. Physicochemical (Quality) Characteristics of Conventional Cooking

and Processing Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Rice Types
CONVENTIONAL COOKING
AND PROCESSING TYPE
Milled Rice
Characteristics Long Medium Short
Apparent amylose content, % 21-23 15-20 15-20
Alkali spreading value, average 3-5 5.5-7 5.5-7
Gelatinization temperature,a oc 69-72 64-68 64-68
Gelatinization temperature type Intermediate Low Low
Protein (N x 5.95), % 6-8 6-8 6-8
Amylographic paste viscosity, BUb
Peak 650-850 700-900 700-900
Hot 350-400 350-400 350-400
Cool 650-850 650-800 650-800
Breakdown 300-400 350-450 350-450
Setback -150-+ 150 -250--50 -250--50
aAmylographic gelatinization temperature.
bBu = Brabender Units.
Source: Based on measurements of fully developed mature grains of conventional varieties
within each grain type. Results of tests conducted at the Regional Rice Quality Laboratory,
Beaumont, TX; adapted in part from Webb et al. (1985, 1989).
characteristics (processed grain stability) of typical long-grain varieties

show relatively low percentages of solids loss during processing, and
canned kernels show minimum amounts of splitting and fraying of edges
and ends.
Characteristics of California long-grain L202 types are similar to south-
em long-grain except for 2-3% higher amylose. California long-grain types
also tend to show higher alkali spreading values, lower gelatinization
temperatures, and weaker amylographic paste viscosity profiles. For rea-
sons not completely understood, they tend to cook softer and more clingy
than conventional southern U.S. long-grain types.
Typical U.S. medium- and short-grain varieties for cooking and pro-
cessing are characterized by relatively low amylose content, extensive
reaction of whole-kernel rice in contact with dilute alkali (indicative of
low-gelatinization-temperature types), and relatively low gelatinization
temperatures (63-68°C). Amylograms of typical medium- and short-grain
varieties usually show relatively low cooked paste viscosities on cooling
to 50°C. Parboil canning characteristics of traditional medium- and short-
grain varieties show relatively high losses of solids during processing, with
canned kernels showing extensive instability, splitting, and fraying of
edges and ends.
Table 5-7. Comparative Physicochemical (Quali1y) Characteristics of

Conventional and Superior (Newrex/Rexmont-Type) Southern Long-
Grain Rice
COOKING AND PROCESSING TYPE
Milled Rice Conventional Superior

Characteristics Southern Newrex/Rexmont
Apparent amylose, % 21-23 25-28
Alkali spreading value, average 3-5 3-5
Gelatinization temperature type Intermediate Intermediate
Gelatinization temperature," oc 69-72 69-72
Protein (N x 5.95), % 6-8 6-8
Parboil-canning stability, solids loss % 20-23 14-18
Amylographic paste viscosity, BUb
Peak 650-850 650-850
Hot 350-400 500-600
Cool 650-850 950-1200
Breakdown 300-400 100-200
Setback -100-+ 150 +300-+500
aAmylographic gelatinization temperature.
bBU = Brabender Units.
Source: Results of tests conducted at the Regional Rice Quality Laboratory, Beaumont, TX;
adapted in part from Webb eta!. (1985, 1989) and Webb and Bollich (1980).
Dual-purpose and specialty U.S. rices

U.S. production of dual-purpose and specialty-type rice varieties is lim-
ited, but their production is important to specific segments of the rice
industry. Interest in dual-purpose and specialty-type rices appears to be
increasing among broader segments of the rice industry.
Newrex/Rexmont-type rice represents the first major improvement in
the inherent cooking, eating, and processing quality of southern long-grain
varieties. The types were developed (Bollich et al. 1980, 1990) to satisfy
industry's need for drier, fluffier table rice combined with improved can-
ning stability and lower wash-out losses on processing. Distinguishing
characteristics of superior N ewrex/Rexmont (Table 5-7) in comparison to
conventional southern long-grain varieties are: (1) much lower amylo-
graphic "breakdown" viscosity, higher "hot paste," and "setback" vis-
cosity; (2) significantly lower solids loss on processing, indicative of fewer
canned kernel splits and fraying, and much improved grain stability and
integrity on processing; (3) 2-4% higher amylose content; and (4) firmer
cooked-kernel texture (Webb and Bollich 1980). Alkali spreading values,
gelatinization temperature, and protein levels are similar to traditional
southern long-grain types. Although production ofNewrex/Rexmont types
is limited, the rice industry is becoming increasingly interested in devel-
oping long-grain varieties with improved processibility. The Newrex/

Rexmont type is the forerunner of these improved types.
The Della types (Table 5-8) are scented (aromatic) long-grains pro-
duced in limited amounts as specialty rice. They give off an aroma on
cooking like that of popcorn or roasted nuts and have flavorful nutty tastes
similar to the highly prized Basmati class of rices of Pakistan and India.
Della does not, however, possess the extreme cooked-kernel elongation
tendency of true Basmati types. Cooking, eating, and processing charac-
teristics of Della types are similar to those of traditional southern long-
grain varieties and, in addition, combine the aromatic taste and flavor.
Jasmine aromatic (scented) rices (Table 5-8) are recently introduced
types similar in taste and aroma to Della, but they are softer and more
clingy in texture. Jasmine types are characterized by low amylose and low
gelatinization temperature like the Toro and conventional U.S. short- and
medium-grain types.
Toro types (Table 5-8) are specialty rice produced in limited amounts
for specific markets. They have the grain size and shape of other U.S.
long-grains but possess cooking and eating behaviors of U.S. short- and
medium-grain types. Toro-quality rice is used by segments of the popula-
tion who prefer the clingy cooked texture of short- and medium-grains in
long-grain types. Toro is characterized as a low-gelatinizing, low-amylose
type like those of conventional U.S. short- and medium-grain varieties.
Premium classed California medium-grain Kokuhorose types possess
physicochemical characteristics not unlike those of traditional medium-
grain types. Premium status accorded these types may be due in part
to their larger kernel, appearance, and, as yet undefined, preferential
differences in taste and flavor. Production of premium types is limited but
steadily increasing.
Specialty waxy Mochi Gome-type short-grain rice varieties (Table
5-8) are produced in limited quantities in California. They are characterized
by opaque endosperms of virtually all amylopectin starch, low gelatiniza-
tion temperatures, and relatively low amylographic peak, hot paste and
cool paste viscosities. Grains of these varieties tend to lose their shape
when cooked and are very sticky. Waxy rice is produced primarily for
specialty products, ethnic uses, and numerous commercial product formu-
lations, including rice cakes, crackers, candies, sauces, gravies, salad
dressing, desserts, pizza shells, and batter dips for fried chicken. Waxy
varieties are interchangeable in many waxy-rice products whereas, in
other products such as mochi cake, the Mochi Gome variety is preferred.
Factors responsible for differences in preferences are not identified.
It is emphasized that producers, processors, and distributors of spe-
cialty rice practice extreme caution in keeping them separate to avoid
Table 5-8. Physicochemical (Quali1y) Characteristics of U.S. Aromatic, Waxy, Toro, and L202 Type Rices
COOKING AND PROCESSING TYPE
AROMATIC (SCENTED)
Milled Rice
Characteristics Della U.S. Jasmine Waxy Taro L202
Grain type Long Long Short Long Long
Apparent amylose content, % 21-23 15-18 <1 15-18 25-28
Alkali spreading value, average 3-4 6-7 6-7 5.5-7 4-7
Gelatinization temperature type Intb Low Low Low Low/Int
Gelatinization temperature," oc 69-72 - 59-63 64-68
Protein (N x 5.95), % 6-8 6-8 6-8 6-8 6-8
Parboil-canning stability, solids loss, % 20-23 >30 >30 >30 20-23
Amylographic paste viscosity, Buc
Peak 650-850 700-900 250-450 700-900 300-400
Hot 350-400 350-400 100-200 350-400 250-300
Cool 650-850 650-800 250-350 650-800 600-800
Breakdown 300-400 350-450 100-150 250-450 100-150
Setback -50-+ 150 -200--50 -100--50 -300--50 +250-+400
aAmylographic gelatinization temperature. b Intermediate. c BU = Brabender Units.
Source: Results of tests conducted at the Regional Rice Quality Laboratory, Beaumont, TX; adapted in part from Webb et al. (1985, 1989).
0
"
mixing with conventional U.S. cooking, eating, and processing types of

rice.
U.S. Rice Standards and Grades

United States Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b) and Rice Inspection
Handbook (USDA 1982 with changes 1982-1990) provide a means for the
orderly marketing of rough rice, brown rice for processing, and milled rice
by grades. Although grades are useful tools, they do not, nor were they
intended to, provide a sufficiently refined classification of rice to satisfy
all quality requirements of the rice industry. Thus, many processors pur-
chase rice on a grade basis plus additional quality factors specific for
particular products. For detailed step-by-step instructions and procedures
for establishing grade on a particular lot of rice by U.S. standards, readers
should consult current United States Standards for Rice and the Rice
Inspection Handbook, with its updated changes covering sampling, inspec-
tion, certification, and grading.
Factors affecting grade of rice, including grain type, chalkiness, and
milling yield are discussed in previous sections of this chapter. Other
equally significant factors involved in establishing rice grades include
moisture content, color, degree of milling, dockage (impurities), damaged
kernels, odors, red rice, and seeds or kernels of any plant other than rice.
Since these latter grading factors are adequately defined and described in
United States Standards for Rice and Rice Inspection Handbook, only
limited discussions are included here. The official U.S. rice designations
as to type, kinds, classes, and numerical grades are summarized in
Table 5-9.
Moisture content
Moisture content affects rice quality in several ways. Of particular impor-
tance is its effect on keeping quality in all forms of rice. Sound, dry rice
can be maintained for years if properly stored, but wet rice will spoil in
only a few days. Rough-rice moisture contents of 13% are commonly
accepted as safe levels for less than 6 months' storage, whereas 12% is
recommended for long-term storage (reviewed by Spadaro et al. 1980;
Kunze and Calderwood 1985). Moisture contents of rough rice, brown rice
for processing and milled rice, in excess of 14, 14.5, and 15%, respectively,
are designated as sample grade under U.S. standards (Tables 5-10-5-12).
Of equal significance are effects of moisture content on milling yield
in rice. To gain and maintain optimum milling quality, rice must be har-
vested at recommended moisture contents, dried carefully to safe storage
RICE QUALI1Y AND GRADES 109
Table 5-9. U.S. Official Designations for Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Rice
CLASSES AND TYPES
Rough Brown Milled Brokens (milled)

Long-grain Long-grain Long-grain Second heads
Medium-grain Medium-grain Medium-grain Screenings
Short-grain Short-grain Short-grain Brewer's
Mixed Mixed Mixed
NUMERICAL GRADES, U.S. NO.
1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
6 Sample 6 Sample
Sample Sample
SPECIAL GRADES
Parboiled Parboiled Parboiled

Smutty Smutty Coated
Infested (insects) Granulated
Undermilled
Source: Adapted from United States Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b); grade designations
for waxy (sweet rice) under consideration.
moisture levels, and stored and milled under moisture conditions suitable
for maximum milling yield.
Moisture levels in rice may adversely affect certain cooking and pro-
cessing quality characteristics, such as amylographic paste viscosity, lip-
ids, etc., as changes in these characters during storage occur more readily
in high- than in low-moisture rice. Specific moisture contents are thought
to enhance cooking and eating properties of home-boiled rice. Also, limits
on moisture levels for raw rice manufactured into specific processed prod-
ucts are specified by food manufacturers. Moisture content of rice, like
that of other grains (Zeleny 1971), is of direct economic importance since
dry matter content in rice is inversely related to grain moisture level.
Methods for measuring moisture content vary widely. Zeleny (1971)
reviewed a number of techniques broadly classed as air oven, solvent ex-
traction, electrical conductance, and electrical capacitance. Air-oven, or
vacuum-oven, procedures are basic methods for determining moisture in
rice but, when rapid results are needed, properly calibrated electric mois-
ture meters are sufficiently accurate for most control work.
....
....
0
Table 5-10. Milled Rice Grades and Requirements for U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Types
MAXIMUM LIMITS
SEEDS, HEAT
DAMAGED, AND
PADDY KERNELS
(SINGLY OR
COMBINED)
--
Heat CHALKY KERNELS
Damaged Red Rice OTHER TYPES0
Kernels and In BROKEN KERNELS
and Damaged Medium Whole
Objectionable Kernels In Long- or Short- Removed Removed Through and
Total Seeds (Singly Grain Grain by a 5 by a 6 a6 Whole Broken Minimum
Number Number Combined), Rice, Rice, Total, Plate, Plate, Sieve, Kernels, Kernels, Color Milling
Grade in500 in500 % % % % % % % % % Requirements Requirements
U.S. No. I 2 I 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 0.04 0.1 0.1 - 1.0 Shall be white Well milled
or creamy
U.S. No.2 4 2 1.5 2.0 4.0 7.0 0.06 0.2 0.2 - 2.0 Maybe Well milled
slightly gray
U.S. No.3 7 5 2.5 4.0 6.0 15.0 0.1 0.8 0.5 - 3.0 May be light Reasonably
gray well milled
U.S. No.4 20 15 4.0 6.0 8.0 25.0 0.4 2.0 0.7 - 5.0 May be gray Reasonably
or slightly well milled
rosy
U.S. No.5 30 25 6.0 10.0 10.0 35.0 0.7 3.0 1.0 10.0 May be dark Lightly
gray or rosy milled
U.S. No.6 75 75 16.0 15.0 15.0 50.0 1.0 4.0 2.0 10.0 - May be dark Lightly
gray or rosy milled
U.S. Sample U.S. Sample grade shall be milled rice of any of these classes which: (a) does not meet the requirements for any of the grades from U.S. No. I to U.S. No. 6, inclusive; (b) contains
grade more than 15.0 percent of moisture; (c) is musty, or sour, or heating; (d) has any commercially objectionable foreign odor; (e) contains more than 0.1 percent of foreign material; (f)
contains two or more live or dead weevils or other insects, insect webbing, or insect refuse; or (g) is otherwise of distinctly low quality.
aThese limits do not apply to the class Mixed Milled Rice.

Source: U.S. Standards for Rice (USDA 1989). Consult U.S. Standards for broken milled rice (second head, screenings, brewers) and for grade requirements for special grades-parboiled milled rice
coated milled rice granulated brewers milled rice, and undermilled rice.
Table 5-11. Brown Rice (for Processing) Grade and Grade Requirements for U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Types
MAXIMUM LIMITS
SEEDS AND HEAT-DAMAGED KERNELS

Red Rice and Broken Kernels
PADDY KERNELS Total Heat-Damaged Objectionable Damaged Removed by
(Singly or Combined), Kernels, Seeds, Kernels a 6 Plate
Number in Number in Number in Number in (Singly or Chalky or a 6 112 Other Well-Milled
Grade Percent 500 Grams 500 Grams 500 Grams 500 Grams Combined), % Kernels,% Sieve,% Types, %a Kernels,%
U.S. No. I 20 10 I 2 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

U.S. No.2 2.0 - 40 2 10 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0
U.S. No.3 2.0 70 4 20 4.0 6.0 3.0 5.0 10.0
U.S. No.4 2.0 - 100 8 35 8.0 8.0 4.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. No.5 2.0 - 150 15 50 15.0 15.0 6.0 10.0 10.0
U.S. Sample U.S. Sample grade shall be brown rice for processing which (a) does not meet the requirements for any of the grades from U.S. No I to U.S. No. 5, inclusive: (b) contains
grade more than 14.5 percent of moisture; (c) is musty, or sour, or heating; (d) has any commercially objectionable foreign odor; (e) contains more than 0.2 percent of related material
or more than 0.1 percent of unrelated material; (f) contains- two or more live weevils or other live insects; or (g) is otherwise of distinctly low quality.
a These limits do not apply to the class Mixed Brown Rice for Processing.
Source: U.S. Standards for Rice (USDA 1989). Consult U.S. Standards for grade requirements of special grade-parboiled and smutty brown rice for processing .
......
......
......
.....
;;3
Table 5-12. Rough Rice Grades and Grade Requirements for U.S. Long-, Medium-, and Short-Grain Types
MAXIMUM LIMITS
SEEDS AND HEAT-DAMAGED KERNELS
Heat-Damaged CHALKY KERNELS

Kernels and
Objectionable Red Rice In Medium
Total Seeds Heat-Damaged and Damaged In or
(Singly or Combined), (Singly or Combined), Kernels, Kernels Long-Grain Short-Grain Other
Number in Number in Number in (Singly or Combined), Rice, Rice, Types, Color Requirements
Grade 500 Grams 500 Grams 500 Grams % % % %a (Minimu,;,)
U.S. No. I 4 3 I 0.5 1.0 2.0 1.0 Shall be white or creamy

U.S. No.2 7 5 2 1.5 2.0 4.0 2.0 May be slightly gray
U.S. No.3 10 8 5 2.5 4.0 6.0 3.0 May be light gray
U.S. No.4 27 22 15 4.0 6.0 8.0 5.0 May be gray or slightly rosy
U.S. No.5 37 32 25 6.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 May be dark gray or rosy
U.S. No.6 75 75 75 15.0 15.0 15.0 10.0 May be dark gray or rosy
U.S. Sample U.S. Sample grade shall be rough rice which: (a) does not meet the requirements for any of the grades from U.S. No. I to U.S. No.6, inclusive; (b) contains more than
grade 14.0 percent of moisture; (c) is musty, or sour, or heating; (d) has any commercially objectionable foreign odor; or (e) is otherwise of distinctly low quality.
aThese limits do not apply to the class Mixed Rough Rice.

Source: U.S. Standards for Rice (USDA 1989). Consult U.S. Standards for grade requirements of special grade-parboiled, smutty and injested rough rice.
RICE QUALI1Y AND GRADES 113
Color and milling requirements
For milled rice, United States Standards for Rice (Table 5-10) specifies:
U.S. No. 1 grade shall be white or creamy, and shall be well milled.
U.S. No.2 may be slightly gray, and shall be well milled. U.S. No.3
may be light gray, and shall be at least reasonably well milled. U.S.
No. 4 may be gray or slightly rosy, and shall be at least reasonably
well milled. U.S. No.5 and No.6 may be dark gray or rosy and shall
be at least slightly milled.
Colors of raw milled rice range from white to dark gray or rosy, whereas
parboiled rice (USDA, 1989b) is graded "parboiled light" "parboiled,"
and ''parboiled dark.'' As stated previously, color and general appearance
in rice is used interchangeably and usually determined subjectively by
close visual examination. Numerous attempts were made using optical
devices to measure color and degree of milling in rice, but none are entirely
satisfactory.
Degree of Milling
Exent of bran layer and germ removal from the endosperm is referred to
as degree of milling. United States Standards for Rice (Tables 5-10-5-12)
specify three degrees of milling: well milled, reasonably well milled, and
lightly milled. At present, degree of milling is determined subjectively
by visual comparison to appropriate interpretive line samples by trained
inspectors. Simple, rapid, reliable, and objective measures of milling de-
gree are needed, but none of the many proposed are generally acceptable.
Hogan and Deobald (1961, 1965), Stermer (1968), and Webb and Stermer
(1972) reviewed many proposed chemical and optical methods. Near-
infrared (NIR) reflectance analysis and nuclear-magnetic-resonance
(NMR) (Pomeranz et al. 1975) were investigated as measures of degree
of milling in rice; and Barber and Barber (1976) and Bhattacharya and
Sowbhagya (1976) propose approaches based on staining techniques. One
of the most used, although time-consuming, methods is the modified sur-
face lipid procedure of Hogan and Deobald (1961).
Dockage
According to United States Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b; USDA 1982
with changes 1982-1990):
dockage shall be any matter other than rice which can be readily
removed from rough rice by use of appropriate sieves and cleaning
devices, and underdeveloped, shriveled, and small pieces of kernels
of rough rice removed in properly separating dockage and which

cannot be recovered by properly rescreening and recleaning.
Other impurities difficult to remove because of size, shape, and density

similar to rice are classed as objectionable materials, including metal and
glass fragments and certain weed seeds. Recommended equipment for
removing dockage is the Carter Dockage Tester (USDA 1982 with changes
1982-1990).
Damaged kernels
United States Standards for Rice defines damaged kernels as "whole or

broken kernels of rice which are distinctly discolored or damaged by
water, insects, heat, or any other means, and whole or large broken kernels
of parboiled rice in nonparboiled rice." Kernels damaged by heat are
classed as "heat-damaged" because heat damage is considered more seri-
ous than other kinds of kernel damage. "Heat-damaged" kernels are
defined (USDA 1989b) as "whole or large broken kernels of rice which
are materially discolored and damaged as a result of heating, and whole
or large broken kernels of parboiled rice in nonparboiled rice which are as
dark as, or darker in color than, the interpretive line for heat-damaged
kernels." Visual inspection by trained inspectors is the only reliable
method available for determining amounts and type of damaged kernels
in rice. Effects of damaged kernels on rice grade are shown in Tables
5-10-5-12.
Distinctly discolored kernels, regardless of source of discoloration,
are considered by parboilers and other processors as "peckiness" or
"pecky" rice. In parboiled rice, "peck" is serious (Robinson et al. 1988)
because parboiling tends to intensify discoloration of damaged kernels,
which must ultimately be removed, usually by electronic color sorter,
from the finished products.
Odors
Off-odors in rice severely affect grade (Tables 5-10-5-12). United States

Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b) specifies that rice that is musty or sour,
or that has any commercially objectionable foreign odor, shall be graded
U.S. sample grade. According to Rice Inspection Handbook (USDA 1982
with changes 1982-1990), musty or sour odors include earthy, moldy
ground odors; insect odors; rancid odors; and sharp, acrid odors. Commer-
cially objectional foreign odors include odors of fertilizers, hides, oil prod-
ucts, skunk, smoke, and decaying animal and vegetable matter. Trained
inspectors subjectively determine the type and severity of odors in rice,
preferably while sampling.
Red rice
By definition, United States Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b) classifies

red rice as kernels and pieces of kernels of rice distinctly red in color or
having appreciable amounts of red bran. Red rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a
severe problem plaguing the U.S. rice industry. It is a serious pest on large
acreages in southern rice-growing states. Its growing habits are similar to
cultivated varieties, but it readily shatters after maturity. Seeds have the
ability to retain their viability even when buried in soil for many years.
Red rice is objectionable because red bran is not completely removed in
regular milling, which detracts from the general appearance of conven-
tional rice and results in reduced market values. Current United States
Standards for Rice (Tables 5-10-5-12) specifies that a rice kernel be classi-
fied as red if it has a streak of red bran one-half or more of the kernel
length or two or more streaks that total one-half or more of the length of the
kernel. Determinations of red rice for grading purposes are accomplished
visually by trained rice inspectors. A chemical confirmatory test is also
available. (Louisiana State Seed Testing Lab 1980). Color sorters are
efficient in removing red rice from regular white rice if substantial amounts
of bran adheres to the grain but are mostly inefficient in removing red rice
having only light streaks of bran remaining.
Chalkiness
United States Standards for Rice (USDA 1989b) defines chalky grains as
those that are one-half or more chalky. Chalky grains are important grading
factors (Table 5-10). Type of chalk (location of chalky areas on or in the
endosperm), as well as amount of chalk, is important to processors because
certain types of chalk affect quality of processed products more than
others.
Seeds and objectionable seeds
Seeds or grains, either whole or broken, of plants other than rice are
classed as seeds. Objectionable seeds are those difficult to remove by
screening, sieving, or aspiration because of their likeness to rice in size,
shape, and density. Objectionable seeds include the senna family, Sor-
ghum almum Parodi and Aeschynomene virginica L., B.S.P. Seeds sig-
nificantly affect rice grades (Tables 5-10-5-12).
Special and numerical grades
Parboiled, smutty, weevily, coated, granulated, brewer's, and undermilled

rice (see Table 5-9) are listed in United States Standards for Rice (USDA
1989b) as special grades for various types and classes of rough, brown,
and milled rice. These are additional factors that describe conditions or
processing treatments of rice. Coated milled rice is rice that is coated,
whole or in part, with safe and suitable substances in line with commer-
cially acceptable practice. Granulated brewer's rice is rice that is crushed
or granulated to specified sizes. Parboiled rice is rice in which starch is
gelatinized by soaking, steaming, and drying. Smutty rice includes whole
or broken grains of rice distinctly infected by smut. Numerical grades for
both regular and special grades are determined by trained inspectors based
on size of whole and broken grains, uniformity, cleanliness, damage,
general appearance, infestation, and odor.
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of evaluating parboil-canning stability of rice. Cereal Chern. 47:708-714.
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Davis, CA: Univ. of California, pp. 61-62.
Webb, B. D., and Stermer, R. A. 1972. Criteria of rice quality. In Rice: Chemistry
and Technology, 1st ed., edited by D. F. Houston. St. Paul, MN: AACC, pp.
102-123.
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K. S. 1985. Utilization characteristics and qualities of United States rices. In
Symposium on Rice Grain Quality and Marketing, Los Banos, Philippines:
IRRI, pp. 25-35.
Webb, B. D., Bollich, C. N., Jackson, B. R., Tseng, S. T., and Petersen, H. D.
1990. Kernel to kernel variation in physicochemical quality characteristics on
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Webb, B. D., Bollich, C. N., Jodon, N. E., Johnston, T. H., and Bowman, D. H.
1972. Evaluating the milling, cooking and processing characteristics required
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tion in United States breeding programs. In Proceedings of the Workshop on
Chemical Aspects of Rice Grain Quality. Los Banos, Philippines: IRRI, pp.
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6
Quick-Cooking Rice
Bor S. Luh
Ordinary milled rice requires 20-30 min to cook to a satisfactory culinary

acceptability. In some instances, the rice is soaked, washed, and steamed,
requiring a total attention time of about 1 hr. The relatively long prepara-
tion time has restricted rice consumption in the United States. Thus, effort
has been directed toward development of quick-cooking rice to reduce the
cooking time.
Various rice varieties yield cooked rice of different textural character-
istics (Juliano and Sakurai 1985; Juliano 1990). Variations in recipes also
have a significant effect on the texture, flavor, and acceptability of the
cooked rice.
The quality of quick-cooking rice developed over the past few years
has varied considerably. For example, instant rice has been utilized by
reconstituting dehydrated rice as an emergency food in Japan. However,
several disadvantages have been encountered with this rice: (1) the cook-
ing method is not popular and the cooking time is more than 20 min; (2)
the cooked rice grains tend to crumble and do not taste like conventionally
cooked rice; and (3) the cost per meal is higher than regular rice.
Quick-cooking rice should be cooked within 5 min, and the cooking
method should be simple. After cooking, the product should match the
characteristic flavor, taste, and texture of conventionally cooked rice. The
121
Figure 6-1. Varieties of instant rice available. (Courtesy of Food Industry Research
and Development Institute, Hsinchu, Taiwan.)
rice must be easily processed in mass quantities and must possess good
keeping quality.
The Nissin Food Company in Osaka, Japan, has developed an instant
"Cup Rice," which can meet most of the conditions mentioned above.
The rice is precooked under high pressure and temperature and then
dehydrated. The product can be reconstituted with boiling water within 5
min in a polystyrene cup. Today, there are many kinds of instant rice
products available on the market (Fig. 6-1).
Quick-cooking rice is precooked and gelatinized to some extent in
water, steam, or both. The cooked or partially cooked rice is usually dried
in such a manner as to retain the rice grains in a porous and open-structured
condition. The finished product should consist of dry, individual kernels,
substantially free oflumps or aggregates, and have approximately 1.5-3.0
times the bulk volume of the raw rice. The boiling water used in the final
preparation of the rice should penetrate the rice grains in a relatively short
time.
Many quick-cooking rice products, although varying in texture, bulk
volume, appearance, taste, and performance qualities, are designed spe-
cifically for certain consumer uses. Some quick-cooking rice for special
applications, such as in dry soup mixes, casseroles, or other dry food
mixtures that have certain rehydration time requirements, were designed
to be compatible with the other ingredients in the mix. Quick-cooking,
QUICK-COOKING RICE 123
rehydratable rice pilaf forms part of the standard vital flight-test menu of
the U.S. space shuttle orbiter (Bourland et al. 1981).
TYPES OF QUICK-COOKING RICE
Difference in moisture levels, precooking times and temperatures, drying

conditions, and other processing variables can produce various types of
quick-cooking rice. These range from relatively undercooked rice, requir-
ing 10-15 min of "cooking," or a good-quality "table" rice requiring a 5-
min preparation time, such as Minute Rice, to a variety that can be hy-
drated in several seconds to a minute or two. The last type yields a fairly
mushy product when boiled. Some of these are marketed as ready-to-eat
breakfast cereals.
Some consumers prefer long-grain, light, fluffy, or slightly dry individ-
ual kernels of rice, with typical cooked-rice flavor, having essentially no
gritty or hard, uncooked centers. This has been the target for most quick-
cooking rice development over the past 20-30 years. A notable exception
to this is that, in Japan and China, people prefer short-grain rice, which is
somewhat pasty and sticky when cooked. In fact, as rice gradually be-
comes "drier" (when cooked) with time in storage after harvesting and
milling, the short-grain type may become too dry and nonpasty for Japa-
nese textural preference, to the extent that "waxy" or "sweet" rice may
be added in small amounts to increase the pastiness. Short-grain rice merits
commercial interest in developing and marketing a quick-cooking rice.
The types of quick-cooking rice are presented in Table 6-1 (Hsu 1990).
Among the six types of products listed, completely precooked rice should
be used in cup and standing form because no further cooking of these
products is necessary during preparation, whereas the other four types
could use either completely or partially precooked rice products (Hsu
1990). Except for the standing-type commercial product, all others usually
contain seasoning mix. As for quality consistency, cup and standing types
give consistent quality in the finished dish because no real cooking is
involved, whereas the others may vary, especially simmering and saute/
simmering types. The saute/simmering type gives a Chinese fried-rice
texture and appearance, whereas boil-in-bag products eliminate the prob-
lem of boiled rice sticking to the pot during regular preparation. Micro-
wave-type products are most convenient because of their short preparation
time (microwave heating time is about one-fourth of regular stove-top
heating), but this type of product also has its shortcomings, among them:
1. Because of variations in power, type, and structure of microwave

Table 6-1. Types of Quick-Cooking Rice

Types Preparation Methods Commercial Products
Cup Add hot or boiling water to the rice Nissin's Cup Rice
in cup; let stand 1-5 min
Standing Bring water to a boil; stir in rice; Kraft-General Foods' Minute
cover, and remove from heat; let Rice
stand 5-7 min
Simmering Bring water and rice to a boil; Lipton's Rice & Sauce and
reduce heat; simmer covered or Uncle Ben's products
uncovered 5-10 min
Saute/simmering Over low heat, stir rice with butter, Uncle Ben's Suzi Wan
margarine, or oil until coated; then products
add water; bring to a boil; cover,
and simmer 10 min
Boil-in-bag Boil rice (packaged in perforated Riviana's Success products
bag) in water for 10 min.
Microwave Place certain amount of rice and MJB's and Kraft-General
water in a dish, and heat in Foods' microwave products
microwave oven for 5-10 min.
ovens used (for example, some have a rotating feature), the cooking
results vary, and adjustment of cooking conditions is needed.
2. Limited amounts of rice (and water) should be cooked because of
the size limit of cooking dishes used in microwave ovens. Also,
because microwave cooking time is related to the amount of rice
and water cooked, if too much product is cooked and the cooking
time exceeds 10 min, the benefit of short cooking time is reduced.
Larger quantities of rice can be cooked by standing or simmering
types without significant increase in cooking time. Thus, micro-
wave-type products are usually limited to single-serving portions,
with cooking time less than 7 min.
3. A cooking dish with optimum size, depth, and shape is needed to
accommodate the amount of rice and water used; this ensures
surface coverage of the rice by a minimum amount of water, as
well as the shortest heating time. An oval or round dish offers more
uniform cooking than a square one and a shallow, large surface
area is better than a dish with a deep, small area. The dish material
is usually polyester-coated paperboard, which can be used in both
microwave and regular electric ovens (so-called dual-ovenable).
4. Foaming and spillage of products sometimes occur during micro-
wave heating; addition of butter, margarine, oil, seasoning mix,
and an optimum amount of water and rice can reduce spillage.
Practically all quick-cooking rice processes described in patents empha-

size the treatment of the rice. Efforts have been made to improve milling
characteristics and yields, to remove surface fats, to improve storage
stability, and to enhance flavor by parching the grain. Some of these
processes improve nutritional quality by infusing the surface vitamins
from the bran and aleurone layers into the endosperm (Mickus and Brewer,
1957; Roberts et al. 1951; Roberts, 1952a,b; Sotelo et al. 1990). This latter
treatment has been developed to form products now commonly known as
parboiled rice, which is the subject of Chapter 4 of this book.
QUICK-COOKING PROCESSES
Many quick-cooking rice products and processes have been developed

and patented during the past 40 years. More than 10 different approaches
have been used, plus several combinations of these and numerous equip-
ment design modifications. Among the several processes and products
developed in the past, the following are the commercially useful quick
cooking processes reviewed by Roberts 1972; Luh 1980; Roberts et al.
1980; and Juliano and Sakurai 1985.
1. Raw milled white rice is soaked to 30% moisture, cooked in hot
water to 50-60% moisture, with or without steaming. The product is
further boiled or steamed to increase the moisture content to 60-70% and
then dried carefully to 8-14% moisture to maintain a porous structure. A
significant modification of the procedure is a dry-heat pretreatment to
fissure the grains prior to cooking and drying.
2. Rice is soaked, boiled, steamed, or pressure-cooked to gelatinize
the grain thoroughly, dried at a low temperature to yield fairly dense glassy
grains, then expanded or puffed at a high temperature to produce the
desired porous structure.
3. Rice is pregelatinized, rolled, or "bumped" to flatten the grains and
dried to a relatively hard, glassy product.
4. Rice is exposed to a blast of hot air at 65-82°C for 10-30 min, or at
272°C for 18 sec, to dextrinize, fissure, or expand the grains. No boiling
or steaming is applied. The product cooks in less time than untreated
grains.
5. Rice is precooked, then frozen, thawed, and dried. This procedure
combines the hydration and gelatinization steps 1-3, plus the critical steps
of freezing and thawing before drying.
6. Gun-puffing is a combination of preconditioning the rice to 20-22%
moisture followed by steam cooking in a retort at 3.5-5.5 kg/cm 2 for 5-10
min. Then the product is puffed to atmospheric pressure or into a vacuum.
The optimum terminal condition is at 165°C at 20-25% moisture levels.
7. To freeze-dry cooked rice, the cooked rice is cooled and then frozen
in a blast freezer. The water is removed by sublimation.
8. Chemical treatments with sodium chloride, disodium phosphate, or
food-grade surfactant reduce clumping.
9. Two or more of the above may be combined.
10. Miscellaneous procedures include those used for rice freezing (Luh
and Liu 1980).
The Soak-Boil-Steam-Dry Methods

The first process for a quick-cooking rice was the Ozai-Durrani (1948)
method used by General Foods to make Minute Rice.
First, the milled white rice is soaked in water at room temperature
(see Table 6-2). The moisture content of the rice is increased to 30%. The
rice is next boiled 8-10 min until the moisture content has increased to
65-70%. Mter draining, cooling, and washing in cold water for 1-2 min,
the rice is spread on screens to be dried. A chamber with forced air at an
inlet temperature of 140°C and an air velocity through the grain of 200ft/
min is used to bring the final moisture content of the rice to 8-14%. The
drying conditions are critical in that the temperature should be fairly high,
at least initially, so that moisture is removed from the surfaces of the grain
at a rate sufficiently faster than it can diffuse from their interiors. This
process sets a porous structure into the grain.
The precooked rice is dried in two or more successive steps, usually
at gradually decreasing temperatures. When treated according to the Ozai-
Durrani process, the dry precooked rice grains are enlarged to about twice
their original volume. The product, referred to as Minute Rice I, requires
10-13 min preparation time.
Roberts (1952a, 1955) developed another process of this type (Table
6-2). The rice is soaked in water at room temperature and then boiled in
water for 1-3 min so that the moisture is increased to about 45-55%. With
the boiling time and moisture uptake limited, the rice grains remain intact,
with little or no sloughing of surface starch. Drying is done in two stages.
Initially, the air temperature is set at about 200°C. The rice is further
gelatinized by the high heat and the surface of the grains quickly dried and
hardened so that the grains remain in a porous condition. Some puffing
occurs simultaneously, forming a number of small, uniform voids through-
out the rice grains. The precooked rice is placed in a drying chamber in
which hot air is forced at a velocity high enough to suspend the rice in the
air over a screen or porous plate. Drying at this high temperature is held
for only 1-3 min to prevent scorching the grain while still puffing and
setting the structure. The temperature is next reduced to about 100°C to
Table 6-2. Some Procedures Used in Preparation of Quick-Cooking Rice
SOAK BOILING H20
First Stage Second Stage
Temp., Moist., Time, Moist., Drying Drying Final
Method Time oc % min % Steam Freeze Temp. Temp. Moist.,%
Ozai-Durrani ***a 25- 30 8-10 65- - - 140°C - 8-14
(1948) 60°C 70
Roberts *** 25- 30 1-3 45- - - 200°C, 1oooc 10-15
(1952a) 60 55 1-3
min.
Roberts 30- 20- 25- - - IO- - 35- 200- 8-14
(1955) 60 min 65 35 15 psig, 100°C 260°C,
5-20 to I min
min 8-14%
Keneaster 16 hr 27 *** 50- ***a - 2-3°C, 37- - 6
& Newlin 60 then -18°C 40°C
(1957) for 4 hr
Yasumatsu 0.5- IO- 25- - - atm, - 30- 200- 8-20
eta!. 16 hr 50 35 5 min toooc 400°C,
(1971) 1-10 20- 45- -1 hr 5-30
min 70 60 atm sec
15
min-
2 hr
aStep not included in process. b Information not given.
Source: Lethem (1976).
r;J
'-I
complete the drying of the rice to about 10-15% moisture. The product
can be prepared for serving in about 5 min.
Various researchers at General Foods devoted efforts toward devel-
oping new and improved quick-cooking rice products. Two patents were
granted to Campbell and Hollis (1954a, 1954b) and one to Shuman and
Stanley (1954). These patents pretreat the raw-rice grains to develop nu-
merous small cracks or fissures throughout the kernels prior to any soaking
or cooking treatment. This "fissuring" effect is believed to facilitate a
subsequent cooking operation by allowing more rapid penetration of mois-
ture to the interior of the kernels. Thus, the soaking time and the boiling
or steaming times required for proper gelatinization are decreased, with a
consequent increase in yield. The dry volume of the finished product is
increased, and the product requires less time to prepare for serving.
Flynn and co-workers (1955, 1961) described an improved process in
which rice is hydrated in stages and gelatinized to various degrees at an
intermediate stage of hydration by heating to above the gelatinization
temperature in the absence of excess water. For example, rice is soaked
in water to a moisture content of about 25-30%, then resoaked in water
at 38-88°C to a moisture content of 60-70%. The rice is drained, rinsed,
and suitably dried to maintain a light, porous structure. A compression or
"bumping" step is suggested as an intermediate stage between steaming
and resoaking to further modify the structure and reduce the resoaking
time. A patent was issued to Hollis et al. (1958) for a quick-cooking process
that embodied most of the significant and practical quality improvements
and the processing steps disclosed in the earlier patents. The discussion
reveals that the fissuring process, followed by either steam-cooking or
water-cooking, has several advantages over the initial Ozai-Durrani pa-
tent. The soaking time prior to gelatinization is decreased or possibly
eliminated. The precooking time is decreased, with a consequent increase
in yield, and the dry volume of the product is increased. Most important,
the time required for preparation of the finished product for serving is
significantly reduced. A specific example of processing steps is as follows.
Raw milled white Blue Bonnet rice is heated in dry air (usually forced
draft) at about 93°C for about 15 min. The fissured rice grains are then
immersed in water at 92°C and cooked for about 11 min. The moisture
content increases to about 60% at this stage. The water-cooked rice is then
steamed at atmospheric pressure for 10 min. At the end of this period, the
rice has undergone uniform and substantially complete gelatinization and
has a moisture content of about 70%. The rice is next washed in cold water
for about 2 min to halt the cooking process and to remove any foreign
material. The rice is then drained and placed on a continuous conveyor
belt in a layer about 1 in. thick. The rice is passed through a forced-air
drier, where air at 121°C is forced upward and downward through the bed
of rice at a velocity of 175 ftlmin. This process is believed to be the one

used for Minute Rice II, an improved and quicker-cooking rice, that can
be prepared for serving in about 5 min.
In another of Ozai-Durrani's methods (1956a,b) for making quick-
cooking white, brown, or parboiled rice, the rice is soaked to about 30%
moisture and then cooked by blasting with high-pressure steam. Pressure
in the chamber is maintained at 5-10 psi for about 5-15 min. The precooked
rice, at about 35% moisture, is dried at 60°C to about 10-14% moisture.
The product is said to be recooked by boiling for 5-10 min, and then
allowed to stand in a covered pan for 10 min.
Carcassonne-Leduc (1963) obtained a patent for precooking rice,
beans, lentils, tapioca, semolina, and corn. The process appears to be
useful in cooking large quantities of farinaceous foods for commercial use.
The quick-cooking rice treatment-soak, boil, steam, and dry-is similar
to earlier disclosures.
Autrey and Lynn (1965) patented a process in which white, brown, or
parboiled rice is hydrated, cooked, and dried to yield quick-cooking rice.
The main departure from prior work is the thermal cycling treatment. This
involves alternately heating dry raw rice, cooking it, and reheating it again
through three or more cycles. The process creates rifts and crevices during
heating and compression as well as cracks during cooling. During the
second heating, it enlarges the crevices whereby the rice grains are ren-
dered highly permeable and absorptive. The remaining steps of soaking,
cooking, and drying are similar to the previously discussed patents.
Yasumatsu et al. (1971) used a two-step soak-steam method to gelati-
nize the starch (Table 6-2). After the rice is soaked and steamed at atmo-
spheric pressure, it is soaked a second time in water containing an edible
oil and surfactant. The product is then steamed to gelatinize the starch
completely. The oil is used to ensure grain separation after steaming and
during the drying operation. The rice is dried at 30-100°C until the moisture
content is between 8 and 20%; then the temperature is raised to 200-400°C
for 5-30 sec.
The soaking step provides an inexpensive method for increasing the
moisture content of the raw rice. The speed of water penetration and the
amount of water absorbed by the soaked rice may differ with the varieties
used, extent of milling, storage duration after milling, and temperature of
the soaking water. In general, soft rice, highly milled rice, and higher
water temperature enhance water absorption. Li et al. (1976) have mea-
sured water absorption in rice. Table 6-3 shows that a long soaking time
facilitates the uptake of water. For a given soaking time, an increase in
temperature results in an increase in hydration. Soaking for 30-60 min
appears sufficient to reach the equilibrium state.
Gelatinization of starch granules is one of the two key steps in the
Table 6-3. Rate of Water Absorption by Rice

Soaking WATER ABSORPTION, %
Time,
min 26°C 36°C 52°C
15 21.3 22.7 25.3
30 26.7 26.7 28.0
60 27.3 27.3 28.0
quick-cooking process. Fully cooked and ready-to-serve white rice is

completely gelatinized. Since gelatinization of the starch is irreversible, it
would be necessary only to rehydrate fully gelatinized dried rice to prepare
it for serving. In terms of preparation time for serving, fully gelatinized
dried rice takes about 5 min, whereas partially gelatinized rice takes 10-15
min to finish cooking.
Drying conditions are also very critical. The porous structure must
be maintained during drying to facilitate the penetration of water upon
rehydration.
Expanded and Pregelatinized Rice

Roberts (1955) patented a process (Table 6-2) in which raw milled white
rice is soaked to increase the moisture to about 30%. The product is
steamed under pressure at about 10-15 psi for 5-20 min and then dried at
a fairly low temperature to a moisture content of 8-14%. The grains
shrink to a dense glassy structure in contrast to the light, porous structure
obtained by the high-temperature drying process. Finally, the rice is ex-
panded or puffed in hot-air steam at 200-260°C. The velocity of the air-
steam must be sufficient to tumble the rice grains and suspend them while
puffing takes place. In one example, pregelatinized white rice dried to
about 10% moisture was expanded in 12 sec in an air blast at 250°C to a
volume about four times that of the raw rice. This light, porous product
could be prepared for serving in 2-3 min. The process was commercialized
and marketed as a flavored rice dish or casserole-type product.
Wayne (1963b) heated dry parboiled rice or dry pregelatinized white or
brown rice in a fluidizing gas stream at temperatures between 150-455°C. It
is a continuous process in which previously gelatinized dry rice is moved
through a fluidized or air-suspension gas stream. The expanded kernels
are separated from the line through a cyclone.
Mickus and Brewer (1957) described a method for tenderizing par-
boiled rice. The dry parboiled rice is heated in a hot-air blast or an electric
field to expand or puff the grains to yield either a quick-cooking rice or a
breakfast cereal.
Brooks et al. (1982) of General Foods received a patent for processing

quick-cooking rice. It is an improved process for preparing a fully gelati-
nized rice. Rice is cooked in an inclined enclosed chamber in hot water in
a first zone at the low end and is steamed in a second zone at the raised
end. Transfer locks permit continuous pressure operation. The rice re-
moved from the transfer lock at the raised end has a moisture content of
30-75%, and its starch is fully gelatinized. The cooked rice is preferably
dryed in a conventional drier. The process allows preparation of fully
gelatinized rice with less energy consumption, less product weight losses,
and decreased effluents requiring further treatment than the conventional
processes.
The Rolling or "Bumping" Treatment

Another process for making quick-cooking rice involves rolling, compress-
ing, or "bumping" to produce a thin cross section or cracks, with a
resultant increase in the rate of moisture absorption during preparation
for serving.
In Ozai-Durrani's patent (1956a,b), either parboiled rice or pregelati-
nized rice is soaked in water, steamed, or both, to increase the moisture
to a predetermined level. Pregelatinized rice at a moisture content of 40%
or less is then compressed to 30-80% of its original thickness and dried to
10-14% moisture at a relatively high temperature so that the grains are
somewhat porous. In some cases, the rice is soaked before compression;
in others, the rice is soaked after compression.
A Unilever Ltd. patent (1957) described the preparation of quick-
cooking rice for use in dry soup mixes. The steps of soaking, gelatinizing,
compressing, and drying are similar to those disclosed by Ozai-Durrani.
The drying temperature, however, is quite low so that the grains collapse
to a hard, glassy texture rather than a porous one. The relatively quick-
cooking quality of this product is due to the thin cross section.
Seltzer's patent (1959a,b) described a compression treatment in detail.
The first patent involves a pressure-cooking and pregelatinizing treatment,
whereas the second involves utilization of the starch. These processes
yield a specialized product for use in dry soup mixes.
Dry-Heat Treatments
Alexander (1954) described a dry-heating process for both raw white rice
and raw brown rice in which 3-4% of the water is removed from the rice
in its natural state by circulating air at 57-82°C at 30-60 ft 3/min for 10-30
min. The process creates transverse striations in the rice grains, thus
yielding a quick-cooking product. This product has been marketed as a
quick-cooking rice and will cook in about 10 min. The effect of this dry-
heat treatment is similar to the fissuring treatment described previously,
which facilitates cooking by allowing more rapid penetration of moisture.
Bardet and Giesse (1961) described a dry-heat treatment of raw brown
rice at very high temperatures (230-315°C) to yield a quick-cooking prod-
uct. Selected processing conditions involve passing heated air at about
272°C at a velocity of about 2500 ft/min through a bed of raw brown rice
for about 17.5 sec to fracture the bran layer. Immediately thereafter, cool
air is passed through the rice to terminate any further processing treatment.
The endosperm becomes quite opaque or chalky as a result of this high-
temperature treatment. Some degree of swelling also occurs, as well as
fracturing of the surface. This product can be prepared for serving in about
15 min.
The Freeze-Thaw Process

A freeze-thaw treatment was incorporated into the previously developed
series of steps (soaking, boiling, steaming, and drying) by Keneaster and
Newlin (1957). Dry-milled parboiled rice is steeped to a point approaching
saturation by holding the rice under water for 16 hr at 27°C. The steeping
time can be reduced to about 1.5 hr by increasing the water temperature.
The rice is completely gelatinized without undue sloughing or ragged
surfaces. The hot, hydrated, and gelatinized rice is then cooled in water,
drained, and frozen. The rice is first refrigerated to the point of freezing
(0°C) and held at this temperature for 1-3 hr. During this period, large
ice crystals form, which break down the colloidal starchy structure and
produce a porous kernel. The product can thus absorb water readily during
the recooking step. Following this purposely prolonged chill-freeze step,
the rice is subjected to a rapid temperature drop sufficient to ensure
complete freezing. The frozen rice is then thawed under nondrying condi-
tions to prevent the grains from sticking together and to obtain the desired
characteristics in the final product. Thawing is done by holding the frozen
rice at room temperature or in warm air for 5 hr or longer. The thawed
product is then dried to about 43°C for not less than 3.5 hr. The conditions
may vary somewhat, especially in the accelerated thawing and drying
process. To avoid formation of vitrified rice particles in the final product,
it is necessary to control the temperature and humidity carefully during
thawing, especially when the rice is dried at temperatures ranging up to
121°C.
In another procedure, milled white rice is steeped for 2 hr at 49°C and
then boiled for 10 min to reach a moisture content of about 70%. The
cooked rice is quickly drenched in cold water to prevent further self-
cooking, drained, and carefully frozen as described above. The frozen
product is thawed in a forced-air draft at 29°C for 30 min and dried at 110°C
for 2 hr to a final moisture content of 8%. The finished product resembles
whole-grain rice, with well-rounded and unbroken kernels of good color.
The product is prepared for serving by boiling in water for 5 min.
The freeze-thaw treatment is the first effective method for producing
quick-cooking rice on a commercial scale. Uncle Ben's Quick Rice, which
is marketed successfully in the United States, is made by this method.
Ozai-Durrani's patent (1965) describes a similar freeze-thaw process
in which raw white rice is soaked and boiled or steamed (or both) to
gelatinize the starch (70% moisture), and then frozen, thawed, and dried.
Except for the compression step and the fast-freezing treatment, this
method does not differ greatly from that described by Keneaster and
Newlin (1957).
Gun-Puffing
Gun-puffing has been practiced for many years to produce breakfast cere-
als such as puffed rice, oats, corn, and wheat. In a process patented by
Carman and Allison (1953a,b), properly conditioned grain is placed in a
puffing gun. After removal of air, the pressure is increased with steam to a
moderate degree. The grain is quickly released into an expansion chamber
maintained under high vacuum. The two patents are quite similar in the
general processing steps, with the first one related to details of processing
several other cereals in addition to rice. Raw white rice is conditioned to
a moisture content of 18-26%, preferably to 20-22%. The tempered rice,
at a temperature not less than 33°C, is placed in the steaming chamber or
puffing gun, which is then tightly sealed. The pressure is reduced to about
1.5 in. of mercury (absolute) or less to remove the air and noncondensable
gases from the rice kernels in about 2 min. Steam is introduced and the
pressure maintained until the rice is substantially cooked without loss of
cellular identity. Best results are obtained by slowly increasing the pres-
sure from about 3.8 em Hg (absolute) to a final pressure of 3.49-5.60
kg/cm 2 at a uniform rate, sometimes followed by a holding period at the
final steam pressure. Examples are given that include variations in initial
steam pressure from 1.74-3.49 kg/cm2 for about 5-35 min, followed by an
increase to about 3.49-3.85 kg/cm2, with a holding time of about 15-60
sec before firing. In some cases, the pressure is increased to 3.49-3.85
kg/cm2 in a single stage and held there for 5-10 min before firing. In the
firing step, the pressure is released very quickly, i.e., the charge is fired
through a triggered door into the expansion chamber, which has a reduced
pressure of about 0.1-in. Hg. The vacuum in the expansion chamber is
maintained by continuing the evacuation during and after the expansion
of the rice. In some instances, the pressure in the expansion chamber may
rise to as high as 8.9-17.8 em Hg but is reduced to below 2.5 em before

releasing the vacuum for discharging the product. The puffed product is
further dried to below 15% moisture to maintain desired storage stability.
The finished product can be recooked in about 5 min.
Grains of gun-puffed rice may not be uniform in texture. This effect
is believed to be caused by the noninstantaneous release of pressure from
one end of the pressure chamber to the other as the product discharges
through the triggered door or breach. The advantages for producing quick-
cooking rice by gun-puffing are, high yields, simple manipulations, small
capital investments, and readily available equipment.
Quick-cooking rice can be produced by gun-puffing provided that the
degree of enlargement is no more than two to three times the original size
of the raw-rice grains. In making puffed ready-to-eat breakfast cereals,
the final temperatures in the puffing chamber are distinctly lower, and the
moisture contents of the rice are considerably higher than usual. These
final conditions just prior to firing are referred to as the terminal tempera-
ture and moisture conditions. The rice is subjected to a water-vapor pres-
sure equal to the pressure of saturated steam at the particular terminal
temperature selected. Additional pressure achieved by introducing air or
an inert gas will serve no useful purpose. When terminal conditions are
reached, it is desirable to release the pressure to atmospheric pressure.
The terminal conditions of rice temperature and moisture employed
in carrying out the process are shown in Fig. 6-2 in which the terminal
moisture content of the rice is plotted against its terminal temperature.
Regardless of the moisture content, no puffing of any useful degree is
obtained at terminal rice temperatures below 163°C. At the conditions
designated by D, the product obtained is a mixture of quick-cooking rice
and highly puffed ready-to-eat breakfast cereal. Conditions in the area
designated byE, characterized by relatively lower terminal rice moisture
content and relatively higher terminal rice temperatures, yield a highly
enlarged puffed product for breakfast cereals. Conditions particularly use-
ful are found in areas C1 and C2 • The conditions designated by area C1 are
most desirable. The product provided by the conditions under area C2 has
a generally soft texture but is a satisfactory product. The general public is
believed to prefer the somewhat firmer product made under conditions of
area cl.
The terminal moisture is established by soaking the raw white rice in
water, followed by a tempering step, by condensation of steam on the rice
within the puffing chamber, or by a combination of both. The preferred
terminal moisture levels are about 25-30%. Similarly, the. terminal temper-
ature is achieved either by introduction of steam (preferred method), by
external heating of the puffing gun through applying a gas flame to the
outer surface, or by a combination of both. Rice produced under the
370
360
E
350 8
u.'
0
w-
a: 340
:::) D
1-
<C
a:
w
D.
::iE
w 330
1-
..J
------
<C
z A
::iE 320
a:
w
1-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
TERMINAL MOISTURE CONTENT, PERCENT

Figure 6-2. Relationship of terminal temperature and terminal moisture content
to the qualiiy of gun-puffed rice. (From C.E. Flynn et al., Patent no.
2969288.)
preferred conditions is ready for serving in 5 min after adding excess

boiling water.
Freeze-Drying
Preparation of quick-cooking rice by freeze-drying fully cooked rice has
been explored. Generally, the process has been considered more expen-
sive than the product made by hot-air drying or puffing. An improved
and somewhat more economical freeze-drying approach was patented by
Wayne (1963a,b). His method combines an initial freeze-drying step with
a finish drying in hot air at atmospheric pressure. Variations in freezing

treatment, and freeze-drying at different or dynamic pressure and tempera-
ture conditions, are given, with or without a final drying at atmospheric
pressure.
In the processes disclosed by Wayne, rice is first cooked to the desired
extent. The product is frozen by contact with chilled plates within the
vacuum chamber or by direct contact with a refrigerant, such as liquid
nitrogen. The frozen rice is then sent into the freeze-drying chamber.
Efficiency in time and energy is achieved by operating the freeze-drying
process at a temperature slightly below the freezing point of the product
so that moisture is sublimed at a faster rate than is usual in conventional
freeze-drying. A suggested variation is that of drying the frozen precooked
rice at atmospheric pressure by circulating dehumidified cold air through
the rice so :..s to remove moisture while keeping the rice in the frozen state.
After drying under frozen conditions to 10-20% moisture, it is further
dried in a hot-air blast at 150-315°C, which provides further voids or pores
within the product.
Although there are some novel steps in Wayne's patents, as well as
some previously disclosed treatments for quick-cooking rice, it is believed
that the overall economics could not compare favorably with those of
currently successful commercial retail and institutional products.
Chemical Treatments
The principal physical modification of rice produced by most of the meth-
ods developed thus far is that of gelatinizing the starch by application of
heat, with a gradual increase in moisture content to about 70%. Hot water,
steam, dielectric, infrared, or microwave heating methods have been ap-
plied. Certain chemical treatments may also be used to produce quick-
cooking rice.
Lewis and Lewis (1965) described a sodium chloride treatment method
to yield quick-cooking rice. The rice is impregnated with a saturated
solution of sodium chloride at about 80°C, whereby the starch is partially
gelatinized. The weight of sodium chloride solution absorbed is 25-100%
of that of the rice. Mter pasteurization, the product is resistant to attack
by vermin and microorganisms. The cooking time of the dry product is
substantially reduced. Cooking in a large volume of water reduces the salt
content to a palatable level. This method is not as good as those described
earlier.
Li et al. (1976) have described an enzyme treatment method by which
the outer layer of unhulled rice is removed while the germ is left intact.
The rice is washed and soaked in 0.3% NaOH at 40°C for 2 hr. After the
base is neutralized with hydrochloric acid, the rice is again washed with
water. Hemicellulase (10~-t/g) is next added to the treatment tank. After 2
hr at 40°C, the softened and swollen skin may be removed from the grains.
The enzyme-treated rice, after being steamed or cooked by conventional
methods has the appearance of rice refined by the mechanical method, but
its taste is superior. Li et al. also used glycerine fatty acid ester, sorbitan
fatty acid ester, propylene glycol, and fatty acid sugar ester in preparing
quick-cooking rice. These compounds serve as wetting, permeating, emul-
sifying, solubilizing, cleaning, and foaming agents. They are also involved
in complex formation with starch, water keeping, and gel formation at
higher temperatures.
Addition of 0.3% by weight of fatty acid glyceride powder prevents
clump formation when the rice is steamed (Li et al. 1976). It also increases
aeration during dehydration. The level of surface active agent added
should be less than 1% to avoid foaming during cooking.
Tanaka and Yukami (1969) received a patent for making quick-cooking
rice by chemical treatment. The rice is first soaked at 20-30°C in a solution
of phosphates or polyphosphates at pH 7.6-8.2. After it is drained, the
soaked rice is cooked in a solution containing phosphates (0.05-0.5%),
saccharide (0.3-10%), and a surfactant (0.1-0.5%) until the rice is about
70% gelatinized and the moisture content is 50-70%. Further steaming is
applied until the rice reaches 100% gelatinization. The product is then
dried rapidly. As an example, white rice is soaked for 1 hr at 30°C in a
solution of disodium phosphate (DSP) at pH 7.6. The drained rice is cooked
for 15 min in a solution of 0.3% DSP, 0.5% lactose, and 0.25% glyceryl
monostearate, then steamed for 20 min at 100-l20°C, and finally dried.
The finished product recooks in 5 min.
Ozai-Durrani (1960) obtained a patent for making quick-cooking rice.
In this process, gelatinization of the rice was accomplished by applying a
series of sprays. The temperature of the rice was increased gradually until
the moisture of the rice reached 70%. The grain was thoroughly cooked
by then. Other desirable steps include a compression or bumping step to
facilitate moisture absorption, and freezing the completely cooked rice
before drying in a hot-air blast. This patent is essentially a combination of
the five methods described earlier. It might be desirable to treat the rice
with a fat solvent to remove residual oil.
Miscellaneous Processes
Several "miscellaneous" quick-cooking rice processes have been devel-
oped during the past decades. These include fabricating quick-cooking
rice from broken grades of rice, products for specialized applications,
minor modifications and multiple-step treatments applied to previously

known methods, microwave heating, and adaptation of quick-cooking
white rice processes to brown rice.
Gorozpe's patents (1959, 1963) for preparing quick-cooking rice pres-
ent a novel method for utilizing the less expensive broken rice to yield
either a precooked meal or flour or glomerates of small granular particles
shaped to resemble whole-grain quick-cooking rice. Broken rice grains are
heated in an air blast at 50-70°C for about 30 min, which checks the rice
and enables it to absorb water more quickly and thoroughly. The heat-
treated rice is soaked in warm water to a moisture content of about 40%.
The drained rice is passed through a roller mill having differential speed
rolls to produce porous clusters. The product is subjected to a wet steaming
treatment in one to three stages to further gelatinize the rice to about
90-95% completion. There is a milling or crushing step between the steam-
ing treatments. The product is finally dried with hot air.
For granular products, the clusters oflumps from a single-stage gelati-
nization treatment are dried at 80-140°C to about 15-25% moisture, bro-
ken up on rolls, dried again to about 10-14% moisture, and then ground
and screened.
If a whole-grain quick-cooking rice product is desired, the partially
hydrated clusters may be gelatinized in steam in two or three stages. These
stages will accomplish gelatinization to 30-40%, then 50-70%, and finally
80-95%. There is a milling or crushing action between the steaming steps.
The clusters, which have been gelatinized to about 80-95% in a single
stage, are extruded, with or without further shaping, to form rodlike
segments resembling regular long-grain rice, and dried to 10-14% mois-
ture. In the three-stage method, the rice from the first stage is extruded
and shaped, further gelatinized in two steps, and finally dried.
Although there are economic advantages in using broken rice, the
processing steps and equipment costs make it difficult to estimate whether
whole-grain quick-cooking rice made by this process could compete favor-
ably with currently marketed products.
Gorozpe (1964) described a process of fissuring, multiple soaking, and
steaming, a combination of steps similar to the various developments
previously cited. Either white or brown rice is fissured by a hot-air treat-
ment at 50-l20°C. The product is hydrated in water below the gelatiniza-
tion temperature, briefly immersed in boiling water, and then treated with
steam in several stages in which the moisture is increased 4-6% in each
step. The rice may be treated first with hot-water sprays at 15-sec intervals
for a total of 3-10 min. It is then subjected to wet steam from below, with
cold-water sprays from above at 30-sec intervals for 6-20 min, cooled by
a blast of cold air, and finally dried.
A specialized product was developed by Willock (1965) for rice pud-
ding. The rice is purposely undergelatinized and the conditions adjusted

to result in the desired tenderness and thickening qualities when the rice
pudding product is prepared in milk. Willock (1968) patented a process in
which rice is soaked to increase the moisture to about 28%. The product
is coated with a mucilage of an edible binder such as starch, vegetable
gum, or cellulose derivative, flavored, and then dried. In both processes,
the rice is essentially not cooked. Lou and Fulger (1985) received a patent
in Great Britan for making a rehydratable rice product. The composition
includes ungelatinized 90.0-99.5% wt rice flour, 0.2-5.0% baking powder
or aeration agent, 0.1-3.5% emulsifier (glyceryl monostearate), and op-
tionally 1.5% wt of an edible gum (xanthan, guar, or carrageen gums or
their mixtures). The mixture is treated with water, extruded at 104.4°C,
and dried to a rehydratable rice product. The extrudate is sized, preferably
after drying into lengths similar to those of rice grains. The product is
rehydratable in boiling hot water in 1-4 min and is particularly suitable
for making a rice pudding in 3-6 min.
Kester and Ferrel (1957) describe a process for making quick-cooking
brown rice in which the raw brown rice is soaked, cooked, and dried at
relatively low temperature and then expanded in a hot-air blast at
250-300°C. Miller (1963) expanded the established technology of quick
white-rice processes to apply to a quick-cooking brown rice.
Utilization of microwave energy for producing quick-cooking rice was
presented by Huxsoll and Morgan (1968). The process and equipment
illustrate the advantages in using a system approach to designing micro-
wave applications. Basically, microwave energy is used to replace other
forms of heat energy to cook and dry the rice. Raw rice is soaked in water
to 25-30% moisture, then heated with either steam or microwaves, and
further hydrated in water at about 66°C. An adequate microwave cooking
is attained for long-grain Patna rice at about 50% moisture. The hydrated
and cooked rice is then dried by air to about 15% or less moisture and
subjected to microwave energy, which leads to extensive fissuring and
slight puffing of the grains. The process yields a product that can be
prepared for serving in 5 min. Microwave energy is said to be advantageous
because of the ''volume-heating'' effect, which cooks the rice with mini-
mum clumping. It produces a rapid heating effect that can impart a porous
structure to the dried precooked rice grains.
Serbia and Benett (1968) described a quick-cooking rice made from
parboiled rice. The dry, milled parboiled rice is soaked in excess water at
70°C for 14 min, whereby the moisture content reaches 47%. The rice is
drained, steamed for 13-25 min, washed in water, steamed, and washed
twice until the moisture reaches about 69%. The hydrated parboiled rice
is then dried at 115-160°C in three stages at gradually decreasing tempera-
tures.
Kim et al. (1983) reported on physicochemical properties of instant rice

prepared by various drying methods of hot-air drying, alcohol dehydration,
and freeze/hot-air drying. Freeze/hot-air-dried rice, which was frozen at
-190°C and then forced-air-dried at 90°C, showed the fastest rehydration
rate as well as the most desirable textural characteristics. Sensory evalua-
tion suggested that the freeze/hot-air-dried rice had more desirable taste,
flavor, and texture among the instant rice prepared.
Smith et al. (1985) studied chemical treatment and process modifica-
tion for producing improved quick-cooking rice. The raw long-grain rice
was soaked in a 1% aqueous sodium citrate and calcium chloride solution
(50: 50) at 50°C for 15 min and freeze-dried to 20% moisture, followed by
convective air-drying to a final moisture of 12%. The rehydrated sample,
prepared by boiling the rice in water for 5 min, received high sensory
scores.
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
The long-grain rice varieties have been in common use for the quick-
cooking rice. There is less application of the medium- and short-grain
varieties because of the difficulty in handling and removing water. Carlson
et al. (1976) describe a process in which all varieties may be used success-
fully (Fig. 6-3 ). The process involves the use of the centrifugal fluidizing
-
STORAGE
SOAKER AT RT COOKER
1 hour 210 F
5 min.
WASH I-+-
IL.:P::A~CK:_:A:G:_:E~If-~-----·1 co 0 Ll N G r--- CENTRIFUGAL
FLUIDIZED BED
AIR at RT DRIER
AIR TEMP 295 F
AIR VELOCITY
3,000 I pm
5 min.
Figure 6-3. Flow diagram for preparation of quick-cooking medium-grain white

rice. (From Carlson et al. 1976.)
Drive Shaft
...... ......
.······
·:·:
Air ······
·····
......
·=·=· ~
Supply
·····
.................
Disch?rge
Rotating
Perforated
Basket
Figure 6-4. Centrifugal fluidizing bed drier. (From Carlson et al. 1976.)
bed (CFB) in the critical drying process (Fig. 6-4). The CFB drier removes
the moisture at a higher air velocity, lower temperature, and shorter time
than the conventional dehydration equipment, with a consequent decrease
in energy output.
Centrifugal force restrains the particles fluidized in a high-velocity
airstream. Homogenous fluidization occurs, ensuring that all particles
receive equal exposure to the countervailing airstream. Constant motion
eliminates any scorching or surface heat damage. Each particle is sepa-
rated from other particles and, therefore, there is no problem handling
sticky starch particles. Clumping is minimized, as the high air velocity
applies the heat very rapidly. There is efficient removal of moisture, which
is carried away as soon as it is diffused into the interior of the rice kernel.
A pretreatment of the rice kernels by soaking and slight cooking causes
them to expand. Quick application of heat using air above temperatures
of 250°C creates a void structure in the rice kernel, which maintains the
integrity and the size of the particle in its cooked state.
Roberts et al. (1979) applied a continuous centrifugal fluidized bed
(CFB) drier to the preparation of quick-cooking rice products. Milled rice
is soaked 1 hr or longer at room temperature to a moisture level of about
30-33%, boiled for 4-8 min, depending on the variety (short-grain 4 min,
medium-grain 5 min, and long-grain 7.5 min); then quenched in cold water;
and dried in the CFB drier at 132oC and a centrifugal force of 10 x g. The
final moisture content ranges from 6 to 10%. One volume of the precooked
rice in one volume of boiling water (water/rice weight ratio, 2.5) that is
stirred, covered, removed from the heat, and left standing for 5-7 min
results in a satisfactory product.
A quicker-cooking short- or medium-grain brown rice is prepared by
soaking raw brown rice for 16 hr at room temperature, boiling it for 20-25
min so that it reaches about 60% moisture, and then CFB-drying it at 135°C
for 5 min (Roberts et al. 1980). The relatively porous brown-rice product
can be prepared for eating by simmering for 10-15 min, about one-fourth
of the time required for raw brown rice. Taste panel tests comparing the
CFB-precooked brown rice with raw brown rice gave similar hedonic
ratings.
Extruded Quick-Cooking Ricelike Product

General Foods has applied for a patent [EP 0226 375 A1 (US 803189)]
for making an extruded quick-cooking ricelike product. A composition
comprising ungelatinized rice flour (of long-, medium-, or short-grain rice
var.) with optional 0.5-2.0% wt starch complexing agent, e.g., glyceryl
monostearate or sodium stearoyllactylate, and optional 0-0.2% wt edible
gum, e.g. xanthan gum, carboxymethylcellulose, carrageenan, and/or algi-
nates, is extruded at 29.4-104.4°C in the various cooking zones and,
preferably, at a pressure of 91.4 kg/cm2 .
The starch molecules are gelatinized, and protein is denatured by the
process. The extrudate is then dried at 65.5-104.4°C. The product is quick-
cooking. It absorbs its own volume of water in approximately 5 min and
maintains its structural integrity for 20-30 min.
RICE COOKING
Two important factors greatly influence the quality of cooked rice: the
relative amount of water to rice, and the control of the heating process at
the critical stage. The water/rice ratio is important in keeping the cooked
rice from becoming too hard or too soft. Controlled heating ensures that
the rice is lightly heated and gelatinized to the core of the grains. Generally,
the washed rice is soaked in excess water for at least 30 min. Brown rice
may need more time to absorb sufficient water before cooking. Unsoaked
rice grain becomes coated with a gelatinized layer, which is a poor heat
conductor and prevents water diffusion into the grain, resulting in half-
cooked rice with the cores neither swollen nor gelatinized. Presoaking
results in homogenous gelatinization of starch and a tasty rice.
The starch granules must absorb water and swell and then be heated
rapidly if rice cooking is to ensure complete gelatinization. The proper wa-
ter/rice ratio for milled medium-grain or short-grain rice is about 1.20: 1.00.
Forlong-grain rice, the water/rice ratio may range from 1.50/1.00 or higher.
In the automatic electric rice cooker, a thermostat located at the

bottom of the cooker switches off the heater when the water is completely
absorbed and the temperature begins to rise rapidly. The gas cooker is
used at home as well as for catering. In general, the gas cooker is used for
institutional cooking, and the electric cooker for the home. According to
Juliano and Sakurai (1985), the gas cooker (1.2-1 capacity, 32 kJ/min)
started boiling in 9 min, and maximum bottom temperature of 106°C was
reached in about 14 min. The water absorption ratio was 1.09 (a steam
loss of22%). The electric cooker (1.5-1 capacity, 25 kJ/min) started boiling
in 13 min and reached maximum bottom temperature (102°C) in 17 min. The
water absorption ratio was 1.26 (steam loss of 10%). Total thermostated
cooking time was 25-26 min in the electric cooker and 14.5 min in the gas
cooker. The heat efficiency was 24% for the gas cooker and 60% for the
electric cooker. The microwave range has also been used to cook rice in
10 min. The microwave range must be stopped for a few minutes after the
temperature peaks and then continued for 1 min after the temperature has
decreased. Microwave cooking is difficult for institutional cooking but
very convenient for home use. A microcomputer-controlled rice cooker
is now available (Mori 1983). The microcomputer controls the electric
power needed for cooking, according to the quantity of rice and the prog-
ress of cooking.
Rice presoaked in water may also be cooked in a steam atmosphere. The
principle is the same as cooking in an electric or gas cooker except that the
source of heat energy is steam instead of gas combustion or electricity.
CONCLUSION
Among the quick-cooking rice processes and combinations of steps that

have been reported in the past, only nine products have been produced
and marketed in the United States in significant volume. It is believed that
only five processes for producing dry quick-cooking rice are actively
being used to manufacture and market fairly large volumes of generally
acceptable convenience rice products for household and institutional con-
sumption. These include the disclosure of Autrey and Lynn (1965), Bardet
and Giesse (1961), Hollis et al. (1958), Keneaster and Newlin (1957),
Seltzer (1959a,b), Luh and Liu (1980), Roberts et al. (1980) and, perhaps,
variations and combinations of these methods. It has been reported that
an expanded parboiled rice product has been produced in limited quanti-
ties. The process is probably similar to that of Roberts (1952b, 1955) and
of Mickus and Brewer (1957). Brooks et al. (1982) received a patent to
prepare quick-cooking parboiled rice and products thereof.
There is active interest in developing new and improved quick-cooking
rice products with a view to increasing yields, generally reducing pro-

cessing and capital equipment costs, shortening the processing time, and
improving appearance and convenience for the consumer.
Recently, the microwave oven has been used to cook quick-cooking
rice in 5 min. A separate package of dehydrated vegetables and spices in
aluminum-foil pouches usually accompanies the quick-cooking rice. Rice
processors such as General Foods, MJB Rice Co. of Union City, Califor-
nia, and others are successful in selling such products.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Professor C.F. Li, of National Taiwan University,

Taipei, Taiwan, and J. Y. Hsu, ofWestreco Inc. of New Milford, Connecti-
cut, for their excellent contributions of some of the material presented in
this chapter.
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Kester, E. B., and Ferrel, R. E. 1957. Method of preparing precooked puffed
brown rice cereal. U.S. Pat. 2,785,070. March 12.
Kim, D. W., Cho, K. Y., and Bae, J. S. 1983. Effect of processing methods on
physicochemical properties of instant rice. J. Korean Soc. Food Nutrition
12(3):230-235 (Korean language with summary in English).
Lethem, L. F. 1976. Effect of antioxidant, packaging material and storage tempera-
ture on the stability of quick-cooking calrose rice. M.S. Thesis. Univ. of
California, Davis, CA.
Lewis, D. A., and Lewis, J. M. 1965. Quick cooking rice. Australianpatent262788,
Oct 18.
Li, C. F., Chang, P. Y., and Chang, J. L. 1976. Instant rice. Food Industry
Research and Development Institute. Hsinchu, Taiwan. Report 79.
Lou, W. C., and Fulger, C. V. 1985. Rehydratable rice product. General Foods
Corp. Pat. GB 2,145,319A.
Luh, B.S., and Liu, Y. K. 1980. Canning, freezing and freeze-drying. In Rice:
Production and Utilization, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT: AVI, pp.
590-621.
Mickus, R. R., and Brewer, B. W. 1957. Rice treating process. U.S. Pat. 2,808,333.
Oct. 1.
Miller, F. J. 1963. Process of preparing a quick-cooking brown rice. U.S. Pat.
3,086,867. April 23.
Mori, K. 1983. Effective utilization of energy in cooking. Energy saving effect in
a microcomputer controlled rice cooker. Report of Special Project Research
on Energy, Ministry of Education in Science and Culture of Japan. II, pp.
145-148.
Ozai-Durrani, A. K. 1948. Quick-cooking rice and process for making same. U.S.
Pat. 2,438,939. April 6.
Ozai-Durrani, A. K. 1956a. Quick-cooking rice and process. U.S. Pat. 2,733,147.
Jan. 31.
Ozai-Durrant, A. K. 1956b. Quick-cooking rice and process. U.S. Pat. 2,740,719.

April 3.
Ozai-Durrani, A. K. 1960. Process for preparing quick-cooking rice. U.S. Pat.
2,937 ,946. May 24.
Ozai-Durrani, A. K. 1965. Process for producing quick-cooking rice. U.S. Pat.
3,189,461. June 15.
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A new use for parboiled rice. Food Techno/. 5:361.
Roberts, R. L. 1952a. Production of quick-cooking rice. U.S. Pat. 2,610,124.
Sept. 9.
Roberts, R. L. 1952b. Production of expanded rice products. U.S. Pat. 2,616,808.
Nov. 4.
Roberts, R. L. 1955. Preparation of pre-cooked rice. U.S. Pat. 2,715,579. Aug. 16.
Roberts, R. L. 1972. Quick-cooking rice. In Rice Chemistry and Technology,
edited by D. F. Houston. St. Paul, MN: AACC.
Roberts, R. L., Carlson, R. A., and Farkas, D. F. 1979. Application of a continuous
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cooking brown rice product using a centrifugal fluidized bed drier. J. Food
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June 16.
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U.S. Pat. 2,903,360. Sept. 8.
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7
Canning, Freezing, and
Freeze-Drying
Bor S. Luh
INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple grain consumed by more than half of the
world's population (Hogan 1977). It is the chief source of calories in Asia
and has become more popular in Western countries in recent years (Burns
and Gerdes 1985). Common objections to using rice in Western countries
include difficulty and length of preparation and established eating habits
(Luh and Liu 1980).
The types of canned rice products on the market include soups with
rice, meat and rice dinners, casseroles, Spanish rice, unflavored cooked
rice, fried rice, and rice pudding. Some desirable characteristics for canned
rice are white color; separate, noncohesive kernels; a minimum amount
of splitting and fraying; and clear canning liquor. Varietal characteristics,
the age of the grain, and parboiling all affect the texture of canned rice.
Varietal differences have been attributed to variations in amylose content
(Juliano 1985). Shibuya et al. (1977a,b) reported that the changes in rheo-
logical properties of cooked rice and its paste, during storage of rice
grains at 4 and 23°C, can be explained by the changes in some structural
components, such as proteins and cell-wall constituents.
147
High-amylose rice is flaky, dry, and bland, whereas varieties with low
amylose tend to be sticky, moist, and better tasting. Rice with a high
protein content takes a long time to cook because of the physical barrier
to water absorption created by the protein matrix around starch granules.
Low-protein rice is more tender, more cohesive, and sweeter than high-
protein rice. Aging differences are probably caused by altered colloidal
properties of the grain and cell wall during storage. Parboiled rice is often
used in preparing canned-rice products because of the stability of the
kernel and the retention of its shape without disintegration under rigid
retorting and heating conditions.
Other factors that may affect the quality of canned rice include pH,
fat content, salt concentration, and blanching time. For example, alkaline
solutions cause rice to develop a yellow color. Addition of 0.01% acetic
acid slightly improves the color and flavor.
VARIETIES
Short-, medium-, and long-grain rice varieties are grown commercially in

the United States. Long-grain rice is dry, fluffy, and not sticky when
cooked and is therefore considered suitable for canning. Table 7-1 shows
the adaptation of varieties for particular uses. Variety preference is primar-
ily based on flavor, appearance, and cooking characteristics and second-
arily on grain shape and size.
EFFECTS OF AMYLOSE CONTENT AND PARBOILING CONDITIONS ON

CANNED-RICE CHARACTERISTICS
The potential market for canned rice in soups, salads, rice dishes, desserts,
and baby foods is high, but difficulties in rice canning processes slow
down the increase in consumption. In addition to the canning process,
characteristics of the canned rice may also be influenced by the properties
of the raw material.
Feillet and Alary (1975) examined 48 rice varieties, with amylose
content ranging from 20-30%. Samples were parboiled in a fully automatic
laboratory-scale apparatus. Standard parboiling conditions included: vac-
uum for 10 min, steeping for 30 min at 65°C under3.5 kg/cm2, and steaming
for 20 min at l12°C under 2.1 kg/cm2 • After milling, parboiled rice was
canned in excess water. Eleven grams of parboiled rice and 110 ml of
water at 80°C were transferred to a tin can (1/6 fiat French standard). The
can was then sealed, stirred for 3 min, and retorted for 20 min at l20°C.
CANNING, FREEZING, AND FREEZE-DRYING 149
Table 7-1. Utilization of Rice Varieties

Canning Quality
Variety Grain Type Table Quality (Parboiled) Product Use
Bluebonnet 50 Long Good Good General
Rexoto Long Excellent Excellent General, canned
soups
TP49 Long Excellent Excellent General, canned
soups
Texas Patna Long Excellent Excellent General, canned
soups
Improved Long Good Good General
Bluebonnet
Sunbonnet Long Good Good General
Zenith Medium Good Unsuitable General, breakfast
cereal, baby food
Nato Medium Good Unsuitable General, breakfast
cereal
Nova 66 Medium Good Unsuitable General
Magnolia Medium Good Unsuitable General, breakfast
cereal, baby food
Saturn Medium Good Unsuitable General
Belle Patna Long Excellent Good General
Bluebelle Long Excellent Good General
Starbonnet Long Excellent Excellent General
In some cases, rice was first cooked in boiling water until the moisture
content reached 65% (16-19 min) and then transferred to a can andre-
torted.
A high correlation was observed between amylose content and water
absorption (r = -0.74) or firmness (r = +0.76). Table 7-2 shows the
results in regard to characteristics of canned rice processed from parboiled
French varieties. Comparison of French rice varieties with a different
amylose content showed that the Arlesienne variety was the most suitable
for canning.
Steeping conditions during the parboiling process slightly affect the
properties of canned parboiled rice, but steaming temperature and steam-
ing time have a tremendous effect on the quality of the canned products
(Table 7-3).
An increase in firmness and formation of a chalky texture were ob-
served during postcanning storage. These changes in textural characteris-
tics developed faster at 4°C than at room temperature. The difference
disappeared when the product was heated before consumption (Table
7-4). Changes during storage of the canned rice appear to be similar to
hardening of bread as a result of retrogradation of gelatinized starch.
c-n
0
Table 7-2. Characteristics of Canned Rice Processed from Parboiled French Varieties
Variety Amylose, Firmness Water Absorption, Solid Losses,
of Rice Grain Type %d.b. g g Water/100 g Rice Appearance %
Delta Long 23.4 540 500 3 8.6
Cesariot Long 23.6 610 470 4 7.7
Ciglon Short 24.6 740 510 3 8.7
Cristal Short 25.5 450 620 2.5 8.0
Balilla Short 25.5 890 480 3 8.2
Duribe Medium 26.4 560 550 3 7.2
Cesariot Long 27.0 1060 480 3 7.8
Arlesienne Medium 28.0 1350 420 3.5 6.8
Source: Feillet and Alary (1975); Luh and Liu (1980).
Table 7-3. Effects of Steaming Conditions on Some Characteristics of Parboiled

Canned Rice
Water
Steaming Steaming Absorption,
Temperature, Time, g Water/ 100 g Firmness, Solid Losses,
oc min Appearance Rice g %
105 20 2.4 512 530 8.5
112 10 2.1 606 429 10.3
112 20 3.1 504 780 7.9
112 30 3.2 545 879 8.1
120 20 2.9 532 920 7.8
Table 7-4. Effect of Heating on Firmness of Stored Canned Rice, 1 Week at oc

FIRMNESS (kg) OF CANNED
RICE AFTER STORAGE
Amylose Content,
Varieties %Dry Basis Before Heating After Heating
Delta 23.4 4.1 1.3
Arlesienne 28.0 11.4 7.0
CANNING
Various methods have been studied for making canned rice more accept-
able (Altares and Luh 1976; Bums and Gerdes 1985; Luh and Liu 1980).
These fall into two categories: wet pack and dry pack. A product in which
there is an excess of liquid, such as in soup media, is termed wet pack.
Proper density is the prime objective with these types of products. The
rice is precooked or blanched sufficiently to promote buoyancy in the
product and prevent settling and matting but not to the point that kernel
texture is degraded. The parboiled rice is cooked slowly in an excess of
water, followed by draining and washing in cold water. This washing
process removes excess surface starch and stops the cooking process. The
rice is put into cans, together with the sauce. The cans are sealed, and the
product is retorted.
A canned product, such as Chinese-style fried rice, in which the grains
are separate and devoid of free or excess moisture, is called the dry pack.
The prime objective is to provide enough moisture for gelatinization of the
starch during retorting without causing pastiness or cohesiveness in the
kernels. Cooking oil as an ingredient helps to minimize grain cohesion. The
usual procedure involves slowly precooking parboiled rice in an excess of
water. The rice is subsequently washed in cold water and then mixed with
the other ingredients. After filling and sealing, the canned product is slowly
heated and then retorted. An example of dry pack canning of short-grain
rice has been developed by Ferrel et al. (1960). The process is outlined in
Fig. 7-1. It is claimed that the acidified soaking water produces white rice
and that kernel stickiness is reduced by the emulsion rinse step.
Roberts et al. (1953) developed a process for canning white rice. The
rice is washed and soaked in cold water for 30-45 min and boiled for 2-4
min or until the moisture content is approximately 55%. Limiting the
moisture to this level minimizes kernel disintegration. The partially cooked
rice is put into cans, sealed under 71.1 em of vacuum, and then retorted.
The canned product is prepared for serving after being heated in boiling
water. The grains remain white and well separated and become distorted
or mushy in appearance.
An inherent disadvantage of canned rice is the clumping of the kernels
and the concomitant difficulty in removing the product from the can. Ferrel
et al. (1960) and Ferrel and Kester (1959) used oil emulsions and surfactants
to minimize this problem.
Oil emulsions applied in the rinse step following soaking and cooking
of the rice caused a significant reduction in the kernel cohesion. Only a
few of the surfactants tested gave a substantial reduction in clumping;
sorbitan mono-oleate was found to be effective. Sripathy et al. (1960)
reported that similar use of butter and hydrogenated vegetable fat helped
to promote the use of canned rice and to avoid these difficulties for its use.
The process of post-can-freezing may be used for both regular and
parboiled rice. However, the canned parboiled rice flows with greater
ease. In addition, it has a better appearance, stands up better in soups and
casseroles, and has better keeping quality in the unused portion after being
taken out of the can.
Tollefson and Bice (1972) developed a patent process in which raw
rice was cooked in acidified water to cause gelatinization. After canning
and sterilization, the cans were allowed to age for several days before
consumption of the product.
There are relatively few commercially canned rice products on the
market, primarily because of the lack of stability of the rice grain. Most
canned products that could use rice in the formulation require processing
for approximately 60 min at 115.6°C or a shorter process at 121.1°C in
conventional retorting equipment. In the course of processing, a point is
reached at which the hydrogen bonds responsible for starch integrity
are weakened and irreversible swelling occurs. If processing continues,
the starch granules will eventually rupture, resulting in grain distortion.
White rice is less resistant to thermal degradation than parboiled rice
in this respect. Sharp et al. (1981) reported that the overall quality
••••• Soak-water acidified to pH 5.0-5.5
in cold running g water to remove dirt,

loose starch and rice pol ish
IMMERSE in boiling water hold for 5 min.

<Until moisture content= 51± 1%>
(hold)
in cold running water
in oil or oil + emulsifier <surfactant>

system <1-1/2 min>
~PACK/
in 303 x 406 enameled car
VACUUM <336± 0.5g> per can
SEAL
• ••• • at 240°F for 60 min
CANNED (PLAIN) RICE
Figure 7-1. Rice canning process. (From Ferrel et al. 1960.)

Figure 7-2. Canning stability of epichlorohydrin-treated parboiled rice (control,

left; treated, right). (From Rutledge and Islam 1973.)
of canned rice was not improved by replacing parboiled with instant par-
boiled rice. Gerdes and Burns (1982) used instant parboiled rice and a
cold-water quench following blanching to eliminate product sticking and
clumping in the canned product. Objective color values were improved
by flushing the hydrated rice with tap water before canning. Canned
grains were free-flowing and yielded a product similar to freshly cooked
rice.
The process of promoting cross-linkages in rice starch consists of
three steps: activation, cross-linking, and neutralization. The treated rice
will be able to withstand the processing conditions encountered in still
retorting while still maintaining the desirable organoleptic properties asso-
ciated with rice. Rutledge et al. (1974) and Rutledge and Islam (1973,
1976a,b) made cross-linked white rice by treating the kernels with epichlo-
rohydrin. Parboiled rice may be cross-linked with epichlorohydrin, sodium
trimetaphosphate, or phosphorous oxychloride.
Cross-linking the starch in the intact rice kernel appears to greatly
increase the stability of the product during thermal processing. Cross-
linked samples show approximately 68% less leaching at pH 7 and approxi-
mately 82% less at pH 5, compared with the untreated samples. The
difference in properties between the cross-linked and untreated samples
is related to the increased starch granular stability with regard to thermal
degradation and pH extremes.
Figure 7-2 illustrates the well-defined grains of the cross-linked sample
compared to the control, which shows considerable leaching, with longitu-
dinal splitting and fraying of edges and ends of the grains. The control
samples also show considerable clumping at the bottom of the can. No
clumping occurs in the cross-linked samples. Taste panel evaluations in-
volving color, cohesiveness, flavor, doneness, and general appearance

indicate that the cross-linked rice is superior in all attributes tested. In
addition, the modified rice samples are considerably more stable than the
control samples after storage at 25°C for 6 months. Hogan (1977) stated
that canned rice may be considered a type of quick-cooking or convenience
product.
RICE IN RETORT POUCHES
The retort pouch is a flexible, heat-sealable, fiat container capable of

withstanding the high temperature (121°C) required for pressure-pro-
cessing rice and other low-acid foods. This container represents an alter-
native packaging system to conventional metal cans and glass jars. In
1979, millions of meals were packaged in retort pouches by the Defense
Department under the Meals-Ready-to-Eat (MRE) program. Since then,
several firms have produced and marketed foods in retort pouches.
Over 750 million pouches of foods were consumed annually in Japan
alone.
The most commonly used retort pouch is a three-ply laminate of
polyester, aluminum foil, and polypropylene. The polyester, usually
0.0005 in (0.0127 mm) thick, serves as the outer protective layer because
of its strength and resistance to scuffing and flexing. A middle layer of
aluminum foil is used to increase product shelf life by acting as a barrier
to passage oflight, water, and oxygen. The foil layer may vary in thickness
(0.00035 in.-0.0007 in., or 0.00889 mm), according to its intended applica-
tion. The inner layer of polypropylene provides an excellent food contact
surface because of its inert properties and compatibility with practically
all organic substances. This material was approved by the FDA in 1977
for use only at retort temperatures of 121 oc or less. Pouch film is supplied
to the processor either as roll stock or as preformed pouches. If roll stock
is used, the pouch-forming operation is accomplished in the food plant
by continuous form-fill-seal equipment. Present commercial pouches are
sized to hold 5-12 oz of product, an amount generally sufficient for a single
serving. Also available are larger institutional-size pouches, which hold a
quantity comparable to that of a #10 (603 x 700) can.
Rice in retort pouches was made by hermetically sealing cooked rice
in laminated plastic and aluminum-laminated plastic pouches, and heat-
processing at l20°C. Its shelf life is six months at room temperature.
Sekihan (steamed waxy rice with red beans) accounts for 80% of all retort
rice in Japan. Retort rice made from nonwaxy rice includes chicken and
tea rice (Japanese style). The consumer soaks the intact pouch in hot water
for 10-15 min (or transfers the contents from the aluminum pouch to a
plate and heats it in a microwave oven for 1-2 min). Boiling for 10 min
increases the degree of gelatinization of retort rice from 55% before boiling
to 90% (Matsunaga and Kainuma 1983). Freshly cookedjaponica rice has
92% gelatinization (Matsunaga and Kainuma 1981). Retort brown rice and
porridge prepared from ordinary brown rice may be eaten with milk or hot
water for breakfast or a midnight snack after it is warmed for several
minutes.
EFFECT OF LIPIDS ON RETROGRADATION OF COOKED RICE
The aging process of cooked rice stored at 5°C can be studied by X-ray
diffraction. The X-ray diffraction patterns of normal rice immediately
after cooking showed a V-type pattern that may be attributed to helical
complexes of amylose with lipids in starch. V-type pattern intensity be-
came faint in 5 hr, whereas ,8-type pattern intensity increased, implying
that the starch-lipid complexes were metastable and changed to a more
stable structure characterized by a ,8-type X-ray pattern via an amorphous
state. This can illustrate the way in which lipids affect the retrogradation
process of cooked rice.
QUALilY EVALUATION OF RICE
The methods and techniques for evaluating rice quality have been pub-
lished (USDA 1965, 1982, 1983). The subject is also presented in Chap.
5 of this book.
Texture
A negative correlation was reported to exist between the water uptake
ratio (cooked weight divided by weight before cooking) and cohesiveness
(Dawson et al. 1960). Long-grain rice absorbed more water and was less
cohesive than either short- or medium-grain rice. The alteration of rice
starch during heat treatment was directly related to the cohesiveness of
cooked rice samples. The rice with the highest heat-alteration values was
found by a taste panel to be the most cohesive. Ejlali et al. (1978) reported
that varietal characteristics and the water/rice ratio are important factors
influencing the texture of cooked rice.
Microscopic studies by Little and Dawson (1960) revealed that differ-
ent patterns of swelling and disruption may be caused by the delaying or
limiting effects of nonstarch components.
A sensory rating for kernel breakdown due to thermal processing was

developed by Demont and Burns (1968). Rice kernels that exhibit severe
end and longitudinal splitting or more than five lateral fissures are consid-
ered poor. A score of fair is given when the product is slightly mushy
and the grains have more than two lateral fissures, including nonsevere
longitudinal fissures and split ends. To be rated good, the rice should be
only slightly mushy, with no more than two lateral fissures. Rice that
responds to the canning processes with no more than occasional cracking
and no sloughing is scored excellent. Only rice that receives an excellent
score should be considered acceptable for canning purposes.
The Instron press has proved a valuable tool for objective measure-
ment of rice firmness and of the textural qualities of cooked rice. Blakeney
(1979) and Juliano (1985) reviewed the literature on rice grain quality,
including the criteria and tests. Mossman et al. (1983) described an objec-
tive method for measuring the surface stickiness of cooked rice with an
Instron tester. The coefficient of variation for the Instron itself was less
than 5%. Reproducibility was sufficient to allow easy distinction between
sticky and nonsticky varieties and was substantially improved by optimiz-
ing the water/rice ratio used during cooking.
Composition
The amount of starch in the cooking water is independent of grain type.
However, the total solids are significantly lower in the liquid in which
long-grain varieties have been cooked. Matz and Beachell (1969) reviewed
literature on rice production and composition. The iodine-blue reaction
with amylose was used to obtain a spectrophotometric index that relates
to the soluble amylose fraction. Roberts et al. (1954) used the iodine test
as a method for determining the severity of heat treatment of parboiled
rice. They theorized that the more severe parboiling treatments enhanced
the breakdown of the starch granule structure, resulting in the formation
of more soluble amylose, which would give higher iodine values.
A method for evaluating the quality of small amounts of breeding
material is the alkali digestion test (Litte et al. 1958). Quality is indicated
when kernels exhibit resistance to spreading or when the spread exhibits
clear rather than opaque masses. Damardjati and Luh (1989) presented
several methods for testing physicochemical properties of extrusion-
cooked rice cereals. These include crude fiber, amylose, Brabender viscos-
ity waves, gel consistency, water absorption index, water solubility index,
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and sensory evaluation. These
methods can also be applied to test the changes in quality of canned,
frozen, and freeze-dried rice resulting from processing.
Color
The Gardner tristimulus color and color difference meter accurately relates
differences in color between samples and a calibrated standard plate. The
L scale measures lightness, the aL scale measures redness when positive
and greenness when negative, and the bL scale measures yellowness when
positive and blueness when negative. This instrument has been applied to
many products, including foods.
Obviously, diverse techniques have been employed in the preparation
and evaluation of rice material. Researchers are in agreement that long-
grain rice generally exhibits more desirable canning qualities than the other
grain types grown in the United States (Juliano 1985; Webb 1985).
Equipment
The development of new and improved varieties having the parboil canning
stability required for use in heat-processed formulation is an important
part of rice-breeding programs (Webb 1980). A laboratory-scale parboiling
apparatus has been described by Webb and Adair (1970) to aid in evaluating
new rice varieties and hybrid selections.
The parboiling apparatus is shown in Fig. 7-3. It consists of a retort
chamber, a vacuum-pump system, an air compressor, a steam generator,
and a water heater. The retort chamber is connected directly to the other
components and equipped with three thermometers to measure water
temperature during steeping. Constant steeping temperature is maintained
by three flexible heating tapes connected to powerstats wound around the
chamber. Automatic air and steam pressure controls on the chamber
maintain constant conditions during parboiling. Asbestos sheeting is used
for insulating the chamber.
RICE IN CANNED SOUPS
Canned condensed soup is one of the products in which rice stability is

most important to overall product quality (Hagberg 1966). The rice process
(Jones et al. 1946) includes, first of all, a precooking or blanching treatment
of the rice in boiling water for 15-18 min. The rice, almost completely
cooked after the blanching treatment, is blended with the other ingredients,
and the soup is canned and heat-processed. During heat processing, the
cans may be heated to 121.1 oc and held for 30 min or longer. During both
heat treatments, it is important to remember that there is an excess of
water present. The water uptake and expansion of the rice kernels is not
restricted by the lack of water. Rice showing kernel instability is not
suitable for use. Upon heating, the ends of the kernels are split, the
Figure 7-3. Laboratory rice-parboil-canning apparatus: (1) water heater, (2) air
line to portable compressor, (3) vacuum system, (4) retort chamber,
(5) sample rack and baskets, (6) steam generator, the horizontal
autoclave, (7) facilitates canning of parboiled rice. (From Webb and
Adair 1970; Luh and Liu 1980.)
surfaces are ragged, and a sloughing of fragments increases the turbidity

of the surrounding liquid. The desired type of canning stability needed
for heat-processed, condensed soups will swell to a larger size while
maintaining kernel identity. The kernel surfaces are smooth and noncohe-
sive during the processing treatment.
CANNED FRIED RICE
According to Casimir (1970), the preparation of fried rice is a process

requiring moisture uptake, heating, and a uniform blending of a number
of particulate materials. In a true Chinese-style fried rice, it is essential
that the vegetable ingredients do not receive a thermal process so severe
that their natural crisp texture is destroyed. However, for the preparation
of a product that is to be stored frozen, the thermal process should be
adequate to destroy the naturally occurring enzymes that would result in
the formation of off-flavor during the storage period.
A conical drier blancher is a unit in which the following operations
t
Steam inlet
Figure 7-4. Pfaudler 61-cm jacketed conical drier blancher. (From Casimir 1970;
Luh and Liu 1980.)
may be carried out: (1) blending or mrxmg, (2) moisture addition,

(3) heating or cooking, (4) vacuum steam blanching, and (5) vacuum cool-
ing. The use of a CDB permits all the processes required for the production
of fried rice to be carried out in the same vessel.
Equipment
A Pfaudler 61-cmjacketed conical drier blancher (Model No. 24-45 CD-S
B), with a volumetric capacity of 0.113 m3, may be used (Fig. 7-4). The
procedure is as follows:
1. The CDB is preheated by allowing the steam pressure in the jacket

to rise to 1.38 kg/cm2 •
2. Six kilograms of Calrose (short grain) rice direct from the bag and
having a moisture content of 11.4%, 30 g of distilled monoglyceride
(glycerol monostearate), Riken type T, and 50 g of common salt
are preheated and blended in the CDB, which is revolving at 5 rpm
while maintaining the steam pressure in the jacket at 1.38 kg/cm2•
3. Rotation of the CDB is stopped, and 0. 7 kg of maize oil is added
and then mixed in by further rotation to ensure that all rice grains
are covered with a layer of oil.
4. The steam pressure in the jacket is then released, and a vacuum of
71.12-cm Hg is applied to the oil-covered rice.
5. The vacuum is broken by the addition of steam to the vessel. To
change the pressure from a 71.12-cm vacuum to a positive 1. 74-kg/
cm2 steam pressure, 80 sec are required. The steam pressure is
then maintained at 1.74 kg/cm2 • The rotation rate of the CDB is
held at 5 rpm during the period.
6. At the completion of this hydration process, the moisture content
has reached 52%, and the grains are discrete and free-flowing.
The following frozen prepared materials, including lightly blanched
vegetables, are then added to the rice in the CDB:
Cooked egg 0.45 kg

Lightly fried bacon 0.34 g
Cooked prawns 0.11 kg
White onion 0.11 kg
Shallots 0.11 kg
Celery 0.34 kg
Soy sauce 60 g
Saromex celery (dry) 60 g
Monosodium glutamate 150 g
Worcestershire sauce 55 g
7. The CDB is then closed and rotated at 10 rpm for 3 min to mix the
contents thoroughly, partially blanch the vegetables, and give a
partial pasteurization of the other ingredients.
Filling
The rice should be filled hot or allowed to cool if a mechanical vacuum is
to be applied. If means of applying a mechanical vacuum are not available,
the rice should be filled as hot as possible immediately after it is blanched
and drained.
The fill-in weight for 301 x 411 cans is 340 g of rice with a moisture
content of 55-60%.
Closing
A high vacuum level is required to prevent oxidative browning of the
products and, hence, a mechanical vacuum of approximately 66-cm Hg is
desirable. Hot filling and closing without applied vacuum should give a
vacuum level of25 .4- to 38.1-cm Hg after processing and cooling. Discolor-
Table 7-5. Effect of Fill-in Weight of Rice on

Heating Characteristics in a 301
x 411 Can
Fill-in Weight, Fh from Graph of Best Fit,
g min
255 42.7
284 39.0
312 35.3
340 31.5
Source: Casimir (1970).
ation at this vacuum level is present, but it is not unduly objectionable,

particularly in fried rice packs.
Processing
Can vacuum level, moisture content of the rice, and fill-in weight affect
the heating characteristics of the rice. The effect of fill-in weight of rice
with a moisture content of 55-60% on heating characteristics in a 301 x
411 can is shown in Table 7-5.
The effect of the moisture content of the rice in the canning range
54-60% on the heating characteristics of a 301 x 411 can with a 340-g fill-
in weight may be expressed as follows:
Ph (min) = 34 - 0.75 (Moisture% - 54)
This equation can be applied only to this particular can size at this particu-
lar fill weight.
The vacuum level does not appreciably affect the Fh value when the
fill-in weight and moisture content are held constant.
A commercial process has been evaluated for canned white rice
packed under the following conditions:
Can size 301411X

Fill-in weight 340 g
Moisture content of rice 55-60%
Initial temperature 15.6-37.8°C (60-100°F)
A come-up time of 10-15 min is recommended in order to avoid paneling

Table 7-6. Lethal Ratio and F0 Values for Various

Processing Times at 118.3°C (245°F)
min Lethal Ratio F0 Value

30 0.30 0.82
35 0.78 2.14
40 1.35 3.70
45 2.80 7.67
50 3.60 9.86
55 4.85 13.29
Source: Casimir (1970).
or collapse of the high-vacuum cans. Table 7-6 shows lethal ratio and
F 0 values for various processing times at 118.3°C. The recommended
processing time is 55 min at this temperature.
Cooling
Cooling in the retort with cooling water to 37.8°C requires approximately
25 min. It should be noted that the cans float in water.
RICE PUDDINGS
There is a growing trend toward using the aseptic canning process for
rice puddings. The pudding is sterilized and cooled separately from the
container, thus avoiding the slow heat-penetration problems inherent in
the in-container canning process. The sterilized and cooled product is
filled into presterilized containers and sealed in a sterile atmosphere with
a sterile cover.
The two components of the rice pudding, the rice kernels in a small
amount of liquid and the sauce, are sterilized individually and then com-
bined in the can (Kester and Matz 1970). This step is necessary because
of the different sterilization treatments required by the two components.
The sauce can be quickly sterilized by swept-wall heat exchangers or in
triple-tube heat exchangers. Sterilization time of the rice is much longer
because of the greater time interval required for the heat to penetrate the
kernels completely. If the sauce and grains are heated together until the
rice is sterilized, there is a tendency for the sauce to become overheated,
with excess browning and off-flavors as the result. The pudding may be
sterilized at 137.8°C for 30-60 sec. At this temperature, a F 0 of 20-30 is
reached.
Casimir and Lewis (1972) have described the process of flame steriliza-
Table 7-7. Amino Acid Composition of Rice, Beans, and Textured Soybean
Proteins
Essential Textured
Amino Acid, Rice Soybean
%Total (Oryza Kidney Beans Garbanzo Beans (Glycine Max)
Protein sativa) (Phased/us rulgaris) (Cicer arietinum) Protein
%Protein (9.1) (22.1) (20.1) (50)
Valine 7.0 4.6 4.5 4.6
Leucine 8.5 7.6 7.5 7.7
Isoleucine 4.7 4.2 4.4 4.6
Threonine 3.8 4.0 3.8 4.0
Lysine 4.0 7.2 6.8 5.7
Methionine 2.2 1.0 1.0 1.3
Cystine 2.2 0.8 1.2
Cystine + 4.4 1.8 2.2 2.8
methionine
Phenylalanine 5.4 5.2 5.7 2.1
Tryptophane 1.2 1.3
Source: FAO (1970); Cagampang et al. (1976).
tion, which has been highly successful for canned-milk rice puddings, as
well as for canned white and fried rice. The pudding mix is packed into
the can, which is immediately closed and run into the heating section.
Rapid heating brings the can to a temperature at which a microbiologically
adequate thermal process (137.8°C for 40-60 sec) is achieved before rehy-
dration and thickening are completed.
HIGH-PROTEIN RICE VEGETABLE MIXTURE
Consumer demand for convenience foods of good quality, low cost, and
high nutritional value is increasing. Canned plain rice is convenient but
less attractive to consumers. It is also known that rice has a low protein
content. This low nutritional value is aggravated by the low lysine content
of rice proteins.
The nutritive value of a protein eaten alone may be markedly different
when included as part of a mixed diet. The value of the protein in a mixed
diet depends, in part, not only on its limiting amino acids but also on
excesses of other amino acids that may supplement differences existing in
other dietary proteins.
The protein content and amino acid composition of rice, beans, and
textured soybean protein are listed in Table 7-7. Lysine is the limiting
amino acid of the protein in rice, and methionine is limiting in beans and
textured soybean protein.
Table 7-8. Qualily of Prepared Raw Materials Added to Each 303 x 406 Can
MATERIAL WEIGHT
Protein
Moisture, Wet, Dry, Dry Basis, Weight
Prepared Material % g g % g
Rice 55.7 70 31.0 7.6 2.4

Kidney beans 63.5 40 14.6 25.1 3.7
Garbanzo beans 58.6 30 12.4 23.0 2.9
Textured soybean protein 78.5 40 8.6 60.2 5.2
(Miratex 200)
Source: Altares and Luh (1976).
Legumes are the most important source of protein for those who do
not choose or cannot afford protein-rich animal foods. Legume proteins
can provide certain essential amino acids in which cereal proteins are
deficient and thereby enhance the overall nutritive value of the protein in
the mixed diet.
Altares and Luh (1976) have formulated and canned a product con-
taining beans and tomato sauce. The product contains vegetable proteins
from dry beans and rice and is high in protein (Table 7-8). It is a low-cost
convenience food.
Dry beans and textured soybean protein are utilized to complement
the rice protein. The use of the spiced sauce makes the product more
attractive in flavor acceptance. Starch that leaches from the rice during
canning serves as a thickening agent for the sauce and contributes to the
body of the product. The textured soybean protein also adds a meatlike
texture to the product.
Figure 7-5 is a flow diagram showing the canning procedures used.
Calrose rice was soaked in water for 1 hr at room temperature, and
then blanched either in boiling water or by steaming for 2 or 3 min.
Subsequently, the rice was drained, rinsed, and combined with red kidney
and garbanzo beans and textured soy protein, which had also been soaked
previously. The solid ingredients were packed into enameled cans with
water or the sauce mix, sealed, and then heat-processed in still or rotary
retorts.
A taste panel indicated that the rice mixture with tomato sauce was
more desirable than the product canned with plain water. Unblanched rice
kernels tended to break down during processing, producing an unsatisfac-
tory texture. Steam-blanching the soaked rice for 3 min produced a better
texture than blanching in boiling water.
As compared with the rotary-retort processing, the still retort pro-
duced an inferior product. During processing, the rice sank to the bottom
WI BOILING WI BOILING
WATER
WATER OR WATER
( 5 MINI
STEAM (5 MINI
DRAIN DRAIN DRAIN

DRAIN
RINSE
IMMERSE IMMERSE IMMERSE IMMERSE

ICE WATER ICE WATER ICE WATER ICE WATER
5MIN 5MIN 5MIN 5MIN
DRAIN
( STEAM INJECTED I
Figure 7-5. Canning flow diagram. (From Altares and Luh 1976.)
of the can, producing a nonuniform product. The rotary retort yielded a

uniform and fully cooked product.
The canned rice product consisted of Calrose rice (medium-grain),
kidney beans, garbanzo beans, textured vegetable protein, and a sauce
that was added to improve the nutritive value of the rice. Table 7-8 shows
the quality of prepared raw materials added to each 303 x 406 can. The
addition of beans and textured soybean protein to the rice product not
only increased the protein content of the canned rice product but also
balanced the amino acid profile of the product.
THE FREEZING OF RICE
Frozen cooked rice, like canned rice, is convenient to use since it requires
less time to prepare than raw rice. The rice may be frozen plain or in
combination with other foods. Rice is an integral part of Chinese frozen
dinners. Recently, microwave heating of precooked frozen rice in plastic
containers has been a new quick method for serving rice.
Freezing Technology
Boggs et al. (1951) studied the preparation, freezing, and storage of Texas
Patna (long-grain rice) and California Pearl (short-grain rice). Both varie-
ties were boiled for 10 min, steamed for 25 min, air-cooled, and frozen.
Following storage, the rice was prepared for serving in 10 min. The product
was fully equal to the freshly cooked rice with respect to color, grain
separation, flavor, and texture. The Texas Patna rice was not as sticky as
the California Pearl and was, therefore, more suitable for freezing.
There are a number of excellent frozen rice products on the market
today. Some of these are combination dishes that can be reheated by the
boil-in-bag method or in a microwave oven.
Tressler et al. (1968) reviewed the literature on freezing and frozen
storage of cooked rice. They quote the following suggestions for commer-
cial processing of frozen cooked rice:
1. Place rice in an excess of water at 54.4-60°C, which contains

enough citric acid to reach a pH of 4.0-5.5. Enough water should
be used to cover the rice after it has soaked for 2 hr.
2. Mter 2 hr, drain off the soak water, and rinse with more of the
same pH-adjusted water to remove fines.
3. Drain thoroughly, tapping the screen to shake loose the adhering
water or blowing the rice layer with air.
4. Place a small volume of water in the bottom of a pressure cooker,
and heat to boiling with the cover on to heat up the apparatus. The
soaked drained rice is placed in layers 5 em deep or less over a
screen supported above the water in the vessel. Close the vessel,
and heat with the vent open until steam is emitted; then close off
the vent, raise the pressure to 2.09 kg/cm 2, and hold for 12-15 min.
Then, blow off steam gradually enough to prevent violent boiling
and flashing of the hot water.
5. Place the hot steamed rice in an excess of hot water at 93.3-98.9°C
without stirring. The rice will imbibe water until the grains are
large, tender, and quite free. Stirring will cause the rice to become
sticky. The rice should be held in a perforated vessel so that water
may circulate freely through it.
6. Cooking should require only 10-15 min following the method de-
scr~ued in step 4. Drain off the hot water, and rinse twice with cold
water that has the pH adjustment described in step 1.
7. Tap and shake to remove free water, or suck off the free water over
a vacuum filter.
8. Convey the cooked rice on a stainless steel mesh belt through an
air-blast cooler to reduce it to room temperature, and then package
in cartons or plastic pouches. Freeze the rice in air-blast freezers.
The rice may be frozen as individually quick-frozen (IQF) products
prior to packaging in a fluidized bed freezer.
Boiled and steamed white rice that have been frozen and reheated
are virtually indistinguishable from their unfrozen counterparts. Frozen
storage at -18.8°C up to 1 year appears to have no deleterious effects on
quality.
Boggs et al. (1952) did similar studies on brown rice. The long-grain
(Brown Patna) and short-grain (Brown Pearl) rice were boiled for 15 min,
then steamed for 50 min, air-cooled, and packaged, and the packaged
product was frozen at -23.3°C. Mter storage for periods of 1 week and
2, 6, and 12 months, the reheated product was scarcely distinguishable
from freshly cooked brown rice in any respect.
The methods recommended for preparation, cooking, packaging, and
freezing on a commercial scale are the same as those suggested by Boggs
et al. (1951) for polished rice, except that longer periods of time are
required both for the boiling and steaming operations.
Miller (1960) developed a process for freezing rice by which small
quantities of the product can be removed from the package easily without
thawing it entirely. The rice is first cooked by any conventional method
until it is ready to be served, and it is then allowed to cool. Good results
are obtained if the product is chilled to 0.6°C.
Prechilling the rice results in removing most of the surface moisture
that may be present after cooking and, at the same time, permits quicker
freezing. Before freezing takes place, the individual grains are separated
and maintained out of contact with one another during the freezing part
of the process. The product is then frozen solid. Any appropriate freezing
temperature may be used, but good results have been obtained by sub-
jecting the rice to a moving air blast at - 34.4°C. After the separate grains
are solidly frozen, they can be brought together in a mass and packed in
any desirable manner. It is, of course, necessary to maintain the product
in a frozen condition until used.
The process is ideal for continuous operation, and freezing can be
accomplished in a single stage without the necessity of glazing, agitation,
or other means to prevent adherence of the separate particles during the
freezing operation.
Ragab (1971) has developed a method for producing frozen table rice.
The raw rice is roasted for a short time in fat, then fully cooked with the
correct quantity of water, packed in polyethylene bags, and frozen. The
rice is heated before serving.
Frozen Fried Rice

Casimir (1970) has utilized a conical drier blancher for preparing frozen
fried rice. The initial procedure has been described in the Canning section
of this chapter. After step 7, the CDB is cooled by flowing water through
the jacket and reapplying the vacuum to cool the rice. During the vacuum
cooling, water is sprayed at approximately 300 ml/min to partially replace
the water lost by evaporation. Vacuum cooling reduces the temperature
from 98.9 to 34.4°C in 2 min under 71.1-cm vacuum.
Characteristics of Frozen Rice

Raw rice consists of firm, dense grains composed of tightly packed cells
filled largely with granules of raw starch. At the low moisture content
(8-3%) at which the grains are stored, they are hard and vitreous and able
to absorb water only slowly. When the kernels are put in water, their
generally solid nature serves to retard the penetration of water into their
inner areas. Although cracks or fissures may be present, they are insuffi-
cient to make the grains more hydratable. Roseman (1958) conducted a
study to determine whether an increase in the porosity and ability to
absorb water could be brought about by subjecting rice to freezing. Raw
Rexoro rice was hydrated by one of two methods: (1) rice was hydrated
in excess water at 86°C and 100°C for 5-20 min; (2) rice was soaked for
10 min, steamed in an autoclave at 2.09 kg/cm2 , 121°C, for 15 min, and
then resoaked in water for 50 min. Freezing was done in an alcohol
bath at - 25°C. Drying was done in a forced-air oven. For water-uptake
Table 7-9. Effect of Hydration Conditions on Properties of Freezing Rice

HYDRATION CONDITIONS
Sample Time, Temp., Moisture Content Chalky

No. min oc (Wet Basis), % Grains, %
1 20 100 77 90
2 15 100 72 95
3 10 100 65 60
4 5 100 56 30
5 20 86 68 95
6 15 86 65 99
7 10 86 61 99
8 5 86 51 99
9 10 25
15 121 (steam 2.09 kg/cm 2)
50 25 61 95
measurements, the dried samples were placed in a water bath at 100°C for
the desired length of time, followed by drying in a forced-air oven at l04°C.
Rice grains that had been cooked, frozen, and dried were chalky,
much larger than the unfrozen control, and uniformly spongy. The change
in structure was induced when the rice was hydrated to above 60% water
content by the conditions shown in Table 7-9, frozen, held at 1.7°C,
and dried. Samples with less than this moisture content during freezing
appeared progressively less chalky, less spongy ,and more vitreous as the
moisture content was decreased. All chalky samples took up water rapidly
upon immersion, but only those that were completely gelatinized tasted
fully cooked when reconstituted. The other samples had an unpleasant
grittiness and tasted slightly raw or starchy. The method and degree of
hydration prior to freezing also affected the volume and appearance of the
product.
A study of conditions of freezing necessary to produce optimum con-
version of structure indicates that chalky or spongy grains were obtained
when the rice was frozen to -6.7°C or lower, followed by slow thawing
(16 hr) at 1.7°C. The appearance and rehydration characteristics of rice
treated by this method may be controlled by varying the conditions of
freezing and/or rehydration.
Freezing rice in the presence of calcium nitrate, a swelling agent,
caused an inhibition in the alteration of the properties mentioned above.
Different rice varieties containing various amounts of amylose showed
different changes after freezing. A waxy rice showed the least change.
Roseman and Deobald (1959) indicated that retrogradation is induced
by freezing the rice. Ungelatinized starch (raw rice) is resistant to amylase
activity and gelatinization increases its susceptibility. The behavior of raw

and cooked rice is in agreement with this concept. However, the freeze-
processed rice, which has also been gelatinized, is resistant to {3-amylosis.
Freeze-processed rice also gives a {3-type X-ray diffraction pattern, which
is characteristic of retrograded starches. The raw rice and cooked rice
give A- and V-type X-ray diffraction patterns, respectively.
FREEZE-DRYING
The freeze-drying process consists of removing moisture from foods at

the frozen state by sublimation under high vacuum. The low temperature
used in the process inhibits undesirable chemical and biochemical reac-
tions and minimizes the loss of volatile aromatic compounds. The dried
product is lightweight and can be stored in airtight containers for long
periods without refrigeration. For institutional feeding and for markets
where low-temperature facilities are absent, freeze-dried foods are even
more desirable than frozen or dehydrated foods.
Because of the high-vacuum and low-temperature requirements, freez-
ing-drying is an expensive method of dehydration. But, for highly valued
items, freeze-drying is a desirable process, yielding high-quality products.
See King (1970) and Luh and York (1988) for literature on the freeze-
drying of foods.
General Principles
In freeze-drying, the food is frozen first. The temperature is maintained
below the triple point of the constituent aqueous solution so that water
vapor can be sublimated from the frozen state. There is a direct transforma-
tion from the solid to the vapor state without passing through the liquid
phase. The heat required to sublime a given quantity of ice at a given
temperature is equivalent to the heat of fusion of ice and the heat of
vaporization of water plus the heat necessary to raise the temperature of
the ice to its melting point. The quantity of heat required is the same,
whether the process is carried out slowly at ordinary pressures or rapidly
under a high vacuum. The vapor pressure of ice increases as the tempera-
ture is raised. The higher the temperature, the faster the drying process
and the lower the cost. Obviously, the food should not reach ooc until
nearly all the water has been removed because ice melts at this tempera-
ture. It is necessary to remove the vapor that evolves when drying takes
place at very low pressure. This can be done by condensation, pumping,
or absorption with a desiccant. In order to condense the water vapor, the
temperature of the condensing medium must be below that of the frozen
product being dried. This is costly because of the amount of heat to be

extracted from the vapor and the relatively low efficiency of the refrigera-
tion machines when operating at low temperatures.
The apparent activation energy of water-removal rates during the
falling-rate stages of drying is in the range of7-12 kcal/g mole, correspond-
ing closely to the latent heat of vaporization of water (10 kcal/g mole),
which characterizes the dependence of vapor pressure on temperature.
The apparent activation energies of nonenzymatic browning reactions are
close to 30 kcal/g mole. Because of the higher activation energy for the
browning reaction, the amount of browning for a given amount of dehydra-
tion is much less at lower temperatures. For example, lowering the temper-
ature from 40 to 10°C reduces the rate of water removal by a factor of 5.6,
whereas the rate of browning is lowered by a factor of 176 (King 1970).
At sufficiently low temperature and low partial pressure of water
vapor, drying will occur by sublimation rather than evaporation. Freeze-
drying causes very little shrinkage of the product and, consequently,
allows nearly complete product rehydration. This lack of shrinkage results
from the absence of a rigid rice structure at the location where sublimation
occurs. The absence of free liquid water during freeze-drying is a definite
advantage because there is no migration of dissolved solutes carried by
capillary liquid flow, and no spattering or undesired frothing resulting from
liquid entrainment in the water vapor.
Application to Rice
Huber (1972) has gelatinized rice, subjected it to two or more freezing-
thawing cycles, and then freeze-dried it. Because of its higher cost of
production, freeze-dried rice may not be able to compete with quick-
cooking rice. Freeze-dried foods need special packaging to protect them
from oxygen and moisture absorption (Griffin et al. 1985).
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8
Breakfast Rice Cereals
and Baby Foods
F. Hsieh
University of Missouri, Columbia
Bor S. luh
Rice is one of the most important cereals in the world. Most people in
Asia and tropical and subtropical countries use rice as a major staple food.
Almost all cultivated rice plants belong to Oryza sativa L., which was
originated in Asia, and which is divided roughly into two subspecies,
Indica and Japonica. Between these two typical subspecies, rice is differ-
entiated into many kinds of ecotypes according to local conditions. Each
ecotype has a different response to day length, temperature, soil fertility,
and water supply. Accordingly, different ecotypes of rice are cultivated
in a manner corresponding to the soil properties of the paddy fields, growth
seasons, climatic conditions, and methods of cultivation.
In general, Indica rice is grown mainly in tropical and subtropical
zones, and Japonica rice in temperate zones and mountainous regions.
However, high-yielding varieties adapted to the tropics can be obtained
in both the Indica and Japonica groups (Oka 1975). The world's rough rice
for 1988-1989 was estimated to be 477 million metric tons, with China and
Taiwan in the lead with 36.7% of this, followed by India (19. 8%), Indonesia
(9.0%), Thailand (4.2%), and the United States (1.5%). The remaining 20%
was grown in the U.S.S.R., Europe, Africa, and some Asiatic countries
(Caldwell and Fast 1990). "Wild rice" (Zizania palustris), an aquatic plant
different from rice, is produced in much smaller quantities in California
and Wisconsin in the United States. The growth characteristics of ''wild
177
rice" are unlike those of any of the cereal grains. It is used occasionally
in combination with the Oryza sativa L. seeds (1-2%) for a different color,
texture, and aroma.
In this chapter, methods for the preparation and utilization of rice as
breakfast cereals and baby foods are presented. A similar subject has been
reviewed by Brockington and Kelly (1972); Hoseney (1986); Kent (1983);
Luh and Bhumiratana (1980); Fast (1990).
CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE FOR PROCESSING
The rice varieties grown in the United States are classified as short-,
medium-, and long-grain types, which are associated with specific cook-
ing and processing characteristics (Webb 1985). Raw milled kernels of
long-grain varieties, frequently called "hard rice," usually cook dry and
fluffy, and the cooked grains tend to remain separate. The long-grain rice,
grown primarily in Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas, is used more for
canning and freezing of precooked rice. On the other hand, high-quality
short- and medium-grain varieties, called ''soft rice,'' cook moist and firm,
and the cooked grains tend to stick or clump together. They are grown
primarily in California and are used for making puffed rice and parboiled
rice.
All three grain types, with their characteristic textural qualities, are
in widespread demand by the domestic and foreign trade because different
ethnic groups prefer various textures in home-cooked rice. Rice proces-
sors also require all grain types and textural qualities for use in various
kinds of prepared and convenience-type, rice-containing products, such
as dry breakfast cereals, parboiled rice, quick-cooking rice, canned rice,
canned soups, dry rice soup mixes, baby foods, and frozen dishes.
In the United States, a substantial and increasing amount of the domes-
tic rice crop is processed and reprocessed into numerous kinds of prepared
products. There is a strong demand for the broken grade of rice for brewing
and for rice flour for various prepared mixes. In many of these processed
and convenience foods, the textural qualities and grain size of long-grain
varieties are preferred while, in other foods, the qualities of the short- and
medium-grain types are required for specific uses. Hence, the domestic
and world trade associates United States long-, medium-, and short-grain
rice with certain specific cooking and processing characteristics. For this
reason, new rice varieties must have the same (or improved) milling,
cooking, and processing characteristics as the established varieties they
replace.
The amylose/amylopectin ratio in milled rice greatly affects the texture
and fluffiness of cooked rice. The ranges of amylose, amylopectin, and the
BREAKFAST RICE CEREALS AND BABY FOODS 179
amylose/amylopectin ratios of the starch in milled rice in the United States

are presented by Webb (1985). The long-grain rice has a higher amylose/
amylopectin ratio. The grains remain separate after cooking and have a
firmer texture than the medium- and short-grain rice.
Mottern et al. (1967) studied the differences in popping characteristics
of rice varieties. The yield of popped cereal from long-grain rice (Blue
Bonnet) was three-fourths that of Mochi-Gome, a short-grain waxy rice
that is the acceptable popping variety in the Orient. Rice varieties with
low amylose/amylopectin ratios generally have lower gelatinization tem-
peratures than those with higher ratios and, on cooling, their starch pastes
show considerably less retrogradation than rices with high ratios.
Waxy or glutinous rice has been used in large quantities for making
snack foods in Taiwan and Japan. Waxy rice is useful in the production
of oven-expanded cereals. It differs from common rice in that the grains
contain essentially no amylose, are opaque, and tend to disintegrate on
cooking. It is preferred in the Orient for the preparation of desserts. Waxy
rice has been used in the United States as a thickener for sauces and
gravies and as a tenderizing agent in frozen foods.
RICE BREAKFAST CEREALS
Rice breakfast cereals may be divided into two major categories: those
that require cooking or adding boiling water before serving (hot cereals)
and those that are fully cooked and ready to eat directly from the package.
The origin of the former is probably as old as civilization since it is very
likely that gruels and porridges made from crushed grains were among
the first cereal foods of mankind. Ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals,
however, have been in existence for over 100 years.
Hot Cereals
There are two types of hot rice cereals: (1) precooked or instantized
products, such as quick-cooking rices and instant rice gruels; (2) granular
products, such as Cream of Rice, produced from granulated white milled
rice. Quick-cooking rice has been thoroughly reviewed by Roberts (1972),
Keneaster (1974), Luh et al. (1980), andJuliano and Sakurai (1985). While
raw milled rice takes 15-25 min to cook in boiling water and raw brown
rice takes 45-60 min, quick-cooking rice requires significantly less cooking
time. Many patents for manufacturing instant rice gruels have been issued.
An example is provided by Koyama (1985). The process consists of wash-
ing, repeated soaking (three times) and steaming (twice), hot-air drying,
aging, and swelling rice volume to 5-7 times. Seasonings may be added if
necessary. The swelled rice may have the form of rice granules, broken
rice granules, rice powder, or a combination of these. Instant rice gruel is
then prepared by adding hot water to the swelled rice. Cream of Rice is
the second type of hot rice cereals. It also cooks more quickly than raw
milled rice because it has smaller particle size (Juliano and Sakurai 1985).
Ready-to-Eat Breakfast Cereals

The use of rice in prepared cereals, both alone and in combination with
products of other cereal grains, has assumed considerable importance in
recent years (Fast and Caldwell 1990). Rice imparts not only its special
flavor but also texture-modifying properties in formulation and processing.
Hogan (1967, 1977) reviewed the literature on the use of rice in cereals in
which rice, alone or in combination with other cereal grain products, is
precooked, dried, flaked, or formed into doughs, then expanded or puffed
and toasted. The cooking time, steam pressure, temperature of the basic
materials, and toasting procedure greatly influence the quality of the final
product. Flavoring materials, vitamin and mineral premixes, and protein-
containing ingredients may be added to improve the nutritive value. There
are many kinds of rice breakfast cereals on the market. Many variations
of the manufacturing processes are applied to make more nutritious and
attractive ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Excellent reviews on the subject
have been provided by Daniels (1970, 1974), Miller (1988), and Fast (1990).
Puffed Rice
The puffing processes may be divided into two types: (1) atmospheric
pressure procedures, which rely on the sudden application of heat to
obtain the necessary rapid vaporization of water, and (2) pressure-drop
processes, which involve sudden transferring of superheated moist parti-
cles into a space at lower pressure. In the latter case, the pressure drop
may be achieved by releasing the seal on a vessel containing a product
that has been equilibrated with high-temperature steam, or it may be
secured by transferring the hot material from the atmosphere into an
evacuated chamber. The former process is much more widely used (Matz
1970; Hogan 1977).
The puffing phenomenon results from the sudden expansion of water
vapor (steam) in the interstices of the granule. The particle is fixed in its
expanded state by the dehydration resulting from the rapid diffusion of
the water vapor out of it. Gun-puffing may result in an increase of apparent
volume (bulk density decrease) of six- to eightfold. Oven puffing causes a
lesser increase, about three- to fourfold.
Puffed products must be maintained at about 3% moisture in order to
achieve the desired crispness. The moisture level is very critical and must
be maintained to ensure good keeping quality.
Oven-Puffed Rice
Currently manufactured by Kellogg and Weetabix, oven-puffed rice is
prepared from whole kernels of California Pearl (short-grain) rice. The
raw rice selected should be of uniform variety, size, and moisture and be
fully milled translucent with a fat content less than 0.5%. Frequently, the
rice is parboiled. Each batch consists of 635 kg of rice and 202.51 of sugar
syrup. Some salt may be added. The mixture is cooked in a retort for 5 hr
under 100-150 kPa steam pressure. Sometimes, nondiastic malt syrup and
enriching ingredients are added before cooking (Matz 1970; Hogan 1977).
Proper cooking of the rice is very important to the quality of the final
product. Overcooking will produce a heavier product that will not expand
to the optimum degree and therefore results in a heavier package weight.
When undercooked, the eating quality of the final product is impaired.
The cooked rice is broken up and dried to approximately 25-30%
moisture content in a rotating louver drier. The partially dried product is
stored in stainless steel bins for about 15 hr to equilibrate the moisture.
This reduces the stickiness and toughens the kernel so that it is in perfect
condition for bumping. The moisture should be uniformly distributed
throughout the rice kernels. Lumps may form during the tempering pro-
cess. They must be broken up before being sent to the flaking rolls.
The individual kernels are separated and again dried so that a moisture
content of 18-20% is reached. The kernels are passed under a radiant
heater, which brings the external layers of the rice to 82.2°C. The outside
layers of the kernel are plasticized by the heat so they do not split when
the grain is run through the flaking rolls. The rolls used in preparation of
oven-puffed rice are set relatively far apart so that they contact only the
central part of the rice kernel. The bumped grains are again tempered, this
time for about 24 hr.
To secure the puffed effect, the cooled and tempered rice is passed
through rotating toasting ovens, which are usually gas-fired. The moist
flake is tumbled through the perforated drums and passed within a few
inches of the gas flames. Treatments are at 232.2-301.7°C for 30-45 sec.
The oven-puffed rice emerges from the oven with less than 3% moisture.
It is then carried by belts to expansion bins, where it is permitted to cool
to room temperature before packaging.
The processing of a cereal called Special K, manufactured by Kellogg
is similar to that of oven-puffed rice. The rice kernels are cooked and then
coated, while in a moistened condition, with wheat gluten, wheat-germ
meal, dried skim milk, debittered brewer's yeast, and other nutritional
adjuncts. Following partial drying and tempering, the grain is run through
flaking rolls. Flaking rolls are steel cylinders weighing over a ton each and
revolving at a speed of about 180-200 rpm. Hydraulic controls maintain a
pressure of over 40 tons at the point of contact of the rolls. The rolls are
cooled by internal circulation of water.
The flaking process presses the rice kernels into thin flakes. The
product is still rather flexible at this time, lacking the desired crispness
and flavor of the finished rice flakes. The flakes are toasted in the same
manner as oven-puffed rice. In addition to being thoroughly dehydrated
by the process, the flakes are toasted and blistered.
Consumers seem to prefer oven-puffed rice cereal to rice flakes. This
is believed to be due to the superior tenderness developed by the puffing
process. Oven-puffed rice also maintains crispness for a longer period
when served with milk, whereas ordinary rice flakes tend to soften more
quickly in milk.
Rice cereals may be coated with flavored sugar syrup, making sweet-
ened products for greater appeal, especially to children. Many kinds of
flavoring, coatings, and colorings are used for a variety of finished prod-
ucts. However, consumer groups concerned with nutrition are against the
consumption of cereals that are high in sugar content.
Gun-Puffed Rice
Rice puffing is a relatively simple process. It consists of essentially three
steps: (1) heating the cleaned rice, (2) cooking with steam at high pressure
in a sealed chamber or gun, and (3) suddenly releasing the pressure.
According to Hogan (1977), short-grain rice is preferred for gun-puf-
fing. California Pearl rice is generally used. The clean milled rice is intro-
duced into the gun manually by a swing spout, and the gun is then closed.
With the gun rotating, the heating phase of the process is started. Mter a
period of preheating, superheated steam at 15.1 kg/cm2 is introduced into
the gun. It is important that the steam be dry. Free water will cause
clumping, pitting, and lower uneven expansion. Steam pressure is critical:
if too high, the rice will shatter when the gun is fired; if too low, the texture
of the puffed kernels will be tough, lacking crispness. Sufficient time is
allowed for the superheated steam to cook the rice to a semiplastic state.
Finally, the pressure in the gun is suddenly released by manually triggering
the end gate, and the puffed rice is caught in a cage and then dried to 3%
moisture before packaging. Originally, rice puffing was conducted in a
single chamber or gun. Now a rotary machine consisting of eight guns is
used. It is mounted in the form of a wheel, loaded, and fired automatically.
The puffing process is related to the moisture present in the original
rice and that involved in the process of steaming within the gun. If the
surfaces of the kernels become too wet during the puffing stage, poor
expansion will result. Satisfactory puffing depends on attaining grain tem-
peratures at which starch exhibits plastic flow characteristics under pres-
sure. The time and temperature at which the rice is preheated are critically
important. In general, the required temperature should be reached as
quickly as possible without scorching the grain. If the grain temperature
is too low, the rice kernels will clump together. Ifthe grain temperature
is too high, the kernels will not expand as much as they should and will
probably have hollow centers; losses due to breakage and abrasion will
increase. The rate of steam flow to the puffing-gun is very important and
must be controlled precisely.
Puffing by Extrusion
Many puffed ready-to-eat breakfast cereals are being made by extruding
superheated and pressurized doughs through an orifice into the atmo-
sphere. Either single-screw or twin-screw extruders can be used (Levine
1988). The sudden expansion of water vapor as the excess pressure is
released increases the volume several times. Apparent specific volumes
can reach or exceed those attained by gun-puffing, and the process seems
to have several advantages over gun-puffing, such as higher production
rates, greater versatility in product shape, and easier control of product
density. Application of flavor extracts to extruded breakfast cereals has
been discussed by Lane (1985).
The rice premix containing 60-75% expandable starch base is moistur-
ized with water or steam. The resultant mash is compacted by a screw
revolving inside a barrel, which may be heated by steam. The thread of
the screw has a progressively closer pitch as it approaches discharge. In
some extruder designs, the rice premix is fed directly to the extruder. The
water and/or steam are injected into the barrel and mixed with the premix.
The pressurizing, shearing, and steam heating bring the dough to a temper-
ature of around 150-175°C and a pressure of 5-10 MPa at the die head.
Under these conditions, the dough is quite flexible and easily adapts to
complex orifice configurations.
For large extruders, there may be more than one die head. Each die
head may contain several orifices, and pieces of correct size are sliced off
by revolving blades resting on the exterior die surface. Adjustment of the
speed of rotation of the knife assembly controls the piece size. An example
of an extrusion unit is shown in Fig. 8-1.
The dough pieces expand very rapidly as they leave the die orifice,
but the expansion may continue for a few seconds since the dough is hot
and still flexible and water continues to boil off. The moisture content of
pieces is on the order of 10-15% and is too high for satisfactory crispness
Figure 8-1. Wenger X-200 extrusion unit. (From Wenger Manufacturing, Sabetha,
Kansas.)
and stability. Thus, the pieces are flash-dried or dried on vibrating screens
in hot-air ovens to a final moisture content of 3-5% (Fig. 8-2). Fines
and agglomerates are removed at this time. Process control for extrusion
processing of cereals has been discussed by Mulvaney and Hsieh (1988).
The products may be coated with sugar syrup and flavoring if desired,
dried again, cooled, and packaged.
Shredded Rice Cereal

Shredded rice cereal is a very popular ready-to-eat breakfast cereal.
Whole-kernel or broken rice can be used as the starting material . The rice
is washed and cooked in a rotary cooker with sugar, salt, and malt syrup
under 100-150-kPa steam pressure for a period of 1-2 hr or until the rice
is uniformly cooked throughout, with no free white centers, and the kernels
are soft and pliable but still individual particles. The cooked particles are
Figure 8-2. Drier for rice cereals. (From the National Drying Machinery Co., Phila-
delphia.)
then discharged at a moisture content of about 40% and are partially dried
to a moisture content of about 25-30%. The dried kernels are tempered
to ensure a uniform moisture distribution and form a hard, glazed surface.
This allows the rice kernels to flow freely through the process and reduces
hang-ups and choking problems .
The shredding rolls are from 15.2-20.3 em in diameter and as wide as
60 em or more. They are much smaller than flaking rolls. On one of the
pair of rolls is a series of about 20 shallow corrugations running around
the periphery. In cross section, these corrugations may be square, rectan-
gular, or a combination of these shapes. The other roll of the pair is
smooth. Soft and cooked rice is drawn between these rolls as they rotate
and issues as continuous strands of dough.
Rice Chex and Crispix, manufactured by Ralston Purina, use two pairs
of shredding rolls. Rice Chex uses rice as the sole cereal ingredient, while
Crispix uses both rice and corn as the cereal components. The dough sheet
formed from the first pair of rolls is placed on a moving belt. The dough
sheet from the second pair of rolls is then laid on top of the first sheet on
the same moving belt. The layered sheets can be cut by one or two pairs
of cutting rolls, which fuse a thin line of the dough sheets into a solid mass
at regular intervals to form a continuous matrix of biscuits. The wet

biscuits are transferred to a metal belt moving through a gas-fired oven.
The biscuits are toasted, cooled, and broken apart from each other through
a vibratory conveyor before packaging.
Fortification with Vitamins and Minerals

Fortification of ready-to-eat rice breakfast cereals with vitamins and miner-
als is now a very common practice in the United States. The usual ap-
proach is to add the minerals and more stable vitamins such as niacin,
riboflavin, and vitamin B-6 to the basic formula mix and then spray the
more labile vitamins such as vitamin A and thiamin on the product after
processing (Borenstein et al. 1990). The fortification must not affect the
odor or flavor of the product. The nutrients to be added must be stable
during processing and storage, and a sufficient amount is added to compen-
sate for losses in processing and storage. The process is pragmatic and
economically feasible.
Shelf Life
Shelf life may be shortened due to loss of crispness and flavor, water
uptake by hygroscopic products, excessive nonenzymatic browning, hy-
drolytic rancidity due to enzyme release of free fatty acids, and rancidity
due to oxidative deterioration. Under ordinary conditions, the shelflife of
ready-to-eat cereals is expected to be 12 months at 20°C. This may vary
somewhat with the type of product, the quality of the packaging material,
and practices in processing, packaging, sealing, and storage.
Anderson et al. (1976) studied the effects of processing and storage on
micronutrients in breakfast cereals. There are no substantial losses of
added vitamins during normal shelf lives, with the possible exceptions of
vitamins A and C. Vitamin A may be lost to the extent of 15% at 40°C for
three months, but no appreciable loss is found at 22°C for six months.
Vitamin C shows a slight loss at 40°C in some cereal tests but not in
others. Anderson and co-workers concluded that the overall stability of
micronutrients added to breakfast cereals is good.
RICE IN BABY FOODS
Strained baby foods were first introduced as ''convenience foods.'' Conve-

nience ranks high as a motivating force in baby-food purchases. Modern
commercial canning procedures result in a higher retention of nutrients
than many home-cooking methods.
Rice in the form of rice flour or as granulated rice is used in the

formulation of many strained baby foods, particularly in meat and vegeta-
ble combinations (Luh and Woodroof 1977). Rice flour, waxy rice flour,
parboiled rice, rice polishings, and rice oil are used in baby foods. The
largest use of rice in the baby-food industry is in the manufacture of
precooked infant rice cereal.
Precooked Rice Cereal

Precooked rice cereal is an easily digested rice product, frequently pre-
scribed as the infant's first solid food. Precooked cereals are excellent
vehicles for the introduction of essential minerals and vitamins into the
infant's diet. The cereal must be easily reconstituted with milk or formula
with a minimum of lumps. The quantity of liquid required to reconstitute
a given weight or volume of cereal must be uniform. This is particularly
important when cereal is reconstituted with formula from a nursing bottle.
The process for making precooked baby cereals has been reported by
Hogan (1967, 1977). It consists of preparing and cooking a cereal slurry.
The slurry is dried on a double-drum atmospheric drier, and the dried
cereal is flaked and packaged. Each baby-food manufacturer has his own
formulation and process for the manufacture of precooked rice cereal. The
ingredients used in the formulation of precooked rice cereals are: rice flour,
rice polishings, sugar, dibasic calcium phosphate, iodized salt, sodium
iron pyrophosphate, glycerol monostearate (emulsifier), rice oil, thiamin
hydrochloride, riboflavin, and niacin or niacinamide.
Rice cereal is more difficult to manufacture than other cereals. The
precooked cereal slurry is dried on an atmospheric drum drier. The thick-
ness of the film on the drier surface, the spacing between the drums, the
temperature of the drum surface, the drum speed, and the flowing proper-
ties of the slurry are most difficult to control and influence the drying
operation to a much greater degree than any other factor involved. The
bulk density of the cereal is related to the thickness of the sheet coming
off the drier and the size distribution of the flakes. Dry rice cereal does
not flake well and, if the cereal process is not controlled, an excess weight
of cereal must be packaged in order to meet the package head space require-
ment. Because of the high starch content in rice, the apparent viscosity of
the cooked cereal slurry is markedly affected by slight variations in the
solids content. The solids, drum speed, drum temperature, etc., are ad-
justed to obtain a finished product of good quality.
Kelly et al. (1972) patented a process for preparing a dried cereal
product by incorporating an ester-containing organic releasing agent
(emulsifier) containing at least 1 phosphatide linkage, in a rice cereal slurry
prior to dehydration of the slurry surface. The precooked, dehydrated rice

cereal product so obtained is rapidly reconstitutable with liquid to form a
rice cereal with a homogeneous smooth texture suitable for infant feeding.
A process for the manufacture of precooked cereal with fruit has
been patented by Billerbeck (1970). A precooked rice cereal product with
strawberries appears to be gaining favorable consumer acceptance. These
products are prepared in a manner similar to that employed for regular
precooked infant cereals. Cereal ingredients, fruit, sugar, oil, vitamins,
and minerals are cooked, dried on an atmospheric drum drier, flaked, and
packaged. Because of the hygroscopicity related to the fruit and sugar, fruit
cereals require moisture-proof packages. An antioxidant is incorporated in
the packaging material to prolong shelf life.
Sometimes, the enzyme diastase can lower the liquid requirement for
reconstitution by hydrolyzing part of the starch. This is a very sophisticated
process. The temperature, time of digestion, enzyme activity, and solids
concentrations must be closely controlled to obtain a satisfactory product.
Prior to 1970, most infant cereals were prepared with salt or iodized
salt. Baby-food manufacturers have discontinued its use, however, in
response to the recommendation made by the National Academy of Sci-
ences for reduced salt intake by infants.
Rice cereal products contain little sugar, and so caking is usually not a
problem, particularly when the products are subjected to storage at relative
humidities less than 75%. Rice cereal, however, will become rancid if pack-
aged in a hermetically sealed container. The package material most suitable
for rice cereal is one that allows transmission of both moisture vapor and
gas. Most precooked infant cereals are packaged in paperboard cartons. A
bleached manila liner on the interior of the carton is occasionally used. The
carton is overwrapped with a glue-mounted, preprinted paper label. The
tight wrap offers sifting and insect protection to the package. Some manufac-
turers package rice cereals in preprinted cartons.
Dry cereal products other than precooked cereals are used in infant
feeding. These are manufactured by dry-blending cereal grains, including
rice, sugar, and milk powder. These blends require cooking and are fed as
a gruel.
Extrusion-Cooked Baby Foods

In addition to drum drying, extrusion cooking is another method used in
the preparation of precooked rice-based baby foods (Mercier et al. 1989).
The type of extruders used, the particle size of the rice flour, and the
extrusion conditions are some of the major factors influencing the proper-
ties of extruded baby foods (Juliano and Sakurai 1985). Examples of
extrusion-cooked rice-based foods are Kaset infant food, with 71.7% rice
flour and 12.5% full-fat soy flour (Bhumiratana 1979); Bebiko 2R (rice-
milk) (Pazola et al. 1976); Energo, with 60% rice flour, 35% full-fat soy
flour, and 5% nonfat dry milk (Payumo et al. 1979); and Babymate, 75%
milled rice and 25% dehulled mung bean (Juliano and Sakurai 1985).
Formulated Baby Foods

Meats, fruits, and vegetables are pureed for making baby foods (Luh and
Kean 1986; Luh and Woodroof 1988). In vegetable and meat combinations
or in soups, not only are the meat and vegetable particles comminuted but
the products also are thickened to a desirable consistency so that they can
be conveniently fed to a baby. Rice cereal products are customarily used
in the preparation of soups and casserole dishes. Similar products designed
for infant feeding also contain these ingredients. Not only is rice a food
ingredient, but its use in baby foods has a significant role in the consistency
of the product. This feature is probably associated with the amylose con-
tent of rice starch. The consistency of a product containing rice flour
develops upon cooling. The variety of rice used in these products is very
important. Long-grain rice, because of its amylose content, causes the
product to thicken during storage (retrograde) and eventually to produce
a very rigid gel and water separation. The presence of free liquid in a
product package in a glass container is a serious defect. The strong gel
associated with water separation is also undesirable. Waxy-rice flour is a
good stabilizer for canned and frozen food products. The stability was
achieved as a result of a reduction in the amylose/amylopectin ratio.
The consistency of a baby food or puree is evaluated by the Bostwick
consistometer, which measures distance in centimeters traveled by a given
volume of material in 5 sec. The lower the Bostwick measurement, the
thicker the product. Spoonability is a very important characteristic in baby
foods since a cohesive product is very difficult to feed babies.
"Junior" baby foods have a coarser texture. They help the baby
acquire the "mouth feel." To produce the "junior particle," granulated
rice is incorporated into the formulation of many junior vegetable and
meat items. Care must be taken in the formulation of junior baby foods
because the consistency can thin upon cooking and the particle may settle
out and form a mat in the bottom of the jar. To ensure uniform distribution
of the junior particle, modified waxy-maize starch is frequently incorpo-
rated into the product.
Packaging
Packaging of rice cereals is very important in rice processing. Many pack-
aged ready-to-eat cereals are stored for six months or longer before
they are actually consumed. Thus, it is necessary to use special pack-
aging materials to protect the crispness and storage stability of rice

cereals.
The cereals must be acceptable in flavor, aroma, and texture at the
time of consumption. For this reason, many cereal manufacturers adjust
their production schedules to meet the demand of the market so that the
products will not stay longer than six months on the shelves of supermar-
kets and stores.
The most important qualities of ready-to-eat breakfast rice cereals are
crispness and flavor. Color is also a factor contributing to the attrac-
tiveness of the product.
Crispness of breakfast cereals depends on the moisture content of the
products. Puffed rice, for example, is more hygroscopic than other rice
cereals. It will rapidly lose its crispness unless a good moisture barrier is
provided in the package. Optimum crispness can be kept if the moisture
content of the puffed rice is 3-4%.
Packaging requirements
Except for the bowl-ready instant products, cereals do not have exact
packaging requirements. They are dry and thus are not subject to microbio-
logical deterioration. Hot cereals absorb moisture only with difficulty and
so require little moisture protection. Fat contents of other than the whole-
grain cereals have been reduced considerably, and so rancidity from expo-
sure to air is not a major problem. However, to preserve freshness, antioxi-
dants are added either in the formula or to the package material. Most
cereal manufacturers apply butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxy-
toluene, and propylgallate to the packaging material as antioxidants. Many
flavoring agents are stable, and little protection is required to retain them.
Vitamins used for enrichment do not present any problems if the cereals
are kept dry.
Some cereals are subject to insect infestation, and extra protection is
required to keep moths and beetles from penetrating the packages at weak
spots, such as corners.
Bowl-ready precooked cereals contain hydrated starch, which is de-
signed to accept moisture readily and which, therefore, requires water-
vapor protection. The incorporation of flavors such as cocoa or cinnamon
leads to the need for an odor barrier to supplement the moisture barrier.
In contrast, ready-to-eat cereals are hard and often fragile. They can
crack and be abraded and crushed if seriously abused. The light weight
and density allow them to flow rather easily and move inside containers
with only minimum surface powdering and breaking.
Unsweetened ready-to-eat cereals require some moisture protection
because slow absorption of water can lead to loss of crispness and tough-
ening of the texture.
Ready-to-eat cereals may be produced from a variety of grains and

grain flours, with varying quantities of fat remaining. There is a long-
term possibility of rancidity and short-term potential from fat flow into
packaging as a result of temperature fluctuations. The need to protect
these cereals from odor contamination by the cylinder board carton in
which they are contained also exists. As with crackers and cookies, ready-
to-eat cereal products often need to breathe through the package.
Sweetened cereals present a more difficult moisture problem because
dried sugar syrup is an active moisture absorber when the vapor pressure
exceeds the equilibrium. Moisture absorption leads to partial liquefaction
and surface stickiness.
All these problems point to a requirement for moisture protection.
Some advocate total sealing, and others a good barrier without the need
for hermetic sealing. In any case, there is a need for enclosure in the larger
sizes.
Synthetically sweetened dry cereals do not contain additives that
readily absorb moisture; so water-vapor protection requirements for these
would be about the same as for unsweetened cereals. Those with added
nutrients, however (and most cereals are fortified with certain vitamins
and minerals), may contaminate the products with the flavor of the vitamin.
Cereals with inclusions such as raisins, nuts, and candies do not have
major moisture-uptake problems.
Cereals with freeze-dried fruit experience just the reverse. The poros-
ity and low moisture content of the dried fruit structure leads to extremely
rapid rates of water absorption by the fruit. If the moisture available is
insufficient for total reconstitution, the moisture distributes itself through-
out the fruit and leads to toughening. Moisture absorption in freeze-dried
fruit is not reversible.
Packaging materials
Cereals not requiring such protection are packaged in linerless chipboard

cartons. The traditional paperboard cylinder with a lithographed paper
label is used by Quaker Oats and others. Farina and whole-wheat hot
cereals in rectangular paperboard cartons with printed double-wound over-
labels (to protect against insect infestation) are close packaging relatives
of the cylinder. These packages are inexpensive, are readily decorated,
and stack well.
Instant cereals that require moisture protection are packed in a paper/
polyethylene pouch. Polyethylene extrusion on the interior provides an
inexpensive moisture barrier, which also acts as a heat sealant.
Ready-to-eat cereals in family-size packages are almost all packed in
lined rectangular paperboard cartons.
Liners for unsweetened cereals belong to the same family of waxed
and laminated glassines as cookie and cracker package liners. Wax, of

course, acts to retard the passage of moisture. Glassine acts as a fat and
odor barrier. Generally, two-side-bleached or amber waxed glassine is
used, amber being slightly less expensive.
Waxed glassine liners are heat-sealed on the long and bottom seams
and the foldover, which is closed on the top after filling. Waxed glassine
has sufficient stiffness for foldover closure.
For sweetened cereals, some employ wax-laminated overwaxed glass-
ine with double foldover closure. Wax-laminated, overwaxed glassine
liners may also be heat-sealed and folded over for additional protection.
Other barriers are employed for dry, ready-to-eat cereal protection.
Aluminum foil wax-laminated to tissue is used on some individual portion
packages. Wax on the interior acts as a sealant because a total seal is
required to ensure against leakage. The wax laminant is a moisture barrier.
Although a similar material could be employed for larger packages,
one construction that is employed is a triplex, glassine/wax/aluminum or
foil/wax/glassine. The glassine can be inexpensive cereal-grade because
its principal function is to protect the foil, which provides the major barrier.
Aluminum foil is now used in 0.0076-cm and even 0.0064-cm gauges instead
of the former 0.0009-cm gauge. The small pinhole level in these thicknesses
is readily overcome by the microcrystalline laminating wax, and the foil
provides an effective moisture barrier.
Glassine on the inside protects the foil against abrasion from cereal,
is a fat and odor barrier, and also separates the product from the wax,
reducing the possibility of waxy flavors being imparted to the cereal.
Into the arena of sugar-sweetened cereal liners has come what is
sometimes referred to as an intermediate barrier: overwaxed one-side
Saran-coated glassine or paper. Saran is not as impermeable as aluminum
foil but is the best of the commercially available barrier coatings.
Portion packaging of ready-to-eat cereals has used both lined paper-
board cartons and sealed thermoformed tubs.
For hotel, restaurant, institution, and some retail use, the cartons are
bulk-cased. Multipacking is done by overwrapping in printed cellophane
or polyethylene, with or without a printed paperboard tray. The package
is conventionally overwrap-bundled, using transparent film and printing
to show the contents, or a paperboard is used to indicate that the single
unit contains many packages.
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Effects of processing and storage on micronutrients in breakfast cereals. Food
Techno/. 30(5):110-114.
ASTM. 1980. Methods of the American Society for Testing Materials. Philadel-
phia: ASTM, Method E-96.
Bhumiratana, A. 1979. LEC activities in Thailand. In Proceedings of the Interna-
tional Workshop Low-Cost Extrusion Cookers, edited by D. E. Wilson and
R. E. Tribelhorn.
Billerbeck, F. W. 1970. Method for preparing a fruit cereal product. U.S. Pat.
3,506.447. April 14.
Borenstein, B., Caldwell, E. F., Gordon, H. T., Johnson, L., and Labuza, T. P.
1990. Fortification and preservation of cereals. In Breakfast Cereals and How
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Caldwell, E. F., and Fast, R. B. 1990. The cereal grains. In Breakfast Cereals and
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AACC, pp. 1-10.
Daniels, R. 1970. Modern Breakfast Cereal Processes. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes
Data Publ.
Daniels, R. 1974. Breakfast Cereal Technology. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data
Publ.
Fast, R. B. 1990. Manufacturing technology of ready-to-eat cereals. In Breakfast
Cereals and How They Are Made, edited by R. B. Fast and E. F. Caldwell.
St. Paul, MN: AACC, pp. 15-42.
Fast, R. B., and Caldwell, E. F. 1990. Breakfast Cereals and How They Are Made,
edited by R. B. Fast and E. F. Caldwell. St. Paul, MN: AACC.
Hogan, J. T. 1967. Processed rice products. Rice J. 70(11):25-31.
by N. W. Desrosier. Westport, CT: AVI.
Hoseney, R. C. 1986. Principles of Cereal Science and Technology. St. Paul, MN:
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Juliano, B. 0., and Sakurai, J. 1985. Miscellaneous rice products. In Rice: Chemis-
try and Technology, edited by B. 0. Juliano. St. Paul, MN: AACC.
Kelly, V. J. et al. 1972. Process for preparing a dried rice cereal product. U.S.
Pat. 3,690,894. Sept. 12.
Kelly, V. J. 1985. Rice in infant foods. In Rice: Chemistry and Technology, edited
by B. 0. Juliano. St. Paul, MN: AACC.
Keneaster, K. K. 1974. Quick cooking rice processes. Activities Rep. Res. Dev.
Associates Military Food Packaging Systems, Inc. 26(2):38-50.
Kent, N. L. 1983. Technology of Cereals. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Koyama, S. 1985. Instant rice gruel and method for producing same. U.S. Pat.
4,548,830. Oct. 22.
Lane, R. P. 1985. The application of flavors to extruded products. Perfume Flavor
10(4):53.
Levine, L. 1988. Understanding extruder performance. Cereal Foods World,
33:963-970.
Luh, B. S., and Bhumiratana, A. 1980. Breakfast rice cereals and baby foods. In
Rice: Production and Utilization, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT: AVI.
Luh, B.S., and Woodroof, J. G. 1977. Baby Foods. In Elements of Food Technol-
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Luh, B.S., and Woodroof, J. G. 1988. Commercial Vegetable Processing, West-
port, CT: AVI.
Luh, B. S., Roberts, R. L., and Li, C. F. 1980. Quick cooking rice. In Rice:
Production and Utilization, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT: AVI.
Matz, S. A. 1970. Manufacture of breakfast cereals. In Cereal Technology, edited
by S. A. Matz. Westport CT: AVI.
AACC.
Miller, D. F. 1988. Drying as a unit operation in the processing of ready-to-eat
breakfast cereals. I. Basic principles. Cereal Foods World 33:267-273.
Mottern, H. H., Vix, H. L. E., and Spadaro, J. J. 1967. Popping characteristics
of rice. Rice J. 70(8):9,24-31.
Mulvaney, S. J., and Hsieh, F.-H. 1988. Process control for extrusion processing.
Cereal Foods World 33:971-977.
Oka, H. I. 1975. The origin of cultured rice and its adaptive evaluation. In Rice in
Asia, Association of Japan Agriculture and Science Societies, Tokyo: Univ.
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9
Fermented Rice Products
H. H. Wang
National Taiwan University
INTRODUCTION
Starch is the major constituent of milled rice and makes up 90% of the
milled rice on a dry-weight basis (Juliano 1972). Reviews on fermented
foods and drinks, using rice products, include those by Hesseltine 1965;
Wang and Hesseltine 1970; Wood 1981; Steinkraus 1981, 1983; Chiao 1981;
Batra 1981; Iizuka and Lin 1981; Nunokawa 1981; Kodama 1986; Konishi
et al. 1989, and Wang 1980, 1989. VanVeen and Steinkraus (1970) have
briefly summarized the nutritive value of fermented foods derived from
rice. It is interesting that saccharification of starch in the West is character-
ized by the use of malt whereas, in the Orient, fungi are widely used.
Fermented rice food products can be classified into three categories
(Wang 1980): solid, paste, and liquid. The solid-state fermented products
include starter types such asp' eka, or pekka, anka (China), ragi (Indone-
sia), koji (Japan), predigested "yellow rice" (Ecuador) (Van Veen and
Steinkraus 1970), and breadlike foods (Steinkraus 1983). Characteristic
paste products are miso (Japan) and chiang (China) for seasoning foods.
Here we will include in the paste category some of the sweet/sour alcoholic
foods: pastes and beverages (Steinkraus 1983) and tieng-chiou-niang
195
(Wang 1980). Shao-hsing wine (China), sake (Japan), and rice vinegar are
well-known fermented rice foods typical of the liquid form (Hesseltine
1965; Wang 1980).
SOLID-STATE FOODS
Yellow Rice
The procedure for making yellow rice was described by Van Veen and
Steinkraus (1970). The unhusked, undried rice is fermented by the native
microbial flora present at harvest. During fermentation the grain acquires
a yellowish-brownish color, which remains. Mter drying and milling, the
resulting product is still colored. Upon cooking, it develops a faint yet
specific flavor. Arroz fermando, amarillo, requemado, or simply Sierra
rice are synonyms for "yellow rice." The product is consumed largely in
the Sierra mountains and is used in the preparation of ''dry rice'' as staple
food. Dry rice is prepared by cooking the kernels until they separate
evenly. Moreover, the microorganisms break down some of the nutrients,
thus effecting a kind of ''predigestion.'' The product therefore requires
less cooking time, which is important at the high Andean altitudes, where
fuel is scarce and water may boil below 90°C.
VanVeen and others were interested mainly in the nutritive value of
fermented rice and in the possible occurrence of mycotoxins or microbial
toxins, which might present health hazards. They isolated several fungi
and bacterial toxins from Ecuadorian fermented rice samples, but it was
difficult, if not impossible, to identify the microorganisms most important
for the fermentation process. In general, all samples showed more or less
the same population of microorganisms. All bacteria were gram-positive
spore formers, which is not surprising because of the heat generated by
the fermenting rice. The most prominent bacteria appeared to be Bacillus
subtilis, with strong proteolytic and amylolytic activity. Two other less
important bacilli resembled B. pumilis and B. cereus, although neither was
identical to these strains as described in Bergey's Manual, differing in
some biochemical properties. Among the fungi, Aspergillus were promi-
nent, especially A. flavus L.K. var. flavus; A. flavus var. columnaries
Raper and Fennel; A. candidus L.K.; and A. fumigates, Rhizopus rhizo-
podiformis, Absidia corymbifers, and an Actinomycete species were also
isolated.
It appeared that fermented grains retained their consistency much
better than unfermented ones (Herzfeld 1957). Judging from the increase
in soluble nitrogen from 1.5-3% to 3-6%, a portion of the protein must be
broken down by the microorganisms. The cooking properties of rice and
the consistency of the product benefitted from this microbiological effect.
FERMENTED RICE PRODUCTS 197
In a rat-feeding experiment, the nutritive value of the protein (protein

efficiency ratio, PER) was not improved. On the same level of protein
intake, the unfermented product showed a PER of 1.90; the fermented
product 1.63; and casein 2.45. This observation has been made with vari-
ous fermented products (VanVeen and Steinkraus 1970). The apparent
digestibility in rats decreased from 86.8 to 72.6%. Of the vitamins investi-
gated, the thiamin content was practically unchanged, but the riboflavin
content increased three- to fourfold. This is also a common observation
with fermented foods (VanVeen and Steinkraus 1970). It may be important
to the rice-eating people, who have a rather low riboflavin intake. The
fermented rice samples did not contain aflatoxin when tested in the stan-
dard wheat medium.
Starters
Steinkraus (1983) summarized the literature on starter-making extensively
at the 5th International Conference on Global Impacts of Applied Microbi-
ology, in Bangkok, Thailand, in November 1977. Microbial starter cultures
are used for inoculation of some fermented rice products. In countries
where culture collections exist, it is possible, for a price, to obtain pure
cultures for specific fermentations.
Wang (1980) reviewed the ancient histories (Methods ofFarmers 1968)
of Chinese starters, which are somewhat similar to those found in South-
east Asia. Steinkraus (1983) described the starter cultures and the organ-
isms found in Chinesische hefe and Javanische ragi, along with the amylo-
lytic yeasts and molds found in the fermentation of arak. Other scientists
who have studied and discussed these starter cultures include Hesseltine
(1965), Ko (1981), Sie (1962), and Soedarsono (1972). Ellis et al. (1976)
described the genus Amylomyces (formerly Chlamydomucor), which is
extremely important in the production of fermented rice pastes and wines.
Various names appear often in the literature, such as Indonesian ragi-
tape; ragipeuyeum (for cassava); ragi beras; Malaysian ragi-tapai; Malay-
sianJui-paing; Thai loogpang (grown on bran); Thai luk-paeng; Philippine
bubod levadura; Chinese ch'u, levure chinoise, Javanische ragi, Chines-
ische hefe; Indian bakhar, mucha, ranu, or u-y-iat. The term used in
India for millet, Eleusine coracana, is also "ragi"; the two should not be
confused (Steinkraus 1983). The name following ragi indicates use of
the starter; thus, ragi-tempeh is a tempeh inoculum, ragi-tape is a tape
inoculant, and ragi-samshu is an inoculum for Malaysian samshu-rice
wine (Steinkraus 1983). Except for Thai loogpang, in which the organisms
are grown on bran, the predominant form for the ragi-type starters is a
small (3-6-cm), round flattened cake of rice flour on which the desired
microorganisms have been grown. The cakes are air- or sun-dried. Dehy-
dration sometimes occurs simultaneously with the growth of the organ-

isms. The rice cakes may have a hole at the center so that they can be
hung on a wire for display in the marketplace (Steinkraus 1983).
Making the starter (chu or ch'u) involves a solid-state fermentation
occurring in an open system in which moisture is lost by evaporation
(Wang and Chiou 1977; Wang 1989). Crushed or milled raw grains allow
selection or enrichment of the naturally occurring microbes. The size and
texture of the starter determine the distance the gases move, the volume
of gas, and the water-holding capacity. The size and texture of the starter
may also affect the thermodiffusibility in the starter (Wang et al. 1968; Lai
1984; Lai et al. 1989) and the germination or growth of the native-occurring
microbes.
The saccharifying agents are fungi. Natural genetic selection in hetero-
karyotic mycelium of some fungi may happen under extreme conditions.
For example, the effect of high partial pressure of respiratory C02 inside
the starter has been demonstrated on the nuclear number of the sporangi-
ospores of Rhizopus in the solid-state mash of sorghum fermentation
(Wang et al. 1970, 1974; Wang 1978a,b). The properties of the grains are
as important as the size and texture of the starter used. Historically,
the Japanese made their starter from steamed rice, whereas the Chinese
sometimes made theirs from raw crushed or milled grains. It should be
emphasized that Aspergillus oryzae cannot saccharify raw starch, but
when starch is steamed or dextrinized, it can be saccharified. The manu-
factures of chiou-chu (Chinese) and koji (Japanese), as currently operated
in Taiwan and Japan, have two common aspects. These are the use of
steamed rice grains and culture by the saccharolytic mold Aspergillus
oryzae. Sometimes, wheat and Rhizopus spp. were used in Taiwan in
addition to rice and A. oryzae. The common process was described by
Steinkraus (1983) and also in the previous edition of this book, (Wang
1980).
Rice is soaked, drained, steamed, cooled, and then inoculated. Tane-
koji spores are produced by culturing A. oryzae on steamed, polished rice
at 28-30°C for five or six days or until there is abundant sporulation. In
typical koji manufacture, 60-100 g of tane-koji may be used to inoculate
1000 kg of steamed, cooled rice. The inoculated rice is heaped on the floor
of a room held at 26-28°C with controlled humidity. Internal temperatures
of about 31-32°C within the heaped rice are attained. After 10-12 hr, the
mold spores have germinated and begun to grow; the rice is mixed to
maintain uniformity of fungal mycelium growth, temperature, and mois-
ture content. When the temperature rises to 32-34°C after 20-24 hr, the
rice is placed in wooden boxes, each of which holds 15-45 kg of the
developing koji. The rice grains are mixed every 6-8 hr to prevent over-
heating. The grain layers may be reduced from 8 em deep at the start to
Rotary Reactor for Solid State Fermentation Air Conditioning Unit
Figure 9-1. Rotary semi automatic reactor for solid state fermentation. The reactor
has a large rotary tray on which the substrate is heaped evenly. A fixed
stirrer loosens the substrate. The tray may be turned for one hour every
day. (Toyama 1976.)
6 em deep at the second and 4 em deep at the third mixing. Mter 40-hr
incubation, the temperature of the developing koji has reached 40-42°C,
mycelium covers the grains, and they contain sufficient enzymes so that
the koji can be used for saccharification of starch in future mashes. Koji
also contains vitamins and nutritive materials necessary for growth of the
sake yeast.
Recently, starter-making in Taiwan has been improved with the use
of a disk type of bioreactor for solid-state fermentation (Fig. 9-1) in place
of the traditional wooden boxes (Wang 1980). Strong aeration is provided
from the bottom plate through fine holes and mixed with a special device,
as described by Mudgett (1986) and Toyama (1976).
Chinese Red Rice

Anka, or red rice, is a product of fermentation of rice with various strains
of Monascus purpureus Went. Anka was first noted in the Yuan Dynasty
and was introduced to Taiwan by wine makers of Fukien province approxi-
mately 100 years ago (Su and Wang 1977). It is used to color foods such
as fish,fu chiu rice wine, hung-ru chiu (red wine), pickled vegetables, and
salted meats. Many countries are gradually adopting natural pigments to
replace coal-tar dyes because of their implication as carcinogens. The
notable advantages of using anka include:
1. Its raw materials are readily available.

2. The yield of color is good.
Rice (1 00 kg) Polished Monascus saccharomyes

1- glutinous nee
Wash
1-
Steam 60 min.
1-
Cool
1-
Spay with water (20%w/w)
t
Steam 60 min. Incubate at 33°C for 12·15 days
t t
Cool to 38° C Chu Kong Tsaw (inoculum) 21iters
~/ Mix
t
Heap and Cover
t
Incubate at 35° C (90% R.H.)/14 hr.
1-
When temp. rises to 42°C spread rice grains on trays
1-
Dry at 45°C for 1 day
t
Chu chong
Figure 9-2. Flow sheet: production of Chinese chu chong. (Su and Wang 1977.)
3. The color of the pigment produced is consistent and stable.

4. There is no evidence of any toxicity or carcinogenicity.
5. The pigment is water-soluble, which lends itself to convenient
mixing with other natural pigments in food (Steinkraus 1983).
A special variety of red rice inoculum in Taiwan is called chu chong

tsaw. It contains not only M. anka but also the yeast Saccharomyces
formosensis, both of which are grown on steamed glutinous rice mixed
with rice wine. Incubation is accomplished at 33°C for 12-15 days, after
which the mixture is ground to a mash and used in the preparation of a
product called chu chong (Steinkraus 1983). Chu chong is prepared from
nonglutinous rice, which is washed and steamed for 60 min. It is cooled,
sprayed with water (20% based on weight of rice), steamed again, and then
cooled to 30°C and mixed (inoculated) with chu chong tsaw. The rice is
then heaped and fermented at 35°C (90% relative humidity) for one day.
As the temperature rises to 42°C, the fermentation is continued on shelves
for about six or seven days. Then it is dried at 45°C for one day (Fig.
9-2) (Su and Wang, 1977), as cited in the text of Steinkraus (1983).
Another red rice product is called chu chong tsaw, as mentioned above
''":f:h~'[/''"'
Steam Incubate at 33'C for 10 days
-t -t
~~/T.ew
Inoculate
-t
Mix
-t
Heap 1Genercilly three times during the
-t course of the fermentation. The rice
must have some moisture to allow
Add water as necessary 1 the mold to grow but the rice
-t should remain rather dry. No
free moisture should be present.
Mature
-t
Anka
Figure 9-3. Flow sheet: production of Chinese red rice (anka). (Su and Wang 1977.)
(Figs. 9-2 and 9-3). This a special inoculum in which M. purpureus is

adapted to growth in an acidic environment. Tsai lai (nonglutinous rice)
is washed and steamed for 60 min, cooled, and slurried with chu chong.
The mash is stirred constantly and incubated for four days at temperatures
below 42°C. It is then ground as a special type of red rice (Su and Wang
1977). Anka is also produced in Taiwan on rice using procedures similar
to those described earlier (Fig. 9-3). Tsai lai rice (1450 kg) is washed and
steamed for 60 min. Water (1.8 hi) is sprayed on the rice, which is again
steamed for 30 min. The steamed rice is mixed with 32liters of chu chong
tsaw, after cooling to 36°C, and heaped in a bamboo chamber. When the
temperature of rice rises to 42°C, it is spread on plates and shelved. Anka
is produced by moistening the rice three times during incubation, followed
by a final drying; 700 kg of anka are obtained from 1450 kg of rice
(Steinkraus 1983). The essential microorganism for production of Chinese
red rice (anka) is M. purpureus Went (Hesseltine 1965). In Taiwan, this
organism is classified as M. anka Nakazawa and Sato, but it is probably
a strain of the same organism (Steinkraus 1983).
Anaerobic Growth of Saccharolytic Molds Isolated from Starters

Ragi murcha, loogpang, bubod, chiu-chu, and Chinese yeast ball are used
as starters from a number of fermentations based on rice and cassava in
the Orient. The starter consists commonly of certain species of Mucor,
Rhizopus, and Amylomyces; other molds are not found, even though the
production of starters is often made under unsanitary conditions. All

the isolates from these starters from Indonesia, the Philippines, Nepal,
Mainland China, Taiwan, and Thailand grow under anaerobic conditions
(Hesseltine et al. 1985). The Mucor isolates belong to the section Racemo-
sus and possess numerous chlamydospores. A survey of strains represen-
tative of 12 families of the Zygomycetes indicates that species of most
genera will not grow under anaerobic conditions. The three genera in which
some species grow under anaerobic conditions are Mucor, Rhizopus, and
Amylomyces (Mucorales: Mucoraceae). Amylomyces resembles Rhizopus
in that its growth is strictly filamentous under anaerobic conditions, further
proving their close relationship. In Amylomyces, chlamydospore produc-
tion was almost completely suppressed under anaerobic conditions. None
of the species tested formed sporangia in the absence of oxygen (Hesseltine
et al. 1985).
Lipolytic fungi, whose mycelium could be submerged in the solid
plates, were isolated from Chinese yeast ball (Wang 1989). Three strains
of Rhizopus, three strains of Amylomyces, and two strains of Mucor were
obtained. Rhizopus E-1 and three Amylomyces showed more favorable
growth under anaerobic conditions (5% 0 2 , 20% C02 , 75% N2). The activi-
ties of lipase and amylase of Rhizopus A-1 were the strongest of all the
isolates and, among the strains except Mucor spp., Rhizopus E-1 had the
weakest activities of both enzymes. Each culture produced a characteristic
aroma when inoculated into steamed glutinous rice in 375-ml bottles. The
head space gas analysis (HSGA) of the bottles indicated that more n-
propanol and propyl acetate were produced by Amylomyces spp. Isoamyl
alcohol, isobutyl alcohol, n-propyl alcohol, and ethyl acetate were the
major products. Sensory evaluation showed that fermentation mash of
E-1 had the most distinctive fragrance with a fruity aroma and that A-1 had
an unpleasant flavor. In conclusion, the cultures that produced favorable
aroma showed anaerobic growth in this case (Wang 1989; Wang and Lin
1989).
Acid-Leavened Bread and Pancakes

ldli
Food of the Indian idli type, acidified and leavened through fermentation
by heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria, constitutes a very interesting
group of cereal-based foods of considerable potential importance in the
developing and also the developed world (Steinkraus 1983; Batra 1981).
Idli is closely related to the sourdough bread of the Western world, but it
does not depend on wheat or rye as a source of protein to retain carbon
dioxide gas during leavening. Leavening is produced by bacteria rather
than by yeast activity (Hesseltine 1965; Steinkraus 1983). The importance
of idli lies in (1) its high degree of acceptability as a food in South India,
(2) its protection against food poisoning and transmission of pathogenic
organisms because of its acidity, and (3) the fact that the idli fermentation
can be used in many parts of the world for various breads or pancakelike
products (Steinkraus 1983).
Dosci
Idli is made by the fermentation of rice and black legume. It is generally
believed that yeasts and bacteria are involved, but a somewhat different
account is given by Steinkraus (1983). Dosci is practically the same as idli,
but it contains somewhat less black legume (Hesseltine 1965; Rao 1961).
PASTES
The products to be discussed in this category cover a wide variety of

sweet/sour alcoholic foods, ranging from beverages (primitive wines) to
pastes (tape-like foods, such as tape ketan). Some of the paste products
also have a liquid component that can be collected and consumed as a
beverage, as described by Steinkraus (1983). Tien-chiou-niang is a related
product (Wang and Hesseltine 1970; Wang 1980), although it does not
include alcohol; the fermenting organisms, largely from traditional start-
ers, are closely related, and the type of product obtained depends on the
conditions of fermentation.
Tape, Tape Ketan and Tape Ketella
Tape ketan is an Indonesian name for a product made by adding ragi to
cooked glutinous rice. This mixture is wrapped in banana leaves at room
temperature. In two or three days, the rice becomes soft, moist, sweet,
and alcoholic (Hesseltine 1965). The difference between tape ketan and
tape ketella is that the ketella is made of smashed cassava instead of the
glutinous rice used in tape ketan (Ko 1965, 1972; Steinkraus 1983).
Tieng-Chiou-niang
Tieng-chiou-niang is fermented sweet rice. It is a saccharified and steamed
rice made with chiou-yao, which contains Rhizopus Mucor, Monilia, As-
pergillus (Liu et al. 1959a-c, 1960; Wang 1980).
Chiang
Chiang is a Chinese seasoning food equivalent to miso. The major uses of
chiang are seasoning for vegetable, meat, and fish dishes. The quality of
steamed rice added to chiang or miso during the fermentation affects the
sweetness of the processed product.
.
Soybean
.
Wheat flour Seed-koji
.
Salt
.
Soaking Roasting
.
Water
.
____
Dehulling Brine (20° Be)
.
Steaming (121°C, 15 min.))
Cooling (ca. 40°C)

_,
.
Mixing
(Steaming soybean: roasted
.
flour= 10:2 (w/w))
Spreading on trays 0.6% (w/w)

-------~
.
Koji-making
(RH>95%, 25-30°C, 72 hr.

reverse during 16-18 hr
.
and 24-26 hr. respectively)
. +-------------------'
Koji
•
Brine-mixing (Koji:brine = 1:1.5 (w/w))
•
Fermentation and aging
•
(2-5 months)
Tou-pan chiang
Figure 9-4. Flow sheet of soybean tou-pan-chiang production. (Hwang 1988.)
Recently, Chou and Hwang (1989) and Hwang (1988) studied mi-
croflora and enzyme activities of tou-pan chiang. The rice was replaced
by wheat during aging (Fig. 9-4). The mold count and aerobic plate count
increased at first and then decreased during the 72-hr koji preparation
period. Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts were not detectable. Except for a-
and {3-amylase, the maximum activity of other enzymes occurred between
36 and 60 hr of koji-making. Water content and crude fat in koji decreased,
while pH, amino nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, and free fatty acid content
increased during the period of koji-making. Total sugar and reducing sugar
increased at the beginning, reaching their maxima at 36 hr of koji-making,
and then declined. When the finished koji was soaked in brine solution for
aging, the color of tau-pan-chiang mash changed from greenish-brown to
dark reddish-brown as aging extended. Populations of molds and aerobic
microorganisms gradually decreased after 42 days of fermentation, while
counts of lactic acid bacteria and yeast increased. In general, the activities
of proteases, amylases, cellulase, and {3-galactosidase first rose and then
declined; lipase activity showed no consistent trend. The acidity of mash
increased from the initial value of0.72-2.35%, while the pH declined from
6.2-5 .4. Contents of soluble solids, amino nitrogen, and ammonia nitrogen
increased gradually during the aging period. Total sugar and free fatty acid
increased at the early stage of aging and then declined.
Miso
Miso is a traditional Japanese pasty seasoning used in food preparation.
The raw materials for fermentation are rice together with a suitable inocu-
lum, soybean, and salt (Hesseltine 1965; Nakano et al. 1976). The con-
sumption per capita per day is approximately 0.24 g according to national
statistics in Japan (Nakano et al. 1976). The process developed by the
Northern Regional Research Laboratory (Hesseltine 1965) indicates that
there are some minor differences between the processes used in industry
and those at home. Nakano et al. (1976) have described the mixing ratio
of rice, soybean, and salt as shown in the following equation:
Rice = 5 x (soybean - 2 x salt)
The concentration of salt selects microflora during fermentation (Nakano

et al. 1976) as chiang does (Chou and Hwang 1989). The miso fermentation
consists of the following steps: polished rice is washed, soaked, steamed,
inoculated with Aspergillus oryzae (Ahlburg) Cohn, and placed in shallow,
wooden trays. The mold used is not a single culture but a mixture of pure
culture starters in commercial tane-koji. The mixed strains used in the koji
produce the appropriate proteolytic, lipolytic, and amylolytic enzymes
needed to act on various substances in the second phase of the fermenta-
tion. A detailed account of the preparation of tane (seed) koji can be found
in the review of miso fermentation (Shibasaki and Hesseltine 1962). One
interesting aspect in the preparation of the spores is the addition of the ash
of certain deciduous trees to enhance spore production. The observation of
several commercial starters by Shibasaki and Hesseltine (1962) indicates
that these materials are free from other microorganisms except Aspergillus
oryzae or related species. There is a striking consistency both in purity
and viability when compared with commercially available inoculum in the
United States. Although Japanese accounts in the literature state that
other Aspergillus species besides A. oryzae and A. soyae are present,
these species of Aspergillus are still closely related to A. oryzae. The
microbes other than Aspergillus involved in the miso process were also
found by Shibasaki and Hesseltine (1962) as lactic bacteria, osmophilic
and halophilic bacteria, and yeasts; the yeast is Saccharomyces rouxii
Boutroux, an osmophilic yeast. Synonyms for this species are S. soya
Saito, Zygosaccharomyces soya (Saito) Takahashi and Yukawa, Z.japon-
ica var. soya (Saito) Dekker, and Zygopichia japonica (Saito) Klocker
(Hesseltine 1965).
Table 9-1. Characteristics of Brewing Water

for Shao-hsing Wine
Items Range
pH 6-7
Hardness 50-70 ppm
Residues after evaporation 100 ppm
Iron <0.02 ppm
Organic materiala <5.0 ppm
NO) Trace
N02 and NH3 Negative
a Organic materials are indicated as the titer of 0.01

NKMn0 4•
Source: Taiwan Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bu-
reau, Puli Winery (1969, 1974).
LIQUID-STATE FERMENTED RICE FOODS: ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES
In the Orient, rice is widely used to make wine and vinegar although, in
the West, it is used only as an adjunct in the production of beer (Wang
1980). Rice wine in the Orient is produced according to recipes handed
down through generations (Methods of Farming 1968). Modifications and
improvements of the processes have been described by Liu et al. (1959a-c,
1960), Wang et al. (1970), Lin et al. (1975), Murakami (1972), Hayashida
et al. (1972), Yoshizawa (1977), and Kodama (1986). In all cases, sacchari-
fication of the starchy substrate is primarily by fungal amylases. The
Chinese prefer a natural starter, chu. In Taiwan, pure cultures, Rhizopus
spp. and/or Aspergillus oryzae, are used. In Japan, A. oryzae is used. In
the products of South Asia, Amylomyces rouxii and others play various
roles in the brewing (Steinkraus 1983).
Shao-hsing Wine
Raw materials
The materials used in making shao-hsing wine include glutinous rice, pon-
lai rice (a variety of Japonica short-grain), wheat, and water (Tables
9-1-9-3).
Water
The water for the brewing of shao-hsing wine should be colorless, taste-
less, and odorless. For example, when the water is warmed to 50-60°C,
off-odors should not be present. The optimal ranges of water hardness,
Table 9-2. Physical Properties of Grains Used for Shao-hsing Wine

Items Pon-lai Rice" Glutinous Riceh Wheat
Size of grains Large and full Large and full Large and full
Appearance Waxy, shining Juster in Waxy, shining Waxy, shining
light gray or light luster, no luster, no
brown, no adulteration adulteration adulteration,
recent crop
Moisture <15% <15% <14%
Starch value >68% >67% >60%
Impurity <0.5% <0.5% <0.5%
aOryza sativa L. (Japonica type). b Indica type.
Source: Taiwan Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bureau, Puli Winery (1967, 1974).
pH, residues, and minerals required for this purpose are summarized in
Table 9-1. If the water does not contain enough mineral components, they
can be artificially supplemented. The brewing water for shao-hsing wine
used by the Puh-li Winery (Taiwan) is spring water taken from a nearby
well. Its components are similar to the characteristics of beer-brewing
water although supplements are added to increase the hardness and, some-
times, chloride is added: 100-200 mg/1 for seed mash water and 50-100
mg/1 for main mash water, respectively, to reach optimum levels. Before
it is used, the brewing water must be cooled for one day. One reason for
doing this is to liberate the carbonate in the water and to allow the residues
to settle out. During this period, the water becomes slightly alkaline, which
is the best condition for fermentation. The other reason is to achieve the
low temperature needed for fermentation.
Table 9-3. Chemical Properties of Grains Used for Shoo-

hsing Wine
Pon-lai Rice," Glutinous Rice, a Wheat,
Items % % %
Starch 75 74 64
Protein 5.8 6.2 13
Fat 0.35 1.6 1.5
Acid 0.6 0.6 2.5
Moisture 13 13 13.5
Ash 0.25 0.28 2.2
a The raw materials of 80% polishing rate.
Source: Taiwan Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bureau, Puli Winery
(1967' 1974).
Table 9-4. The Ratio of Raw Materials Used for Brewing 5270-1 Shao-hsing Wine
MAIN FERMENTATION
MASH
Seed
Fermentation Initial Final
Items Mash: Steamed Addition, Addition, Total,
Raw Material Rice, kg kg kg kg Remark
80% Polished 150 600 1200 1950 Added in the
glutinous rice form of
steamed rice
80% Polished 45 104 166 315 For rice
pon-lai rice starter
Wheat 121 194 315 For wheat
starter
Source: Taiwan Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bureau, Puli Winery (1974).
Rice and wheat

The principal raw materials for shao-hsing wine are rice and wheat,
whereas the principal material for Japanese sake is rice alone. The quality
of the raw materials greatly influences the final performance of shao-hsing
wine. To select rice and wheat, the physical and chemical properties
described in Tables 9-2-9-4 should be considered.
Preparation of raw materials

There are more proteins, fats, fibers, and minerals in the peripheral layers
of rice grains than in the endosperm. The color of the peripheral layers is
undesirable for shao-hsing wine. Therefore, both the glutinous rice used
for brewing and the pon-lai rice used in the preparation of the starter
should be polished. The rate of polishing is defined as the percentage of
weight of white rice obtained from the original brown rice:
. h'
Rat e of po11s _ White rice obtained (kg) 100
mg - 0 . . 1b . (k ) x
ngma rown nee g
The rate of polishing of the raw materials is 80% for s hao-hsing, while that
for sake is 70-80%. For superior sake, the rate is only 50-60%.
The purpose of washing the rice grains is to remove the bran and dust
that adhere to their polished surfaces. The steeping process follows the
washing of rice in order to enhance the penetration of water into the grains
via the interstices of the endosperm and to promote the penetration of
heat into the grains during steaming. In general, water is kept at room
temperature during steeping. It usually takes 10-12 hr to allow the rice to
Table 9-5. Characteristics of Rice and Wheat Starters for Shao-

hsing Wine
Characteristic Rice Starter Wheat Starter
Moisture,% 26.5-3LO 2L8-28.5
Acidity Low High
Glucoamylase, mg glucose/g starter 258-304 317-360
a-Amylase" 908-1125 1538-1587
Transglucosidase, meg glucose/g starter 330-426 192-229
Acid protease, meg tyrosine/g starter 4690 8165
a Use Wohlgemuth method.
Source.- Ni and Sheu (1982); Lin (1987).
absorb enough water. In the case of hard grain, steeping in 30°C water is
used. If steeping in 30°C water still does not prepare the rice properly for
steaming, one may use the so-called alternative steeping method, this is,
steeping first in water at room temperature, then in 10°C water, and finally
in room temperature water again. In this case, swelling and shrinking
will occur in the grain such that enough water will be absorbed. Water
absorption for pon-lai rice is usually 25-30% and, for glutinous rice,
35-40%. In making the starter of shao-hsing wine, it is necessary to steam
the rice to modify the structure of rice starch. In brewing, steaming is
necessary not only for sterilization but also to render the starch susceptible
to the enzymatic action. An ideal steamed rice must have the proper
moisture content, odor, texture, taste, and color. After steaming, the
glutinous rice grains contain about 50% water by weight and pon-lai rice
32%.
The steamed rice is cooled to different temperatures according to its
different usages; for example, 48-52°C when it is used for seed mash (35
min), 34-36°C for the first addition of steamed rice to the main mash (80
min), 26-27°C for the final addition to the main mash (130 min), and
35-38°C for rice starter preparation (Table 9-5).
Preparation of wheat
The treatments of wheat include milling, water addition, and steaming.
The purpose of milling is not only to increase the contact area for microor-
ganisms and hence promote the reproduction of microorganisms in the
starter but also to increase the rates of water absorption and to improve
efficiency in steaming and fermentation. At a speed of 3400 rpm, the mill
processes 250 kg/hr of wheat. Since the fine particles of milled wheat
grains will increase the difficulty of handling during water absorption,
screening must be performed before placing them in the aluminum steam
chamber (450 em x 100 em x 16 em), then 30% water (by weight) is

added. The added water will be completely absorbed in 1 hr. In addition
to accelerating the retrogradation of wheat starch and increasing the sus-
ceptibility to the enzymatic action of amylase and protease, steaming has
another important purpose, which is sterilization. In the sterilized wheat,
the proper inoculated microorganisms are able to reproduce easily. The
steamed wheat must, however, be cooled to 32°C before inoculation.
Starter preparation
There are two kinds of starters for making shao-hsing wine. One is rice
starter and the other is wheat starter. The purpose of the preparation of
the starter is to grow mold on the rice and/or wheat grains to produce
various kinds of enzymes useful in the production of shao-hsing wine. The
difference between rice starter and wheat starter is that there is more
saccharifying amylase in the former and more protease in the latter.
Main mash
Starter preparation was summarized in the table of starters (Table 9-5).
The main mash consists of seed mash (tane-koji), steamed rice, rice starter,
wheat starter, and water. During the fermentation of the main mash,
saccharification and alcohol fermentation occur simultaneously although
saccharification is more active in the early stage and alcohol fermentation
in the later stage. The main product of this process is alcohol. In addition,
there are traces of aldehyde, glycerol, acids, and esters, which all contrib-
ute to the flavor of shao-hsing wine. It takes about 30 days to finish the
main mash fermentation. The processes can be divided into two stages:
prebrewing, which takes about 12 days, and finishing brew, which takes
about 18 days (Fig. 9-5).
Prebrewing stage
This is the first stage of the brewing process. At first, the seed mash,
water, rice starter, and wheat starter should be mixed together in the
fermentation tank, so that the enzymes in the starter are distributed into
the solution. The mixture of starters is steeped for 1-2 hr and then the
cooled, steamed rice, at 34-36°C, is added. Mixing and stirring are per-
formed as mentioned in the seed mash preparation. On the third day,
steamed rice is once again added although, this time, the alcohol content
of the mixture is about 4.15%, total acid 0.26%, and sugar 10.8%. The
mixture is stirred and mixed every 2-4 hr to adjust the temperature and
to promote the reactions of saccharification and alcohol fermentation.
By the tenth day, the materials in the main mash have settled, and the
temperature has dropped to 14-16°C. The pre brewing process is complete.
fY9a.Stl • Starter cf~~~g +/Water I
olmasht ~
I Glutinous ricer-.+- Polishing-. Rice -.soaking-.S teaming--tl: j: Primary-. Secondary,.. Filter
;·"~machine-. cleaner-. tank -.machine ; fermentation fermentation press
l ~ l -+
r-1 ---.-.-.f ;
Pong-la1 nee ... Rice Koji ; Blending + Aging
making ......... ;. ........................;; tank
IKoji mold I ,. Tane Koji • t ~
+ Filtration
I Wheat I +Crusher + Spray Steaming Wheat Koji
water + machine + making - - - - - - - ' ~
I Product I+ Casing + Labeller + Inspection + Pasteurize + Crowner+ Filler + ::s~~r

Figure 9-5. Flow sheet of Shao-hsing wine brewing. (ANON 1989 Taipei Winery.)
~
Finishing-brew stage
This is the second stage of the brewing process. The main purpose of the
finishing brew is to increase the flavor of shao-hsing wine. The main mash
should be transferred to a room with higher temperature (18-20°C) in order
to continue the fermentation. With increased amounts of alcohol, total
acid, and amino acid contents, the flavor of the wine becomes stronger,
and the quality improves. It takes about 18 days to finish this process.
During this period, stirring, heating, and/or cooling should be done as
needed in order to adjust the temperature, to expel the excess C02 , and
to promote the growth of fermenting yeasts.
Deterioration of mash
During the process of brewing, wild acid-producing microorganisms may
arise. In an attempt to prevent contamination, sterilized equipment is
used, and low temperature should be maintained. If contamination occurs
during the prebrewing stage, the main mash is not transferred to the
warmer room where the finishing-brew stage proceeds because the higher
temperatures will increase the acidity of the fermentation. Rather, main
mash is then put through a filtration procedure. If contamination occurs
in the finishing-brew stage, the process should be halted in order to inhibit
further increase in acidity in the wine.
Filtration
In order to protect the quality of the product from microbial contamination,
the room for filtration and settling should be kept at 10°C. A suitable mash
for filtration consists of 17.5-19.0% alcohol, 0.52% acid (calculated as
succinic acid), and no free sugar. Twenty hours before filtration, the main
mash (20°C) is transferred into a 6-kl tank to cool down to 13-15°C. Then
the mash is placed into small (6-7-liter-capacity) bags made of synthetic
fiber. The bags are piled in a rectangular box. The mash is drained naturally
for the first 4-5 hr and then filtered, with a gradual increase of hydraulic
pressure. The maximum pressure at 15 kg/m 2 should be maintained for
6-8 hr. After the removal of the pressure, the bags with higher moisture
content are placed in the center part of the box to obtain better filtration
efficiency. The piling may be repeated. Recently, new ways of filtration
have been devised. The drainage from the mash is kept in a 6-kl vessel in
the settling room at 10°C for about one week to allow the yeast cells,
fibers, and insoluble protein to settle out. Mter the settling, the supernatant
is pumped to another vessel through a cotton filter. The depth of the cotton
in the filter is 15 em. The filtrate is aged gradually during settling.
Adjustment and blending
The room for blending must be kept at 10°C or less. The process of blending
starts 16 days before bottling. The liquid in the blending bowl is mixed
thoroughly with air, and then the components and color are analyzed. To
adjust the liquid to the proper color, caramel is added. The quality of shao-
hsing wine after blending is 14.3-15.0% alcohol, 0.36-0.5% total acid
(as lactic acid), and less than 0.5% sugar. The blended wine should be
pasteurized at 65°C, then transferred to a closed tank to cool, and finally
packed before it is sold.
Hua Tiao
In Taiwan, there is another series of wines similar to shao-hsing, called
hua-tiao (Wang 1980; Lin et al. 1975), which uses both wheat koji with
Aspergillus oryzae from solid-state fermentation and submerged rice koji
with Rhizopus species (Table 9-6).
Sake
The rice wine in Japan similar to shao-hsing wine in Taiwan is sake, which
is transparent and pale yellow, with a specific gravity of 1.0, alcohol
content of 15-16%, little acidity, and a slight sweetness.
Treatments of water and rice grain in the brewing of sake have been
reviewed extensively (Nunokawa 1981; Steinkraus 1983; Kodama 1986).
The differences between the treatments in the brewing of sake and shao-
hsing wine are summarized in Table 9-6. The characteristics of microorgan-
isms in the brewing of sake described by Murakami (1972) are summarized
in Tables 9-6 and 9-7. The raw materials used in sake brewing are rice and
water. As the first step, koji, a culture of Aspergillus oryzae on steamed
rice, is prepared for the purpose of saccharification of starch and decompo-
sition of protein contained in the polished rice grains. There are two
processes in sake brewing called moto (yeast starter) and moromi (main
fermentation mash) preparation (Kodama 1986). Moto is prepared by
mashing steamed rice, rice-koji, and water in a small vessel, followed by
inoculation of a pure yeast culture. Moto is classified as two types ac-
cording to the procedure by which it is prepared: the classical type, ki-
moto or yamahai-moto, which is acidified by naturally occurring lactic
acid bacteria, and the modern type, sokujo-moto, in which commercial
lactic acid is added at the beginning of the process. Accumulation of a
high sugar concentration (25-27% w/v) at an early stage in both moto
processes, together with acidification prepared by the above-mentioned
procedure, suppresses harmful bacterial contaminants and facilitates pre-
dominant growth of sake yeast in the later stages. About 5-7% of the total
amount of polished rice for mashing is used for the moto preparation.
Table 9-6. Comparisons Between the Brewing Processes of Shao-hsing Wine

(Hua tiao and Shao-hsing) in Taiwan and Sake in Japan
Hua-tiao Shao-hsing Sake
Raw material Glutinous rice, Glutinous rice, Rice (Japonica type)
wheat, lactic acid wheat pon-lai rice
(Japonica type),
lactic acid, sulfate
salts, phosphate salts
Steamed rice Steaming in a liquid Steamed rice Steamed rice
form by pressure and
steamed rice
Seed mash Using liquid seed Batch mixed culture Batch single culture
starter, mixed incubated at low incubated under low
cultures of temperature, 10°C temperature, 15°C
Saccharomyces sp. (50°F), 15 days (59°F), 21 days
by aeration with
pure culture (63 hr),
mixed culture of
Aspergillus sp.
Rice starter Liquid state starter Solid-state rice Solid-state rice
(glutinous rice) starter (pon-lai rice) starter Asp. oryzae
Rhizopus sp. (mixed two strains of Asp. (single culture)
cultures) oryzae (mixed
cultures)
Wheat starter Solid-state wheat Solid-state wheat
starter Asp. sp. (two starter Asp. oryzae
strains) Shao-hsing (two
strains)
Prebrewing and Prebrewing (7-8°C), Same as col. 1
finishing 12 days; finishing
brewing brewing (18-20°C,
64-68°F), 18 days
Source: Lin eta!. (1975); Liu eta!. (1959a); Nunokawa (1981); Wang (1980).
Table 9-7. Principal Microorganisms and Their Roles in Sake Brewing

Microbes Functions Process Origin
Molds Enzymatic digestion of rice Koji making Koji
(A. oryzae) and flavoring the sake
Bacteria Production of lactic acid Culture of Brewing water rice
(Pseudomonas) followed by elimination of the seed
nitric acid mash
(Leuconostoc) Production of nitric acid
(Lactobacillus) from nitrates water
Yeast Production of alcohols, Main mash Natural and/
(Sake yeast) flavor, aroma or pure culture
Source: Murakami (1972); Momose eta!. (1970).
Moromi is prepared in a large fermention vessel by sandan shikomi

(three-step addition). In this process, steamed rice, rice-koji, and water
are added to the moto in three steps at definite time intervals, accompanied
by successively increasing addition of raw materials so as not to decrease
the high population of sake yeast and acidity of mash (derived from the
moto) at one time, but to enhance gradual and substantial growth of sake
yeast.
Thereafter, the main fermentation takes 20-25 days. When fermenta-
tion has ceased, the moromi mash is filtered to remove the solids; the
filtrate thus obtained is fresh sake. After about a month, the fresh sake is
pasteurized and stored. Although these procedures for brewing sake were
probably established on the basis of numerous trials over the past centu-
ries, they are now accepted as ecologically sound and are used to control
microbial growth in the mashing process. In particular, the high concentra-
tion (40-50% w/v) of steamed rice used in the preparation of moto and
moromi mashes and parallel fermentation (simultaneous saccharification
of rice starch by koji enzyme and slow fermentation by sake yeast carried
out during the main fermentation of moromi mash) contribute to sound
brewing practice and accumulation of the relatively high concentration of
alcohol, reaching 20-23% in the mash. A flow diagram of the sake brewing
process is given in Fig. 9-6.
In the culture of seed mash (yeast inoculum), as the enzymatic diges-
tion of rice by koji advances, some nitrate-reducing bacteria start to grow
and produce a certain amount of nitric acid, by which the overpropagated
yeasts can be temporarily depressed. Various lactic acid bacteria gradually
grow and produce lactic acid; the nitric acid completely disappears and
then the sake yeast begins to grow. These yeasts show high resistance to
the acidity of lactic acid and propagate to the extent of cell numbers of
3-4 x 108/ml of the mash, with purity at 95-99% of all the microbes in
the mash. The sake yeasts are somewhat different from S. cerevisiae
(Murakami 1972) in the following respects:
1. They usually show poor growth at 35°C in Berkholder's medium

containing {3-alanine instead of pantothenic acid.
2. They have different characteristics with respect to biotin require-
ment and assimilability of sodium during potassium deficiency.
3. The yeasts agglutinate with Lactobacillus plantarum but not with
L. casei.
4. The yeasts are absorbed on the surface of gas bubbles in the solu-
tion. The nonfoaming sake yeasts selected by bubbling make it
possible to use a smaller fermentation tank in many factories (Mura-
kami 1972).
fRiCel
t-'
I Spores of
Aspergillus oryzae
jl Sake yeast I IBrewing water I
Polishing
I Rice bran 1+-----i-
Polished rice
I
"' +-----:-~------;---------;
Washing
Ste!ping
"'
Steaming
"'
Cooling
"'
ISteamed nee
t
Main fermentation
I Solids I •-----i~
Filtration 1 Generally three times
during brewing.
I Fresh"'sake I
l'
Setting
I Sediment I•-----il
Filtration
t
Pasteurization
t
Storage
t
Blending
t
Dilution+-----------------'
t
Bottling
t
Pasteurization
t
I Sake I
Figure 9-6. Flow diagram of sake brewing process. (Kodama 1986.)
Various groups of microorganisms were considered to be involved in

the production of sake yeast using pulped mash until Konishi et al. (1989)
showed the important role of a specific Pseudomonas spp. group in its
early stage. However, these various bacterial groups were demonstrated
to play only a negligible role in removal of wild yeasts present at the early
stage of the production of yeast starter when well water and koji are used.
Konishi et al. (1989) chose a medium usingp-hydroxybenzoate as a single
carbon source and the medium obtained after filter-sterilization of the
water extract of koji as a selective medium, incubating at l5°C. Isolated
bacterial groups were specific psychrophilic Pseudomonas spp., related
to Pseudomonas nitroreducens.
Recently, with complete sanitation being employed in brewing facto-
ries, artificial addition of selected bacteria is indispensable. In old brewer-
ies in which good sake yeast starter is produced by the traditional tech-
nique, the involvement of the same types of bacterial groups is confirmed.
However, special techniques are required for this.
During the storage in bottles, sake is sometimes damaged or spoiled by
the invasion of certain kinds of lactic acid bacteria called hiochic bacteria.
These hiochic bacteria have been found to show certain biological charac-
teristics different from those of the common lactic acid bacteria (Table
9-8). Most of the hiochic bacteria essentially require the presence of hio-
chic acid (mevalonic acid) for their growth (Tamura 1958a,b; Tamura and
Nagura 1958; Tamura and Suzuki 1958; Momose et al. 1970). They can
grow well in a solution with high alcohol content, reaching over 20, and
at a pH ranging from 4.0 to 5.5. The hiochic bacteria have been classified
(Table 9-8) into four types according to their sugar fermentation schemes
and hiochic acid requirements. Recently, some other physiological charac-
ters have been investigated, showing that most hiochic bacteria belong
to the true hiochic bacteria. The kind of carbohydrates fermentable by
Lactobacillus homohiochic seem to be somewhat different from that re-
ported formerly.
The koji molds in Japan have been long considered to belong to a
species of yellow-green Aspergillus, A. oryzae. By multivariate statistical
analysis, Murakami (1972) claimed that the koji molds are definitely differ-
ent from the other group of yellow-green aspergilli, such as the aflatoxin-
producing A. flavus. In this connection, it is very important to note that
Wang et al. (1968) could not find aflatoxin in the semifinished and finished
products of rice wines produced in Taiwan.
Yellow Wine
The so-called yellow wine of Shanghai is actually shao-hsing wine or
something very like it. In the province of Shangtung, yellow wine is made
from yellow rice (i.e., glutinous corn) and wheat starter, etc., whereas, in
Taiwan, yellow wine is made from polished pon-lai rice, rice starter, wheat
starter, and seed mash. The latter is a wine similar to brewed shao-hsing
wine with an aroma similar to that of distilled rice liquor.
Yellow rice is brewed in a cooled (6-7°C) room especially designed
1\J
a';
Table 9-8. Classification of Hiochic Bacteria (64 Strains)

Growth on Growth Requirement
Nutrient Stimulation of Hiochic
Fermentation Broth (pH 7.0) Fermentation by Alcohol Acid Classification•
Heterofermentation Glucose + E L. heterohiochii True hiochic bacteria (44 strains)
Fructose
+ Many - N L. fermentum Hiochic natured lactobacilli (I strain)
Homofermentation - Glucose + Variable L. homohiochii True hiochic bacteria (14 strains)
Mannose
+ many - N L. acidophil us (I strain) L. plant arum (4 strains)
Hiochic natured lactobacilli
aCommon characteristics: Gram-positive, catalase-negative, rod-shaped, optimum growth temperature 28-33°C (82.4-91.4°F).
NOTE: - = no growth; + = growth; E = essential; N = independent.
Source: Momose eta!. (1970); Murakami (1972).
for fermentation. The brewing process, which takes about 9 months, is

faster than that for shao-hsing wine and slower than that for rice liquor.
Hence, the quality and cost of yellow wine lie between those of shao-
hsing wine and rice liquor.
Rice Liquor
Rice liquor is a traditional distilled liquor in Taiwan. It is colorless, trans-
parent and similar to sho-chiu in Japan. The process of making rice liquor
is a modified Amylo-process. Starch hydrolysis and fermentation take
place simultaneously when Rhizopus javanicus Takeda and Saccharo-
myces peka Takeda are added at the same time. The yeast is suitable
for fermentation at high temperature (35-38°C). The alcohol content and
acidity (using acetic acid) of the rice liquor are 23% and 0.06%, respec-
tively.
Hong-ru Wine
A favorite in Taiwan, hong-ru wine originated 100 years ago from lao-
hong, a red-colored brewed wine of the province of Fukien in mainland
China. Lao-hong wine was introduced into Taiwan 30 years ago. The
Monopoly Bureau of Wine and Tobacco of Taiwan province renamed the
wine hong-ru. Because of its deep red color, which indicates the presence
of the Monascus pigments of the freshly brewed hong-ru wine, the wine
was called hong ("red") at first. After it was learned that the wine should
be stored for two years before marketing, it became known as lao-hong
("old red") wine.
The process of making hong-ru wine is a modified Amylo-process. At
first, the saccharifying mold (Rhizopus javanicus Takeda) is added into
the steamed glutinous rice in a closed, sterilized fermentation tank. Thirty-
five hours later, after the inoculation of the mold (Rhizopus javanicus
Takeda), the yeast (Saccharomyces formosanesis) is inoculated under
aseptic conditions and, 20-24 hr later, the "red starter" (Figs. 9-1 and
9-2) is added for further fermentation; after fermentation, redistilled alco-
hol is added. The freshly brewed hong-ru wine is deep red and has a
fluorescence of purplish-green. The color fades and becomes pale yellow
after it has been stored for a year, at which time the fluorescence is also
lost, and a special flavor has developed.
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10
Rice Snack Foods
F. Hsieh
University of Missouri, Columbia
Bor 5. Luh
In America, at least 60% of the population eat snacks, that is, some food
or beverage between meals. Today, the annual sale of snack foods has
surpassed $29.1 billion, led by candies, cookie/crackers, and potato chips
(Snack Food 1990).
Rice utilization in American snacks foods, contrary to that in the
Orient, has been quite limited. Rice cakes and crisp rice used in granola
snacks are relatively new and represent only a small fraction of the total
snack business. Nevertheless, consumption of rice in the United States
has risen over the past decade. This may be attributed to the increased
concern of the American consumer about nutrition related to rice as a
health food, technological advances that have resulted in improved qual-
ity, price stability of rice grain, and increased popularity of ethnic foods
that contain rice (James and McCaskill1983). Recent studies have shown
rice bran to be a highly effective means of reducing serum cholesterol
levels in hamsters (Kahlon et al. 1989) and also in human beings (Prepared
Foods 1990; Saunders 1990). As a result, food manufacturers are using
rice and oat brans as new ingredients in such snack foods as crackers and
cookies, as well as in breads, side dishes, hot and cold breakfast cereals,
and pancake mixes (Prepared Foods 1990). Darmardjati and Luh (1989)
reported on physicochemical properties of extrusion-cooked rice cereals
made from medium-grain rice flour enriched with rice bran. They observed
225
that the sensory quality of the extruded rice product containing 10% bran
was better in texture and color than that of extruded rice products with
20% and 30% bran. Further increase in bran content reduced the color
and texture score, and the product became harder and less acceptable.
Many types of rice snack foods are popular in the Orient. Some notable
examples are rice crackers, Oriental-style rice cake (nenkau or mochi),
bamboo leaf-wrapped rice, and malau. The ingredients and manufacturing
processes of these products have been reviewed (Li and Luh 1980).
RICE SNACKS IN AMERICA
Rice Cakes
Rice cake is a relatively new ethnic snack food. It is a disk-shaped puffed
product, low in calories (35-40 kcal per cake). Each cake weighs 9-10 g.
The main ingredient is long- or medium-grain brown rice. Other minor
ingredients such as sesame seed, millet, and salt may be added. Brown
rice is milled from paddy rice by removing the hulls and retaining the bran
and polish layers (mainly aleurone), which have higher levels of nutrients
and dietary fiber than conventional white rice (Roberts et al. 1980). Be-
cause of consumer interest in low-calorie and dietary fiber-containing
foods, as well as marketing efforts on the part of major food companies,
rice cake is rapidly gaining widespread consumer acceptance as a main-
stream grocery item. The retail market for rice cakes (including similar
cakes made with wheat, rye, and corn) grew 40% in 1988 and was estimated
at $75.5 million in 1988 (Snack Food 1989).
Although rice cakes are a puffed product, they are unique in that no
added binder is used to hold the individually puffed rice kernels together.
Important factors that may influence the eating quality of puffed rice cakes
include appearance, color, and puffed volume. Under- oroverpuffed cakes
may cause difficulty in packaging.
The procedures for making rice cake are as follows. Water is added
to the long- or medium-grain raw brown rice to adjust its moisture content
to 14-18%. The added water and brown rice are mixed and tempered in
a liquid-solids blender and tumbled for a selected time period (1-3 hr) at
room temperature. The moistened rice is then introduced to a rice cake
machine that has been preheated to 200°C or higher. An example of the
rice cake machine is the Lite Energy Rice Cake Machine (Real Foods Pty
Ltd., St. Peters, Australia) shown in Figs. 10-1 and 10-2. The mold in this
type of rice cake machine consists of three parts, a ring-shaped side piece
and upper and lower platens, which can be moved up or down to adjust
the gap between them. The rice is then pressed between the movable
RICE SNACK FOODS 227
Figure 10-1. Rice-puffing parts of Lite Energy rice-cake machine: (1) insulation
block, (2) upper platen, (3) lower platen, (4) ring, (5) insulation block,
(6) base plate.
upper and lower platens. At the end of a prescribed heating time, the upper
platen is lifted and stopped at the upper edge of the ring. The heat-softened
rice kernels are puffed because of the sudden release of water vapor as a
result of moisture flash vaporization and are fused together to form the
rice cake. Each cake is 10 em in diameter and 1.7 em high and weighs
approximately 10 g. The cakes are then discharged and cooled in air before
packaging.
Hsieh et al (1989) investigated the effects on rice cake volume of raw
rice tempering conditions (time and moisture level) and heating conditions
(temperature and time) immediately before puffing. In general, a lower
moisture level (14% vs. 16-20%) in raw rice and a longer tempering time
(5 hr vs. 1-3 hr) resulted in higher specific volumes in the rice cakes.
Higher heating temperature (230°C vs. 200-220°C) and 8-sec heating time
produced rice cakes of higher specific volumes. Darker cakes were ob-
tained from combinations of high temperature and long tempering time.
Riceland Foods, Inc., Stuttgart, Arkansas, utilizes an extrusion pro-
cess to produce an American-style product similar to rice cake (Orthoefer,
1989). Extruded pellets about the size of puffed breakfast rice are pro-
duced, with a bulk density of 48-64 g/liter. The pellets are pressure-formed
Figure 10-2. Rice-puffing mold assembly of Lite Energy rice-cake machine: (1)
insulation block, (2) upper platen heater, (3) upper platen, (4) lower
platen, (5) ring, (6) lower platen heater, (7) insulation block.
into approximately 10-cm diam x 1.3-cm thick disks or cakes. Caloric

content of the individual cake is less than 35 k/cal.
The advantages of the extrusion process are flexibility in selecting
ingredients to produce the pellets and easy control of the parameters
affecting product acceptability compared to traditional methods.
Many types of cereal grains and combinations have been used in
preparing extruded cakes from rice, wheat, corn, rye, buckwheat, oats,
and barley. Either whole-grain or selected grain components are used,
including high-fiber bran portions. A limitation of the extrusion process is
the presence of oil-rich cereal components. Oil content must be less than
3% in order to obtain satisfactory expansion of the pellets and to maintain
a desired texture in the cake.
Extruded Rice Cakes

Another category of rice cakes is represented by the square Crispy Cakes,
which are similar in shape to the flat bread or crispbread type of product
so popular in Europe. Rice flour is the major ingredient instead of wheat
or rye flour. Production of flat bread has been described by Antila et al.
(1983). Extruded rice cakes are usually produced in corotating and self-
APV
Figure 10-3; A corotating, self-wiping twin-screw extruder. (Courtesy of APV Baker

Inc., Grand Rapids, MI.)
wiping twin-screw extruders such as the one shown in Fig. 10-3. The
process is similar to the high-pressure extrusion puffing process described
in Chapter 8 of this book. In addition to rice flour, rice bran, malt, or other
minor ingredients such as sugar or salt may be added. A narrow slit die or
dies are used. Hot and expanded extrudate ribbon about 7.5 em wide is
gently pulled away by a pair of rollers, which control the final thickness
(0. 7-0.8 em) of the rice cake. Because of evaporative cooling, the tempera-
ture of the extrudate drops quickly after exiting from the die and, hence,
the ribbon does not stick to the rollers. The traveling ribbon from the rollers
is continuously cut into 7.5-cm-square cakes, which are then conveyed to
a drying oven. After drying to 2-4% moisture, the cakes are cooled,
stacked, and packaged. In many cases, apple, strawberry, and cinnamon
extracts in vegetable oil are sprayed onto the cakes to improve the aroma
of the product.
Granola Snacks
Granola snacks can be traced back to the Granolas developed by Dr.
J. H. Kellogg in the late 1800s. The most recent form pertinent to the snack
food industry is granola bars, which compete for essentially the same
consumers of many snack and confectionery products.
The granola bar market in the United States grew at a phenomenal
rate in the early 1980s. Sales increased from $250 million in 1981 to $439
million in 1985 (Snack Food 1990). Many food companies were involved in
the race: General Mills, Quaker Oats, Hershey, Ralston Purina, Carnation,
and M&M Mars. Compared with other snack foods, granola bars have
added appeal among consumers as "natural," "wholesome," "healthy,"
and "good for you" products. Another advantage of granola snacks to
manufacturers is the price stability of rice grain compared with the price
volatility of sugar and cocoa, which are the major ingredients of other
snacks. The sale of granola bars has decreased since peaking in 1985 and
fell to $271 million in 1989 (Snack Food 1990).
One of the important ingredients in granola bars is crisp rice or Rice
Krispies. It contributes to the desirable eating characteristics, such as
increased crispness and reduced roughness, and is a bulking agent (Groves
1982). The slightly toasted note and relatively bland flavor of crisp rice
also blends well with other ingredients in the granola snack bars.
Crisp rice can be manufactured by either oven puffing or a high-
pressure extrusion puffing process. Both Weetabix's crisp rice and Kel-
logg's Rice Krispies are manufactured by the oven puffing process. More
often than not, crisp rice used in granola bars is manufactured by the high-
pressure extrusion puffing process. Both oven puffing and high-pressure
extrusion puffing processes are described in detail in Chapter 8 of this
book. The typical process flow diagram for manufacturing granola bars is
shown in Fig. 10-4.
Rice Fries
Rice Fries is a snack food using rice as a basic ingredient. It first appeared
in retail supermarkets in 1975, produced by American Frozen Foods.
The basic steps involved in making rice fries was described in a patent
CRISP RICE AND BASE SYRUP

OTHER DRY INGREDIENTS
~.--J CONTINUOUS MIXER
t
SPREADER
t
COMPRESSION DEVICE
~
COOLING
t
SLITTING
t
FANNING OUT
t
GUILLOTINE CUTTER
t
PACKAGING
Figure 10-4. A process flow diagram for granola snacks.
(Zukerman 1973). First, the rice is fully cooked in a broth containing

butter, salt, and selected seasonings. After cooking, the rice is compressed
and pumped or extruded through a 1.3-cm-square die to form ribbons. The
ribbons are passed through a cutter, where they are cut into 7.6-cm-long
units. The units are then fried in a hot (177-204°C) vegetable oil for about
1 min or until proper crust is formed on their surfaces. Finally, the products
are cooled and quick-frozen, packaged, and ready for shipment.
For food service institutions, the rice fries can be served immediately
after frying. The product has a crisp exterior crust while retaining the
fluffy, light interior. When a rice fry is broken, the individual grains of rice
can be seen.
Rice Pudding
In Europe and in the United States, rice is frequently used in making
pudding (Sultan 1977).
There are a variety of rice types, and these require consideration for
cooking. Pastry chefs cook the rice in boiling water and then strain the
product. It is then mixed with milk before cooking is completed. Rice must
be handled carefully during cooking to prevent lumps from forming and
rice kernels from breaking. Egg yolks, sugar, vanilla, and light cream are
other ingredients. Rice pudding, with a variety of fruit combinations,
serves as a popular dessert. It is preserved in enameled 5-oz aluminum
cans by the high-temperature short-time (HTST) aseptic canning process.
Flavor of Snack Foods

The cereal-processing industry is placing more emphasis on the variety
and flavor quality of snack foods. Also, as in most of the food industries,
health and fitness are important considerations.
Extruded foods are typically flavored after extrusion (Mega 1989;
Reineccius 1989). This is done by dusting or spraying a flavoring mix on
the product. If there is inadequate surface oil to cause good adhesion, the
product must be sprayed with edible oil before the flavor is dusted on. If
the product has been fried in oil, it is unnecessary to add additional oil to
facilitate the adherence of the flavoring mix.
Some problems associated with flavoring an extruded product by
surface coating have been summarized by Mega (1989). These include the
following:
1. High dosage levels of flavor are required.

2. Flavoring may be unevenly distributed on the product.
3. Flavor may be lost from the product during packaging and shipping.
4. Once the surface coating is gone, the product has little flavor.
5. The potential for microbial contamination is increased.
The method does, however, permit the manufacturer to make more than one
flavor of product from the same base material, and products can be flavored
as a batch just prior to shipping, resulting in fresher-flavored products.
It is generally felt that the quality of snack foods would be enhanced
if the product base itself could be either totally or partially flavored. Palkert
and Fagerson (1980) added 10 flavor compounds, including sulfides, disul-
fides, aldehydes, and heterocyclis to defatted soy flour and extruded it in
a single-screw Brabender unit. They found only 4-22% retention of the
added volatiles. Sadafian and Crouzet (1988) demonstrated similar losses
during the extrusion of cereal-based product. Lane (1983) observed that
2.4% added internal cheese flavor plus an additionall4% externally added
flavor was preferred to either all internal or all external flavoring.
For internal flavoring to be cost-effective, it would be desirable to
obtain better retention of flavors during the extrusion process. Sadafian

and Crouzet (1988) reported that encapsulation can help protect the flavor
during extrusion. They found 90% retention of jj-ionone during extrusion
when jj-ionone was encapsulated in a multiple-coated capsule system. The
work by Sadafian and Crouzet (1988) on encapsulation and by Chen et al.
(1986) offers promising steps in this direction.
RICE SNACKS IN THE ORIENT
In the Orient, rice is eaten not only as the main food but also as a snack
food. Some of the rice snack foods are made from either glutinous rice or
nonglutinous rice, while others are made from both types. The reason
for this difference in rice preparation is that the sticky characteristic of
glutinous rice is necessary in some cases. Another reason for using gluti-
nous rice in baked or popped snacks is that glutinous rice expands readily
and produces a more porous texture.
The rice snack foods consumed in Japan, China, Korea, and some
other countries are introduced in this chapter.
Rice Cracker
Rice cracker is a Japanese baked snack food made from rice. Arare and
senbei are the major and traditional rice crackers in Japan. The consump-
tion ratio of arare to senbei is 100 to 40-45. The flavor and taste of such
products are quite different from Western snacks, which are rich in the
flavor of butter or cheese. Although, in past years, Japanese traditional
snacks and cakes have competed with Western-style snacks and cakes,
rice crackers are now increasing in sales each year (Li and Luh 1980).
The many problems in the Japanese rice cracker industry relate mainly
to techniques of manufacturing, which are kept secret and are traditionally
hand-performed. Moreover, government control of rice distribution and
the increasing price of rice have limited the accessibility of this raw ma-
terial.
Classification of rice crackers

The method of processing rice crackers varies with the kinds of rice used.
The quality of the products obtained from each method is not the same.
Rice crackers made from glutinous rice are generally called arare or
okaki. They have a characteristic texture and can be easily dissolved in
the mouth. Rice crackers made from nonglutinous rice are called senbei,
which has a hard and rough texture. The classification of rice crackers (Li
and Luh 1980) is as follows:
souka type
senbei [
niigata type
nonglutinous
Rice
arare (usually smaller)
kaki-no-tane, etc.
glutinous
okaki (usually larger)
shinagawa maki, etc.
There are also modified rice crackers in Japan. One type is called aghe
(fried) arare, which is fried in oil; another type is called momaka shell,
which is made from glutinous rice and contains sweetened red bean.
Raw materials
Rice. Rice is an important component affecting the quality of the
crackers. Important considerations in the selection of glutinous or nonglu-
tinous rice include uniformity of quality, rate of water absorption, extent
of refinement, area of production, and absence of objectionable odors and
tastes.
When a starchy raw material other than rice is used, potato starch is
a suitable replacement. Expansion rate is an essential consideration in the
choice of a replacement for rice (Table 10-1).
Soy sauce and other raw materials. Soy sauce is used for flavoring. In
order to improve the flavor and taste of rice crackers, seaweed, sesame,
red peppers, sugar, pigments, and spices may be added. For oil-fried rice
Table 10-1. Expansion Rate of Different

Starches
Kinds of Starch Rate of Expansion
Glutinous rice 100
Potato 17.0
Sweet potato 15.5
Wheat 10.8
Nonglutinous rice 10.8
Corn 9.2
Pea 7.0
Cool storing
Air washing
j
1
Water washing
Cutting into
Cracker base
j
D•aTgl1 0 ry i ng
I
Steaming Grinding Tempering
KneJng_j j
Small site
l
Medium size large
l s1ze
l
Conveyor cooling
Parching
l
Band oven Baking
j
machine machine
~ j
Kn eo d i ng __j L-------....J
1
Conveyor cooling
Automatic-mach1ne
'emoning lf .
H o t knead 1 n g
LI~J·
Cutting
1
Rice pounding
I
Boi I i ng
! 0 ry i ng
j
Kneading
!
Cake vessel
Packing
Figure 10-5. Flowchart of rice crackers (arare).
crackers, the oil used must be of good quality, well refined, and highly
stabilized.
Processing method
Glutinous rice crackers. As shown in the flowchart (Fig. 10-5) glutinous
rice is 91% refined. It is washed in a rice-washing machine and soaked for
16-20 hr in water at temperatures below 20°C. After draining, the rice, at
38% moisture, is crushed by rollers into a fine powder, passed through an
80-mesh sieve, and steamed for 15-30 min. After cooling for 2-3 min, it
is kneaded three times. This kneaded cake is put in a cake vessel and
quick-cooled to 2-5°C for 2-3 days for hardening. The hard cake is cut
into various shapes and dried by hot air at 45-75°C to a final moisture
content of 20%. This cake is coated with soy sauce, spice, and other
seasoning materials and then placed in a continuous baking machine or
band oven. After baking, it is dried in a finishing dryer at 90°C for 30 min.
Currently, the procedures used for manufacturing rice crackers are
almost all continuous. Both glutinous and nonglutinous rice crackers can
be manufactured with the same equipment. The process can treat 750-1000
kg/hr of rice. The traditional method of manufacturing glutinous rice crack-
ers takes 3-4 days, but now, by continuous processing, manufacture takes
only 3-4 hr.
Nonglutinous rice crackers. After milling, the rice is washed, soaked in
water to a moisture content of 20-30%, and ground into powder. After
some water is added, the rice is placed in a kneading machine, where it
will be steamed for 5-10 min. After cooling to 60-65°C, the rice is rolled
and pressed into thin layers and cut into desired shapes. It is dried by hot
air at 70-75°C to 20% moisture and tempered at room temperature for
10-20 hr. Then a second drying is applied until a moisture content of
10-12% is reached. Finally, it is baked at 200-260°C in a baking machine
or band oven. After baking, it is seasoned by the same method used for
the glutinous rice crackers.
The difference between glutinous and nonglutinous rice crackers lies
in their cooling treatment. Nonglutinous rice crackers can be processed
with cooling, and the product is similar to that made from glutinous rice.
However, glutinous rice crackers can also be manufactured without cool-
ing. In general, the difference in the ratio of amylopectin to amylose will
affect the expansion rate and the quality of the products.
Puffing of Oriental rice cake

The mechanism of expansion is important to the quality and production
of rice cake. Here we will discuss the factors related to the expansion
phenomenon. The changes that occur when the dry raw rice cake is baked
are shown in Fig. 10-6. Raw rice cake changes its characteristics depending
on the moisture content and air temperature upon heating. Raw rice cake
softens gradually into a glasslike state and increases in extensibility. In
response to expansion pressure, the raw rice cake expands, dries, and
hardens to form the product. The expansion pressure is the result of the
changes in the moisture and air content with rising temperatures. For raw
rice cake in a glasslike state, moisture is sealed and the cake acts like a
tightly sealed container. If the extensibility of the cake is strong after it is
heated to 100°C, an outer pressure forms within the outer cake shell,
and the evaporating temperature will increase. The cake will continue to
expand until the steam pressure and extensibility are balanced. For this
GAS MOl STURE

in rice cake in rice coke
1 1 Heating
Heating Heating
! l
Softening
!sTEAM I 1
I
I ncreosing
~
EXTENSIBILITY
VOLUME
.I
EXPANSION t
VOLUME
1 EXPANSION
l
EXPANSION
PRESSURE
Drying
I
l
Hardening
1
PRODUCT
Figure 10-6. Changes in raw rice during baking.
reason, the expansion of raw rice cakes is controlled by the evaporation

of moisture and the physical state of the rice cake.
Baking conditions and product quality

The rice cake expansion may be proved by measuring the amount of raw
rice cake baked and its product volume or by measuring the changes in
temperature during the baking processes.
When the raw rice cakes are baked in the oven at 220° temperature,
the volume of product decreases as the amount baked increases (Table
10-2). The temperature changes in the baking of rice cake, as shown in
Fig. 10-7, have transition points at about 145-165°C, where the tempera-
ture rate is lowered. By observing the baking process, we understand that
expansion is taking place at this point. In addition, the period of this
Table 10-2. Product Qualify and Amount Baked

Amount Product SHAPE OF PRODUCT
Baked, volume, Hardness,
No. kg mllg kg Ukimono" Shimarimonoh
1 3.00 2.44 0.73 3 97
2 2.00 2.59 0.58 7 93
3 1.50 2.98 0.81 21 79
4 1.00 3.45 0.58 84 16
5 0.75 3.87 0.34 100 0
6 0.50 4.04 0.38 100 0
a Ukimono: like fubuki-arare (loosely expanded product).
h Shimarimono: like kakinotane (tightly expanded product).
transition point has a close relationship to the volume of the product. The
longer the period, the smaller the volume, and the shorter the period, the
more the cake expands. In other words, formation resulting from expan-
sion pressure is not related to the volume of steam generated from mois-
ture; instead, it is controlled by the speed of evaporation.
Influence of rice characteristics on rice cracker manufacturing

When considering the extensibility of rice crackers and the characteristics
of rice, we might think about the dextrinization, expansion, and wettability
of rice starch.
For example, the processing conditions for the manufacture of gluti-
nous rice crackers are different from those for rice grown on paddy or dry
land. It is impossible to manufacture the rice crackers made from dry land
rice by the techniques used for paddy-land rice. This difference cannot be
explained by the physicochemical properties of starches only. As shown
in Table 10-3, almost no differences exist in the results measured by
the amylogram. No differences exist in dextrinization, expansion, and
wettability, all of which might be related to extensibility. There are differ-
ences, however, in the characteristics of rice crackers using different
methods of kneading and milling.
Effect of kneading. Rice flour is steamed and kneaded by a machine for
different periods of time and is made into rice crackers by the method
shown in Fig. 10-5. The results show that there is an optimum time for
kneading; rice crackers kneaded for shorter or longer periods have a
nonuniform texture.
Kneading affects the physical properties of rice flour. These proper-
ties, in turn, affect the uniformity of the products made from rice flour.
The affect of kneading is more distinct for glutinous than for nongluti-
220
210
6 7
/
200
190
180
170
Q)
..>:::
ro 160 ~r----+-+-r-.~r---7-----165°C
~--~~~~--------------145°0}
(.)
Q) rate of temp. raising
(.)
·;:: 150 lowered
0
Q)
140
:s
"§
Q)
c._
130
E
~ 120
x point: Temp. of softening
110
( 140.......,.150°C)
100
o point: Starting scorching
90
( 180 ,..J 200)
80
70
60
50
0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Baking time (min)

Figure 10-7. Changes of temperature in the baking of rice cake. Amount baked:
(1) control, (2) 0.5 kg, (3) 0.75 kg, (4) 1.0 kg, (5) 1.5 kg, (6) 2.0 kg, (7)
3.0 kg.
no us rice. The rice flour kneaded for a relatively longer period has a greater
expansion rate than the flour that is kneaded for a shorter period.
Uniformity of Oriental rice cake and characteristics of rice. As mentioned
previously, the uniformity of rice cake is very significant, and we consider
here the different characteristics of rice that might affect uniformity.
STRUCTURE OF RICE GRAINS. Rice is not an assembly of chemical
compounds, such as starch and protein. It is a plant seed and therefore
has the cell structure of a plant. Rice grains have a definite arrangement
~
Table 10-3. Results from Measuring Amylogram of Rice Starches (Temperature °C, Viscosity Bu)
VISCOSITY
MAXIMUM 97SC, MINIMUM LOWERING Viscosity
Starting VISCOSITY Vise. 10 MIN VISCOSITY RATE at
Dextrinization at 30°C
Species Temp. Temp. Vise. (A) 97.5°C Start End Temp. Vise. (C) A-C A-CIA (B) BIA
Paddy land
grown
Shimuzu
glutinous 62.3 59.0 945 495 495 475 95.7 475 470 0.497 800 0.85
Chiukou
No.2 61.8 66.8 880 427 427 427 94.5 379 501 0.569 680 0.77
Echigo
nebari 60.5 65.3 905 445 445 415 95.1 410 495 0.547 670 0.74
Dry land
grown
(New rice) 60.0 67.5 1,045 511 511 465 93.0 445 600 0.574 615 0.59
(Old rice) 59.3 66.0 1,090 515 515 455 94.8 435 653 0.601 740 0.68
Bu = Brabender unit.
in their cell structures, and their compactness differs according to the

positions of these cell structures. Ordinarily, the outer portion of the rice
grain is more rigid than the inner portion, which is related to the physical
properties of starch in the rice.
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ABSORPTION. The compactness of rice
soaked in water varies with the distribution of absorbed water. The outer
layer of a rice grain, especially the layer of rice bran, is composed mostly
of protein; therefore, the water-absorption rate in this portion is highest.
The layer next to the rice bran, the outer layer of the milled rice, shows
the lowest water-absorption rate. The rate of water absorption increases,
however, as the core of the rice grain is approached.
UNIFORMITY OF STEAMED RICE. Differences in the water-absorption
rate give rise to a lack of uniformity in steamed rice. Observing the profile
of steamed rice, we see that the starch granules of the outer portion of the
soft cells have retained their original shape, whereas the starch granules
in the core portion no longer exist. Because the outside portion is hard, it
is difficult to destroy it by kneading. It is this hardness that is responsible
for the shape of raw rice cakes.
GRANULAR SIZE AFTER GRINDING. Water-absorption rates also affect
granular size after grinding. If the moisture content is higher, the rice can
be ground further to a finer consistency. The outer portion of the rice grain
contains less water and, as a result, the granules are coarser after grinding,
whereas those in the inner portion become finer.
Rice at 25% moisture content is ground, dried, and separated by
sieves according to different granular sizes. The fine powder of 250 mesh
apparently has a lower dextrinizing temperature than that of 60 mesh.
Generally, the finer the powder, the earlier it starts dextrinization. Fine
powder also expands well.
Instant Rice Noodles

In China, rice noodles are called mii-fen and in Japan, harusame. There
is a difference between the two. Mii-fen is made from rice only; harusame
may be made from mung bean, starches, rice, or a mixture of these.
In China or Japan, rice noodles are consumed as main foods, soups,
or snacks. In Taiwan, rice noodles have been manufactured as instant
food that can be easily reconstituted in hot water. Some consumers prefer
instant noodles for convenience; also, the price is very reasonable.
Manufacturing process of instant rice noodles

There are few references concerning rice noodles. Lin (1972) introduced
a conventional rice noodle manufacturing method that is widely used in
Taiwan. Sakurai et al. (1975) also described rice noodles as having been
widely consumed in China, Japan, and Southeast Asian countries since

ancient times. The raw material for rice noodle is nonglutinous rice, which
is highly elastic and sticky. The use of nonglutinous rice enables easy
extrusion of the dough. Like noodles, this rice should not stick together
or break. The yield from the rice is about 95%.
The conventional processing method is limited largely to sun drying.
There are a few exceptions using hot-air drying. In order to improve the
quality of the rice noodle, Chen et al. (1971) tested the infrared drying
methods. They compared the final products by infrared, hot-air, and sun
drying. The results showed that the color and rehydration properties of
the infrared-dried rice noodle are superior to the hot-air- and sun-dried
noodles. Chen and co-workers observed the cross section of the infrared
dried noodle under microscopes and discussed the reasons contributing to
the superiority of the infrared-dried noodle.
As mentioned previously, rice noodles in Japan are sometimes called
harusame. In China, the noodle made from mung bean or starch other
than rice is calledfung-Shu (or tong-fun). The differences between these
two kinds of noodles are the raw materials and also tong-fun is more
transparent. The Chinese noodle after extrusion should be frozen and then
dried. It can also be cooked for a longer time without becoming pasty.
Yamamura (1969) discussed modernization of the manufacturing tech-
niques of harusame. The production power and automation of the process
are limited by the freezing process. Harusame should be frozen for 24 hr,
thawed, and then dried.
Instant rice noodles are a specialty developed in Taiwan. The pro-
cessing method for instant rice noodles is almost identical to that for
the conventional rice noodles, except that instant noodles can be easily
reconstituted in hot water in just a few minutes. To attain the quick
reconstitution characteristic, the steamed rice should be dried at a high
temperature to prevent the gelatinous (a) starch from reverting to raw ({3)
starch. Normally, hot air at a temperature of 80°C is used for drying, but
some plants are using frying instead of hot-air drying in a tunnel drier. A
short description of the manufacture of instant rice noodles follows.
Nonglutinous rice (preferably 92% milled rice or nonglutinous Tai-
chung No. 1) is soaked in water for 2-4 hr, ground, and mashed into a rice
paste, which is then pressed to force out the excess water. This product
(rice cake) is steamed for 80 min (80% gelatinization is the optimum
condition), then kneaded, and shaped into a column from which raw rice
noodle is extruded. The raw rice noodle is steamed for 30 min, dipped into
a seasoning solution, cut, put onto racks for hot air drying or fried in oil
at a temperature higher than 80°C. The final product (instant rice noodle)
is then cooled and packaged.
Generally, rice noodle is manufactured to the dry state and reconstitu-
ted when it is cooked. Another kind of snack, called bitaibah, is made into
a wet type of noodle, is coarser (bigger in diameter), and is shorter. This
snack is eaten with syrup and ice water; therefore, it is normally consumed
in summer. Some people also like this kind of rice noodle with meat and
green onion or leek. Salt, monosodium glutamate, and pepper are always
added as condiments.
Oriental Rice Cake

In Japan, a very popular rice cake is called moe hi but, in China, it is called
nenkau. The method of manufacturing rice cake is similar to that of rice
cracker except that it is not frozen and dried. In Japan, the traditional
method of pounding boiled rice into rice cake with pounders and a mortar
is rarely used now. Instead rice cake is made by mechanical and automatic
methods.
Manufacturing process for Oriental rice cake

Glutinous or nonglutinous rice is milled, refined, and washed. It is then
soaked, allowed to drip until the moisture content is lowered considerably,
and then steamed. After that it is kneaded, packed, and made into various
forms. The rice cake is then heat-pasteurized and cooled to give the final
product, mochi (Sakurai et al. 1975).
As a means of preventing rice cake from molds and spoilage, the above
process is designed to eliminate contamination from microorganisms. The
packing material used is a plastic film such as the vinylidene chloride
series. After packing and sealing, the rice cake is pasteurized. Because a
high temperature during pasteurization damages the quality of the product,
heating is limited to 20 min at 80°C. It is very important to keep the
environment under aseptic conditions. Rapid cooling after packing is desir-
able and very important.
Physical properties
The physical properties of rice cake are also closely related to the quality
and characteristics of the rice from which the rice cake is made. This has
already been mentioned in the section concerning rice cracker (arare).
Starch
Starch of glutinous rice is more easily dextrinized than that of nonglutinous
rice. Even in its deteriorated state, starch of glutinous rice is still easily
dextrinized. Actually, the physical properties of rice cake cannot be ex-
plained satisfactorily by the characteristics of amylopectin. Kiribuchi
(1976) observed the microtexture of rice cake through an electron micro-
scope and compared the structure of rice cake made by different methods.
From these observations, he found that, in order to get good texture (with
the exception of the pasty condition of dextrinized starch), there should
be some grainlike structure in the composition of the rice.
Traditional manufacturing process

The Oriental rice cake made by the traditional method involves pounding
by pounders and mortars. The hard part is crushed easily. During this
process, air cannot enter the rice cake and, hence, a uniform texture can
be obtained. When the rice cake is made by mechanical kneading, the soft
part is easily crushed, whereas the hard portion remains uncrushed. In the
latter case, air bubbles easily get into the rice cake and give rise to a
nonuniform product. If there are many air bubbles in the rice cake, it looks
whiter because of the random reflection of light. The rice cake can easily
be deformed during cooking and baking (Yomiuri-Shinbun-Sha 1976).
Taiwan manufacturing process

In Taiwan, rice cake is made by a somewhat different method. The gluti-
nous or nonglutinous rice is soaked overnight and ground with a stone mill
with water to form a slurry. This slurry is transferred into a cotton cloth
bag and sealed with a string. As a means of draining the water out, heavy
stones are placed on the bag. The raw rice cake obtained is kneaded with
water. For sweetened rice cake, sugar is added. The product is transferred
into a vessel and steamed. For other types of rice cake, ingredients such
as salt, monosodium glutamate, crushed radish, and crushed taro may be
added before steaming.
There is a particular kind of fermented rice cake made in Taiwan called
fakau. It is made by adding sugar and a leavening agent to a ground
nonglutinous rice slurry. After fermentation, it is steamed and then con-
sumed. In the Philippines, there is a similar food called bibingka, which
is made by the same method, except that salted egg yolk is added on top
of this rice cake before steaming.
Rice cake ingredients

The ingredients for three different Taiwan rice cakes are as follows:
Radish rice cake (Huang 1974)

Nonglutinous rice (600 g)
Water (750 ml)
Radish (1200 g)
Salt (20 g)
Pepper (3 g)
Monosodium glutamate (5 g)
Sweetened rice cake (nenkau)
Glutinous rice (600 g)
White or brown sugar (300 g)
Water (1000 ml)
Fermented rice cake (Fakau)
N onglutinous rice (300 g)
Water (500 ml)
Wheat flour (36 g)
White or brown sugar (240 g)
Leavening (10 g)
Ground rice powder cake

Glutinous rice is washed, drained, fried in a pan, and ground to fine
powder. Some maltose is added to this rice powder before it is pressed
into the desired mold. If brown coloring and special flavor are desired,
brown sugar is used. In some products, mung bean may be added to the
rice. In this case, the mung bean is washed and cooked in water until the
skin has swollen. After the skin is removed, the bean is cooked to dryness
and used as an ingredient. The product made from glutinous rice and mung
bean is called rhutou kau in China.
In the above products, shortening or cooking oil may be added before
the rice powder is pressed into the desired mold. This kind of product
tastes creamy and does not feel as dry as the product without oil.
Bamboo Leaf-Wrapped Rice

In China and Japan, bamboo leaf-wrapped rice is a very popular food. In
China, it is called tsongtsu but, in Japan, it is called chimaki.
In China, there are three kinds of tsongtsu. Their ingredients and
methods of preparation are as follows.
Chien Tsong (bamboo leaf-wrapped alkaline rice)

Six hundred grams of glutinous rice (round grain species) are washed and
soaked for 1 hr, drained, and mixed with 12.5-g soda ash. A 60-g portion
of this rice mixture is wrapped with bamboo leaves to form a tetrahedron
and is bound with a string. This is simmered in water for 1.5 hr. After
cooking, the bamboo leaves are removed, and the chien tsong is served
with honey or sugar. From the above ingredients, 20 bamboo leaf-wrapped
alkaline rice products can be made.
Zoutsong (bamboo leaf-wrapped rice with meat)

Six hundred grams of glutinous rice are washed, soaked in water for 1 hr,
and drained. The bamboo leaves are washed, boiled in water for about 5
min, and cooled. Three hundred grams of pork (ham) are cut into 20 small
cubes and three shiitake mushrooms are cut into 10 pieces. These pieces
are mixed and flavored with the following seasonings: 45-ml soy sauce,
1.25-g monosodium glutamate, 1.25-g sugar, 0.75-g black pepper, 2.5-ml
sherry wine, and 18-g fried red garlic. Cooking oil (60 ml) is heated in a
frying pan and dried shrimp meat (250 g) is fried until the flavor emerges.
This is added to the glutinous rice, and the special seasonings are mixed
well before frying for several minutes. The special seasonings are 6-g salt,
1.5-g sodium glutamate, 7.5-ml soy sauce, and 1.25-g black pepper. Two
leaves are taken and bent to form a trigon, in which the rice is placed.
Some seasoned meat is also added and covered with a little rice. Finally,
the rice is wrapped with bamboo leaves to form a tetrahedron and is bound
with string. The wrapped rice is placed in hot water and boiled for about
20 min. These ingredients yield about 20 zoutsong. The product is served
hot with or without soy sauce or chili sauce after removal of the bamboo
leaves.
Popped or Fried Rice Snacks

Mishiian
Popped rice is mixed with melted sugar, malt, cooking oil, flavoring, and
roasted peanuts (optional). It is then pressed into a mold and cut into
squares after cooling. This is called mishiian in China.
Extruded rice snacks

The high-temperature/short-time extrusion cooker (extruder) is versatile
and thermodynamically efficient. It has become a prime processing unit.
The system produces a wide variety of products with different shapes,
textures, and rehydration characteristics. The equipment, the processing
technology, and the factors that control production efficiency and product
quality were discussed by Smith 1975; Harper 1981; and Mercier et al.
1989.
In this process, moistened, expansible, starchy and/or proteinaceous
products are plasticized in a tube by a combination of heat, pressure, and
mechanical shear. Fichtali and VanderVoort. (1989) published a paper
on fundamental and practical aspects of twin-screw extrusion. They em-
phasize process variables and process control as related to pressure drop
at the die and shear stress. Hauck and Huber (1989) reviewed the literature
on single-screw vs. twin-screw extrusion. If the single-screw extruder
does not result in a profitable operation, it may be time to evaluate the twin-
screw extruder, even at the additional cost of installing the equipment.
Padmanabhan and Bhattacharya (1989) explain the interplay of the
elastic and moisture effects on extrudate expansion. An important charac-
teristic of extruded food is extrudate expansion which is related to product
texture. In an extruder, the application of heat and shearing action on a
mixture of the food material and water disrupts the ordered molecular
structure through gelatinization of starch and may result in the molecular
breakdown of the material. When forced through the die at the exit, the
material expands rapidly to a diameter that may be several times that of
the die. Padmanabhan and Bhattacharya (1989) develop a model that can
predict the amount of exudate expansion. Two major factors affecting the
exudate expansion of foods are the viscoelastic nature of the material and
the presence of moisture in the material flowing through the extruder-die
assembly.
In Taiwan, several kinds of crispies made from extruded rice are very
popular. A variety of flavors, such as milk, five-spice, and curry flavors,
are available. The product is made by feeding rice powder into the ex-
truder, after extrusion it is sprayed with flavoring solution and dried.
Rice Krispies
In the United States, there is a breakfast cereal produced by the Kellogg
Company that is an oven-toasted rice fortified with eight important vita-
mins and iron.
The ingredients for this product are milled rice, sugar, salt, and malt
flavoring. The vitamins added for fortification are sodium ascorbate, vita-
min A palmiate, niacinamide, ascorbic acid, pyridoxine hydrochloride,
thiamin hydrochloride, riboflavin, folic acid, and vitamin D2 • For preserv-
ing product freshness, up to 0.02% BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and
BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene or 2,6-ditertbutyl-4 methylphenol) are
also added.
Rice Krispies Marshmallow Treats

The ingredients for this product are Rice Krispies, marshmallows, and
margarine or butter.
The product can be made by melting 62.5 ml of margarine or butter in
a large saucepan over low heat. Add 284-g marshmallows, and stir until
melted and well blended. Cook 2 min longer with constant stirring. Remove
from heat. Add 142 g of the Rice Krispies cereal, and stir until the cereal
is well coated. Add 184 g of roasted peanuts (optional). Using a buttered
spatula or waxed paper, press the mixture evenly and firmly in a buttered
33 x 23 x 5-cm pan. Cut the product into squares when cool.
The addition of roasted peanuts makes the product more attractive in

texture, aroma, and flavor.
REFERENCES
Antila, J., Seiler, K., Seibel, W., and Linko, P. 1983. Production of flat bread by
extrusion cooking using different wheat/rye ratios, protein enrichment and
grain with poor baking quality. J. Food Eng. 2:189-210.
Chen, C. M., Hung, F. M., Wang, C. Y., and Wang, I. K. 1971. Effectofinfrared
drying, hot air drying and sun drying on the quality of dehydrated Mii-fen
(rice noodles). Food Industries Research and Development Institute Report
9 (in Chinese).
Chen, J., Reineccius, G. A., and Labuza, T. P. 1986. Prediction and measurement
of volatile retention during extrusion processing. J. Food Techno/.
21:365-383.
Darmardjati, D. S., and Luh, B. S. 1989. Physicochemical properties of extrusion-
cooked rice breakfast cereals . Proceedings of the 7th World Congress on
Food Science and Technology, Vol II. 1987. p. 12. The Singapore Institute of
Food Science and Technology, Singapore.
Fichtali, J., and Van de Voort, F. R. 1989. Fundamental and practical aspects of
twin screw extrusion. Cereal Foods World 34(11):921-929.
Groves, R. 1982. Applications for cereal in candy manufacturing. Cereal Foods
World 27(12):589-591.
Harper, J. M. 1981. Extrusion of Foods, Vol. II. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Hauck, and Huber, G. R. 1989. Single screw vs twin screw extrusion. Cereal
Foods World 34(11):931-939.
Haumann, B. F. 1989. Rice bran linked to lower cholesterol. J. Amer. Oil Chern.
Soc. 66(5):615-618.
Hsieh, F., Huff, H. E., Peng, I. C., and Marek, S. W. 1989. Puffingofricecakes as
influenced by tempering and heating conditions. J. Food Sci. 54(5):1310-1312.
Huang, S. 1976. Chinese Snack Foods. Taipei: Wei-Chuan Food Co.
James, C., and McCaskill, D. 1983. Rice in the American diet. Cereal Foods World
28(11):667-669.
Kahlon, T. S., Saunders, R. M., Chow, F. T., Chiu, M. C., and Betschart,A. A.
Cereal Foods World 34(9):768. Abstract of Paper #111.
Kiribuchi, S. I976. Observation of microtexture in rice cake by scanning electronic
microscope. Food Dev. 11(12):35-39 (in Japanese).
Lane, R. P. 1983. Formulation variables affecting the flavor of extruded snacks
and crackers. Cereal Foods World 28:181-183.
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tion, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT: AVI.
Lin, K. N. 1972. Agriculture Products Processing. Taipei: Fu-Wen Publishing (in
Chinese).
Mega, J. A. 1989. Flavor formation in retention during extrusion. In Extrusion
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AACC.
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Pat. 3,711,295. January.
11
Rice Vinegar Through
Acetification of Rice Wine
Edward J. Hsu
University of Missouri, Kansas City
The manufacturing of vinegar is of such ancient origin that the oldest

records are merely brief hints of, or allusions to, the methods and appli-
cations used. Vinegar is a word derived from the French vinaigre meaning
"sour wine." Although it was originally applied to the product obtained
by acetification of wine, it lost this original meaning long ago. Vinegar
may be prepared from almost any watery substance that contains sugar
and other nutrients to provide an alcoholic fermentation followed by an
acetic fermentation. Malt vinegar, called alegar, was prepared in England
from ale or beer that had soured. Wine vinegar is prepared in many of the
wine-producing areas of the world, and rice vinegar is a staple condiment
in the orient.
All vinegars require two microbiological processes for their produc-
tion, and some (such as rice vinegar) require a third fermentation for the
preparation of koji with Aspergillus or other microorganisms to degrade
the raw material. Fortunately, all three types of microorganisms necessary
for vinegar production are commonly associated with plant products as
part of their natural microflora. Under appropriate conditions, then, the
production of vinegar, even rice vinegar, can occur as a spontaneous
fermentation.
251
METHODS OF RICE VINEGAR FERMENTATION
In ancient China, vinegars were mostly produced from rice, since rice was
a major crop. Many Orientals consume rice vinegar on a daily basis for
health or medicinal reasons; in addition, it is used as an important ingredi-
ent in soft drinks, fruit juices, and other beverages as a substitute for citric
acid. While rice vinegar may be inexpensively manufactured from rice
wine residue or sake residue, there has been increasing consumer prefer-
ence for vinegar prepared from a rice mash, which provides its own
characteristic flavor, aroma, and umami, a Japanese term roughly defined
as an intensified flavor and aroma.
Rice Vinegar from Rice Wine

Disregarding the sake residue-based "rice vinegar," which should be
catagorized as distilled vinegar, the traditional method for preparing the
rice vinegar mash imitates the preparation of Japanese sake or Chinese
rice wine, that is, an ethanol fermentation carried out at low temperatures
(10-20°C) under nonsterile conditions. Since sake is brewed in an open
system without sterilization (that is, the rice, the process water, and
the vessel are not sterilized), there are many chances for contamination.
Complicated techniques are required to inhibit invading microorganisms
such as wild yeasts and lactic acid bacteria.
This traditional method has some disadvantages, which may be sum-
marized as follows: a high initial yeast cell count is obtained by the so-
called Sandan-Shikomi procedure; rice koji, steamed rice, and water are
added to the starter in three consecutive steps at defined intervals over a
period of four to five days. This very labor-intensive procedure serves to:
1. Dilute the dense population of yeast

2. Dilute lactic acid
3. Suppress invasion of wild contaminants
4. Lower the mashing temperature with each addition of steamed rice
precooled to 15-l8°C through air cooling or spraying with cold
water.
The starter, or the "mother of sake," corresponds to the "pitching

yeast" in beer brewing. The starter must provide a pure and abundant
yeast crop and supply sufficient lactic acid bacteria or lactic acid to prevent
undesirable fermentation. Many attempts have been made to use culture
yeast in place of the "mother of sake." Sake yeast, such as the Japanese
kyokai No. 6 or 7, which is cultivated aerobically and is prepared in a
manner similar to that of baker's yeast, has been used by several investiga-
RICE VINEGAR 253
tors. The yeast cells are added to the mash moromi to give a count of
105-106 cells/g, which should be allowed to multiply to reach a count of
108 cells/g.
An extreme case of conventional sake brewing is the "gin-jo-shu,"
in which a carefully prepared high-quality sake, produced with highly
polished rice to purposely reduce the protein content, gives a lower amino
acid content in the final product. The mash fermentation is carried out at
an extremely low temperature (9-ll 0 C), taking long periods (25-30 days);
again, this is an extremely labor-intensive process.
Rapid, Upgraded Method

In an upgraded method currently in widespread use for the preparation of
a rice vinegar mash, the liquefaction and saccharification of the rice,
previously steamed separately outside the fermenter, is carried out utiliz-
ing commercially available a-amylase (3.2.1.1.) and glucoamylase
(3.2.1.3.) to obtain a rice mash that has a starch content ofless than 18%.
A small amount, on the order of 10%, of rice koji may be added to facilitate
the saccharification process and enhance the flavor of the final product.
The rice mash is press-filtered to obtain a clear filtrate, to which baker's
yeast is added to start ethanol fermentation. A concentration of 10%
ethanol is produced during the process, which is carried out at the rela-
tively low temperature of 15-20°C. The mash is then diluted approximately
2 : 1 by the addition of pure food-grade ethanol for a submerged oxidation
of ethanol to acetic acid.
However, the widely used upgraded method is subject to many short-
comings. Since the mash contains only about 10% ethanol, autolysis of
the yeast cell is completely absent or minimal unless the mash is allowed
to stand for a few weeks. Unfortunately, putrification of the mash may
occur when the mash stands for such a long time. Second, because of the
lack of proteolytic enzymes in the rice koji, the amino acid content is
extremely low, adversely affecting the flavor and aroma of the finished
product.
Ancient Solid-State Fermentation

There are ancient Chinese and Japanese techniques that allow saccharifi-
cation, alcoholic fermentation, and acetification to be performed in the
same vessel. The entire procedure is carried out as a solid fermentation
to permit an extremely high content of starch in the fermentation mash.
The quality of the rice vinegar produced by such ancient methods is highly
prized because of its binding of amino acids to acetic acid (Sugi 1983),
which results in a uniquely mild, mellow, and smooth flavor; this vinegar
can be used not only as a condiment but also as a drink or beverage

ingredient.
Japanese modification
The method of rice vinegar production introduced into Japan from China in
the Emperor Ojin's era (A.D. 369-404) has survived, with some inevitable
changes, to the present day. In the Japanese modification, the dimensions
of the jars used are 43 em in diameter, 62 em in height, with a mouth
diameter of 14 em (Higashi et al. 1973). The volume is 52 liters. The
substrates are mixed in the following ratio (Higashi et al. 1974):
Rice koji 4.1- 5.4 kg

Upper 0.5- 0.9 kg
Lower 3.6- 4.5 kg
Steamed rice 9 - 9.9 kg
Water 28.9-29.8 liters
In accordance with the Kuroiwa technique (1975), the inside walls

of the jars are wiped clean and sprayed with seed vinegar containing
Acetobacter aceti and A. acetosum. Lower koji, steamed rice, and water
are added; then the upper koji is dispersed on the liquid surface. The jars
are covered with lids and allowed to ferment, either in a room or in an
open field. The optimum temperature for the growth of these acetic acid
bacteria is 28°C or slightly higher. The temperature of the room is usually
maintained between 20-28°C. Under these conditions, the time required
to complete fermentation is approximately three months. However, if the
jars are located in an open field, the time required for fermentation is more
than six months. In order to shorten the fermentation time, the jars are
arranged in rows that lie north and south. In this way, the jars are exposed
to maximum sunlight, and a higher temperature is attained in the jars. The
particular shape and dimensions of the jar allow the contents of the jar to
undergo a slow-heated convection from the bottom along the periphery
up to the top. The mash eventually migrates to the center of the top layer,
where the temperature is lower, and then settles to the bottom. The shape
and quality of the earthenware jar are so important that when Kuroiwa
built his rice vinegar factory in southern Japan in 1976, an earthenware
factory that exceeded the size and the scale of the vinegar factory (Sugi
1983) was also built.
As previously noted, rice koji can be separated into upper koji and
lower koji. The former is composed of old, dried fungal cultures containing
mainly fungal spores. Upper koji is applied to the surface ofthe fermenta-
tion liquid to prevent contamination. The lower koji is composed of a
RICE VINEGAR 255
younger culture that is high in enzymatic activity and can saccharify the
steamed rice rapidly.
The supernatant from the rice vinegar is decanted after ripening. The
residual precipitate is extracted by pressure, and the liquid collected is
pooled with the first supernatant. The pooled fractions are heated for
pasteurization and then bottled. The product usually contains a total acid-
ity of 3-6% and amino nitrogen of 152.4 mg/100 ml or higher.
These ancient methods of vinegar fermentation, which utilize natural
flora of yeasts and acetic acid bacteria, require a longer time for fermenta-
tion. If pure cultures of microorganisms are used, the fermentation time
and the amount of rice required are reduced.
Chinese modification
The modified method used in China today is as follows: 90-liter wide-
mouthed jars (48 em in diameter, 49 em in height, and 38 em in mouth
diameter) are used. Fifteen kilograms of steamed rice are cooled and added
to each jar. The koji inoculum of A. oryzae is added at a ratio of 60 g/jar.
After thorough mixing, the rice is pressed tightly against the inside wall
of the jar. The jar is covered with paper and incubated at 20-25°C. On the
second day, white mycelia cover the rice grains. On the third day, the
temperature in the mixture reaches 42°C. Water is added to enhance
saccharification and Saccharomyces cerevisiae is inoculated. The jars are
tightly covered with lids to start alcoholic fermentation. A total of 15liters
of water is added in two portions. After one week, the concentration of
alcohol is 10%; the jar is then sealed for another 10 days to complete the
fermentation process, at which time total acidity is 1.2%. Finally, 25liters
of water and 20-25 liters of good-quality seed vinegar are added, and the
mixture is incubated at 28-31 °C. One month later, a rice vinegar containing
5% total acidity is obtained. This product has a higher amino nitrogen
(89-98 mg/100 ml) content than rice vinegar produced by the traditional
method and a flavor that is considered superior. Complete hydrolysis of
the rice protein is believed to be the major reason for the flavor improve-
ment (Lai et al. 1980).
All the previously known processes for producing ancient-quality rice
vinegar, however, provide inconsistent results, are labor-intensive, and
are generally extremely time-consuming. Furthermore, it has been found
to be very difficult to obtain a finished product having a consistently strong
and characteristic flavor, aroma, and umami. Most breweries, at present,
use a large inoculum of active yeast, either grown in-house from a pure
slope culture or brought in as an active dry or pressed yeast. During
alcohol fermentation, anaerobic conditions must be created to restrict the
growth of the yeast and to encourage the conversion of sugars anaerobi-
cally to ethanol. At the end of the yeast fermentation, when the sugars
and oligosaccharides have been consumed, aerobic conditions must be
reestablished at the surface of the liquid or slurry to permit the growth and
metabolism of ethanol-utilizing acetic acid bacteria. The fundamental
disparities between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism, particularly in the
most desirable single-jar fermentation, must be overcome. The supply of
oxygen must be provided by occasional agitation or by the transfer of the
entire content from one jar to another, a process referred to as dau-pei in
the ancient Chinese method (Yu 1985).
In brief, the known methods for producing rice vinegar from rice wine
include the steps of saccharification of rice that are followed by alcoholic
fermentation and then acetification. Additionally, a quantity of koji or
fermented grains may be added to assist the saccharification process and
enhance the flavor of the final product. The koji serves as a source of a
number of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of rice to soluble prod-
ucts, providing the substrates for yeast and bacteria in the subsequent
fermentation stages. Moreover, koji also produces a number of chemicals
that impart a unique flavor and aroma to the finished product.
The traditional ancient method of preparing rice vinegar includes the
initial step of polishing the rice with light pressure to remove the hull and
embryo so that the mycelia of the fungal cultures can easily penetrate and
saccharify the rice. Next, the rice is washed to remove residual hulls and
soaked in water of good quality. The rice is then steamed to gelatinize the
starch in the rice into a-starch and denature the proteins in the rice. The
rice is steamed for 1 hr in a basket placed atop a pot, or alternatively, may
be cooked on a conveyor that exposes the rice to a steam bath for 20-30
min. The gelatinized rice must then be cooled to about 20-25°C by using
a cooling machine or by manually spreading the rice on cloth for air cooling
over an extended period of time.
Typically, koji is prepared by thoroughly mixing an inoculum of koji
with steamed rice that is cooled to 30-32°C. The mixture is spread on a
bed in a thin layer and aerated at about 32°C, with a relative humidity of
90-94%; it passes through the bed for 20 hr, at which time the mixture is
turned. The temperature of the koji will continue to rise during additional
fermentation, which normally lasts 40 hr.
Automated Semisolid Method

This recently developed method (Hsu 1989) overcomes the disadvantages
noted in the preceding section and represents an automatically simplified
process for the manufacture of rice wine and especially rice vinegar having
the attributes of ancient jar-prepared vinegar. A single autoclave vessel
exposes the rice substrate to a combination of high temperature and pres-
RICE VINEGAR 257
sure. This vessel is utilized to carry out the steps of washing, soaking,
cooking, liquification, and saccharification of partially polished or unpol-
ished rice, as well as ethanol fermentation of the rice wine mash. The
product has high concentrations of ethanol and amino acid.
The rice wine mash has a requisite unique flavor, aroma, and umami
imparted by a koji that is prepared using a wheat substrate as the raw
material instead of rice, which is normally used to make koji. Two strains
of Aspergillus oryzae fungus, which are isolated from Shau-Xing wine cake
and have high proteolytic activity and distinctly different aminopeptidase
profiles, are grown on steamed wheat; these are a source of a-amylase,
glucoamylase, proteases, lipases, and nucleases. The distinctive profile of
these two strains produces a mixture of short, characteristic peptides that
is responsible for the flavor, aroma, and umami attributes.
Ethanol fermentation is carried out using two strains of Saccharo-
myces cerevisiae, which are also isolated from the Shau-Xing wine cake.
Intermittent agitation of the mash and yeast is maintained for seven days
at 30°C ± l°C until the ethanol concentration reaches about 18-20%, and
the mash is then transferred to a second vessel for seven additional days
and retained at a high temperature in the neighborhood of 30-35°C. Inter-
mittent agitation promotes autolysis of the yeast cells, interaction of the
sediment and supernatant, and secondary fermentation and ripening.
Preferably, the rice is polished to a polishing ratio of about 90% (i.e.,
10 wt% of the outer rice surface is removed) in order to provide ready
nutrients not only for the ethanol fermentation but also to provide sub-
strates for the two strains of Aspergillus oryzae associated with the wheat
koji. Sufficient breakdown of the rice protein, as well as the wheat protein
from the koji, is obtained by (1) omission of the addition of lactic acid or
lactic acid bacteria in order to avoid strongly acidic conditions that would
otherwise inhibit the activities of the koji protease, and (2) avoidance of
a physicochemical interaction between the protein and starch gel that
interferes with the enzymatic hydrolysis of protein, through removal of
the gelatinized starch from the mash as quickly as possible by the addition
of a second batch of a-amylase(' 'poststerilization'' liquification) following
the first batch of the same. Sterilization of the rice at high temperatures
with agitation, in combination with liquification of the rice by separate
addition of two quantities of a-amylase, ensures that the entire rice grain
is substantially gelatinized before the addition of wheat koji and the yeast
cultures. It must be emphasized that wheat, instead of rice, is used in the
koji preparation. The entire fermentation of the rice mash is carried out at
a high temperature (approximately 30°C) and not at the ordinary tempera-
ture of 15-20°C as in a sake mash or Shau-Xing wine mash. Acetic acid,
not lactic acid, that is contained in the vinegar is added to the mash at the
time the mash is transferred to the second vessel to protect the mash,
which now has a high-amino acid content (greater than 1.0%), a high
content of nucleotides, intensified umami, and a rich amber color, com-
bined with a very high yield (1 kg of rice converted to 8 kg of rice vinegar).
The high-amino acid content ensures that the vinegar is exceptionally
smooth and mild to the taste.
The autoclave fermentation vessel (Hsu 1989) used for rice liquifica-
tion, saccharification, and ethanol fermentation includes two rotatable
stirrers, as well as a rotatable bottom member. This bottom part has
elements complementary to the configuration of the bottom of the vessel
that scrape the bottom during rotation of the member. Most of the inlet
ports are arranged in a circular configuration on the bottom of the vessel
for introduction of steam or air, and the vessel is also provided with a
transferringjacket that spirals around the vessel, substantially surrounding
it. An upright, screened drain is located at the center of the vessel bottom
and is enclosed within three upstanding legs. These legs are associated
with a bearing support of a vertical shaft needed for rotation of the scraper
member and agitators.
ACETIFICATION
The final steps of manufacturing rice vinegar include the process of acetifi-
cation, which is the oxidation of the ethanol by acetic acid bacteria, to
produce acetic acid as follows:
CH3CHzOH + 0 2 --7 CH3COOH + HzO

(46 g) (32 g) (60 g) (18 g)
The solubility of oxygen in water (8.1 mg/1 at 25°C) becomes the critical
factor in various techniques used to promote the oxygen mass transfer to
the rice mash. Considering the increase in molecular weight from 46 to
60 g, as well as the loss due to evaporation and overoxidation, the total
sum of the ethanol and acetic acid concentration, known as the total
concentration or Gk in the vinegar industry (Ger. Gesammte konzentra-
tion) should remain approximately constant throughout acetification (Ad-
ams 1985).
Both acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase of
Acetobacter species are found to be tightly bound to cell fragments. Both
are also strongly inhibited by cyanide, as well as carbon monoxide, sug-
gesting that a cytochrome oxidase operates as the terminal oxidase (Na-
kayama 1961a,b). Both enzymes display broad substrate specificity and
RICE VINEGAR 259
will oxidize several other primary alcohols and aldehydes (Ameyama and
Adachi 1982a,b).
Rice Vinegar with High-Acetic Acid Concentration

Although some evidence has been presented to indicate that ethanol oxida-
tion capacity and acetic acid tolerance may be linked to a plasmid (Omori
et al. 1982), these desirable properties in the vinegar industry can be
brought about by simply changing culture conditions and fermentation
techniques to reach the "unreachable" acidity of 20% on an industrial
scale (Kunimatsu et al. 1981).
The maximum concentration of acetic acid that can be produced by
fermentation is usually about 10-12%, even by the submerged method.
The vinegar produced using the generator has a maximum acidity of ap-
proximately 11%. There is, however, considerable need to produce a
vinegar containing a higher level of acetic acid in order to reduce the cost
of transportation, storage, and packaging; also, it is preferred for pickling
of high-moisture fruits and vegetables. Processes for freezing vinegar and
filtering ice crystals, or centrifugal separation of the ice, are still very
common practices in the United States (Richard D. Keeley, Fleischmann's
Vinegar, personal communication).
In an effort to optimize culture conditions for the production of vinegar
with high acidity, Masai (1980) found that alcohol and acetic acid concen-
tration were the two critical factors. A fed-batch fermentation process for
producing vinegar with acidity greater than 17% was established in which
the initial acidity of the broth was fixed at 9% and ethanol was fed continu-
ously to the fermenting broth in such a way as to maintain a concentration
range of 0.3-2.0% ethanol. A combination of this fed-batch technique and
the two-stage fermentation method (Masai 1980; Kunimatsu et al. 1981)
provided a successful method for an economically continuous production
of vinegar with an acidity of more than 20%. Even in a surface fermenta-
tion, as long as the relationship between the growth of acetic acid bacteria
and the concentration of acetic acid and ethanol were optimized, it was
possible to produce vinegar efficiently in this system with an acidity greater
than 9%. Success was assured each time by starting a vinegar mash with
3% concentrations of both acetic acid and ethanol, with ethanol fed repeat-
edly to maintain its concentration in the mash under 4% throughout the
entire fermentation period without breaking the surface film of the acetic
acid bacteria.
By following the automated semisolid method for preparation of the
rice mash, a minimum of 18% ethanol is assured which, upon fourfold
dilution, would be an ideal raw material to prepare vinegar with low acidity
(4.25%). Without dilution, this mash could be used instead of pure ethanol,
which is normally added to boost the concentration of ethanol for high-
acidity vinegar production, thereby obtaining a pure rice vinegar, a com-
modity that is most preferred and in great demand in Japan.
Methods of Acetification
Pure cultures are seldom used in the vinegar industry simply because
the process can be operated quite satisfactorily without strict and costly
sterility controls. The rice mash during storage, however, should be pas-
teurized to avoid contamination by, for instance, Lactobacillus homohio-
chi, which not only consumes the ethanol but also encourages the growth
of other lactic acid bacteria whose production oflactic acid greatly inhibits
acetification (Hsu 1987).
Surface culture
Acetification of any watery substrate containing ethanol and other nutri-
ents can occur spontaneously in an open vessel. Very often, a large amount
of "mother vinegar" is added as an inoculum. This batchwise process
causes delays and losses from the need to reestablish an active surface
film unless a semicontinuous technique (e.g., Orlean's Process) is used.
Although this process is reputed to give the finest-quality vinegar (Vaughn
1942), only a small proportion of all vinegars is produced by this method
today. In China, Japan, and Korea, the surface-culture technique is pre-
ferred for vinegar production (Kong-Yen Food Co., Taiwan, personal
communication), and a continuous fermentation utilizing this surface-cul-
ture technique has been substantially improved by replenishing the mash
from an elevated tank to the bottom of a second tank without breaking the
film of acetic acid bacteria (Masai 1980).
Quick vinegar process
The quick vinegar process, which utilizes a generator, is still very common
in the United States and Europe but is seldom used in the Orient. It is
desirable for the production of distilled vinegar but is the most undesirable
method for acetification of rice mash because of its high content of amino
acids, nucleotides, and biomass. These substances can easily clog the film
of acetic acid bacteria growing on the inert support media packed in the
false-bottom tower.
Submerged acetification
The following methods were all developed after the perfection of penicillin
fermentation (Greenshields 1978) and are all suitable for conversion of rice
wine to rice vinegar.
RICE VINEGAR 261
1. The Acetator, developed by Ebner et al. (1967), currently marketed

by Heinrich Frings Gmbh. of Bonn, Germany.
2. The Bourgeois Process fermenters supplied by Bourgeois Freres,
Switzerland, are ideal for low-acidity vinegars.
3. The Vinegator, manufactured by Chemap Co., Switzerland, with
an additional compressor controlled by an oxygen electrode for the
most efficient control and use of energy.
Naturally occurring lipids and amino acids in the rice have surface-
active characteristics that may result in foaming. A mechanical foam
separator (available from Heinrich Frings or Chemap), fitted from the
top of a fermenter, has been found to be particularly advantageous in
controlling foam formation in rice vinegar (Hsu 1989). The separator has
a rotary chamber that exposes the foam to rotation speeds of 1000-1500
rpm. This is effective in dispersing foam to the liquid and gas phases.
Addition of antifoam chemicals, effective only at substantially high con-
centrations, not only increases the size of air bubbles but also constitutes
an alteration of the end product, pure rice vinegar.
Rice vinegar produced by submerged culture is very cloudy and re-
quires careful filtration, as well as extended aging periods, to clarify, unless
cloudiness is acceptable to consumers (Kong-Yen Food Co., Taiwan,
personal communication). To avoid formation of excess precipitates due
to iron or copper ions, care must be taken to avoid contact of the mash
with metal pipes or containers. Selection of the factory site at a place
where underground water is low in iron and copper content is highly
desirable.
ANALYSES, STANDARDS, AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE VINEGAR
A legitimate competitor of rice vinegar is the product prepared from rice

wine residue and pure ethanol. Except for the acetic acid content, stan-
dards for rice vinegar still do not exist in the United States. Even in Japan,
it was not until June 8, 1980, that the only quality criterion for rice vinegar
was published, as a part of the Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS). This
standard, however, stipulates only the quantity of the rice used for the
manufacture of rice vinegar, i.e., at least 40 g/1. The standard provides no
specifications on the final product or methods of analysis. In other words,
the additional 85 g required for making a pure rice vinegar could be
replaced by pure ethanol. It appears, therefore, that the JAS requirement
is merely a recommendation and unlikely to be enforced, particularly in
countries where the price of rice is artificially determined.
Pure rice vinegar, which is vinegar prepared from rice with rice koji
or wheat koji and without the addition of pure ethanol, contains a large
number of secondary constituents that contribute to its smoothness of
flavor and its aroma. With the exception of ketones, which are oxidized
from a range of corresponding alcohols, the compounds found in pure rice
vinegar are all common components of the rice wine (Asa 1968). The
characteristics of rice vinegar, therefore, depend on the character of the
substances from which it is fermented. The high resolution and sensitivity
offered by gas-liquid chromatography are needed to detect all the volatiles
found in rice wine and rice vinegar.
Amino acids, the nonvolatile components of rice vinegar, are present
in significant quantities (approximately 2.5 g/1) and with characteristic
profiles only in rice vinegars prepared by ancient methods of jar fermenta-
tion or by automated semisolid fermentation. A typical amino acid profile
is presented in Fig. 11-1.
Hsu (1989) utilized two to four strains of Aspergillus oryzae isolated
from Shau-Xing wine cake that had high proteolytic activities and pro-
duced distinctly different aminopeptidase profiles. The distinct profiles of
these organisms provided a mixture of short characteristic peptides that
were deemed responsible for the characteristic flavor, aroma, and umami
of the rice mash. A typical profile of the mixed culture is shown in Table
11-1. It would be interesting to compare the aminopeptidase profiles ob-
tained in the automated semisolid method with that of the ancient method,
by currently used assay techniques (Peterson and Hsu 1978; Hsu et al.
1981).
Ethanol concentration easily reaches 18-20% in solid or semisolid
fermentation (Ohta and Shinsaku 1983), which promotes autolysis of the
yeast cells, interaction of sediment and supernatant, secondary fermenta-
tion, and ripening. These reactions cause a substantial amount of nucleo-
tides to leak out of the yeast cells. Therefore, nucleotide concentration is
a potentially good criterion for identifying vinegar that is prepared from
rice wine of high quality. Numerous authors (Nishida 1981; Osada 1982;
An-shin 1986) have published books that relate the quality of rice vinegar
to high-amino acid content and desirable amino acid profiles. Emphasis
is placed on the binding of amino acids or short peptides to acetic acid,
which brings about a product so unique that it may be used not only as a
condiment but also as a beverage or beverage ingredient, such as in the
"sour drink," which is a cocktail of rice vinegar and fresh or pickled fruit
juices.
Kuroiwa (1977) and Sugi (1983) both demonstrated that goldfish were
not poisoned in an aquarium containing freshly cut lead in pure rice vine-
gar. The goldfish were protected from the toxic effects of solubilized lead
acetate for a few months. It is likely that rice vinegar contains a large
number of organic acids such as citric acid, which is an excellent chelating
RICE VINEGAR 263
(%) mg/100mg
~.6
I
Asn
6.6
I
Thr
Ser
6.3
I
Glu
?.8 Pro
I
8.3 Gly
19.14
I
Ala
I
I
Cys
Val
Met
lie
Leu
Tyr
Phe
Trp
Lys
His 2.6~
I
0.4
I
Arg 2.07
Figure 11-1. Typical amino acid profile of rice vinegar produced by solid-phase
fermentation with proteolytic koji. Analyses were made with a Hitachi
high-speed amino acid analyzer, Model835. Total amino acid, 519.09
mg/vol; total titratable acid, 4.3%; pH, 3.2. (Data compiled from Sugi,
1983.)
agent; citric acid chelates elementary lead and blocks its combination with
acetic acid. The determination of chelating ability or chelating capacity,
therefore, may serve as another method for identifying rice vinegar of high
quality. These same authors have written extensively stressing the "true"
medical benefits of rice vinegar, with convincing evidence and authentic
letters from readers of their books.
It is unlikely that the antimicrobial activity of rice vinegar is simply a
matter of acetic acid content or simply an effect of pH. The activity is
more likely to be related to undissociated hydrophobic molecules that can
readily permeate the cytoplasmic membrane of microorganisms; it is well
Table 11-1. Proteolytic Activities of Two Strains of

Aspergillus Oryzae as Determined by
Aminopeptidase Activi1y
Aminopeptidases Relative Fluorescent
(Amino Acid-{3-Naphtylamine) Intensity
L-arginyl-{3-NA >100
L-a-aspartyl-{3-N A 81
L-glycyl-{3-NA 62
L-a-glutamyl-{3-NA >100
L-histidyl-{3-NA >100
L-hydroxyl-prolyl-{3-NA 63
L-isoleucyl-{3-N A >100
L-leucyl-{3-NA >100
L-methionyl-{3-NA 98
L-phenyl-alenyl-{3-NA >100
L-prolyl-{3-N 87
L-threonyl-{3-NA >100
L-tyrosyl-{3-NA >100
L-valyl-{3-NA 72
known that undissociated compounds permeate the hydrophobic mem-

brane at a higher rate. Numerous organic acids, amino acids, and short
peptides found in rice vinegar are a reason for its demonstrable superior
antimicrobial activity. The possibility that a short hydrophobic peptide,
combined with the acetic acid in rice vinegar, does exist, resembling the
way a hydrophobic signal sequence facilitates the excretion of extracellular
enzymes, cannot be excluded.
A readily tested but rather imprecise method is to determine the
permeation rate of rice vinegar through a section of raw fish approximately
2 em thick (similar to the raw fish found in a sushi bar). Using a cross
section, the depth of denaturation due to the permeation of rice vinegar
can be determined. Pure rice vinegar should permeate the entire 2-cm
section, whereas vinegars of the same strength (4.2% acetic acid) produced
from fruit or ethanol usually show a permeation only in the range of 1 mm
in the same allotted time (Sugi 1983).
In addition to the Japanese authors, L. J. Diggs (1989) has recently
compiled documents on the use of vinegar as a medicine, listing cures for
many human ailments, ranging from alcoholism to weight loss. Although
it is difficult to quantitate its medicinal effectiveness, rice vinegar, with
high-amino acid content and characteristic aminopeptidase profiles, has
been found to be far superior to any other vinegars for such medical
benefits.
A better approach to the medicinal benefits of rice vinegar would be
to link the function of acetic acid, which is present in a much more
RICE VINEGAR 265
permeable form in rice vinegar, to the central pathways of anabolism and

catabolism (i.e., the citric acid cycle). This cycle, as the central hub of
metabolism of almost all aerobic cells, provides a focus for the discussion
of the acetic acid in rice vinegar. This cycle set of reactions functions to
catalyze the complete combustion of acetyl CoA to C02 and H 20. It is
important to note, however, that the reactions in the cycle by themselves
can bring about dehydrogenation (e.g., when linked to the electron trans-
port system in the mitochondria) of any of the di- or tricarboxylic acids
within the cycle to malate or oxaloacetate but not beyond. The cycle,
therefore, stops operation unless acetyl CoA is constantly replenished. In
the absence of an external supply of acetyl CoA, the following additional
reactions are essential to regenerate acetyl CoA from malate or oxaloac-
etate:
malate (or oxaloacetate)--? acetyl CoA + 2C02

acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate --? citrate --? 2C02 + 2H20 + oxaloacetate
Although acetic acid and pyruvic acid are made in the cytoplasm, both
molecules must move from the cytoplasm and enter the mitochondrion
through its relatively smooth outer membrane and the highly structured
inner membrane (cristae), which penetrates deeply into the intramitochon-
drial matrix. There, both pyruvate and acetate are converted to acetyl
CoA and subsequently oxidized to C0 2, provided a sufficient supply of
one of the cycle acids is present to allow initiation of the first condensation
step of the citric acid cycle. It is therefore reasonable to assume that acetic
acid, present in a much more permeable form in rice vinegar, can readily
traverse (1) the cytoplasmic membrane, (2) the outer mitochondrial mem-
brane, and (3) the inner mitochondrial membrane. This increased perme-
ation explains the superior beneficial effects of rice vinegar compared to
all vinegars of other origins.
The large number of organic acids found in rice vinegar are either
members of the citric acid cycle or readily converted to those components
of the cycle. Many of these organic acids and reactions play a critical role
in the anabolism of important metabolites such as amino acids, purines,
pyrimidines, long-chain fatty acids, and porphyrins. Members of the cycle
that are thus drained can be more readily replenished by the organic acids
present in the more readily permeable form in rice vinegar.
REFERENCES
Adams, M. R. 1985. Vinegar. Microbiology of Fermented Foods, edited by
B. J. B. Wood. London: Elsevier Applied Science.
Ameyama, M., and Adachi, 0. 1982a. Alcohol dehydrogenase from acetic acid
bacteria, Membrane Bound. Meth. Enzyme 89:450-457.
Ameyama M., and Adachi, 0. 1982b. Aldehyde dehydrogenase from acetic acid
bacteria, Membrane Bound. Meth. Enzyme 89:491-497.
An-shin Editorial Board, Div. of. 1986. A Book on Treatment of Diseases with
Rice Vinegar. Tokyo: Makino Publishing (in Japanese).
Asai, T. 1968. Acetic Acid Bacteria. Tokyo: Univ. of Tokyo Press.
Diggs, L. J. 1989. Vinegar. San Francisco: Quiet Storm Trading Co.
Ebner, H., Pohl, K., and Enenkel, A. 1967. Self-priming aerator and mechanical
defoamer for microbiological processes. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 9:357-364.
Ebner, H. 1982. Vinegar. Prescott and Dunn's Microbiology, 4th ed., edited by
G. Reed. Westport, CT: AVI.
Greenshields, R.N. 1978. Acetic Acid: Vinegar. Primary Products ofMetabolism,
edited by A. H. Rose. New York: Academic Press.
Higashi, K., Mizumoto, H., Minami, H., Mori, T., and Maeda, F. 1974. Studies
on fukuyama vinegar fermentation and improvement of brewing technique.
Kagoshima-Ken Tech. Res. Lab. Rept. 21:61-66 (in Japanese).
Higashi, K., Mizumoto, H., Mori, T., and Maeda, F. 1973. Studies on fukuyama
vinegar fermentation and improvement of brewing technique. Kagoshima-
Ken Tech. Res. Lab. Rept. 20:58-77 (in Japanese).
Hsu, E. J. 1989. Automated method for a semi-solid fermentation used in the
production of ancient quality rice vinegar and/or rice wine. U.S. Pat. No.
4,808,419, Feb. 28.
Hsu, Z.-B. 1987. Fermentation technology of Shau-Xing rice wine. Special Topics
on Science and Technology of Alcoholic Beverages. Research Institute for
Wine, Taiwan Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bureau (in Chinese).
Hsu, E. J., Godsey, J. H., Chang, E. K., and Landuyt, S. L. 1981. Differentiation
ofpseudomonads by amplification of metabolic profiles. Int. J. Syst. Bacterial.
31:43-55.
Kunimatsu, Y., Okumura, H., Masai, H., Yamada, K., and Yamada, M. 1981.
Production of vinegar with high acetic acid concentration. U.S. Pat. No.
4,282,257, March 4.
Kuroiwa, T. 1975. Rice Vinegar: An Oriental Home Remedy. Tokyo: Kenko
Igakusha (in Japanese).
Lai, M.-N., Chang, W. T. H., and Luh, B.S. 1980. Rice vinegar fermentation. In
Rice: Production and Utilization, edited by B. S. Luh. Westport, CT: AVI.
Masai, H. 1980. Recent technical developments in vinegar manufacture in Japan.
Proceedings of the Oriental Fermented Foods. Taiwan: Food Industry Re-
search and Development Institute.
Nakayama, T. 1961a. Studies on acetic acid bacteria. III: Purification and proper-
ties of coenzyme independent aldehyde dehydrogenase. J. Biochem.
49(2): 158-63.
Nakayama, T. 1961b. Studies on acetic acid bacteria. IV: Purification and proper-
ties of a new type of alcohol dehydrogenase, alcohol-cytochrome-553 reduc-
tase. J. Biochem. 49(3):240-251.
Nishida, T. 1981. Increasing Life Expectancy to 100 with Rice Vinegar. Tokyo:
Lyon Books (in Japanese).
Ohmori, S., Uozumi, T., and Beppu, T. 1982. Loss of acetic acid resistance
and ethanol oxidizing ability in an Acetobacter strain. Agric. Bioi. Chern.
46(2):381-389.
RICE VINEGAR 267
Ohta, K., and Shinsaku, H. 1983. Role of Tween 80 and monoolein in a lipid-
sterol-protein complex which enhances ethanol tolerance of sake yeasts.
Appl. Environ. Microbial. 46(4):821-825.
Osada, S. 1982. Treatment of Diseases with Rice Vinegar. Tokyo: Ken-Yu-Kan
(in Japanese).
Peterson, E. H., and Hsu, E. J. 1978. Rapid detection of selected gramnegative
bacteria by aminopeptidase profiles. J. Food Sci. 43:1853-1856.
Sugi, Y. 1983. Recommended by Doctors: Improve Your Health with Pure Brown
Rice Vinegar. Tokyo: Kodama Books (in Japanese).
Vaughn, R. H. 1942. The acetic acid bacteria. Wallerstein Labs. Commun. 5:5-26.
Yu, J. P. 1985. Problems encountered in the solid-state fermentation of vinegar.
China Condiment. 2:27-29 (in Chinese).
12
Rice Hulls
Bor S. Luh
According to the statistics supplied by the IRRI (1988), the world's paddy
rice (Oryza sativa) production in 1987 was 470 million MT. Most of this
tonnage is produced in Southeast Asia. A major derivative of the rice crop
is the hull, a fibrous, nondigestible commodity representing some 20% of
the dried paddy on-stalk (Yoshida 1981). Dried paddy on-stalk yields 52
wt% of white rice, 20% hull, 15% stalk, and 10% bran. The remaining 3%
is lost in the conversion process. If all the paddy rice available were
commercially milled, 98 million MT of hulls would have been produced in
1987. Because of their abrasive character, poor nutritive value, low bulk
density, and high ash content, only a small percentage of the hulls can be
disposed of for certain low-value applications such as chicken litter,
juice-pressing aids, and animal roughage. If not properly utilized, rice
hulls will create a growing problem of space and pollution in the environ-
ment. In some countries, rice hulls and straw are used as fuel in par-
boiling paddy rice. It is likely that hull utilization will increase in light
of the high cost of fuel and the energy crisis confronting the world popu-
lation.
The chemistry and technology of rice hulls have been reviewed (Hous-
ton 1972; Beagle 1978; Govindarao 1980; Hsu and Luh 1980; Juliano
1985).
269
MORPHOLOGY
The literature on the structure of rice hulls has been reviewed by Houston
(1972), Yoshida (1981), and Juliano (1985). Long, rectangular to elliptical
cells with thickened, slightly waxy walls were noted in rice hulls. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) of the rice hull shows a unique cell pattern of
the outer surface. The irregular undulating walls of the outer epidermal
cells are arranged in axial rows, with unicellular, simple, thick-walled hairs
irregularly distributed in both lemma and palea. The cells are somewhat
rectangular, with their lateral walls highly wavy or toothed and thickened
so that the adjacent cells fit snugly together at these undulations. Watson
and Dikeman (1977) described the outer surface of rice hull as composed
of dentate rectangular elements. The inner surface of the hull is relatively
smooth and free of hair.
Thomas and Jones (1970) and Thomas et al. (1972) stated that silica is
highly concentrated in the outer layer which is coated with a thick cuticle
and surface hairs. The midregion contains little silica. The structural layers
of the rice hulls are (1) the outer epidermis, coated with a thick cuticle of
highly silicified sinuous cells, among which the surface hairs are found;
(2) sclerenchyma of hypoderm fibers, also with a thick and somewhat
lignified and silicified wall; (3) spongy parenchyma cells, both elongated
with a rather wavy outline and short or quadrilateral, and (4) inner epider-
mis, generally of isodiametric cells (Houston 1972).
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Most rice hulls are straw-colored. Some rice hulls may be white, russet,
or reddish brown. The length of rice hulls is about 5-10 mm, and the width
varies from 2.5 to 5 mm.
The bulk density of rice hulls ranges from 0.10 to 0.16 g/ml, and a true
density ranges from about 0.67 to 0.74 g/cm3 (Chopra 1981). The hulls can
be compressed to 0.4 gm/cm3 • Hulls are an excellent insulating material.
Grinding can raise the bulk density two to four times.
The high concentration of opaline silica present in the outer layer of
rice hulls results in an effective hardness of approximately 51/z-61/z (Mohs'
scale) reported for opal. Therefore, rice hulls can be used as an abrasive.
The abrasive characteristics of rice hulls when crushed into angular frag-
ments are intensified. Regular whole-rice hulls have an angle of repose of
35 deg. When ground to 80- and 160-mesh, their angle is 43-45 deg; for
material passing 80-mesh, it lowers again to 40 deg.
RICE HULLS 271
Table 12-1. Comparative Composition of Rice and Oat

Hulls
Rice Hull Oat Hull
Moisture,% 7.6-10.2 8.0-10.5
Crude protein, % 1.9- 3.7 2.7- 4.3
Crude fat,% 0.3- 0.8 1.3
Crude fiber, % 35.0-46.0 25.4-30.1
Available carbohydrate, % 26.5-29.8 47.5-51.5
Ash,% 13.2-21.0 4.9- 6.1
Silica,% 18.8-22.3
Calcium, mg/g 0.6- 1.3 1.9
Phosphorous, mg/g 0.3- 0.7 0.9
Neutral detergent fiber, % 66 -74 66
Acid detergent fiber, % 58 -62 31
Lignin,% 9 -20 2;14
Cellulose, % 28 -36 23;51
Pentosans,% 21 -22 39
Hemicelluloses, % 12 27
Total digestible nutrients, % 9.4 29
Sources: Juliano (1985); Miller and Eisenhauer (1982); National
Academy of Science (1971).
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
The composition of hulls from rice and oats are presented in Table 12-1. It
is apparent that rice hull is lower in crude protein, crude fat, and available
carbohydrates but higher in crude fiber, ash, and silica compared to oat hull.
The total digestible nutrient content of rice hull is less than 10%.
Carbohydrates
The major carbohydrates of rice hulls are cellulose, crude fiber, and hemi-
cellulose (Table 12-1). Hemicellulose, chiefly pentosan, is a glucoxylan
that can be hydrolyzed to xylose. Starch is usually absent although small
amounts are noted in some commercial products.
Delignification of Lignocellulose
Solvent refining of lignocellulose residues involves extraction with a sol-
vent containing some water with acid or base, such as butanol, ethanol,
phenol, or formic acid (Bungay 1985). Hemicellulose is hydrolyzed during
delignification by solvent refining. Delignification of rice hull with a two-
stage alkali treatment and solvent treatment improves the accessibility of
the substrate to cellulose hydrolysis (Ghose 1981). A two-stage catalytic
solvent process with 0.5% aromatic acid involving presoaking at sooc
followed by delignification at l20°C in 1:1 (v/v) aqueous butanol resulted

in 69% removal of lignin from rice hull (Ghose et al. 1983). Conversion of
polysaccharides into mixed sugars was 62% for rice hull. Presoaking in an
alkaline solution and grinding improved cellulolytic susceptibility of hull.
Cryomilling in a hammer mill in liquid nitrogen at -100°C results in a 250-
mesh rice-hull flour that no longer has the X-ray crystallinity of cellulose
and has about one-fourth the volume of the original hull (Sasaki et al.
1977a,b). For pure cotton cellulose, X-ray crystallinity correlates nega-
tively with susceptibility to microbial cellulase (Sasaki et al. 1979c). Cryo-
milling increases the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose with Trichoderma
viride from 3 to 35% of glucose, suggesting the incomplete disruption of the
physical structure of noncellulose components such as lignin. However,
extraction of cryomilled cellulose with cellulose solvent (60% sulfuric
acid) increases saccharification of the soluble cellulose by endo-{3-( 1-4)-D-
glucanase of A. niger to 86.6%, compared to the 85.3% saccharification
achieved using the C 1 enzyme of T. viride. Combined action of the two
cellulases gives 93.2% saccharification.
Crude Protein
The crude protein content of rice hulls ranges from 1.9-3.0%. A higher
protein value undoubtedly reflects some bran contamination. The amino
acid composition of protein in hulls is presented in Table 12-2.
Lipid
The lipid content of rice hulls ranges from 0.39 to 1.0%. Higher values
reported in the literature are probably due to the presence of bran in the
sample. According to Hartman and Lago (1976), the lipids from rice hulls
contained unsaponifiable matter and free fatty acids four times higher than
those from rice bran and rice caryopsis. There were also differences in the
fatty-acid composition, as evidenced by the presence of 2-3% of saturated
C22 and C24 acids and a lower proportion of unsaturated acids in the lipids
of rice hulls. Chromatographic analysis of the unsaponifiable matter of
lipids from rice hulls showed that the sterols consist of about 51.95% {3-
sitosterol, 22.32% campesterol, 20.13% stigmasterol, and 2.92% choles-
terol. During grain development, hull lipids decreased in total amount
12-16 days after flowering, mainly from decreases in glycolipids and phos-
pholipids per grain (Choudhury and Juliano 1980).
Lignin and Cutin

A large part of the lignin is chemically combined with the hemicellulose.
The middle lamella of the cell walls may contain 70% of the lignin associ-
ated with pentosans and some cellulose (Neish 1965). Therefore, lignin
RICE HULLS 273
Table 12-2. Amino Acid

Content of Rice
Hulls
Amount,
Amino Acid g/16.0 g of N
Alanine 6.1- 7.0
Arginine 4.0- 4.7
Aspartic acid 8.6-10.4
Cystine 1.8- 2.0
Glutamic acid 10.4-13.1
Glycine 5.4- 6.0
Histidine 1.6; 2.0
Isoleucine 3.2- 4.0
Leucine 8.0; 8.2
Lysine 3.8- 5.4
Methionine 1.5; 1.8
Phenylalanine 4.4- 5.1
Proline 6.5-10.3
Serine 4.6- 5.4
Threonine 4.2- 5.0
Tryptophan 0.6
Tyrosine 2.2
Valine 5.5- 7.5
Source: Houston et al. (1969).
values depend greatly on the extraction process used. Leonzio (1966)

reported the presence of 19.20-24.47% purified lignin in rice hulls.
Cutin is a water-repellent material covering the outer layers of rice
hulls. It appears to be a polymer of long-chain hydroxymonocarboxylic
acids. The cutin content of rice hull is about 2.2-6.0%.
Vitamins and Organic Acids

According to the National Academy of Science report (1971) and Hsu and
Luh (1980), the levels of thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin in rice hulls are
0.84-2.40 y/g, 0.62-0.93 y/g, and 14.0-39.5 y/g, respectively.
Total acid extracted from rice hulls is 57.8 ± 1.4 meq/kg, of which
30.3 meq is organic acid. Oxalic and citric acids are the major organic
acids in rice hulls. The other acids are acetic, fumaric, malic, succinic,
and an aromatic acid. The aromatic acids are ferulic, vanillic, p-coumaric,
sinapic, p-hydroxybenzoic, salicylic, and indolacetic acids (Mikkelsen and
Sinah (1961). Some of these phenolic acids and related substances act as
germination inhibitors.
Table 12-3. Inorganic Components of Rice Hull

COMPONENTS AS
PERCENT OF HULL
Location Ash K Na Ca Mg Fe p Cu Mn Zn
u.s. 21.5 0.73 O.Q2 0.08 0.04 0.04
u.s. 19.9 0.34 0.09 0.03 0.08
Spain 20.3 0.18 0.01 0.15 0.04 0.01 0.006 0.001 0.001
Source: Hsu and Luh (1980).
Inorganic Component
The major inorganic component of rice hull is ash. It varies from
13.2-29.0% of the weight of rice hull. The silica content of the ash is
around 94-96%. A value near or below 90% may indicate a mixture of
bran or other low-silica material in the hull sample (Table 12-3). X-ray
diffraction studies have shown that pink ash consists essentially of tridy-
mite and cristobalite (Jones 1954). The other components of the ash are
K20, CaO, Fe20 3 , P20 5 , S03 ,Na20, MgO, and Cl. The rather wide range
of values shown for the elements determined indicates variation in purity
of the samples and the accuracy of the analytical procedures used (Table
12-4).
HULL UTILIZATION
Agricultural Uses
Animal and poultry feeding
Numerous efforts have been made to use rice hulls as cattle feed (Hsu et
al. 1976; Hamad et al. 1976; Choung and McManus 1976). Rice hulls are
low in digestibility and nutritive value and have sometimes caused harmful
effects. This characteristic may be related to the mineral nature of the rice
hulls rather than the massive encrusting silica sheath and the lignin that
exist in the rice hulls (McManus and Choung 1976; Guggolz et al. 1971).
If the integrity of the silica shield and the lignin existing in the hulls were
the barrier to microbial attack on the sequestered organic matrix, it would
be reasonable to expect that prior grinding of rice hulls to expose the
organic matrix would enhance the efficiency of the microbial attack. The
nutritive value of rice hulls is: digestion coefficiency (for poultry), 0.17;
nitrogen-free extract, 0.17; other extract, 0.41; protein, 0. The National
Academy of Science report (1971) showed that the energy of hulls is 0.48
Table 12-4. Analysis of Rice-Hull Ash (% Dry Basis)
Si02 K 20 Na 20 CaO MgO Fe203 P205 so3 Cl Year
94.5 1.10 0.78 0.25 0.23 Trace 0.53 1.13 Trace 1928
95.5 1.88Q - 0.86 0.28 0.94b 0.36 - - 1933
96.5 1.00 0.40 0.25 0.25 Trace 0.30 1.00 Trace 1952
96.6c 1.59 0.0 0.32 0.76 _c - 0.40 0.42 1953
96.2 0.79 - 0.24 0.24 - 0.46 - - 1966
94.0 - - 0.88 0.76 - 2.85 - - 1968
91.2 4.75b - 0.65 0.99 0.21 - 0.10 - 1970
91.2-96.6 0.79-1.59 0-0.78 0.25-0.88 0.23-0.99 Trace-0.21 0.3-2.85 0.10-1.13 Trace-0.42 Range
a Total of potassium plus sodium as oxides.
b Total of iron plus aluminum as oxides.
c Trace elements present include aluminum, copper, iron, and manganese, as well as detectable amounts of barium, boron, and zinc.
1\.)
Ol
DE (digestible energy) Meal/kg or 0.39 ME (metabolizable energy) Meal/

kg for cattle; 0.68 DE Meal/kg or 0.5 ME Meal/kg for sheep. The TDN
(total digestible nutrients) of hulls for cattle and sheep are 10.8 or 15 .4%,
respectively. Hsu et al (1976) found 8.75% total solubles in rice hulls after
enzyme treatment.
Animals will not voluntarily consume a diet of raw rice hulls alone.
Substitutions of 5-50% have been reported, with little economic or nutri-
tional benefit (Choung and McManus 1976).
Feed for ruminants

Because of its low total digestible nutrient level, rice hull is used mainly
as roughage for ruminants. Houston (1972) stated that rice hull may have
a useful role in cattle feed rations in proportions of 20% or less. Rice hull
forms the major part (80%) of the concentrate fed to the cattle in India
although it should not be more than 15% (Govindarao 1980). About 25%
ground rice hull can be fed to finishing lambs, and 80% ground rice hull
can be incorporated into the rations of muzzafarnagri sheep in India with-
out any detrimental effect (Ranjhan and Beagle 1978).
Houston (1972) reported a rice mill by-product composed of about
61% rice hull, 35% bran, and 4% polish. It is similar to the bran produced
in village mills. The legally accepted analysis of rice-mill by-products is
5% protein, 6% fat, 30% crude fiber, and 16% ash.
Reported total digestible nutrients in rice hull of 14 moisture content
is 9.4% (NAS 1971), 15% in cattle, and 25% in sheep (Kearl 1982). Total
digestible nutrients for rice straw was 40% in cattle, 43% in sheep, and
39% in goats.
Chemical treatment
The benefit of the sodium hydroxide treatment came from removal of the
silica, or modification of the silica and other components of rice hulls.
Treatment with increasing amounts of sodium hydroxide results in removal
of more silica and lignin (McManus and Choung 1976). Acid treatment
following the alkali treatment removed silica to a lesser extent than when
the materials were not neutralized. The greatest removal oflignin occurred
in alkali and alkali-plus-acid treatment. Huntanuwatr et al. (1974) found
that treatment of rice hulls with 8% NaOH, 12% NaOH, and 16% NaOH
for 24 hr, followed by centrifugation, increased the rice hull solubility in
water and reduced silica content from 21.9% to 10.79%, 4.58%, and 3.02%,
respectively, with little change in lignin, hemicellulose, or cellulose con-
tent. The digestibility of lignin and cellulose of the rice hulls was not
significantly increased by alkali treatment. The function of the alkali treat-
RICE HULLS 277
ment was to free the hemicellulose of the cell wall of rice hulls for digestive
attack.
Rice hulls treate::i with NaOH increase the digestibility coefficient of
dry matter from 5 to 20, of fiber from 12 to 28, and of extract matter from
5 to 38. Guggolz et al. (1971), using an enzymatic digestion test, showed
that when rice hulls are treated with 28 kg/cm 2 of steam, there is an increase
in DMD (dry-matter digestibles) to 22% and that 28 kg/cm 2 of steam
combined with alkali raises the DMD to 38%. Hsu et al. (1976) used the
enzymatic digestion test to determine the in vitro digestibility of alkali-
treated rice hulls. They found that when the rice hulls were soaked at
ambient temperature in NaOH solutions of various concentrations at a
ratio of 1:8 (w/v), the enzymatic digestibility was raised from 8.81 to
40.79% as the concentrations of NaOH increased from 0 to 30% (w/v).
The limitation in the alkali-soaking process involves its use in large
volumes of treatment solution and washing water and the resulting loss of
solubilized materials. Hsu et al. (1976) described a "dry process" in
which a much reduced volume of concentrated NaOH solution was used,
resulting in an in vitro dry-matter digestibility of 35.32% for treated rice
hulls. Considering the in vitro nutritive value, cost of treatment, and
pollution abatement, the optimal process may be achieved by spraying the
rice hulls with 30% NaOH solution until a total of 5% NaOH (w/w) is
obtained.
Choung and McManus (1976) tested and treated rice hulls in feeding
trials with sheep against lucerne (alfalfa). Slow growth was shown by
animals receiving 5.0 and 10.0% alkali-treated diets. Animals tolerated the
salt content of diets containing rice hulls treated with high levels of alkali.
The sheep were able to clear the excess salt from their bodies without
significant alteration of their blood hematocrit ratios, and they drank sig-
nificantly more water. All the sheep fed diets containing rice hulls had
appreciable amounts of soluble silica in their blood plasma (> 100 J,tg/1)
and urine.
Interest in the use of ammonia is related to its potential to increase
both digestibility and the nitrogen content of the rice hulls. Hiroshi et al.
(1975) found that when rice hulls were treated with ammonia (10 wt%) and
water (30 wt%) for 12 months at ambient temperature, the crude protein
content of rice hulls was tripled through this treatment. Most of the in-
creased nitrogen was occupied with nonprotein nitrogen. After ammonia
treatment, the cell wall constituent of rice hulls was decreased by 6%, and
all the noncell wall material was increased. This treatment significantly
raised the nutritive value of rice hulls.
Another process used to produce ammoniated rice hulls was devel-
oped by Ulrey (1966). In this method, the rice hulls were treated in the
presence of catalysts with heat and pressure in an atmosphere of ammonia.
After ammoniation, the fiber was softened, and it provided a feed accept-
able to sheep or cattle. This feed, when fed to steers, produced average
daily gains of 1.25 kg on the 10% ration, and 1.16 kg on the 20% ration.
When fed at a level of 20% of the total feed mixture, ammoniated rice hulls
have been shown to cause toxicosis; 20% ammoniated rice hulls in the
feed is considered the maximum level that can be tolerated by cattle
without depressing weight gain or feed intake. The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (1966) established the limit for ammoniated rice hulls as a
feed supplement not to exceed 20%.
Physical Treatment
Physical means of enhancing the nutritional value of low-quality forage
include grinding (Minson 1963) and use of gamma irradiations (McManus
and Choung 1976). Neither means is very satisfactory. Ground rice hulls
are not injurious to cattle when the level in the ration does not exceed 30%
(Rusoff et al. 1956). However, according to McManus and Choung (1976),
grinding treatment could not increase the dry-matter digestibility of rice
hulls.
Gamma irradiation slightly increased the solubility in water of ground
rice hulls (McManus and Choung 1976). Application of 5-g NaOH/100-g
dry matter prior to grinding markedly increased their solubility in water
at all levels of gamma irradiation, with no evidence of major interaction
between alkali and the irradiation effects.
Bedding and litter

Bedding or littering is probably the oldest and most widespread utilization
of rice hulls. It is especially good for poultry operations. The litter might
also be used as a fertilizer, but information must be developed as to
beneficial effects obtainable with various combinations oflitters available.
Soil treatment and fertilizers

Incorporating hull into the soil normally occurs as an adjunct to disposal
operations. Past efforts have been largely confined to demonstrating that
the hull is not harmful to the soil but is slightly beneficial as a fertilizer.
Some farmers apply rice hulls or ash to soils to increase the uptake of
silica by the plants. Decomposing hulls make soil phosphorus more avail-
able. Such benefits appear confined to tight clay or sandy soil, in which
decomposing hulls offset silica deficiencies.
In some instances, the benefit stems from the effect of hulls as a mulch
instead of a fertilizer. Heavy soil, such as claypan, that is incorporated
with rice hulls, which have open texture and slow decomposition charac-
RICE HULLS 279
teristics, may result in a good yield of crops. One must be sure that
anaerobic decomposition effects are not promoted by excessive compac-
tion or wetness of the treated areas.
Rice hulls have been used successfully as a support medium for grow-
ing vegetables hydroponically. The hulls have beert found to be satisfac-
tory only after heating, grinding, and treating with a synthetic detergent.
The determination to use them should be based on the effect of rice hull
ash and silica on the product grown. If the hull particles interfere with root
movement and if objectionable materials are leached out from the hull
particles, the use of rice hulls as a supporting medium will be limited
(Beagle 1974).
Building Materials
Lightweight concrete blocks
Rice hull can be used as an aggregate in the preparation of lightweight
concrete building blocks. A mixture of cement: presoaked hull: water
(1.00: 0.25: 0.35 by weight) is pressed in a mold to get the product. The
price of lightweight concrete building blocks prepared with rice hull as the
aggregate compared unfavorably with the price of other types. Hollow
blocks comparable in strength and durability to commercial concrete hol-
low blocks can be fabricated from rice hull mixed with soil and cement.
In Egypt, red bricks were made with rice hull as an ingredient at 1% of
the mud. Rice hull has also been used as kiln fuel in combination with
furnace oil in a 1: 2 ratio (Ranjhan and Beagle 1978).
Fiberboards
There are several thermomechanical processes that have been used for
making high-density fiberboards from rice hull.
1. Binderless Boards. The powdered hull (0.25-0.39 mm) was mixed

thoroughly with 2 vol% concentrated sulfuric acid or 5-8 wt% rice
hull and was sundried. The board was formed by pressing at 60-70
kg/cm 2 for 20-25 min at 165°C or for 12-15 min at 175-200°C.
2. Boards Made with Resin as Binder. The Lignex Products Group of
Canada (1980) used phenolformaldehyde resin as a binder for mak-
ing rice-hull fiberboards. In the production process:
a. Hull is mechanically treated, which increases its bulk density
from 0.13 to 0.26 g/cm3 •
b. The product is blended with 7-8 wt% liquid phenolformalde-
hyde resin and passed through a tack-removal system, which
initially heats the hull and then cools it to make the material
free-flowing.
c. The hull is deposited on a steel caul plate and hot pressed at

210°C.
d. The pressed boards are piled to form a "hot stock" for 8 hr to
aid in curing the resin before the boards are trimmed to final
size and sanded. At a density of 0.800 g/cm3 with 7-8% resin,
the board has a modulus of rupture of 141-176 kg/cm2 , a modulus
of elasticity of 28,000-42,000 kg/cm 2, and an internal bond of
4.2-8.4 kg/cm2 • The rice hull board has properties similar to the
wood-based fiberboards and is resistant to termites, fire, and rot
fungi. Similar results were reported by Shukla et al. (1983).
3. Boards with Sodium Silicate as Binder. Another process uses a
mixture of rice hull (100 parts), diatomaceous earth (20 parts),
sodium silicate solution, zinc oxide (10 parts), and jute (5 parts) to
produce boards of suitable strength. Since the waxy surface of
hull or straw rejects the glue, prescratching the surface creates
attachment points for the binding material (Rexen 1981).
Industrial Uses
Absorbent
Rice hull ash has been utilized to absorb oil and provide an antiskid
surface. Another area of application of rice hull or its derivative is as a
medium for physically dispersing surrounding materials. Its behavior
should be determined when it is mixed with a viscous, cohesive, semisolid
material. This would allow for additional handling or processing of the
mass.
Calcium silicide
Current practice for manufacturing calcium silicide is to heat lime,

sand, and carbon in an electric furnace. The product is a powerful reducing
agent used in explosives and a deoxidizing agent in steel manufacturing.
Raw rice hulls contain approximately 20% silica in a very finely dis-
persed form. Pyrolyzed hull can be chlorinated at 1000°C to give a nearly
quantitative yield of silicon tetrachloride, free of most other inorganic
chlorides. Solid, organic chlorine-contaminating species have been found
to be reaction-intermediates. Commercial application of such silicon deriv-
atives appears economically attractive.
Activated carbon
Considerable confusion stems from the use of the term ''activated carbon''
to describe both rice hull carbon containing silica and carbon with silica
removed. There is an obvious significant difference in characteristics be-
RICE HULLS 281
tween the two. Similarly, much diverse activity, with confusing results,
has been undertaken in connection with the production of activated carbon
from rice hulls. Many apparent market opportunities for rice-hull carbon
have been deferred because most existing processes for char production
result in a very fine material whereas the demand is for larger and more
uniform particles (Beagle 1974).
Carrier
Rice hull has been used as a carrier in many products. Both the rice mill by-
product and the ground hull have found markets as carriers for vitamins,
pharmaceuticals, biologicals, toxicants, and seeds. Most rice-hull utiliza-
tions today are based on an empirical reaction to a need. There is a need
to study the effect of particle size, shape, and distribution on adsorption
of various agents and carrier-concentrate ratios as they affect shelf life
and appearance.
Cement
A hydraulic cement can be made by grinding together 20-30% lime with

rice hull ash (Mehta and Pitt 1974, 1976). The setting and hardening charac-
teristics of rice-hull ash cement are similar to normal portland cement.
Typical compressive strengths of rice-hull ash cement mortars, when
tested in accordance with the ASTM C109, were 175 kg/cm 2 (2500 psi) at
3 days, 320 kg/cm 2 (4500 psi) at 7 days, and 450 kg/cm 2 (6400 psi) at 28
days. The tensile strength and elastic modules of concretes made with
rice-hull ash cement are satisfactory. The water demand of the cement is
generally higher than portland cements; hence, mortars made from such
cements tended to exhibit higher shrinkage.
The hydraulic cements made from rice-hull ash can be treated as a
premium product. The unique characteristic, a permanent black color in
portland cement, is usually produced by blending with black pigments.
Portland cement with up to 10 wt% carbon black or black iron oxide is
used for this purpose. The black color produced by these pigmenting
agents does not have good long-time stability because of the discoloring
effect of Ca(OH)2 produced by portland cement hydration. The setting and
strength characteristics of cements containing 10% carbon black or iron
oxide are adversely affected. The rice-hull ash cement or a portland cement
containing 10-20% rice-hull ash as the black pigment produced mortars
and concretes of permanent black color. Moreover, when the rice-hull ash
was used as a pigmenting agent, the strength of the portland cement
showed improvement (Mehta and Pitt 1976).
The mortars and concrete specimens made with a rice-hull-ash ce-
ment containing 20% CaO were far superior in resistance to acidic attack
to companion specimens made with an ordinary portland cement. It may be

noted that portland cement contains 60-65% CaO and that, upon cement
hydration, a considerable proportion of it is invariably present as free
Ca(OH) 2 • This accounts for the relatively poor performance of portland
cement concretes under acidic environments.
The acid-resisting nature of the rice-hull-ash cement is of great interest
to the food industry. Many food products contain organic acids such as
acetic acid and lactic acid. The former is present in vinegar and pickles
and the latter in milk, curds, cheese, green fodder, etc. Fruit juices and
soft drinks are also acidic in nature. Since the Ca(OH)2 constituent of
hydrated portland cement is readily attacked by acidic materials, the floors
and other structural parts made with portland cement concretes do not
last when exposed to such environments.
Colloidal usage
Rice hull produces an ash with a high silica content made up of extremely
fine particles with a high surface area.
For utilization as a catalyst carrier, it must have a high surface area
as well as the capability for conversion into pellets. For use as a thickening
agent, it must have good swelling properties. Where it acts as a dehydrating
agent, it must offer efficient water adsorption and provide a high water-
holding capacity.
Fuel
Utilization of rice hull as fuel can be achieved by combustion in an excess

of air and in a controlled atmosphere, by destructive (dry) distillation, by
pyrolysis, by gasification (producer gas), and by chemical and biochemical
processes (Beagle 1978).
Rice hull has been used as boiler fuel for parboiling plants and rice
mills in Brasil, India, Italy, and other countries. Rice hull has 60% of the
boiler efficiency of coal but produces more ash than coal (Beagle 1978).
Approximately 30% of the rice hull in India is used in hull-fired boilers
both for parboiling and for steam production (Chopra 1981).
The char obtained from traditional rice-hull furnaces contains 36-40%
organic matter, mainly carbon, reflecting incomplete combustion of hull
as a result of its high ash content (Hamad 1981). The temperature of
combustion and sufficient oxygen supply are the major factors influencing
the degree of combustion of rice hull.
Differential thermal analysis (DTA) of rice hull showed an endother-
mic peak at 100-l10°C for evaporation of water; an endothermic peak
at 200°C due to chemical decomposition of organic compounds; a slow
exothermic reaction above 400°C due to gradual change in the structure
RICE HULLS 283
of silica; and a broad peak at about 850°C due to sintering of silica particles
(Singh et al. 1977, 1981). Corresponding thermogravimetric analysis
showed that loss of hull weight occurred mainly at 100-110 and 230-250°C.
Loss of weight continued slowly up to 500°C, which indicated that fine
carbon was burned inside the silica pores. At 450°C, more than 90% of the
total volatile matter was removed in the absence of air (Hamad 1981).
Loss of weight was higher in the presence of air because of oxidation
reactions. The carbon content of the residue increased with pyrolysis
temperatures between 200 and 500°C, whereas oxygen and hydrogen con-
tent decreased sharply. Pyrolysis of hull at 800-850°C for 7 min resulted
in 37-40% residue containing 50% organic matter and 50% ash, but the
char of combustion at 800°C in the presence of oxygen was 32%, consisting
of 38% organic matter and 62% ash (Hamad 1981). Increasing air rates
during combustion of rice hull in a fixed-bed furnace favored crystallization
of silica, probably because of the higher combustion temperature (Hamad
and Khattab 1981).
Differential thermal analysis of rice hull fired at 700°C or lower did not
show the exothermic peak at 420°C, but that of hull fired at 750°C or higher
did (Singh et al. 1981). A DTA rerun of the rice hull fired at 750°C or higher
did not exhibit the 420°C peak shown by ash fired at 1100°C. Since the
weight loss at 420°C was negligible in ash fired at 900°C and almost the
same as ash fired at 750 and 600°C, Singh et al. (1981) considered that this
peak was the result of rearrangement of silica.
Amorphous silica (disordered cristobalite) was obtained on ashing
rice hull up to 700°C (Bartha and Huppertz 1977; Hanafi et al. 1980).
Crystallization of silica occurs at 725°C in 24 hr as 20% cristobalite or even
at 700°C between 30 min and 1 hr of firing. Firing at 700°C for 15 min
was optimum for converting a thin layer of rice hull into white ash with
amorphous silica. The silica in white rice-hull ash in hull-fired boilers and
in the burning of hull at temperatures exceeding 700°C is a mixture of
amorphous and crystalline silica (Chopra 1981).
Pyrolysis of rice hull at 500-900°C produced pyrolysis oil, fuel gas,
and char, all of which are combustible (Beagle 1978; Allen and Mosley
1981). Calculated heat of combustion was 13.9 MJ/kg for rice hull, dry
basis (Hamad et al. 1982). Pyrolysis of rice hull at 420°C produced 45%
char, with an energy value of 15.9 MJ/kg; 18.6% oil, with an energy value
of 22.6 MJ/kg and 11% gases, with a heat of combustion value of 6.5
MJ/kg. Char may be converted to charcoal briquettes with cooked cassava
starch as a binder (20: 1:20 for char, starch, and water).
The inflammable gases in producer gas that result from burning of rice
hull in a limited supply of air are carbon monoxide and hydrogen (Beagle
1978). The proportion of hydrogen in the mixture is increased if water
vapor is introduced into the generator. Producer gas from rice hull may
displace 60-90% of the diesel fuel in diesel engines; the comparative

thermal efficiency of common systems is over 26% for diesel, 16% for corn
cobs or wood waste, 14% for pelletized rice hull, and 8% for loose rice
hull (Cruz 1983). The high ash (>20%) content of rice hull caused poorer
efficiency and required a rotating grate and an oversized cyclone in
the gasifier. Rice-hull briquettes may be prepared in an extruder using
hull with 12% moisture at an extrusion temperature of 260-280°C
without binder (Pitakarnnop 1983). The briquette had a density of 1.32-
1.34 g/ml. Charcoal yield from the briquette was 40-50%. In addition,
because of their high density, the briquettes burned too slowly for produc-
er-gas production. Specific fuel consumption was estimated to be 3.5 kg/
kW-hr.
According to Grist (1975), the fuel value of rice hull is approximately
3200 kcal/kg. One can produce 2.5 kg of steam from 1 kg of hull (Schule
1971). Steam consumption is around 7 kg/hp/hr.
A mill with a capacity of 1 MT /hr or more can yield sufficient rice
hulls to produce necessary steam for milling with a 20% surplus for drying
and parboiling.
Because of their high ash content, hulls are not easy to burn. It is
essential that a special stepped grate furnace, preferably with an automatic
feeding device, be supplied. A well-designed combustion chamber can
prevent the excessive formation of furnace ash. Automatic ash collectors
are used to draw off the incinerated residue. The ash should be cooled,
bagged up, and packed for usage as a fertilizer base, thus eliminating hull
residue.
The main outlet is to use rice hulls and straw as a fuel. The siliceous
ash obtained can be incorporated into cement and used as a potential
source of silicon for solar batteries. Maheswari and Ojha (1977) presented
a detailed report on the fuel characteristics of rice hulls.
Furfural
Adequate furfural technology exists to permit its utilization on a plant-
sized basis.
Cooking rice hulls in the presence of an aqueous acid, such as sulfuric
acid, with steam distillation, produces furfural.
The pentosans present in rice hull are hydrolyzed into pentoses, which
are dehydrated into furfural (C5H 40 2) after losing 3 moles of water per
mole of pentose. Sharma and Sahgal (1982) used superheated water at
185°C and 1.165 MPa in the acid hydrolysis of rice hull with sulfuric acid
(less than 0.5 molar) in a batch reactor. The yield of furfural was 7-9%
after heating the mixture for 1-2 hr. The furfural was recoverd by steam
distillation.
RICE HULLS 285
Pressing aids
Rice hulls have been used by the food industry as filter (or flow) aids for
fruit juices, beverages, wines, etc. The more important areas of concern
are yields, contamination problems, and sterilization. In connection with
yields, performance (yield comparisons-cake moisture) data should be
developed for a given variety of fruit, using particle size and ripeness as
parameters. Methods of cleaning in preparation of the hull must conform
to legal standards. The procedures for sterilization and cleaning must be
cost-effective. Rice-hull utilization may be expanded to areas other than
fruit- and vegetable-juice filtration.
Water purification
Rice-hull char can be used as an aid in filtration, adsorption, or coagulation
of impurities in water. It can compete with diatomaceous earth as a filtering
aid.
Rice-hull char can compete with active carbon as an absorption me-
dium. Theoretically, rice-hull char is relatively inert. It may have a lower
efficiency than active carbon when judged on a comparative weight basis.
Actually, the performance of rice-hull char ranges from poor to excellent
in adsorbing some organic compounds.
Rice-hull ash clears turbid water by acting as a nucleation site. Sus-
pended colloidal impurities become attached to the site and are subse-
quently "swept out" of suspension as the ash particle settles.
Rubber compounding
Rice-hull derivatives (silicates) can be effectively used in rubber com-
pounding, particularly as a reinforcement and as a nonskid additive. For
usage by the rubber industry, it must be supported by an adequate program
for evaluating the advantages of utilizing rice-hull silica. Initially, a very
fine particle material must be prepared in the desired carbon-silica ratio.
Then its characteristics must be determined for various rubber formula-
tions. Reinforcement specifications will be required, and advantages
should be clearly determined. Colloidal silicas are used to reinforce non-
black rubbers, and carbon-free rice-hull ash could be similarly used. Where
particle size is too large or unsatisfactory properties are exhibited, rice
hull offers a potential for replacing a portion of the expensive colloidal
silica. Rice-hull char can be used as a reinforcement in black rubbers. It
is possible that mixtures of carbon black and rice-hull ash could provide
superior properties or lower cost compared to carbon black by itself.
Rice-hull silica can be utilized to enhance antiskid and abrasive wearing
qualities.
The silica ash produced from rice hull by the Mehta and Pitt process
(1974) is in the form of a soft material, characterized by high surface
area and cellular structure. The absence of any characteristic peaks of
crystalline silica phases in the X-ray diffraction pattern shows that the
silica is in a noncrystalline form.
Rubber compounds containing 50-100 parts of ash by weight of 100
parts of rubber show mechanical properties that are generally superior to
those given by commercially available ground silica or clay fillers. Proper-
ties of rubber compounds containing rice-hull ash are comparable to those
obtained by using medium thermal blacks as reinforcing agents. Based on
a synthetic rubber (SBR 1502), the relative mechanical properties from
different reinforcing fillers are compared in Table 12-5. The strength and
the elastic and hardness characteristics of rubber compounds made with
rice-hull ;ash are further improved by slight modification of the compound
compositions, such as introducing silane or using a combination of rice-
hull ash and a commercial carbon black (HAF Black). Advantages of using
rice-hull ash as a filler are that it incorporates readily into the rubber
compounds and that the curing times are somewhat quicker compared to
those of carbon blacks.
The usefulness of rice-hull ash is not limited to the styrene-butadiene
type of synthetic rubber (SBR). Good-quality rubber products based on
several other types of synthetic rubbers have also been made. It was a
surprising discovery that when 60 parts of ash by weight were added to
100 parts of natural isoprene rubber, a product with unexpectedly superior
mechanical properties was obtained. The resulting isoprene rubber can
have 207-kg/cm2 (2950-psi) tensile strength and 63-kg/cm2 (900-psi) elastic
modulus at 300% strain level (Mehta and Pitt 1974).
Single-cell proteins
Rice hull has also been used as substrate for microorganisms to produce
single-cell proteins (Chan et al. 1979; Shieh et al. 1980). A fermented rice
hull feed for livestock and poultry involved pulverizing the hull, sterilizing
it by steaming or boiling, swelling polysaccharides by alkali, inoculating
the cooled product with microorganisms, mixing the culture at 65-75°C
for 12 hr, and drying the fermented product (Sakurai, 1977). The fermented
hull had higher crude protein than raw hull (16.6 vs. 4.7% at 14% moisture)
as a result oflower crude fiber (25.8 vs. 36.1%) and extensive polysaccha-
ride hydrolysis.
Sodium silicate
The silica content of rice hulls varies from 18.8-22.3% (Table 12-1). The
silica from rice hulls may serve the food industry better than bentonite
and diatomaceous earth because of minimal amount of unwanted elements
other than silica.
Table 12-5. Effect of Different Reinforcing Agents on the Properties of Rubber Compounds
RICE ASH (RHA) OF THE MEHTA PROCESS
Commercial Commercial
Medium Thermal Medium Thermal 50 Parts" RHA 30 Parts" RHA
Black, Silica, 100 Parts" 50 Parts" and 0.25 Parts and 25 Parts
100 Parts" 100 Parts" RHA RHA Silane HAF Black
Tensile strength,
kg/cm2 79.4 54.8 106.8 68.2 95.6 130.8
Elongation, % 480 510 610 500 460 550
Modulus at 100%
strain, kg/cm2 22.5 18.3 21.4 14.8 17.2 17.9
Modulus at 300%
strain, kg/cm2 63.3 28.8 45.3 37.3 52.0 51.3
Shore hardness
number 65 63 62 54 55 60
Bashore rebound, % 42 36 41 49 49 50
Compression set, % 13.5 - 18.2 18.5 16.6 27.2
aThe proportion of the reinforcing agent is based on 100 parts of rubber by weight.
~
Based on overall operation cost, a sodium silicate plant utilizing rice

hulls is more feasible than a conventional plant. This plant should be able
to produce sodium silicate at an equivalent cost per MT slightly more
cheaply than a normal plant. Transportation and labor costs must be
lowered, however, and all the available steam should be utilized. Two
unconventional processes, the wet-air oxidation process and the fluidized
bed reactor process for making sodium silicate from rice hulls, appear
feasible.
Steel industry
Rice hull and its derivatives have been utilized by various segments of the
steel industry (Beagle 1974).
Material responsive to particular use requirements must be available
at competitive prices. Some of its current use stems from the remarkably
high refractory capability and good insulation qualities offered by rice
hulls.
Hydrolytic products
Rice hulls have been hydrolyzed with hydrochloric acid, sodium hydrox-
ide, and sulfuric acid under various conditions of temperature and pres-
sure. The resulting hydrolyzate can be used for the growth of microorgan-
isms. The pentosan fraction of rice hulls (16.1% of total dry weight) can
be extracted with 11% HCl at l10°C for 3 hr. A concentration of 20%
NaOH extracted 72.8% of the pentosan at 80°C. The yield (96.2%) was
improved by using 0.4% H 2S04 at 134°C at 2.1 kg/cm 2 for 3.5 hr. More
severe conditions resulted in decomposition of the sugars. Rice hulls have
been hydrolyzed in a two-step procedure by Dmitrenko (1976), who used
0.4-0.6% H 2S04 in a continuous procedure at 170-190°C. Yeast was grown
under nonaseptic conditions, yielding 210-221 kg of dry yeast per metric
ton of bone-dry forestry waste. Savinykh et al. (1969) obtained a yield of
51.5% on the growth of Candida tropicalis on the basis of the sugar
content.
Rice-hull utilization process
Mehta and Pitt (1974, 1976) described a low-cost process for large-scale
disposal of rice hulls. The primary product of this process is a special
silica material suitable for making acid-resistant hydraulic cements and
reinforcing agents for rubber. Heat energy is an important by-product of
this process.
The paddy milling operation yields hulls at the rate of about one-fifth
the weight of paddy. Typically, the hulls consist of about 36% cellulose,
RICE HULLS 289
10
TO GRINDING SYSTEM ----z~41:~~

-$~
Figure 12-1. Flow diagram of a 1ypical plantfor producing rice-hull ash and steam:
(1) Underground ash silo, (2) dust collector, (3) preheated water, (4)
boiler, (5) steam, (6) furnace, (7) surge bin, (8) feeder, (9) air, (10)
exhaust or drying system, (11) water, (12) fan, and (13) screw feeder.
(From Mehta and Pitt.)
20% lignin, and 20% ash. The ash is derived mainly from the opaline silica
present in the cellular structure of hulls. The combustion of organic matter
released about 3200 kcallkg of heat energy.
Mehta and Pitt (1974, 1976) reported on a large-scale process for
disposal of rice hulls. The process consists of burning the organic matter
to produce heat energy under conditions such that the residual ash, which
is essentially silica, continues to be amorphous. Mehta and Pitt developed
an industrial furnace that can burn the hull continuously at relatively low
temperatures. The burning time and temperature are controlled so that the
cellular structure of the hull is generally not disrupted and the silica thus
produced is in a reactive form. Burning the hull under various conditions
changes the end characteristics of the material. This process is unique in
that it removes most of the organic matter without significantly altering
the silica structure.
A flow diagram of a typical plant equipped with a steam boiler is shown
in Fig. 12-1. From the furnace, the hot gases containing the rice-hull ash
are taken to a tube boiler and, finally, to a multiclone type of separator,
which separates the ash from the gases.
The processing equipment is simple and can be fabricated locally. The
refractory-lined furnace looks like an inverted cone, into which hulls are
sucked as a result of negative pressure conditions, which are maintained

by a fan. After the initial start and when the temperature in the furnace is
high enough, the hulls burn by themselves.
Individual plants can burn hulls at the rate of 0.5-10 MT/hr. Bigger
units can produce large quantities of hot air for crop drying and steam for
the generation of electrical energy. After utilization for electrical genera-
tion, the low-pressure steam can be used for parboiling or other food-
processing operations. Smaller units may be more practical in areas where
there are a large number of small rice mills. Such units may not be equipped
with boilers, especially if the initial capital cost is to be kept low. In such
cases, heat energy can be utilized in the form of by-product hot gases,
which can be used for partial or complete drying of paddy.
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IRRI.
13
Rice Oil
Chuan Kao
USDA-FGIS
Bor S. Luh
Rice has relatively low lipid content compared to other common cereal
grains or leguminous seeds. Rice lipid is usually called oil because of its
unsaturation and liquid nature at room temperature. The oil content of
dehulled rice (brown rice) may vary from 1 to 4%, depending on the rice
variety and growing conditions.
Most of the rice oil is concentrated in the pericarp, the aleurone layer,
and the germ of the rice kernel. The fragments of these tissues are com-
bined to form the by-product bran or polish after the rice is milled (also
called polished or whitened). The bran contains 15-20% oil while the well-
polished rice (mainly endosperm) has less than 1%. Except for the X-M
process, which extracts the rice oil from the whole kernel, all other
commercial rice oil producers use bran for oil extraction. The oil so
produced is usually called rice bran oil or RBO. The X-M process will be
discussed later. Weiss (1983) reported that RBO was sold on a local basis
in areas where it was produced.
The world production of rough rice was estimated to be about 490
million tons in 1989 (USDA-FAS, 1989). If all the oil in the rice bran is
extracted, 4-5 million tons of edible oil can be produced. This is about the
same as world peanut oil production. Although in certain countries, nota-
bly Japan, India, and Burma, the RBO has already made a significant
295
contribution to the edible oil supply, social and technological difficulties

have so far prevented full exploitation elsewhere.
Efforts to solve the technical problems, however, are being pursued
in most rice-producing countries, including the United States (Randall et
al. 1985), India (Bhattacharyya et al. 1987), Spain (Barber and Benedito
de Barber 1982), the Philippines (Juliano 1983), Taiwan (Chang and Huang
1983), Korea (Kim et al. 1987), and Japan (Zhao et al. 1987). The chemistry
and technology of rice bran are presented in Chapter 14 of this book.
This chapter will cover oil determination, composition, characteristics,
processing, and utilization.
DETERMINATION
The main purpose of determining the oil content of rice in the United
States is to check the milling degree. Milling degree is an important quality
factor of milled rice (head rice and brewer's rice; see Chapter 10). It
measures the severity of the polishing process by estimating the residual
bran/germ on the rice. According to the USDA procedure, the milling
degree is determined by comparing the sample to three standards called
official interpretive line samples. The method, though convenient, is not
very accurate because the standards are not tied to any definitive chemical/
physical property and are thus subject to change (Kao 1986). Since oil
is one of the major components of the bran/germ and has well-defined
chemical/physical properties, it becomes a useful indicator of the milling
degree.
There are two types of oil data determined by the industries, the
surface oil and the total oil. The surface oil procedure uses petro-
leum ether to extract whole-kernel rice (head rice) for exactly 30
min. The substance extracted is considered surface oil. This method
is fast and is preferred by the parboil rice industry. The total oil
procedure extracts ground samples with the same solvent for 2.5 hr
or longer, and the substance extracted is considered total oil.
This method is widely used to check the oil content of the brewer's
rice.
The USDA Federal Grain Inspection Service has been interested in
using a near-infrared (NIR) technique to determine the total oil content
in rice because of its speed and accuracy. This technique involves the
developing of a calibration equation and testing the accuracy of the equa-
tion. The calibration equation is derived by correlating the solvent extrac-
tion data with the NIR spectral data by multiple linear regression statistics.
The calibration constants developed for long- and medium-grain rice are
shown below.
RICE OIL 297
CALIBRATION CONSTANTS
Wavelength, nm Long-grain Medium-grain

16SO 62.66 37.75
2100 -S4.04 -9S.45
21SO -112.90 -93.SO
2310 149.20 151.SO
The correlation coefficient R between the NIR determined values and

the solvent extraction values was about 0.98. The root mean square of
the difference, also known as standard error of prediction (SEP), was
0.10-0.15% (Kao 1988).
COMPOSITION
Crude RBO, that is, n-hexane-extracted RBO, contains glycerides, free

fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols, tocopherols, waxes, etc.
(Barber and Benedito de Barber 1982; Sayre 1988). Their compositions
are discussed below.
Glycerides
The chief component of the RBO is triglycerides, which make up about
80% of the crude RBO. Because of strong lipolytic activity in the bran,
substantial amounts of the triglycerides will be hydrolyzed to diglycerides,
monoglycerides, and free fatty acids (ffa) under hot and humid conditions.
This is the main reason why the RBO deteriorates during storage. Three
fatty acids: palmitic, oleic, and linoleic, constitute more than 90% of the
fatty acid portion of the glycerides. The rest of the fatty acids are myristic,
palmitoleic, stearic, linolenic, and arachidic (Table 13-1).
Table 13-1. Fat1y Acid Composition of Rice

Bran Oil
Fatty Acid Composition Rice Bran Oil, %
Myristic (CI4: 0) 0.1- 1.0
Palmitic (CI6: 0) I2.0-1S.O
Palmitoieic (Cl6: 1) 0.2- 0.6
Stearic (CIS: 0) 1.0- 3.0
Oleic (CIS: 1) 40.0-50.0
Linoleic (CIS: 2) 20.0-42.0
Linolenic (CIS: 3) 0.0- I.O
Arachidic (C20: 0) 0.0- 1.0
Source: Lu and Williams 1965.
Aoyagi et al. (1985) reported that rice bran stored at higher tempera-
tures (30-40°C) showed a considerable increase in acid value, whereas
peroxide value remained unchanged. In brown rice similarly stored, both
the acid and the peroxide values remained stable. Successive fractions of
rice grains obtained by abrasion were stored separately; outer layers were
more strongly hydrolyzed than inner ones, suggesting that the distribution
of the lipolytic activity was predominantly in the outer layer of the grains.
Phospholipids
Crude RBO contains about 2% phosphatides, which is relatively high
compared to other vegetable oils. The phosphatides are the principal
components of gum or lecithin. Phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidyl-
choline, and phosphatidylinositol are the predominant classes (Adhikari
and Adhikari 1986).
Glycolipids
Crude RBO contains about 1% glycolipids. This group of compounds form
the major part of starch lipids (Juliano 1983; Azudin and Morrison 1986;
Perez et al. 1987). The main component fatty acids of the starch lipids are
palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, and the component sugars
are galactose and glucose. Glycolipids associate closely with starch and
protein and affect the cooking property of the rice as well as the flavor of
sake brewed thereof (Ishikawa and Yoshizawa 1974).
Sterols and Oryzanol

Sterols represent the typical nonsaponifiable matter of the rice oil. These
include free sterols, esters, sterylglycosides, and acylsteryl glycosides and
may constitute up to 5% of the oil weight. The most abundant sterol is {3-
sitosterol, which makes up about 50% of the total sterol. Jeong et al. (1984)
used TLC to separate the nonsaponifiable matter into three fractions and
identified each fraction with GLC and GC-MS. Ten sterols were confirmed
as 4-desmethylsterol, nine as 4-monomethylsterol, and four as 4,4-dimeth-
ylsterol. Oryzanol is a valuable component of the nonsaponifiable portion.
Seetharamaiah and Prabhakar (1986) reported that soap stock obtained
from alkaline refining of the oil contained 1. 3-3.1% oryzanol. It could be
effectively extracted with diethyl ether. The optimum pH for the extraction
was 9.5. The oryzanol could be purified by an alumina column and crystal-
lized in methanol-acetone (2: 1). The recrystallized material had a melting
point of 133-139oC and absorption maxima at 230, 290, and 314 nm. This
compound has an antioxidation property similar to that of vitamin E and
is claimed to promote human growth, facilitate blood circulation, and
RICE OIL 299
7r--------------------------------------.
6 • High wax bran
D Low wax bran
5
cf!. 4
X
C'il
3: 3
10 40 50
Temperature oc
Figure 13-1. Temperature effect on wax extraction.
stimulate hormonal secretion. A pharmaceutical preparation known as OZ

has been developed from oryzanol in Japan (Yokochi 1974; Okada and
Yamaguchi 1983).
Wax
RBO contains variable amounts of wax (2-5%), depending on the extrac-
tion method and the origin of the bran. Figure 13-1 shows the temperature
effect on the extractable wax from high- and low-wax rice brans. The
solubility of the wax increased exponentially with the temperature.
Rice wax is insoluble in acetone or isopropyl alcohol, has iodine value
11-12, melting point 82-84°C, and a light-tan color (Chang et al. 1980). It
is, however, soluble in hot hexane. It has a tendency to settle to the bottom
of the tank where the oil is stored. Yoon and Rhee (1982) separated the
tank settlings into hard wax and soft wax. The hard wax had a melting
point of 79 SC and was composed of saturated fatty alcohols of C24, C26,
and C30, saturated fatty acids of C22, C24, and C26, and n-alkanes of C29
and C31. The soft wax had a melting point of 74°C and was composed of
saturated fatty alcohols of C24 and C30, saturated fatty acids of C16 and
C26, and n-alkanes of C21 and C29. Belavadi and Bhowmick (1988),
however, found that fatty alcohol from C24 to C38 were all present in the
wax. Comparison of data before and after alkaline hydrolysis showed that
the wax contained only 33% monomeric esters; the remainder may be
present as polymeric esters as found in carnauba wax.
Table 13-2. Tocopherol Content of Crude Rice Bran Oil

(mg/100 g Oil)
TOCOPHEROLS TOCOTRIENOLS
a {3 'Y a 'Y /'j Total

Ester 3.8 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 4.7
Free 49.1 1.5 6.1 27.9 38.1 2.2 124.9
Total 52.9 1.9 6.3 28.1 38.2 2.2 129.6
Source: Kato et al. 1981.
Tocopherols
Rice germ and bran have a relatively high content of tocopherols. These
compounds are known for their antioxidation properties and are able to
prevent oxidative degradation of the oil. Kato et al. (1981) found that a-
tocopherol, a-tocotrienol, and y-tocotrienol constituted the major part of
this group. Table 13-2 shows that ,8-tocopherol and 8-tocotrienol and the
ester forms were relatively small.
Saker et al. (1986) studied the components of wheat, maize, and rice
germ oils and found that the tocopherol contents of these oils were in the
range of 32-67 mg/100 g, which is somewhat lower than Kato's value.
RICE-OIL PROCESSING
The purpose of rice-oil processing is to isolate the oil from the bran and
convert it into high-quality edible oil. The processing steps usually include
the following: cleaning, heat treatment, drying, extraction, dewaxing, de-
gumming, deacidification (refining), decolorization (bleaching), deodoriza-
tion, and winterization (Fig. 13-2).
Cleaning
The raw bran is cleaned by screening and aspiration to remove foreign
materials, paddy kernels, hulls, broken rice, etc., which have low oil
content or may contaminate the products.
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is used to free the lipids from other components in oil
seeds to facilitate oil extraction. The major function of heat treatment of
rice bran, however, is to inactivate the lipolytic enzymes (lipases) present
in native bran. Lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of glycerides into free fatty
RICE OIL 301
Impurity
Solvent
Wax
Degumming Phosphatides
agent (Lecithin)
Alkali Soap stock
Kaolin
Distillate
Steam/vacuum
(Tocopherol)
Stearin
Figure 13-2. Flowchart for rice-bran-oil production.
acids and glycerol and cause the reduction of oil yield during refining. Hot
air, steam, and microwave energy have been used to heat the bran (Chang
et al. 1980; Rhee and Yoon 1984; Chakraverty and Devadattam 1985).
Generally speaking, steam is more effective than hot air or microwave
energy in destroying the lipolytic enzymes, and all heat treatments require
adequate mixing to prevent localized overheating or underheating. Extru-
sion cooking has been studied extensively because of its versatility and
high output rate. Studies showed that extrusion-cooked bran was more
stable and had larger particle size than brans treated otherwise (Chang et
al. 1980; Huang and Chang 1983; Sayre et al. 1985). Kim et al. (1987)
compared solvent extraction characteristics of rice bran pretreated by hot
air, steam, or extrusion and found that the extruded bran had a significantly
higher solvent percolation rate than the steamed or air-heated samples.
,-... 11.0
Q) • Extrusion
0 0 Hot air drying
~ 6.0 b. Steam cooking
Ol
0
\.,
::- 3.3
6
0 1.8
:::::1
"'0
·v;
Q) 1.0
•,
0::
·-..
~
0
0.5
........
20 ·--·--·--·--·--·--·--·--~-L~
40 60 80 100 • 120 140
Percolation Time (minutes)
Figure 13-3. Effect of different heat treatments on rice-oil extraction rate.
The extraction time to reach 1% residual oil was shortened by about 90%
(Fig. 13-3).
An experimental extruder for small rural rice mills to stabilize rice
bran as soon as it is produced was developed in Taiwan (Chang and Huang
1983). The extruded bran showed little increase in free fatty acids for at
least 10 days and was suitable for storage or for transport to a large-scale
oil-extraction plant. The fine particles that tend to plug up the filter during
extraction were greatly reduced, and the extraction efficiency was im-
proved. Randall et al. (1985) reported that the optimum temperature for
extrusion was 130°C. After the extrusion, the bran temperature should be
maintained at 97-99°C for an additional 3 min to allow sufficient time for
enzyme inactivation. The moisture content of the bran should be adjusted
to 12-13% before extrusion. After extrusion or steaming, the bran mois-
ture has to be reduced to less than 10% to retard microbial growth.
Extraction
The earliest method of oil extraction used high pressure to squeeze the oil
out of the oil-rich materials. Both the screw press and the hydraulic press
were once very popular for extracting the oil from peanuts, cotton seeds,
soybeans, sesame etc. This method was rather inefficient, however, espe-
cially for low-oil-content stock like rice bran. The solvent extraction
method can extract 95-99% of the oil in the raw material and is ideal for
RICE OIL 303
Figure 13-4. Continuous countercurrent RBO extractor.
rice-oil extraction. Many organic solvents are suitable for oil extraction;
however, n-hexane has become the most popular organic solvent in mod-
ern oil-extraction plants because of its efficiency, safety, and availability.
Based on construction, there are three types of extractors: batch type,
battery type, and continuous type (Chang et al. 1980). The batch type uses
one or more extractors in which the raw material is placed; the hexane
from the solvent tank is pumped to the extraction vessel, and the solvent
level is maintained to percolate the bran. The miscella (oil solution) is
filtered and pumped to the evaporator for oil separation and solvent recov-
ery. The battery type of extractor is a semicontinuous or batch countercur-
rent system. The fresh solvent is applied to only one batch while the
micella obtained is used to treat the contents of all other extraction vessels
in a countercurrent pattern. The continuous type of extractor has a coun-
tercurrent extraction tube in which the oil-rich bran enters into the head
end and the defatted bran exits from the tail end while the fresh solvent
enters into the tail end and the micella exits from the head end. Inside the
tube is a mixing conveyor to keep the bran and solvent mixed and to move
the bran ahead. The wet defatted bran is desolventized, dried, and cooled.
The micella is pumped to a distillation plant in which the oil and solvent
are separated. The products are defatted bran and crude RBO (Fig. 13-4).
Solvent Extractive Rice Milling
This process carries the commercial name X-M Rice Milling Process,
which combines the conventional rice milling (polishing) and the solvent
extraction of the rice oil (Hunnell and Nowlin 1972). Brown rice, free from
hull and other impurities, is spray-coated with warm rice oil (0.5 wt % of
brown rice) and tempered for 4 hr. This treatment is designed to soften
the bran to facilitate its removal during the succeeding solvent extractive
milling. The treated rice is fed to duo-stage mills and irrigated with recycled
micella from the settling tank while the milling takes place. The concentra-
tion and temperature of the micella are carefully controlled to minimize
rice breakage. The milled rice is transported to a vibratory screen, where
it is washed with fresh hexane to remove the adhering bran. After draining,
the rice is transferred to a desolventizer. The desolventizer is a vertical
tower in which the product cascades from top to bottom through two
sections. During this time, the residual liquid hexane is evaporated by the
countercurrent flow of the warm mixture of solvent vapor and inert gas.
The dried rice is cooled and transported to grading, storage, or packaging
areas.
The micella-bran slurry is transferred to a settling tank for the bran
to settle, and the clarified micella is pumped to the duo-stage mills. A
series of two horizontal centrifuges are used to separate the bran from the
micella and to wash the bran sequentially with dilute micella and fresh
hexane. The hexane-damp bran cake from the second centrifuge is dis-
charged through a venturi to a superheated hexane vapor stream for desol-
ventizing. The desolventized bran and the hexane vapor are separated in
a cyclone, and the dried bran is purged with warm inert gas prior to
pneumatic conveyance to storage or bagging station.
Recovery of the third product, rice oil, begins with the removal of
residual fine bran particles. The micella from the first horizontal centrifuge
contains some very fine, slow-settling bran particles. It has an oil concen-
tration of 11-14%. Solubilized with the oil is the rice wax fraction, which
amounts to as much as 3-5% of the total oil. The micella stream passes
through a bank of liquid cyclones to remove any remaining bran particles.
The micella is then cooled to precipitate part of the wax in the oil. Water
and silicate floccing agent are added to the cooled micella stream just prior
to the centrifugation. The fine bran particles and about half the wax fraction
are removed in this operation. The clarified micella is then distilled in
a standard stripper-evaporator to obtain a clear medium-brown rice oil
containing 1-2% wax.
Traditional supplies of crude RBO have suffered from problems of
high refining losses resulting from high levels of free fatty acids, the
presence of wax fraction, and finely suspended bran particles. X-M pro-
cessing has greatly reduced these negative characteristics.
Since the X-M process extracts the oil from the whole-grain rice, the
oil yield is expected to be higher than that from the bran alone. Table
13-3 shows that X-M oil and conventional RBO have the same general
composition.
RICE OIL 305
Table 13-3. Comparison of Conventional Rice Bran Oil

and X-M Rice Oil
Conventional X-M
Properties
Specific gravity at 25°C 0.916- 0.921 0.917-0.920
Iodine number 99-108 100-105
Saponification value 181-189 188-192
Unsaponifiable matter, % 3.0 - 5.0 2.0
Fatty acid ester composition, %
Myristic 0.4 - 1.0 0.49
Palmitic 12.0 -18.0 13.8
Stearic 1.0 - 3.0 2.01
Oleic 40.0 -50.0 43.6
Linoleic 29.0 -42.0 36.6
Linolenic 1.0 1.77
Arachidic Trace 0.91
Source: Hunnell and Nowlin (1972).
The X-M plant at Abbeville, Louisiana, owned by Riviana Foods, had

been in operation for about 20 years before its shutdown in 1982. Among
the causes for the shutdown were depreciated equipment, excessive sol-
vent loss, uneconomical plant scale, and a mediocre plant site in the city
(Kohley 1989).
Supercritical carbon dioxide has been studied to extract the oil from
the bran. The operating pressure varied from 150 to 350 kg/cm 2, and
temperature was held at 40°C. Fractions obtained at higher pressures
contained less free fatty acids and waxes or unsaponifiables. Phosphorus
and iron contents were very low, and the oil color was lighter than that
extracted with hexane. This extraction method may simplify some steps
of the succeeding refining procedure (Zhao et al. 1987).
Dewaxing
Rice bran oil contains substantial amounts of wax, which is not found in
other vegetable oils. The wax has a relatively high melting point and must
be removed for the oil to be suitable for human consumption. The simplest
method to remove the wax is to cool the oil in a settling tank. The wax
crystallizes and precipitates to the bottom and can be removed by filtration
or centrifugation. Other methods of dewaxing include crystallization of
the wax from micella at low temperature (Bhattacharyya et al. 1983;
Martovshchuk et al. 1982), addition of electrolytes, ionic or nonionic
surfactants (Sah et al. 1983), tripolyphosphate or application of an electro-
static field (Martovshchuk et al. 1982).
Degumming
The gumming substances in the crude RBO are primarily polar lipids
with surface-active properties, and their presence causes losses during
neutralization because of the formation of emulsions. This leads to poor
separation of soap stocks, entrainment of oil in the soap stock and residual
soap in the neutral oil. The common method of degumming involves the
hydrolysis of the gums at 60-80°C with a small quantity (0.5-1.5%) of
degumming agents, followed by gum removal with filtration, settling, or
centrifugation. Different degumming agents, such as water, phosphoric
acid, oxalic acid, sulfuric acid, and nonionic surfactants, have been studied
with varying degrees of success (Bhattacharyya et al. 1983; Kim et al.
1985).
Deacidification
Deacidification and refining were reciprocally used by some authors to
describe the process of removing the acidity from RBO. The most common
method of deacidification is to neutralize the free fatty acids with a calcu-
lated amount of caustic soda. The free fatty acids are converted to sodium
salts (soap stock), which is separated by settling or by centrifugation. It
is at this stage that most problems have been met in the past. High refining
losses, as much as 10 times the free fatty acid content, have been encoun-
tered as a result of difficulties in separating the soap from the oil. The cause
of the high refining loss is not entirely clear although the concentration of
caustic soda, mixing time, and temperature have been known to affect the
characteristics of the soap stock formed (Cornelius 1980). Micella alkali
refining, where neutralization of the oil is carried out in a hexane solution,
is widely used for refining RBO of high acid content (Chang et al. 1980;
Wang 1984; Bhattacharyya and Bhattacharyya 1985; Bhattacharyya et al.
1986). The principle of micella alkali refining is to let the free fatty acids
react with caustic soda while they are dispersed in the solvent. The entrain-
ment of neutral oil by the soap stock formed can be greatly reduced.
Besides the neutralization, various deacidification methods have been
investigated, including steam distillation (Kim et al. 1985), alcohol extrac-
tion (Bhattacharyya and Bhattacharyya 1983; Bhattacharyya et al. 1987),
and reesterification (Moon and Rhee 1980; Bhattacharyya and Bhatta-
charyya 1987).
Bleaching
The green coloration resulting from the milling of immature rice can be
removed without difficulty by using activated acidic clay (Lynn et al.
1968). Other pigments in the RBO can also be removed. About 3-5%
RICE OIL 307
(based on oil weight) of the clay is added to the oil. The mixture is agitated
and heated to l20°C for about 20 min. After cooling, the earth is removed
by filtration, and a clear golden oil can be obtained (Akiya 1967).
Deodorization
The combination of high-vacuum and steam purging is a most efficient
method for removal of odors from the RBO. The process involves blowing
live steam through the heated oil at 220-250°C under vacuum (3-5-mm Hg
pressure). Volatile compounds such as peroxides, aldehydes, and ketones,
either with objectionable odors or with pleasant flavors, are stripped off
during this process. After deodorization, the oil is cooled down under
vacuum to about 50°C. The deodorized oil is essentially tasteless and
odorless (Cornelius 1980).
Winterization
Winterization is carried out to remove saturated glycerides, commonly
known as stearins, which have relatively high melting points and only a
limited solubility in the unsaturated glycerides. The process consists of
chilling the RBO very slowly in a large tank and holding it at soc or lower
for a number of days. The saturated glycerides crystallize out and are
separated by filtration. The separated stearins are not discarded but can
find use as the solid fat fraction in margarine or shortening formulations.
Considerable development work has been done to determine the optimum
cooling rates, holding times, and filtration techniques to give rapid winter-
ization with good yield (Lynn et al. 1968; Yokochi 1974).
UTILIZATION OF RICE BRAN OIL
Rice bran oil can be used for edible or industrial purposes. Only high-
quality RBO is used for edible purpose. The richness of polyunsaturated
fatty acids is considered beneficial for the prevention of arteriosclerosis
and heart disease. Rice bran oil has better oxidative stability than its
competitive products such as soybean oil or cotton seed oil because of its
high tocopherol and low-linolenic-acid contents. Rice bran oil was found
to have better thermostability than double-fractionated palm olein. When
both were heated at 180°C for 50 hr, the free-fatty-acid content of the palm
olein increased from 0.23 to 1.30 whereas that of the bran oil increased
from 0.17 to 0.64 (Fig. 13-5, Yoon et al. 1987).
Available evidence showed that RBO performed well in frying tests,
giving low peroxide, foam, free fatty acid, and polymer formation (Lynn
et al. 1968; Kim and Yum 1983). The winterized RBO is suitable for making
1.4 . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
1.2 e Palm oil

D Rice bran oil
0.8
~
~ 0.8
LL
LL
0.6
Heating Time (hours)

Figure 13-5. Comparison of RBO vs. palm oil.
mayonnaise or salad dressing because of its cold temperature stability,

color and flavor compatibility, and ability to form stable emulsions with
other ingredients. The stearin separated by winterization can be used in
margarine and shortening formulations. As mentioned earlier, oryzanol
has been used in pharmaceutical preparations to promote human growth
and hormonal secretion. Low-grade RBO is not suitable for human con-
sumption. It can be used in animal feed formulations or for producing
solidified oil, stearic and oleic acids, glycerine, and soap. It can also
be chemically modified to become antirust, anticorrosion, or lubricating
agents. Rice wax was reported to have a structure similar to carnauba wax
and can be used in confectionery, cosmetics, shoe polish, auto wax, or
industrial coating purposes (Chang et al. 1980).
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Yoon, S. H., Kim, S. K., Kim, K. H., Kwon, T. W., and Teah, Y. K. 1987.
Evaluation of physicochemical changes in cooking oil during heating. J. Arner.
Oil Chern. Soc. 64(6):870-873.
Yoon, S. H., and Rhee, J. S. 1982. Composition of waxes from crude rice bran
oil. J. Arner. Oil Chern. Soc. 59(12):561-563.
Zhao, W. Q., Shishikura, A., Fujimoto, K., Arai, K., and Saito, S. 1987. Fractional
extraction of rice bran oil with supercritical carbon dioxide. Japan Agric.
Bioi. Chern. 51(7):1773-1777.
14
Rice Bran:
Chemistry and Technology
Bor S. Luh
S. Barber and C. Benedito de Barber

Instituto de Agroquimica Y Tecnologia de Alimentos, CSIC
INTRODUCTION
Rough rice, or paddy, consists of a white starchy endosperm kernel sur-

rounded by a tightly adhering bran coat, an adhering germ with the total
enclosed within a loose outer hull or husk. All rice is milled before consump-
tion, producing hull, bran, germ, and white rice. Although a small amount
of rice is consumed as brown rice, which still contains the bran and germ,
white rice is the principal food staple of over 2.5 billion people worldwide.
Rice bran and rice germ are rich in protein, lipids, dietary fiber,
vitamins, and minerals. These qualities lead to a high demand for them as
feed (Piliang et al. 1982).
The quantity of bran and germ available from rice-milling operations
throughout the world is about 30 million MT/year. Except for some limited
exceptions, neither bran nor germ is consumed as food. This is due to
the high fiber content and possible hull contamination and to the rapid
development of rancidity caused by lipase and lipoxidase activities after
milling. Recent progress in rice bran stabilization by extrusion cooking
has improved the shelf life of the product (CFTRI 1983; Randall et al.
1985; Saunders 1990).
313
RICE MILLING AND RICE BRAN PRODUCTION
Milling methods vary from simple hand-pounding with a mortar and pestle
to large-scale processing in highly mechanized mill plants. Hand-pounding
still accounts for a major percentage in many important areas. The re-
maining technologies can be classified under two major categories, de-
pending on whether hulling and whitening are carried out in one or several
steps. The Engleberg huller is widely used to remove hull and bran in a
single operation. Hull and bran are discharged together with the broken
rice (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980).
Bran from Shellers

The most common machines used in hulling paddy rice are the underrunner
disk huller and the rubber-roll huller, which is gaining popularity. Both
machines produce sheller bran. It may include a small proportion of peri-
carp, some germ, and small fragments of endosperm as well as dust.
The underrunner disk huller performs the work. The paddy is forced
between two horizontal cast iron disks that are lined with an abrasive
coating. Pressure and friction are applied to remove the hull. Even though
the clearance between the disks is adjusted to the optimum conditions,
some damage to the pericarp and germ cannot be avoided. The rubber-
roll huller, when properly adjusted, does not damage the pericarp and
rarely removes the germ from the caryopsis. The paddy grains are caught
under pressure between the two rubber rolls and the hull is stripped off.
Consequently, bran from the rubber-roll huller basically consists of hull
fragments and impurities and contains almost no germ. The underrunner
disk huller produces 1-2.5% bran with reference to paddy rice. The rubber-
roll huller gives productions lower than 0.5%.
The discharge from the huller is a mixture of brown rice, paddy, hulls,
bran, dust, broken rice, and immature paddy grains, Bran, dust, and small
broken rice are separated by sieving. An airstream passing through it
separates the bran and dust from the brokens.
The industrial hullers hull only 80-95% of paddy in a single pass. After
separation of hulls, bran, dust, and brokens in the hull separator, a mixture
of brown rice and paddy remains; the paddy is then separated in a paddy
separator.
Bran from Whiteners

In the process of whitening, the pericarp, tegmen, aleurone layer, and germ
are removed from brown rice. The bran is made up largely of fragments of
the above coverings, plus some starchy endosperm, bits of the caryopsis
and, occasionally, some particles of hull.
RICE BRAN: CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY 315
In removing bran from brown rice, two kinds of machines are widely
used: (1) the abrasive type of whitening machines, either vertical, like the
European cono mills, or horizontal, the Japanese design; and (2) the
friction type of whitening machines, like the Japanese horizontal jet
pearler. In the abrasive machines, brown rice is whitened as it passes
through the clearance between an abrasive roller and a wire screen (Euro-
pean mill) or perforated cylinder (Japanese mill). The abrasive roller, with
sharp edges of vitrified particles, acts as a blade to cut and remove small
bits of the bran layer from the brown rice. The abrasive type of whitening
machines have a high peripheral roll speed and a low pressure charge to
grains. In the vertical whitening cone, the bran passes through the wire
screen and drops into the bottom of the cone housing, from which it is
scraped by a rotating scraper and unloaded. Air sucked through the ma-
chine serves to cool the system but will remove some bran, which is
recovered by cyclone separation. In the abrasive type of horizontal whiten-
ing machine, jet air is blown through the hollow part of the main shaft into
the milling chamber and, as it cools the rice grains, blows off the bran
adhered to the whitened kernels. In the friction type of whitening ma-
chines, the Japanese jet-pearler type, brown rice is whitened on a different
principle. Pressure is applied to the grains as they pass through the clear-
ance between the screen and the milling roller; the bran layer of the brown
rice is loosened and peeled off by means of friction caused by the action
of grains rubbing together under pressure. Jet air is blown through the
hollow part of the main shaft through the rice grains. It blows off the
adhered bran and removes the freed bran as it leaves the machine through
the perforated screen.
The multipass whitening process is gaining in popularity because it
produces higher head rice output than the single-pass whitening process.
The process of polishing removes from the already whitened rice any
fine particles adhering to the grain, just as the kernel acquires a glossy
appearance. The two types of polishing machines more widely used, the
vertical cone polisher and the horizontal polisher, are based on the same
principle. A cone or a cylinder is mounted on a shaft and is housed in a
screen casing. The space between the cone or cylinder and the screen
forms the polishing chamber. The cone or cylinder is provided with leather
strips on the surface, and the polishing is accomplished by the rubbing
effects produced by these leather strips when the shaft revolves. The
detached loose flour-polish-is sucked out of the machine and recovered
in a cyclone system.
In some countries, calcium carbonate is used as a milling aid, usually
0.25% with reference to the paddy rice.
No matter how well a whitener machine works, some breakage of the
grain is unavoidable. Grain fragments of various sizes are produced. The
finest fragments pass, along with the bran and the germ, through the
perforations of the wire screen or cylinder of the milling chamber openings
of 1.30 x 1.25 mm.
Germ and Bran Separation

The combined streams coming out from the whitener machines consist of
a mixture of bran, germ, starchy endosperm particles, and hull fragments.
Sieving in combination with an airstream is used to accomplish separation
of major fractions-bran, germ, and brokens of various sizes. In many
countries, the commercial bran includes the germ. In Italy and Spain, the
separation of the germ is a common practice. In Spanish mills, the mixture
of by-products from the whitener machines pass through the rotating
hexagonal reel and the germ separator. The former, a rotatory sieve, with
a mesh of approximately 0.8 mm (No. 20 ASTM standard), allows bran,
fragmented germ, and germs of smaller size to pass through. The germ
separator combines oscillating sieving and pneumatic force to separate
particles differing in size and density. It comprises a first sieve, with
openings of 0.8 mm, to remove residual bran; a second screen with open-
ings of 1.5 mm to separate the germ, and a third screen, with perforations
of 2 mm, to separate small from large brokens and kernels of small size
that might be present. An airstream is sucked through the germ fraction
discharge, removing light impurities such as bran and hull. Further purifi-
cation of the germ fraction can be achieved by pneumatic separation.
HISTOLOGY AND HISTOCHEMISTRY OF COMMERCIAL RICE BRAN
Papers dealing with outer layers of the caryopsis have been published
(Barber et al. 1972 a,b, 1976; Little and Dawson 1960; Saio and Noguchi
1983).
The rice caryopsis is a fruit in which the seed occupies the greatest
part. It is covered by two florescent glumes: the lemma, which is the
largest and has an awn or beard, and the palea.
Two small sterile lemmas, the rachilla and the pedicel, can be present
in the paddy rice to be milled. In the process of milling, the caryopsis
becomes disclosed, showing the pericarp or outermost layer. Immediately
under the pericarp, the seed covering known as the testa by some authors
and as the tegmen by others, the aleurone layer and the starchy endosperm
are located. The germ remains in a cavity in the lower abdominal area of
the caryopsis, stuck to the endosperm and outwardly covered by the
aleurone layer, the seed coat and the pericarp and, externally, by the
lemma. The whitening process is intended to remove the pericarp, the
Table 14-1. Types of Discrete Particles Identified in Spanish Commercial

Rice Bran
SIMPLE PARTICLES COMPOUND PARTICLES
Type Composition Type Composition

a Fragments of florescent glumes Fragments of pericarp and seed
coat
b Fragments of sterile glumes j Fragments of seed coat and
aleurone layer
c Fragments of trichomes k Fragments of pericarp, seed coat,
and aleurone layer
d Fragments of pedicel Fragments of pericarp, seed coat,
aleurone layer, and starchy
endosperm
e Fragments of pericarp m Fragments of starchy endosperm
and aleurone layer
f Fragments of starchy endosperm n Fragments of germ, flattened cell
layer, and starchy endosperm
g Germ, whole or fragments 0 Fragments of germ, aleurone layer,
seed coat, and pericarp
h Fragments of fibers
Published with permission (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980).
tegmen, the aleurone layers, and the germ, although parts of the starchy
endosperm are also separated.
Pineda (1976) observed 15 kinds of discrete particles (Table 14-1), and
a few small fragments of the abrasive coating of the cono mills were
identified in commercial bran.
Type a Particles: Fragments of Florescent Glumes

Type a particles have irregular polygonal shapes and are of variable size,
usually ranging from 25 to 40 f.L, although a few fragments can reach
2.5 x 1.5 mm; the thickness of cross sections varies from 80 to 120 f.L·
Most particles come from longitudinal fragmentation of the hull. Its outer
surface is rough and wrinkled, covered by entire and/or broken trichomes,
whereas its inner surface is plain. In a cross section cut, four layers
can be seen: an external epidermic layer, an esclerenchymatic layer, a
parenchymatic layer, and an internal epidermic layer. An extracellular
layer, the cuticle, is present outside the epidermis. The external epidermic
layer is made up of thick-walled epithelial cells (30-80 x 20-10 f.L for those
of the palea and 60-90 x 50-120 f.L for those of the lemma), which are
radially elongated and axially oriented. in rows. The esclerenchymatic
layer is composed of two to four layers of thick-walled (4-6-JL) cells,
200-610 p,long for those of the lemma and 150-630 p,long for those of the
palea.
The parenchymatic layer is made up of several layers of cells. Cells
are of two types, tangentially elongated and short, with sizes varying from
20 to 30 x 10 to 15 p,, and thin cell walls (2 p,). Among the parenchymatic
cells, tube and cross cells are placed. The internal epidermis (6-12 p,
thick) is formed by three thin-walled isodiametric cell layers, tangentially
oriented. Between the esclerenchymatic and parenchymatic layers, the
vascular bundles are located.
Carbohydrates are present in the cell walls of type a particles. Cellu-
lose is the major carbohydrate, along with hemicelluloses, mainly pento-
sans. Lignin appears to be intermingled with the cellulose of the cell walls
and is chemically combined with hemicelluloses. Proteins are apparently
absent, as shown by the mercuric chloride-bromophenol blue reagent.
Black Sudan stains intensely the particle outer surface, indicating the
presence of wax and cutin (Pineda 1976). Silica is abundant in the extracel-
lular cutin-silica layer, the outer epidermis, and the esclerenchymatic
layer.
Type b Particles: Fragments of Sterile Glumes

The sterile glumes are boatlike, with the forward end sharp-pointed and
the rear end U-shaped. Fragments of sterile glumes, not numerous in bran,
are of variable sizes and, occasionally, they are more than 2 mm long. The
surface is plain. The trichomes are less frequent and are smaller than those
in the lemma and palea. The thickness of the fragments varies from 60 to
120 p,. Their histological structure is simpler than that of florescent glumes.
In cross section, there is an outer epidermis, an inner epidermis and,
between them, a parenchymatic layer. The outer epidermis consists of a
single layer of rectangular cells from 50 to 70 x 5 to 10 p,, tangentially
elongated, with thick outer walls (3 p,), coated externally by a thick (5 p,)
cuticle. The inner epidermis has similar characteristics. The intermediate
parenchymatic tissue consists of two to four cell layers. The cells are
variable in size (20-70 x 7 p,).
Type c Particles: Trichome Fragments

The entire trichome is conic, transparent, uncolored, and empty. In com-
mercial bran of short-grained varieties, entire trichomes and fragments,
varying from 100 to 350 p, in length with a maximum diameter of 30 p,,
have been detected.
In the cell walls of trichomes, carbohydrates were detected with the
PAS (periodic acid-SchifO method, lignin with Schiff s reagent, and lipids,
only in cross sections (Pineda 1976) with Black Sudan.
Type d Particles: Pedicel Fragments

Fragments of pedicel are scarce in bran. They are cylindrical fragments
of variable sizes, up to 2-3 mm, with grooved surfaces. Their cell walls
react positively to stain tests for carbohydrates, lignin, and silica, and
negatively for proteins and silica.
Type e Particles: Pericarp Fragments

Type e particles have an elongated shape, variable size-generally no
more than 800 ~A--and a thickness of 6-8 IL· The pericarp tissues can be
strongly compressed so that it is difficult to distinguish their characteristic
constitutive layers. They are visible in some varieties only. Six layers,
five of which are transversely elongated, can be distinguished. Because of
their high differentiation, these layers can be subdivided into epidermis,
hypodermis, cross cells, and tube cells, in that order, moving inward. The
epidermis consists of a single layer of cells, transversely elongated, with
sinuous end walls. Cells in noncompressed pericarp fragments vary in size
from 5 x 3 to 20 x 10 IL· On the outer walls of the epidermal cells,
there is a thin cuticle. The hypodermis is composed of several layers
of parenchymatic cells, partially crushed, transversely elongated, with
dimensions varying from 15 x 80 to 5 x 12 IL· Two to five layers of
elongated cross-cells of 6-IL width and 1-2-~A- depth, arranged in files and
rows, give the tissue, along with the parenchymatic layers, a netlike look.
Finally, the tube cells, with a long and approximately cylindrical shape,
3-5 IL in diameter, lie with their long axes parallel to the long axis of the
caryopsis. The mean thickness of pericarp cell walls is 2 IL· (Little and
Dawson 1960).
Carbohydrates have been identified in the pericarp: cellulose and
hemicellulose. Also present are lignins, proteins, lipids-cutin and/or wax,
phytin, anthocyanins (Chang and Bardenas 1965), and silica.
Pericarp cell walls, mainly those of epicarp, contribute notably, along
with the seed coat, to higher fiber content of rice bran. Starch is apparently
absent. Lignin has been detected in pericarp cell walls. It is abundant in
the epidermis. Schiff's staining failed to detect it in tube cells, even though
the cells are lignified. Pericarp cell walls can be stained with typical protein
reagents. Staining with Hg-BPB is positive in hypodermis and tube cells
and negative in epidermis. On the free surface of pericarp, lipids, cutin,
and probably wax can be detected with Black Sudan.
Type f Particles: Starchy Endosperm Fragments
Typefparticles are one of the most abundant types. Size varies from 1 x
1.5 to 30 x 15 IL· The largest particles are usually components of subaleu-
rone endosperm. These are parenchymatic cells with lumina full of com-
pound starch granules and protein bodies. The smallest particles come
from the caryopsis nucleus and are cell fragments. The cells are either
. polygonal, generally irregular pentagons or hexagons in cross section, or
slightly elongated. Those of the central core have isodiametric shapes
ranging in size from 45 x 50 to 80 x 105 11-· The mean thickness of
endosperm cell walls is about 0.25 11-·
In the starchy endosperm, starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins,
and lipids have been detected. Cellulose and hemicellulose are located in
the cell walls and starch in the lumen. Starch granules are polygonal,
usually five-sided, and compound. Sizes of individual granules range from
0.3 to 13 11-· Starch granules are small (2-4 JJ-) in subaleurone cells and
larger (5-9 JJ-) in cells of the kernel nucleus. Size of compound granules
varies from 12 x 10 to 20 x 10 11- in the short grain. Proteins occur as
protein bodies about 1 11- in size in the inner cells; as cementing material
between protein bodies and compound starch granules (Del Rosario et
al. 1968); and as a lipoprotein membrane surrounding individual starch
granules.
Type g Particles: Entire Germ or Fragments of Germ

Whether or not it is degermed at the mill, commercial rice bran always
contains entire germ and fragments of germ. These fragments can easily
be distinguished from other particles. The most conspicuous fragments
are (1) entire plumule, (2) coleoptile, (3) entire coleoptile and plumule, (4)
primary root with root cap and part of coleorhiza, and (5) scutellum and
epiblast (see also particles n and o).
The histology and histochemistry of rice germ have been the subject
of detailed studies (Barber et al. 1972 a,b). The germ (Fig. 14-1) is com-
posed of the embryonic axis (which includes the plumule, the coleoptile,
the primary root and the hypocotyl) and the tissues surrounding it (the
scutellum, the coleorhiza, and the epiblast). The germ is covered by the
aleurone layer, the tegmen, and the pericarp.
The plumule has two to three embryonic leaves.lt is igloolike in shape,
0.3 mm in diameter and 0.4 mm in height. The embryonic leaves have
polyhedral thin-walled parenchyma cells, isodiametric (7JJ-) in cross sec-
tion and elongated in longitudinal section. They are covered by the upper
and lower epidermis and coated by a 0.1-0.2-wthick cuticle. The provas-
cular bundles of the leaves have polygonal cells in cross section of about
4 JJ-, and rectangular cells in longitudinal section of about 4 x 11 11-· The
apical meristem has isodiametric cells (4 JJ-). The coleoptile covers the
plumule and has a pore in its apex. It is 0.11-0.18 mm thick and is
composed of 9-12 layers of polygonal cells. It is covered by an outer
Ge
Hv
Ep
Cr
(A) (B)
,
·~
••
(C)
Figure 14-1. Histology and histochemistry of commercial rice bran: (A) and (B)
longitudinal sections of germ; (C) various types of bran particles; (D)
type k particle, composed of pericarp (Pe), seed coat (fe), and
aleurone (AI). AI, aleurone layer; Cl, coleorhiza; Co, coleoptile, Cr,
wrinkle; En, endosperm; Ep, epiblast; ES, scutellum, Ge, epitheliar
gland; Hv, provascular bundle; Ma, apical meristem; Pe, pericarp; PI,
plumule; Ra, primary root; Te, seed coat.
epidermis with a 1.1-1.3-~-t-thick cuticle and an inner epidermis with a 0.5-

~-t-thick cuticle.
The primary root is cylindrical, about 300-350 1-L in diameter and
0.45 mm in length. It is composed of several tissues arranged in radial
symmetry: a 6-10-~-t-thick cuticle (thinner, 1.5 /-L, in apical) meristem, the
epidermis and subepidermis (a single layer each of prismatic cells, of
11 x 23 1-L and 7 x 14~-t, respectively), the exodermis (two layers of cells
of various sizes), the cortex (70 1-L thick, 5-7 layers of round cells of 10-20
1-L in size), the endodermis (a single layer of prismatic cells, of 6 x 5
~-t), the pericycle (1-2 layers of cells), and the central cylinder (vascular
cylinder), which consists of the protophloem, the protoxylem, the metaxy-
lem, and the parenchymatic cells. The tip of the primary root is protected
by the calyptra or root cap (about 40 1-L high).
The hypocotyl joins the primary root and the plumule. It is made up
of pro vascular bundles surrounded by parenchymatic cells.
The scutellum is located between the embryonic axis and the endo-
sperm. The greatest part of the scutellum is composed of polygonal paren-
chymatic cells, 14 to 28 1-L in longitudinal section. The scutellum is sur-
rounded externally by an epidermis that is modified to form the scutellar
epithelium in the area next to the endosperm; this consists of radially
elongated, thin-walled cells arranged in palisade and some epithelial
glands. A provascular bundle extends into the scutellum from the plumule.
The epiblast is fused to the scutellum and surrounds the coleoptile. Its
thin-walled cells are parenchymatic, polygonal, and isodiametric (about 6
~-t) in cross section, and elongated (7-12 ~-t) in longitudinal section.
Starch, hemicellulose, cellulose, lipids, proteins, basic and sulfur
amino acids, tryptophan, and ash have been identified histochemically in
rice germ.
Germ-cell walls react positively to PAS (periodic acid-Schift) reagent
for total carbohydrates and to cellulose and hemicellulose tests; cell walls
of the primary root and cuticles of the primary root, coleoptile, and scutel-
lum appear to be rich in hemicellulose. Cuticles of the epidermis of plu-
mule, coleoptile, primary root, and scutellum react positively with PAS
(Pineda 1976). The cytoplasm of the cells of the embryonic axis and of
surrounding tissues contains simple starch granules; these are not abun-
dant (1-16 per cell) but are round and of variable size (0.5-5~-t). Granules
are more numerous in the scutellum and coleorhiza and are apparently
absent in the epidermic layers.
The tissues of the germ were stained with Black Sudan. Lipids occur
in the cytoplasm as globules of diverse size (0.5-4 ~-t); they are abundant
in the coleoptile and scutellum and scarce in the plumule, primary root,
andhypocotyl. The cuticle of the epidermis of plumule, coleoptile, primary
root, and scutellum reacts positively to Black Sudan.
The cytoplasm and the nucleus, including the plasmatic membrane,

react positively to a bromophenol blue test for proteins. In the cytoplasm
of parenchyma cells of plumule, coleoptile, primary root, scutellum, and
coleorhiza, tiny protein granules (0.51 p.,) and dispersed proteins are de-
tected; the cytoplasm of the respective epidermis cells shows only dis-
persed proteins. Provascular bundles are weakly stained with bromophe-
nol blue. Proteins are absent in the cuticles.
The tissues containing proteins react positively to naphthol-yellow for
lysine, hydroxylysine, histidine, arginine, and terminal amino groups and
to DDD (2,2'-dihydroxy-6,6' dinaphthyl disulfide) for tryptophan. The
germ contains minerals distributed throughout. The plumule and the pri-
mary root are more intensely stained than the coleoptile; minerals are
abundant in the scutellum, particularly in the cell layers near the endo-
sperm.
The structure of rice scutellum has been examined by scanning elec-
tron microscopy (Tanaka et al. 1976). Scutellar cells contain many rounded
particles, around 2-3 f.L in diameter, covered with a membranous coat
that resembles aleurone particles of the aleurone layer. Particles in both
tissues are characterized by a high magnesium content and potassium salts
of phytic acid.
Type h Particles: Fibers

Fibers originate from knots of the panicula base and are scarce. Some are
very long (1 em or even more), ribbonlike, and twisted. They do not show
a definite cellular structure; between two thick, almost parallel walls, they
show a cavity about 30 f.L wide. Fibers react positively to PAS stain for
carbohydrates and negatively to stains for lignin, proteins, lipids, and silica.
Type i Particles: Fragments of Pericarp and Seed Coat

These particles and those of type k are the major components of commer-
cial bran. They are rolled or bent flakes with a smooth, shining surface
and a round inner surface of different sizes, between 200 and 300 f.L· In
particles with compressed tissues, the thickness ranges from 10 to 15 p.,.
The histological and histochemical particularities of pericarp have been
described above (see under Type a Particles). The seed coat (tegmen or
testa) consists of (1) the fatty cuticle; (2) the spermoderm, which is located
next to the pericarp; and (3) the perisperm, which is next to the aleurone
layer. In commercial bran, only the cuticle and a layer (2-6 f.L thick)
containing the remains of the inner integument and nucella, have been
detected. The cuticle, 1 to 3 f.L thick, is occasionally discontinuous. The
tegmen in the germ area is thinner. Some commercial bran particles consist
only of pericarp and cuticle.
The seed coat, except the cuticle, reacts positively to the PAS test for
carbohydrates and to the Hg-BPB test for proteins. Cellulose is the major
constituent of cell walls. The cuticle absorbs Black Sudan, but the remains
of the inner integument and nucella are stained very weakly. The integu-
ment and nucella contain lignin. Neither the pericarp nor the seed coat
reacts positively to the silica test (Yoshida et al. 1971).
Type j Particles: Fragments of Seed Coat and Aleurone Layer

This is a type of particle not abundant in commercial bran. These particles
contain only one layer of aleurone cells. Generally, neither the seed coat
nor its constituent layers are removed alone during milling. Although a
part of the endosperm, aleurone cells come out of the caryopsis preferably
stuck to the seed coat (particles j and k) rather than with the starch
endosperm (particle m).
The size ofj particles ranges from 100 to 300 f.L in length and from 15
to 20 f.L in width. The seed coat is around 6 f.L thick. The characteristics of
the seed coat are described under Type i Particles. Aleurone cells are
predominantly polygonal. Those from the ventral side are almost perfect
rectangles, and those from the dorsal side are irregular hexagons (Del
Rosario et al. 1968). They are nucleated parenchymatic cells, with cell
walls around 1-3 f.L thick, rich in protoplasmatic constituents. Aleurone
cells are around 25-30 f.L long and 6-10 f.L thick. The aleurone layer on the
germ is thinner, and its cells are smaller.
The aleurone cells contain the aleurone grains or aleurone particles.
These have been isolated as a white ivory powder from rice bran using
differential centrifugation in nonaqueous media. Its yield ranges between
2 and 3 wt% of the bran fraction used (2-4 wt% in bran/unpolished grain).
Subcellular aleurone particles are spherical grains about 1-3 f.L in diameter.
They exhibit no strata structure and, instead, show embedded electron-
dense bodies.
The cell walls and lumina of aleurone cells react positively to carbohy-
drates. Starch granules smaller than 5 f.L have been detected.
Aleurone cell walls are stained by reagents for cellulose and hemicellu-
lose or pectin. Staining with Hg-BPB indicates the presence of proteins in
the aleurone cells. A weak, pale staining suggests the presence of dispersed
protein material in the lumen. The Hg-BPB reagent shows a thin cuticle
along the inner border of aleurone cell walls (Pineda 1976). Isolated aleu-
rone grains showed no iodine reaction, and no starch granules were recog-
nized under a transmission electron microscope. Protein content was
11.7%; protein solubility in water was 6.03%; 0.5 M NaCl, 0.60%; 0.05 M
HCl, 0.25%; and 0.2 M NaOH 2.19%. Gamma, and gamma2 globulins are
localized in the aleurone cells, as shown by means of a fluorescent-anti-
body technique; the same globulins appear to exist in the scutellum (Hori-
koshi and Morita 1975). Acid-soluble organic phosphorus amounts to

97.3% of the total phosphorus, and almost all of it exists as phytic acid.
The aleurone particle is the accumulation site of phytic acid in rice grain.
The distribution of 3H -myoinositol administered to ripening grains of rice
was followed by microradioautography, and the 3H was found exclusively
in aleurone particles (Tanaka et al. 1974). The electron-dense materials
embedded in the aleurone particles of mature rice grains are potassium
and magnesium salts of phytic acid (Ogawa et al. 1975).
The phosphorus and protein content of the protein bodies in the endo-
sperm and the aleurone particles differ sharply. Protein bodies are rich in
protein (about 60%) and very low in phosphorus (0.5%). About 6% of the
total protein in the protein bodies is water-soluble whereas, in the aleurone
particles, 70% of the total protein is water-soluble.
Other Types of Bran Particles (k-o)

Type kparticles are composed ofpericarp, seed coat, and aleurone layers.
Reported sizes range between 130 x 50 and 560 x 105 J.L. Most particles
have one to two aleurone cell layers; few have five to seven. Presumably,
this has a bearing on the fact that Japonica varieties have one to two
aleurone cell layers in the ventral side of the caryopsis and five to seven
in the dorsal side. Aleurone cells appear generally intact. In some particles,
the lipid cuticle of the seed coat appears interrupted; then the pericarp
and seed coat are around 20 J.L thick. Particles of type 1 include pericarp,
seed coat, aleurone layer, and starchy endosperm, and they are scarce.
Their size ranges generally between 400 x 260 and 735 x 200 J.L. Particles
of type m are composed of a starchy endosperm and aleurone layer. Their
size varies; generally it is less than 95 x 60 JL. Particles of type n include
germ, flattened cells layer, and starchy endosperm. Usual sizes range
between 690 x 320 and 410 x 225 J.L. Germ, mainly scutellum, is the major
component. The layer of flattened cells is around 5-20 J.L thick. Particles
of type o include germ, aleurone layer, seed coat, and pericarp. They are
scarce and of various sizes (Pineda 1976).
General histological and histochemical characteristics of anatomic
layers constituting particles k through o (Table 14-1) coincide with those
described in preceding sections.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF BRAN, POLISH, AND GERM
Proximate Analysis of Bran and Polish

The composition of rice bran depends on a variety of factors associated
with the rice grain itself and the milling process. Major factors associated
with the rice grain are varietal and environmental variability in (1) average
chemical composition, (2) distribution of chemical constituents, (3) thick-

ness of anatomical outer layers, (4) size and shape of grains, and (5)
resistance of grains to breakage and abrasion.
Major factors associated with the milling process are (1) processing
methods and machines, and (2) milling conditions as they affect degree of
milling.
Bran products obtainable from different alternatives of processing rice
are (1) those from one- step milling, i.e., "huller bran," and (2) those from
multistep milling, such as (a) sheller bran from hulling, (b) bran partially
degermed or with all of its accompanying germ, including or not including
polishings, (c) polish, and (d) germ from whitening.
Data published on the composition of bran vary within a range. Be-
cause of frequent variations in bran composition, it is a market practice
to guarantee a limit composition (Barber and Benedito de Barber
1985a).
Bran from the hulling step differs in composition from that produced
in the whitening steps. It is lower in protein and fat content and higher in
fiber and ash content. The composition of sheller bran depends on the type
of sheller. The underrunner disk huller produces bran of higher protein
and fat content and lower fiber content than the rubber-roll huller. The
type of machine used in the hulling step also has an influence on the
composition of the bran removed in subsequent whitening. The rubber-
roll huller produces undamaged brown rice, from which a bran richer in
fat will be removed. The underrunner disk huller removes some germ and
the outermost layers, rich in oil, which will not be incorporated into the
bran.
The type of whitening machine used is another source of variation of
the chemical composition of bran. The friction type of machines produce
bran of higher fat content than the abrasion type.
Kernel layers at various depths differ greatly in chemical composition.
Because the removal of bran may range from 4 to 14%, the bran from the
last cones is higher in NFE (nitrogen-free extract) and lower in protein,
fat, fiber, and ash. In industrial practice, bran from successive whitening
cones is combined into a single product; polishings are sometimes an
exception. Rice polish composition is not too far from that of rice bran in
protein and fat, but it is lower in fiber and ash content and higher in NFE
content. The unequal removal of bran layers as a result of the irregular
geometrical shape of the caryopsis and of the rough and difficult-to-control
abrading/friction action in the whitening machine greatly contributes to
minimum compositional differences. Large differences exist in the homo-
geneity of milling. These can be measured objectively and have been
shown to occur in commercial milling.
The use of calcium carbonate (10.25-kg calcium carbonate/100-kg
paddy) as a milling aid can influence the chemical composition of

bran.
Chemical Constituents of Bran and Polish
Carbohydrates
Starch, which occurs abundantly only in the endosperm, has been identi-
fied in the germ and the aleurone layers and is apparently absent in the
pericarp and seed coat. Commercial bran contains a fair amount of starch
due to the endosperm present. Reported values range from 10 to 55% (dry
basis). The starch content of bran increases from the first to the last
whitening machine (Table 14-2).
Free sugars are apparently absent in pericarp, tegmen, and aleurone
layers. Nevertheless, reported values for total sugars content of rice bran
range from 3 to 5%, moisture-free basis; presumably the contribution of
germ and endosperm is significant. Nonreducing sugars are more abundant
than reducing sugars, the ratio being 3: 1 to 4: 1. Glucose, fructose, and
sucrose have been reported to be present in rice bran; raffinose has been
found in the 80% ethyl alchohol extract of bran and polish.
Bran is rich in cellulose and hemicelluloses. Data for crude cellulose
of 10 samples of Italian bran partially degermed at the mill site ranged from
9.64 to 12.80%. Corresponding values for rice polish were 2.10-5.25%.
Pentosans ranged from 8.59 to 10.87% in bran and from 3.15 to 6.01% in
polish (Leonzio 1967).
The hemicelluloses are a complex fraction not readily resolved into
polysaccharides of single sugar units. Hemicellulose B of bran has been
reported to contain 67.9% reducing sugars, primarily pentoses (59.6%).
Xylose, arabinose, galactose, and uronic acid were identified as major
components, with the first two predominating. The hemicelluloses of bran
polish have been found to contain 0.1% water-soluble fraction and 1% 0.5
N sodium hydroxide extractable fraction. The former had an arabinose :
xylose ratio of 1.8 and contained galactose and protein; the latter contained
arabinose and xylose in a 1 : 1 ratio as major components, as well as
galactose and minor amounts of glucose. The 4 and 24% KOH-soluble
fractions of hemicellulose, as well as the a-cellulose fraction (residue from
alkaline extractions) of bran (including germ) and polish, have a similar
qualitative sugar pattern. They contain galactose, glucose, mannose, ara-
binose, and xylose.
Lignin
Lignin content ranged from 7.70 to 13.11% in the bran, and from 2.01 to
4.42% in the polish. It decreased from the first to the fourth cone: 12.79,
8.41, 5.94, and 4.28%, dry basis, free of fat.
Table 14-2. Proximate Analysis and Some Chemical Constituents of Rice Bran
and Polish and Other Cereal Brans0
RICE
Wheat Rye
Constituent Bran Polish Bran Bran
Crude protein,
% N X 6.25 12.0-15.6 11.8-13.0 14.5-15.7 14.6
Crude fat,% 15.0-19.7 10.1-12.4 2.9-4.3 2.6
Crude fiber, % 7.0-11.4 2.3-3.2 6.8-10.4 6.6
Available
carbohydrates, % 34.1-52.3 51.1-55.0 50.7-59.2 58.0
Crude ash,% 6.6-9.9 5.2-7.3 4.0-6.5 4.2
Calcium, mg/g 0.3-1.2 0.5-0.7 1.2-1.3 0.9-1.2
Magnesium, mg/g 5-13 6-7 5.6
Phosphorous. mg/g 11-25 10-22 9-13 7.2-10.5
Phytin phosphorus, mg/g 9-22 12-17 10 6.9
Silica, mg/g 6-11 2-3 2
Zinc, f.Lg/g 43-258 17;60 105 56
Thiamin (B 1), f.Lg/g 12-24 3-19 5.4-7.0 2.5
Riboflavin (B 2), f.Lg/g 1.8-4.3 1,7-2.4 2.4-8.0 0.2
Niacin, f.Lg/g 267-499 224-389 181-550 22.6
aAdjusted to 14% moisture level.
Data compiled from the National Academy of Science (1971); Gohl (1981).
Proteins and other nitrogen compounds

The nitrogen content of bran varies from 1 to 3%, dry basis. The nitrogen
content is usually multiplied by the factor 5.95 for conversion into protein
content. In the feedstuff industry, the conversion factor 6.25 is widely
used (Table 14-2).
The largest part of rice-bran nitrogen is protein nitrogen. Nonprotein
nitrogen accounts for about 16% of the total nitrogen and for about 11%
of rice polish nitrogen. Major free amino acids in bran are glutamic acid
(7-31%), alanine (11-16%), and serine (5-15%). Other nitrogen com-
pounds reported are guanine, xanthine, adenine, hypoxanthine, histidine,
ammonia, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, cytosine, nicotinic acid, guani-
dine, betaine, choline, uracil, allantoin in rice polish, flavine adenine dinu-
cleotide (0.93 ppm), and flavine mononucleotide (0.69 ppm).
The amino acid composition of rice bran varies within wide limits
(Table 14-3).
Sheller (underrunner disk) bran, bran, and polish were remarkably
similar in amino acid content.
The protein content of bran (including germ) and polish of high- and
low-protein rice varieties are as follows: bran, 13.3-15.5% and
Table 14-3. Amino Acid Composition of Rice Bran and Polish and Other
Cereal Brans0
RICE
Wheat Rye Oat
Amino Acid Bran Polish Branb Branb Bran
Alanine 6.5- 7.0 6.5; 6.6 5.7; 3.8 5.4 5.1
Arginine 8.6- 9.1 8.9; 9.0 8.1; 5.9 6.3 6.8
Aspartic acid 10.0-11.0 9.7;10.7 8.5; 6.1 7.5 8.6
Cystine 2.5- 2.8 2.7; 2.8 2.8; 1.9 1.9 2.4
Glutamic acid 14.6-15.0 16.1;17.6 21.2;16.8 27.9 21.1
Gycine 5.8- 6.2 5.6; 5.7 6.7; 4.6 5.4 5.4
Histidine 2.9- 3.7 2.8; 2.9 3.2; 2.5 2.2 2.2
Isoleucine 2.9- 4.5 2.9; 4.2 3.4; 2.7 3.7 3.8
Leucine 7.6- 8.4 7.2; 8.4 6.8; 5.1 6.8 7.4
Lysine 5.3- 6.0 4.6; 5.1 4.5; 3.4 4.1 4.1
Methionine 1.9- 2.5 2.4; 3.0 1.7; 1.0 0.4 2.1
Phenylalanine 4.9- 5.3 4.6; 5.0 4.3; 3.1 4.6 5.1
Proline 4.6- 6.1 4.2; 5.7 6.5; 5.7 4.9 6.2
Serine 5.1- 6.0 4.9; 5.9 5.0; 4.3 4.5 4.8
Threonine 4.2- 4.6 3.9; 4.4 3.7; 2.9 3.3 3.4
Tryptophan 0.6; 1.4 1.4 1.7
Tryosine 3.5- 3.8 3.8; 4.3 3.3; 2.4 2.7 3.5
Valine 5.4- 6.6 4.8; 6.2 3.2; 3.7 5.3 5.5
Ammonia 1.9- 7.6 2.2; 6.5 2.1 2.5
aExpressed in g/16 g of N.
U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare/FAO (1968, 1972).
16.0-17.4%; and polish, 12.2-14.1% and 17.9-19.0%. The major protein

fractions in bran are albumin and globulin; the major protein fraction in
polish is glutelin. Prolamin is the minor fraction in both cases. The mean
ratio of albumin globulin : prolamin : glutelin for the six Philippine samples
is 37: 36: 5: 22 for bran (including germ) and 30: 14: 5: 51 for polish.
The albumin-globulin fraction of bran has been resolved by gel filtra-
tion in Sephadex G-100 into three components with molecular weights of
2.0 x 105 , 0.8 x 105 , and 0.3 x 105 • The globulin fraction has also been
fractionated by Sephadex G-200 chromatography into three components:
gamma globulin, with a molecular weight of 1.5 x 105, is the major one
(Morita and Yoshida 1968).
Cytochrome C and a blue protein have been isolated and found to be
the major soluble basic proteins of bran (Morita and Ida 1968; Morita et
al. 1971). The blue protein is a copper containing glycoprotein, with an
estimated molecular weight of 18,300, which occurs predominantly in the
aleurone layer but rarely in the embryo and other parts of the kernel.
Enzymes
Rice bran is abundant in various enzyme systems (Barber and Benedito
de Barber 1980). The following enzymes have been reported to be present:
a-amylase, ,8-amylase, ascorbic acid oxidase, catalase, cytochrome oxi-
dase, dehydrogenase, deoxyribonuclease I, esterase, flavin oxidase, a-
and ,8-glucosidase, ferredoxin NADP reductase, glutamic acid decarboxyl-
ase, glutamine synthetase, glutathion reductase, ,8-glycerophosphatase,
invertase, lecithinase, lipase (Aizono et al. 1976; Shastry and Rao 1976;
Shibuya et al. 1975), lipoxygenase (Shastry and Rao 1975), pectinase,
peroxidase (Barber et al. 1977a,b), phosphatases, phytase, polyphenoloxi-
dase, protease, and succinate dehydrogenase. The more important en-
zymes related to rice-bran stability are lipase, lipoxygenase, and perox-
idase.
The germ and outer covers of the caryopsis are the site of higher
enzymatic activities. Amylolytic activities (mg maltose/10 g) of rice milling
products are brown rice, 39; milled rice, 15; bran, 320; polishings, 250;
and germ, 310. The catalase activity ratio for brown rice: brown rice free
of germ: milled rice was found to be about 40: 16: 1. Proteolytic activities
of degermed brown rice (1), bran (5.9% of 1), polish (4.6% of 1), and germ
were 1.7, 17.4, 4.9, and 31.8 hemoglobin units/g rice, dry basis. Enzymes
in rice bran might also be of microbial origin. Among the enzymes, lipase
merits most attention because it affects the keeping quality of rice bran.
Minerals
Phosphorus is one of the major mineral constituents of bran (Table 14-4).
Also present in decreasing order are potassium, magnesium, and silicon.
The concentration of mineral elements in bran varies with the degree
of milling and growing environment. Some elements (P, K, Mg) increase
initially and decrease with deeper milling; others (Ca, Mn, Fe) exhibit
an early sharp decrease. A decreasing concentration gradient occurs in
subaleurone layers (Kennedy and Schelstraete 1975). The distribution of
phytate and mineral elements in endosperm, germ, and pericarp plus
aleurone in rice has been reported by O'Dell et al. (1972).
Phosphorus in bran occurs as phytic acid, nucleic acid, inorganic
phosphate, carbohydrate, and phosphatide. The reported values, calcu-
lated as percentages of the total phosphorus, are 89.9, 4.4, 2.5, 2.3, and
1%, respectively. The largest part of phosphorus is linked to inositol as
the calcium-magnesium salt of myoinositol hexaphosphate or phytin. Bran
may contain about 1.8% of phytin. Phytin phosphorus contents for bran-
germ range between 2.2 and 2.6%.
Table 14-4. Inorganic Constituents of

Rice Bran
Constituent Content, ppm (dry basis)
Aluminum 53.5-369
Calcium 140-1,310
Chlorine 510-970
Copper 0.37
Iodine 5
Iron 130-530
Magnesium 8,650-12,300
Manganese 110-877
Mercury 0.3
Phosphorus 14,800-28,680
Potassium 13,650-23,960
Selenium 0.170
Silicon 1,700-16,300
Sodium 0-290
Sulfur 80
Tin 17.6-41.3
Titanium 26
Zinc 80
Source: Barber and Benedito de Barber
(1980).
Vitamins
Bran is abundant in vitamins of the B group and tocopherols and is poor

in vitamin A and C (Table 14-5). The variation in vitamin content reflects
rice variety, degree of milling, and possible hull contamination. In the
United States, bran for food consumption is devoid of hull and, thus, the
vitamin content would be expected to be at the high end of the range listed
here.
Vitamins are not uniformly distributed within the grain. The greatest
concentration is found in bran, where the major part of the B vitamins in
the grain is located. The pattern of distribution is not identical for all the
vitamins. For instance, nearly 80% of the nicotinic acid and only 35% of
the thiamin has been found to occur in the pericarp plus aleurone layer.
In the germ (scutellum plus embryo), about 2.5% ofthe nicotinic acid and
over 55% of the thiamin are located. Concentration levels of some vita-
mins, like pantothenic acid and folic acid, in rice polish may be higher
than in rice bran.
Although the vitamin content differs among rice varieties and, to a
lesser extent, with location of growth, major causes of variations are the
Table 14-5. Vitamin Content of Rice Bran

Vitamin Content, ppm (dry basis)
Vitamin A 4.2
Thiamin 10.1 - 27.9
Riboflavin 1.7 - 3.4
Niacin (nicotinic acid) 236 - 590
Pyridoxine 10.3 - 32.1
Pantothenic acid 27.7 - 71.3
Biotin 0.16- 0.60
Inositol 4627 -9270
Choline 1279 -1700
p-Aminobenzoic acid 0.75
Folic acid 0.50- 1.46
Vitamin B12 0.005
Vitamin E (tocopherols) 149
Source: Barber and Benedito de Barber (1980).
uncontrolled proportion of germ and polish and the differences in the

degree of milling.
Vitamins occur in bran in free or combined form: 75% of riboflavin
was reported to be in esterified form, with 89% of the folic acid, 49% of
the pantothenic acid, and 86% of the niacin in the bound form. Pyridoxine
was also found in free and combined form.
Chemical Composition of Rice Germ
Literature on rice germ is less abundant than that on bran. Rice germ is
characteristically richer in proteins (17.3-26.4%) and fat (16.6-39.8%) but
lower in fiber (1.98-15.10%) than bran. Commercial germ available in
Spain, however, always contains 20-30% impurities, most frequently en-
dosperm and hull fragments. Ash (6.07-10.8%) is an important component.
Since rice germ accounts for 20% or more by weight of rice bran (Japonica
rice), germ removal affects bran composition, particularly decreasing the
fat content (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980).
Sugars
Total sugar content of germ differs widely. They vary from 8 to 25%
(Fossati et al. 1976). Reducing sugars range from 1 to 11.63%.
Pentosans and Lignins
Pentosans in germ amount to about 7% by weight and lignin about 3-6%
(Leonzio 1967). The level of pentosan in the germ is intermediate between
that of bran (9.65%) and polish (4.60%). Lignin content is much lower in the
germ than in the bran (10.35%) but is similar to that in the polish (3.15%).
RICE BRAN: CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY I 333
Nitrogenous Compounds
Nonprotein nitrogen in rice germ is about 13% of the total nitrogen, inter-
mediate between bran and polish (Baldi et al. 1976). Total free amino acids
range from 24.3- to 106.0-mg amino N/100-g germ. Rice embryo contains
about four times more amino N than bran. The major free amino acids are
alanine (14%), aspartic acid (12%), proline (29.5%), and serine (12%).
Polyamines occur in appreciable quantities in rice germ: cadaverine,
133 ppm; putrescine, 69 ppm; spermidine, 153 ppm, and spermine, 141
ppm (Moruzzi and Caldarera 1964).
Amino acid composition of rice germ protein varies widely (Baldi et
al. 1976). Rice germ contains more lysine than the bran.
The protein fractions in rice germ have been shown to be high in the
brine-soluble fraction, the mean albumin-globulin: prolamin : glutelin ratio
being 71: 1:28 (Baldi et al. 1976). In contrast, 17.4% albumin and 20.0%
globulin have been reported for Japanese rice embryo protein (Morita and
Yoshida 1968). The brine-soluble fraction in Italian rice was much higher
in the germ than in the bran and lowest in the polish.
Much as with bran globulin, embryo globulin has been fractionated
into three components by Sephadex G-200 chromatography. The f frac-
tion, with a molecular weight of 1.5 x 105, is the major one (Morita and
Yoshida 1968). Gamma-globulin has, in turn, been fractionated into three
components by diethylaminoethyl Sephadex A-50 chromatography (Sawai
and Morita 1970a). The molecular dimension and chemical characteristics
of one of these gamma fractions have been reported (Sawai and Morita
1970b; Horikoshi and Morita 1975).
Hemoproteins (cytochrome C and peroxidase 556 as major constit-
uents) and some other cromoproteins (flavoproteins and a blue protein)
have been isolated from rice embryo, purified, and partially characterized
(Morita and Ida 1968, 1972).
Minerals
Rice germ is high in phosphorus and low in calcium, sodium, and silicon.
In pure germ, 75% of the total phosphorus is present as phytate phospho-
rus. In pericarp and aleurone, 91% of the total phosphorus is phytate P
(O'Dell et al. 1972).
Vitamins
The values reported for most of the vitamins of the rice germ fall within
the ranges reported for bran (Table 14-6). The exceptions are thiamin,
which is more abundant in the germ, and niacin, which is more abundant
in the bran.
Table 14-6. Vitamin Content of Rice Germ

Constituent,
y/ g, dry basis Content
Vitamin A (carotenes) 1.3
Thiamin 45.3 - 76.0
Riboflavin 2.7 - 5.0
Niacin (nicotinic acid) 15.2 - 99.0
Pyridoxine 15.2 - 16.0
Pantothenic acid 13.2 - 30.0
Biotin 0.26- 0.58
Inositol 3725 -6400
Choline 2031 -3000
p-Aminobenzoic acid 1
Folic acid 0.9 - 4.3
Vitamin B 12 0.001
Vitamin E (tocopherols) 87.3
Source: Juliano (1972).
Processed Rice Brans

The composition and properties of various processed rice brans-par-
boiled, stabilized, defatted, dephytinized, and adulterated-have been
reviewed by Barber and Benedito de Barber (1980) and Saunders (1990).
Parboiled rice bran is higher in oil content than raw bran but lower
in thiamin and riboflavin. Differences in composition between raw and
parboiled brans depend on the degree of milling and on parboiling condi-
tions (Benedito de Barber et al. 1977).
Removal of oil from regular bran by pressing or solvent extraction
brings about proportional increases in the concentration of all major con-
stituents except water. Bran from the solvent-extraction milling process
(X-M process, Hunnell and Nowlin 1972) has been reported to be higher
in protein content and lower in fiber content than expected from the simple
removal of fat.
Dephytinized bran has a lower ash and nitrogen-free extract (NFE), and
higher protein, lipids, and crude fiber content than regular bran (Table 14-7).
Some rice bran may be adulterated with hulls, corncobs, peanut shells,
wood, sawdust, and clay. Urea is used to increase the nitrogen content.
Hulls, the most frequent adulterant, increase the lignin, silica, and ash
content of bran.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE BRAN
Information on the physical characteristics and properties of bran is neces-

sary for appropriate processing of the by-product in stabilizing, drying,
handling, and storage.
Table 14-7. Gross Chemical Composition of Dephytinized and Defatted

Dephytinized Bran
Untreated Dephytinized Defatted Dephytinized
Constituenta Rice Bran Rice Bran Rice Bran
Protein 16.6 17.2 21.3
Fat 19.7 25.4 2.7
Crude cellulose 7.5 14.1 17.0
Ash 10.7 3.2 4.0
NFE 45.6 40.1 55.0
aPercentage, dry basis.
Particle-size distribution of bran varies within a wide range. Data

have been published for bran from friction vs abrasion types of milling
machines, different cones (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1977), raw vs.
heat stabilized rice (Barber and Maquieira 1977), and defatted bran and
germ (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980). They include the following
findings:
1. Friction-type machines produce a bran of larger particle size than

the abrasion type.
2. There is no clear relationship between fineness and cone number;
nevertheless, the percentage of fine particles increases in the bran
fraction of deeper layers. Distribution patterns for brans from dif-
ferent mills differ remarkably.
3. Moist-heat stabilization brings about agglomeration of rice bran
particles (Table 14-8).
Table 14-8. Particle-Size Distribution of Raw

and Heat-Stabilized Brans0
Moist-heat
Meshb
"'>1000
Raw Stabilized<
>18 0 0
18- 30 1000-595 2.4 18.6
30- 50 595-297 30.0 32.7
50- 80 297-177 12.2 18.5
80-100 177-149 8.5 10.8
<100 <149 46.7 19.4
a Japonica rice type; cone mill.
b U.S. standard.
c Stabilized according to Barber et al. (1977); 3 min
steaming, followed by flash drying and cooling.
Source: Barber and Maquieira (1977).
Table 14-9. Size Distribution of Rice Germ

PURIFIED GERMa,b
COMMERCIAL GERM" LONG AXIS SHORT AXIS
Size, p. Weight% Size, mm Weight% Size, mm Weight%

<149 0 <1.65 9 <0.90 9
149-420 0.3 1.65-1.80 32 0.90-1.05 34
420-595 0.6 1.80-1.95 35 1.05-1.20 48
595-840 23.6 1.95-2.10 10 1.20-1.35 8
>840 75.7 2.10-2.25 14 1.35-1.50
a Japonica type rice. Different varieties.
b Sampled purified by screening and pneumatic classification, defatted with petroleum ether
(60-70°C), (140-158°F) fraction, and dried at room temperature.
4. Bran from parboiled rice appears to be flakier, with larger flake

size, than bran from raw rice. Quantitative differences among varie-
ties are large.
5. Commercial rice germ comprises a wide range of sizes (Table
14-9).
The bulk density of rice bran varies from 0.2 to 0.4 glee. For purified
commercial germ, Japonica-type rice, the bulk density of the bran is 0.51
glee.
The angle of repose in piled material (the angle formed between the
heap of bran and the horizontal surface) has been reported to be 38°, which
is within the range of variation of that for paddy and rice.
Bran exhibits moisture absorption and desorption properties. Data on
equilibrium moisture content of bran, polish, and moist-heat-stabilized
bran (Tables 14-10 and 14-11) are relevant since the stability of the by-
Table 14-10. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Bran and Polish,

kg water/100-kg bran
TEMPERATURE AT 25°C
By-product 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Bran" 5.0 6.4 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.4 14.8 18.0
Branb 4.6 5.8 6.6 7.4 8.3 9.2 10.6
Polish" 5.3 7.0 8.2 9.2 10.1 11.0 12.4 14.5 18.0
aField-dried rough rice; initial moisture 16.8%.
hRice artificially dried; initial moisture 12.8%. From undermilled rice.
Table 14-11. Equilibrium Moisture Content of Heat-

Stabilized Rice Bran, kg water/100-kg bran
TEMPERATURE
Relative Humidity 20°C 25°C 30°C 35°C

0.11 5.6 5.5 5.4 5.2
0.23 7.3 7.1 6.8 6.5
0.33 7.7 7.8 7.5 7.1
0.42 8.8 8.7 8.3 8.0
0.52 9.3 9.6 9.0 8.7
0.57 10.2 9.8 9.6 9.3
0.67 11.2 11.0 10.6 10.4
0.75 13.0 12.7 12.4 12.1
0.84 16.2 15.8 15.0 14.7
0.92 24.6 21.3 19.8 19.1
Source: Adapted from Fito and Sanz (1974); Barber and Benedito
de Barber (1980).
products is affected by their moisture content, which varies with environ-

mental conditions and the gain or loss in moisture that takes place during
storage.
PROCESSED RICE BRAN AND RICE-BRAN PRODUCTS
The utilization of rice bran as food is limited by its instability and high
fiber content. In order to solve these problems, alternative processes and
products have been developed: (1) rice-bran stabilization, and (2) rice-
bran fractionation processes.
Rice-Bran Stabilization
Fundamentals of Rice-Bran Stabilization
Bran contains oil, proteins, vitamins, and essential minerals. It also con-
tains enzymes, microorganisms, insects, natural antiprotease constituents,
harmful contaminants, and adulterants. Some components have to be pre-
served; others must be removed or their activity arrested.
Enzymes, microorganisms, and insects are major causes of deteriora-
tion of rice bran. Lipases and, to a lesser extent, oxidases are responsible
for deteriorative changes. Lipases promote the hydrolysis of the bran oil
into glycerol and free fatty acids (FFA). The location of lipases in rice
grain and its characteristics have been reviewed (Desikachar 1977). In the
intact grain, lipases are dormant. The enzyme and the substrate are not
together in the resting grain. Lipases are localized in the testa/cross layer
of the rice grains whereas the oil is in the aleurone and subaleurone layers
and germ. A similar compartmentation should occur in the germ, where
60% of the total lipase activity of the grain has been found (Shibuya et al.
1975). When bran is scoured during rice milling, the enzyme and substrate
are brought together, and oil deterioration starts. Rice-bran lipase has
been isolated and characterized by Aizono et al. (1976). It has a molecular
weight of 40,000 daltons. The enzyme is activated by a low concentration
of Ca2 + and inhibited by heavy metals. Its optimum pH is 7.5-8.0, and
the optimum temperature is about 37°C. Peroxidase causes oxidative spoil-
age of bran components (oil, tocopherols) at low moisture levels. Commer-
cial bran has a high microbial population, frequently exceeding several
million microorganisms per gram (Barber et al. 1977a). Molds, including
heat-resistant spores, which are capable of producing active lipases, are
always present. Insects, whether adults, larvae, or eggs, can cause spoil-
age and are usual contaminants of commercial rice bran.
Bran contains protease inhibitors that can cause inhibition of growth
and/or a decrease in food efficiency. More than 90% of total antitrypsin
and hemagglutinating activities of the caryopsis are located in the germ
(Barber et al. 1978; Benedito de Barber and Barber 1978).
In order to process bran into a food-grade product of good keeping
quality and high industrial value, all the components causing deterioration
must be removed or their activity arrested. The enzyme inactivation must
be complete and irreversible. At the same time, the valuable components
must be preserved. Enzymes, microorganisms, insects, and natural prote-
ase inhibitors in bran are heat-labile. Although other inactivating agents
are known, the application of heat is the only method that is safe and
effective. The heat resistance of rice-bran enzymes depends on tempera-
ture and time of treatment, as well as on moisture content. The higher the
moisture content, the lower the heat resistance (Barber et al. 1977a).
Measurement of residual peroxidase activity has been a reliable and conve-
nient method for assessing the effectiveness of stabilization. Peroxidase
appears to be the most heat-stable enzyme and is more resistant to heat
than lipase and other enzymes in bran.
Extrusion Cooking
Extrusion cooking is an effective method for stabilization of rice brans.
Mercier et al. (1989) edited an excellent book on extrusion cooking. Ran-
dall et al. (1985) developed an extrusion-cooking procedure that produces
stable rice bran. The product shows no significant increase in free fatty
acid content for at least 30-60 days. In the optimum process, 500 kg/hr of
12-13%-moisture bran were extruded in a Brady extruder (Brady Extruder
Corp, Torrance, California) at 130°C and held 3 min at 97-99°C before
cooling. The rice bran was diverted from the bran millstream and delivered
within 10 min after milling into the feed hopper of a Brady crop cooker,
Model2160, equipped with a 100-hp motor. Moisture addition to the bran
prior to extrusion was achieved by spraying water from a nozzle into the
feed hopper. Extruded hot bran was expelled onto an insulated conveyor
belt, where it was held for 3 min at 97-99°C before cooling. Stabilized
bran contained 6-7% moisture and was in the form of small flakes with
88% of the particles larger than 0.7 mm (25 mesh). Energy required to
extrude the bran was 0.07-0.08 kW-hr/kg bran. The wear on the extrusion
surface indicated a life of 500 hr for the cone and 1000-2000 hr for other
wearing parts.
Processes and equipment for rice-bran stabilization

Most of the older processes involve dry- or moist-heat treatment. Use of
chemicals (Desikachar 1977), gamma irradiation, and storage under low
temperature or inert atmospheres have also been suggested. They have
not been accepted as reliable, practical procedures. Bran from the solvent-
extraction milling process (X-M process, Hunnell and Nowlin 1972) still
contains a small proportion of oil and some lipase activity (Lynn 1969).
Harper (1989) published a comprehensive review on food extruders and
their applications.
The use of dry heat to stabilize rice bran has been investigated exten-
sively. Recommended treatment conditions differ dramatically, and results
are very often discordant. In general, dry heat does not inactivate lipases
totally. Moisture levels of 3-6% are recommended to prevent an FFA rise
(Yokochi 1977).
Heating the bran at l20°C for 15 min in a pan with stirring did not
arrest lipase activity; 20 min at 110°C was needed for inactivation (Srimani
et al. 1977). Experiments with heating bran in the oven at temperatures
ranging from 70°C to 200°C and times from 5 min to 6 hr have been
conducted (Yokochi 1977). A definite increase in FFA in the bran was
noted in most cases after a few weeks of storage. An electrically heated,
vertically rotating drum, intended to operate where facilities for raising
steam are not available, has been tested. After preheating and driving out
the air, the temperature was raised and maintained 5 min at 11 ooc; moisture
of the bran was reduced to about 7-8% by releasing the steam that evolved.
The total processing time was 20-25 min.
Pneumatic Drier
A pneumatic conveying drier may be used for stabilizing rice bran while
bringing down its moisture content below 4%. The recommended tempera-
ture was about 200°C, with the air rate around 200m3/hr. Another process
involves heat treatment of the bran in a fluidized bed, in which a stirrer
rotating at low speed obviates channeling difficulties caused by the poor

fluidization characteristics of rice bran; 4 min at 105°C are reported to
cause effective stabilization for 20 days. In addition, the possibility of
applying frictional heat to accomplish the objective has been investigated,
using a Handler-type oil expeller unit, an Engleberg-type rice mill, and a
plate grinder mill with minimum clearance (Desikachar 1977). All the
units present serious operational difficulties involving compacting and
hardening of the bran.
The drawbacks common in these methods are (1) severe processing
conditions capable of damaging the valuable components of bran, (2)
substantial moisture removal with high calorie consumption, and (3) com-
plete and irreversible inactivation of enzymes not achieved. The moisture
content of the bran must be kept low, which involves operational difficul-
ties in industrial practice.
Moist-Heating Processes
Moist-heating processes generally involve steaming the bran for 1-30 min,
drying the product to 3-12% moisture content, and then cooling. Cooking
and extrusion under high pressure are another alternative. It is generally
recognized that moist heat is more effective than dry heat. Out of the many
processes using steam, few have achieved satisfactory results. To achieve
proper stabilization, every discrete particle of the bran must have a proper
moisture content depending on the processing temperature and time. Bran
agglomerates with moistened surfaces but dry cores are usually formed.
When properly performed, the method of steaming bran for 3 min at 1oooc,
followed by drying to the initial moisture content and cooling, can yield
satisfactory results.
For moist-heat treatment, several types of equipment have been used,
including steam cookers, blanchers, autoclaves, tempering and precondi-
tioning units for oil expellers and parboiling steaming kettles, screw con-
veyors (Yokochi 1977; Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980, 1985), and screw
extrusion units with injected steam and/or water. Treatment time ranges from
1 min to 3 hr, and temperature ranges from 95 to 135°C. Bran passing through
the three sections is steamed at 100-121°C for 1.5 min, its moisture content
being raised by 3-5 percentage points. The product is then held for 3 min at
102-104°C and finally cooled. A Japanese plant (Yokochi 1977) consists of
three successive screw conveyors for the successive steaming (3 min at
95°C), drying, and cooling (3-4% moisture content) of the bran. A Spanish
continuous stabilizer (Barber et al. 1977a; Fito and Sanz 1974) consists of a
U-shaped trough mixer, with live steam injected through its perforated bot-
tom, an insulated screw conveyor, a flash drier, and a flash cooler. The bran
is heated at 100°C for 3 min, during which time its moisture content is raised
by 4 percentage points. The product is then dried to its initial moisture content
and cooled. In a plant using the extrusion method (Williams and Baer 1965),
the bran is conveyed through the barrel by a continuous worm shaft toward
the discharge plate, with water and steam being added, and the bran is finally
extruded from the expander through the die plate, where the expanded bran
is dried and cooled. The bran is heated at 121-163°C and its moisture content
raised by approximately 23% wet basis. After expansion, the product is dried
to 8-10% moisture.
Poststabilization technology
"Stabilization" is generally understood to refer to the heat processing
only. However, stabilization, in a broader sense, includes the process that
commences with heat treatment of the brah after milling and terminates
with its use as an animal feed or as a raw material in further processing
(UNIDO 1977). Heat tratment of bran is therefore only a part of the
process. In fact, well stabilized bran has excellent keeping qualities, with
adequate protection from microbial, insect, and other pest attacks. Like
other food products, heat-stabilized bran demands appropriate storage
technology. Knowledge of packaging, storage, insecticidal treatments,
mold-growth prevention, and rodent protection is needed. There is a need
to develop an appropriate poststabilization technology for rice bran in
regions in which it is handled. Otherwise, the many valuable efforts made
to develop a successful rice-bran stabilization technology will be wasted.
Bran Fractionation Processes

Approaches to reducing the fiber content of rice bran have been oriented
toward (1) removal of more fibrous particles, and (2) isolation of proteins
and/or protein-rich particles.
Dry Fractionation Processes

The separate collection of the individual bran streams from the different
whitening cones and the separation of germ from bran are probably the
first attempts to fractionate bran. The differences among bran streams
today do not justify the individual segregation. Only rice polish is some-
times collected separately.
In spite of the considerable range of particle sizes in bran, fractionation
by dry sieving has not been successful (Barber and Benedito de Barber
1980). Grinding of defatted bran followed by air classification permits
segregation of a high-protein fraction containing 15% protein compared to
10.6% in the original bran (Houston and Mohammad 1966). However, its
fiber content is high (6.5%), the yield is low (25%), and the processing
costs are high.
Wet fractionation processes

Existing methods may be classified into three groups: (1) alkaline extrac-
tion (Chen and Houston 1970; Connor et al. 1977; Lew et al. 1975; Lynn
1969; Mitsuda et al. 1973); (2) water extraction/sedimentation (Barber et
al. 1977b; Mihara 1970); and (3) organic-solvent sedimentation (Mitsuda
et al. 1977b).
Alkaline extraction process

Typical processes basically consist of alkaline extraction of the proteins,
separation of the liquid phase, and isoelectric precipitation of the proteins
(Fig. 14-2, Chen and Houston 1970). Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric
acid have been found to be the most effective and economical agents for
these steps (Lynn 1969). Addition of an anion exchange resin has been
suggested to counteract the effect of phosphate and phytate and to increase
the final protein yield (Mitstida et al. 1973). After isoelectric precipitation,
a further amount of protein can be recovered by heat coagulation.
The effects of extraction conditions on the nitrogen extractability of
full-fat raw and heat-stabilized bran have been investigated (Barber and
Maquieira 1977). These extraction conditions are: pH (2-11), temperature
(30-80°C), solid-to-liquid ratio (1: 30-1: 3 w/v), time (2.5 min-6 hr), parti-
cle size (<1000, 354, 210, and 149 f.L), and ionic strength (0-0.06, using
calcium sulfate). Extractability increased with pH within the ranges 5-11
for raw bran and 7-11 for heat-stabilized bran (Fig. 14-3) and also with
temperatures of extraction within the pH range 9-11. The increase was
greater in the case of heat-stabilized bran. At 80°C and pH 9, the extract-
ability of raw and stabilized brans was similar. Extractability was little
affected by the solid-to-liquid ratio, time of extraction, and particle size
within the cited ranges, but it decreased with increasing ionic strength.
Grinding significantly increased nitrogen extraction at the pH of rice germ
(Betschart et al. 1977). The extractability of defatted bran (Chen and
Houston 1970), as well as the solubility of extracted rice-bran protein
(Connor et al. 1977), has also been studied.
Exposure of proteins to alkali may cause chemical changes, loss of
nutritive value, and formation of toxic compounds (De Groot and Slumps
1969). Cystine and serine residues may be converted to dehydroalanine,
and this may form lysinoalanine with the s-amino groups of lysine. The
combination of heat and alkali results in severe degradation of the protein
and undesirable flavor (Lynn 1969).
Although the protein content of concentrates is fairly good compared
to bran, the' total yield is low (Table 14-12). The color of the rice protein
concentrate varies from greenish at alkaline pH to a light tan at acid pH
(Lynn 1969).
RICE BRAN~ CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY 343
DEFATTED
BRAN
WATER
WASHI!I:G
---~---' -------------, I
I
I
I
snlfds solids
DltYl!I:G
PROTEIN COA<il:LATED
RF.SIDl'E WASTE
CONCF.NTRATfo: PROTEIN
Figure 14-2. Flowchart of wet-alkaline process for rice-bran protein concentrates.
(From Chen and Houston 1970.)
The amino acid composition of protein concentrates of rice bran does

not differ substantially from that of the original bran (Connor et al. 1977).
The protein efficiency ratio (PER) and nitrogen digestibility of acid-precipi-
tated (25.3% protein content) and heat-precipitated (23.5% protein con-
tent) rice-bran concentrates (1.99 and 2.19 vs. 2.50 for casein and 89.6 and
POl ......... ~ RAW BRAN

60
,o'
,'.
0
0..
50
I
,'
,1/
e
/
I
p
STABILIZED
BRAN
I I
,;:!:;.
0 POl I
I I 8
(/) 30
z
.
• _, I
20
o::-- ,,
... __ ,0' ~,_
,. . •
10
~e==e..-.-e
pH
Figure 14-3. Effects of pH of extraction on nitrogen extractabili1y of raw and heat-
stabilized rice bran. NSI: nitrogen solubili1y index (NSI = % water
soluble nitrogen x 100/% total nitrogen); PDI: protein dispersibili1y
index (PDI = % water dispersible protein x 100/% total protein).
(From Barber and Maquieira 1977.)
83.4, respectively) compare favorably with values for other plant protein
concentrates (Connor et al. 1977). A protein concentrate with 70% protein
has been reported to have a ratio of essential amino acids above the F AO
requirements and a PER of2.6 vs. 2.85 for the casein control (Lynn 1969).
Water-extraction/sedimentation processes
In the Japanese process (Mihara 1970), the rice bran is ground in a suitable
amount of water, and the solids are separated by centrifugation. The
remainder is a colloidal solution containing protein oil compounds and
Table 14-12. Yield and Composition of Wet-Alkaline-Process Rice-Bran Concentrates
YIELD COMPOSITIONc
Original Bran Extraction
and Concentrate pH Weight" Proteinb Proteind Fat Fiber Ash NFE Starch Reference
Defatted rice bran - 100 100 12.1 7.0 8.2 8.9 63.8 - Youseff et
Concentrate 5 45.5 65.1 17.3 5.8 6.8 5.8 64.3 - al. (1974)
Full-fat rice bran - 100 100 12.0 13.7 14.4 12.1 47.8 25.4 Connor et
Concentrate 9 20.5 38.8 22.7 32.7 0.7 11.7 32.2 22.9 a!. (1977)
Full-fat rice bran - 100 100 14.9 17.8 9.6 8.6 49.1 - Barber and
Concentrate 9 18.0 37.8 31.3 46.3 0.9 4.7 16.8 - Benedito de
Barber
(1980)
Full-fat rice bran - 100 100 11.5 12.8 11.5 9.6 54.6 - Lew eta!.
Concentrate 11 6.6 43.7 76.1 14.1 - 3.5 - - (1975)
a Gram protein concentrate/100-g original bran, dry basis.
b Percent protein recovered.
c Percent, dry basis.
d N X 5.95.
e 20-g bran extracted with 180-cc H 20 + 1.6-cc 19% NaOH sol.
c.:>
f;,
Table 14-13. NW Process: Yield and Analysis of Various Products

PRODUCT
Vitamin Syrup Rice

Protein Starch Phytin Residue Concentrate Oil
Yield, kg 110 145 80 250 220 165
Water,% 8.56 5.40 2.21
Protein,% 78.5 1.61 0 13.1 11.2
Fats and oils, % 1.75 0.49 0 6.76
Cellulose, % 0 1.67 0 26.3 0
Ashes,% 2.9 0.67 41.2 2.60
Carbohydrates, % 8.28 90.1 0 48.8 87.3
Source: Mihara (1970); Barber and Benedito de Barber (1980).
water-insoluble phytin, proteins, vitamins, and carbohydrates. The protein

oil compound can be separated by filtration. Dehydration and deoiling
produce an oil fraction and a white or grayish-white protein powder. The
filtrate is further fractionated into phytin and a vitamin syrup by adding a
phytin precipitant. The solid residue of the first centrifugation is further
fractionated into a final residue and a mixture of starch and phytin, from
which the latter is solubilized by acidic aqueous solution and recovered
by precipitation. Yield and composition of products are shown in Table
14-13. A Spanish process (Barber et al. 1977b) is characterized by selective
grinding in disk, rotating, or colloidal mills and by fiber removal by means
of sieving through vibrating or stationary meshes or screens and/or hydro-
cyclones, all in a water medium, with final segregation of three basic
fractions: (1) a high-protein, low-fiber flour; (2) an aqueous concentrate of
nutrients, mainly vitamins and minerals; and (3) a high-fiber, medium-
protein meal (Fig. 14-4) (Table 14-14).
Fractional sedimentation in n-hexane
This process (Mitsuda et al. 1977b) is intended to be attached to the

conventional rice-bran-oil production system. It involves disintegration of
the bran with 2 vol of n-hexane in a high-speed blender and subsequent
sieving and centrifugation. A brown fraction, between 60- and 250-mesh
screens, which contains the greatest amount of cellulose in rice bran, is
finally separated by a basket centrifuge. A white fraction passing through
the 250-mesh screen is obtained by sedimentation and continuous centrifu-
gation of the supernatant. The white fraction amounts to 35-40% of origi-
nal bran and contains 22% protein, 50% carbohydrate, 4% fiber, and 20%
ash, dry basis. Protein efficiency ratio values of white and brown fractions
are 1.80 and 1.31 compared to 1.50 for the original bran.
BRAN
I
!
1
WATER
I MIXING
I ' I J
SOAKING
I SELECTIVE
GRINDING l
- WATER
,
HIGH FIBER-I
FRACTION
FIBER
REl\IOVAL l LOW FIBER
FRACTI0:-.1
I DEWATERING I l DEWATERI~G -,
t
liQUidS
'""'' l • liquids
DRYING DRYING
!
HIGH FIBER HIGH PROTEIN LOW
FLOUR FIBER FRACTIO~
Figure 14-4. Flowchart of lATA rice-bran fractionation process. (From Barber et al.
1977b.)
Table 14-14. IATA0 Bran Fractionation Process: Yield and

Chemical Composition of Fractions
PRODUCT
Original Low-Fiber High-Fiber

Bran Fraction Fraction Liquor
Yielda 100 57 32 11
Protein 14.5 16.9 13.1 6.1
Fat 14.6 17.1 13.0 6.3
Fiber 9.5 3.0 17.8 0.5
a lnstituto de Agroquimica Y Technologia de Alimentos (Institute
for Agricultural Chemistry and Food Technology).
b Percentage, dry basis.
Source: Barber et al. (1977b).
FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD/FEED USES OF RICE BRAN

AND RICE-BRAN PRODUCTS
Flavor and color, functional properties, and nutritional properties are the
three major factors determining uses and consumption of rice bran in food
and feed.
Flavor and Color

Bran has a characteristic bland flavor, slightly bitter and sweet. Bran flavor
is frequently described as incipient rancid, musty, and sour because of its
ready deterioration in commercial lots. Generally, flavor is a serious
limitation to the utilization of rice bran as an ingredient in processed foods.
Deterioration products of lipids and phenolic compounds, volatile
amines, and peptides generally are regarded as the source of objectionable
flavors in grain products. The volatile compounds associated with the odor
of fresh bran include alcohols and carbonyls (Mitsuda et al. 1968). The
alcoholic components identified are methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, sec bu-
tanol, isobutanol, n-butanol, and n-hexanol. The carbonyls are ethanal,
propanal, isobutanal, n-butanal, isopentanal, n-pentanal, hexanal, and ace-
tone. Storage increases the ratio of carbonyls to alcohols. A degradation
product of thiamin and thiazole, 3-aceto-3-mercaptopropanol, has been
reported as closely related to that of rice bran. In heat-treated bran, the
Maillard reaction is an important source of usual flavors by the thermal
breakdown of sugars and specific flavors by the decarboxylation of amino
acids. Four substances, furfural, 5-methyl-furfural, furfurylalcohol, and 4-
vinylguaiacol seem to be the principal aroma constituents of roasted bran
(Kasahara 1976).
Table 14-15. Color of Raw, Stabilized, and Defatted Stabilized Rice Bran;
Tristimulus Color Factors0
3: 1 WATER: BRAN 6.5; 1 WATER-BRAN
DRY POWDER PASTE PASTE, COOKED
L a b L a b L a b
Raw bran 63.8 0.2 14.3 55.4 0.1 13.6 49.0 1.4 14.1
Moist-heat-stabilized 54.2 1.0 15.4 50.3 0.6 13.7 45.9 1.6 13.9
branb
Defatted moist-heat- 70.1 0 11.5 51.4 0.9 13.6 42.3 2.1 13.6
stabilized bran
aHunter Color Difference Meter.
bPilot plant-processed according to Barber eta!. (1977a).
Source: Tortosa and Benedito de Barber (1978).
Compounds responsible for the characteristic taste of rice bran are

not known. The sweet taste is ascribed to the relative high sugars content
of bran and germ. The bitter taste is presumably associated, in part, with
saponins, which have been identified in rice bran. Major sources of bitter
taste are deterioration products, presumably from lipids and/or proteins
(the hydroperoxides of linoleic and linolenic acids) (Kalbrener et al. 1974).
Oxidized phosphatidylcholines, as well as amino acids and peptides (Erik-
sen and Fagerson 1976) are known to have a bitter taste. Bran that is
appropriately stabilized and kept under safe storage does not develop an
objectionable bitter taste.
As to color, bran varies from light tan in ordinary samples to deep
brown in parboiled samples. Moist-heat treatment increases the red and
yellow components of color, thus decreasing whiteness. Hexane extrac-
tion of stabilized bran removes most of the pigments, and a white, creamy
flour remains. Water/bran pastes are browner than the dry powder, espe-
cially after cooking (Table 14-15).
Functional Properties
Flavor, color, protein extractability, solubility, water absorption, fat ab-
sorption, and foaming capacity are important factors to be considered for
the use of bran in foods. Water absorption is measured by slurrying bran
in water and then centrifuging. Absorbed water, taken as the increase in
bran weight, is close to 200-g water/100-g bran. Fat absorption is deter-
mined in a similar way, using corn-germ oil instead of water. Absorbed
oil, taken as the decrease in volume of free oil, was around 150-g oil/100-
g bran. Emulsifying capacity was measured by mixing water, bran, and
corn-germ oil in a Virtis blender and then centrifuging (Puski 1975). The
emulsified layer was 50%, and emulsion stability after a 30-min heating
was almost complete.
Data for water absorption, fat absorption, and the emulsifying capacity
of bran compared acceptably with those for commercially available soy-
bean 70% protein concentrate (270, 110, and 50, respectively) (Barber et
al. 1981). Bran exhibited very low foaming capacity.
Nutritional Properties
The content of essential amino acids, protein efficiency ratio (PER), and
nitrogen digestibility of rice by-products have been reviewed by Barber
and Benedito de Barber (1980) (1985). Differences in individual amino acid
content between raw and parboiled and defatted brans, including X-M
bran, are small, generally within a 10% deviation. Bran polish and germ
have higher levels of lysine than milled rice. Nevertheless, lysine and
threonine generally are the first and second limiting amino acids in regular,
parboiled, and defatted bran. Bran proteins are similar to those of other
cereals and some oilseeds (cottonseed, safflower seed, sunflower seed) for
their deficiency in lysine.
Levels of available lysine and methionine in raw bran are within the
usual range of variation of each individual amino acid. Available trypto-
phan is extremely low. Levels of available amino acids in the bran of
parboiled rices are lower than in the bran of the parent rice; loss of
availability increases with severity of treatment.
Regular bran, X-M bran, rice polish, parboiled rice polish, and high-
protein rice flours have similar PER values (1.70-1.90). Rice-bran protein
concentrates appear to have higher PER values (1.99-2.19). Rice germ
has the highest. Bran protein, although oflower nutritional value than egg
and animal proteins, compares favorably with that of soybeans (0.7-1.8)
and cottonseed, (1.3-2.1) and is much higher than those from corn (1.2)
and wheat (1.0) (Liener 1972).
Data for weight gain, coefficient of apparent digestibility (CDA), coef-
ficient of true digestibility (CDR), biological value (BV), net protein utiliza-
tion (NPU), and productive protein value (PPV) (Table 14-16) show that
the nutritional quality of the protein of raw bran is high and similar to the
feeds of animal origin. Moist-heat stabilization results in a slight increase
in weight gain and other parameters (Varela and Escriva 1977). A biological
value of 78.1 for rice germ compared to 61.4 for milled rice has been
reported (Barber and Benedito de Barber 1980).
Information on digestible nutrients (protein, lipids, fiber, and NFE)
was obtained with sheep on maintenance-level rations, including 50% rice
by-products. Digestibility of proteins in bran was 60.2; in defatted bran,
70.0; in polish 62.2; in germ, 67.9; in defatted germ, 67.8; and in hulls,
Table 14-16. Nutritional Quality of the Protein of Raw and

Moist-Heat-Stabilized Rice Bran
Parameter Raw Bran Moist-Heat-Stabilized Brana
Food intakeh 9.84 12.37
Weight gainc 2.37 3.08
CD Ad 62.6 64.7
CDRd 68.0 70.4
BVd 79.2 81.0
NPUd 53.9 57.1
ppyd 1.92 2.09
Nitrogen balance +73.5 +96.1
a Pilot plant-processed according to Barber et al. (1977a).
b Dry substance ingested, glrat/day.
c Gram/rat/day.
d CDA, coefficient of apparent digestibility; CDR, coefficient of true
digestibility; BV, biological value; NPU, net protein utilization; PPV,
productive protein value.
Source: Varela and Escriva (1977); Barber and Benedito de Barber
(1980).
11.0. Total digestible nutrients (TDN) calculated from the above figures
by Barber and Benedito de Barber was in bran, 67; in defatted bran, 65;
in polish, 73; in defatted germ, 73; and in hulls, 14. Slightly higher values
have been reported for bran in the case of swine and for bran and polishings
in the case of swine and cattle. Nitrogen digestibility of protein concentrate
from rice bran by wet processing at pH 8.6-9.0 was 89.6 (60.4 for parent
bran), which was similar to protein concentrates from wheat and triticale
brans-93.8 and 95.1, respectively-obtained by the same procedure.
Feed energy values, digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy
(ME), of rice bran are high for sheep and swine but relatively low for
cattle. Values for rice polish and defatted rice germ are higher, and those
for defatted rice bran are lower. Rice hulls, a frequent contaminant of
commercial bran, have very low values (Table 14-17).
In addition to proteins and calories, bran, germ, and polish are good
sources of essential unsaturated fatty acids and tocopherols, vitamins B 1
and B2, and minerals. Sodium, potassium, and chlorine are easily absorbed
and easily excreted. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are imperfectly
absorbed, and the amount of each present in bran does not necessarily
reflect its nutritive value. Other essential elements such as manganese,
iron, copper, and zinc are poorly absorbed and poorly excreted. As related
to the daily requirements of humans, the calcium content of bran is low.
Vitamin D and proteins may assist its absorption. However, some bran
components (phytic acid and, to a lesser extent, phosphate and fats) may
Table 14-17. Feed Energy Values of Rice By-Products

ENERGYa
CATTLE SHEEP SWINE
DE ME DE ME DE ME
Rice branb 2648 2171 3210 2632 3256 3028
Defatted rice branc 2167 1776 2247 1842
Rice polishings 3532 2896 3960 3026 3916 2658
Defatted rice germd 3325 2727
Rice hulls 609 500 609 500
a DE: digestible energy; ME: metabolizable energy, kcal/kg.
b Rice bran with germ, dry-milled, maximum 13% fiber, CaC0 3 declared above 3% minimum.
c Rice bran with germ, solvent-extracted, minimum 14% protein, maximum 14% fiber.
d Source: Barber and Benedito de Barber (1980).
interfere. The Ca/P ratio in food may be important in some diets, such as
in that of infants needing to be fed with formulated milk. Although the
recommendation is between 2 : 1 and 1 : 2, ratios outside this range can be
satisfactory if vitamin D intake is adequate. The availability of iron in bran
is 52%. Phytic acid and phosphates form insoluble salts with this element.
In addition to calcium and iron, phytic acid forms insoluble complexes
with zinc and magnesium, rendering them biologically unavailable. Phytic
acid also forms complexes with proteins, making them less soluble and
more resistant to proteolytic digestion.
The occurrence in rice bran of some antinutritional compounds has
been reported: trypsin inhibitor (Barber et al. 1978), pepsin inhibitor (Mit-
suda et al. 1977b), hemagglutinin (Benedito de Barber and Barber 1978),
antithiamin factor. Although activity is relatively low and generally can
be arrested by heating, much research remains to be done to study utiliza-
tion of rice bran as a food ingredient.
UTILIZATION OF RICE BRAN, POLISH, AND GERM
Uses of rice bran vary from fuel to food and include fertilizers, pharmaceu-
ticals, soaps, and feed. The rice-bran-oil production system (oil, soaps,
waxes) is dealt with in Chapter 13 of this book. Bran as a source of
materials for pharmaceuticals has been reviewed (Houston 1972a; Juliano
1985).
Food Uses
Rice bran has been used for feeding animals. Rice polish is used in notable
quantities in baby foods. Rice bran-regular and defatted-is used in
making breads, muffins, pancakes, cookies, cakes, pies, extruded snacks
or breakfast cereals, coatings and crusts for finger foods or confections,
spice carriers, deep-fried preparations, puddings, and milklike products
(Lynn 1969). Koji malt obtained from deoiled bran is suitable for the
manufacture of miso (bean paste) and shoyu (soy sauce) (Yokochi 1977).
Baked goods provide one of the most attractive possibilities. X-M
bran increases dough yields, contributes to an attractive tan crumb and
crust, does not disturb fermentation or mixing tolerances of the dough,
causes baked products to remain fresher and moister, and adds significant
essential amino acids, minerals, and vitamins to the baked goods (Lynn
1969). Nevertheless, the proteins of rice bran do not share with wheat the
property of forming gluten. The incorporation of bran in the bread dough
is limited by the final volume of the bread, which is less than normal with
bran (Barber et al., 1981). X-M bran has been added to bread in amounts
between 5 and 15% of flour weight, using a sponge and dough system.
Greater proportions of bran may be incorporated using the bread-making
system developed with composite flours.
Protein concentrates from bran have been the object of extensive
studies on the formulation of various products, such as paste products,
beverages, and confections (Lynn 1969).
The preparation of a milklike protein beverage is another product of
interest. A 3% protein drink made of X-M rice bran has been developed
as a cow's milk substitute. The inclusion of a suitable fat and an emulsifier
gives a stable oil-water emulsion with the rice protein base. The base used
is a light tan and virtually odor- and flavor-free gel. It is well suited for
flavoring and coloring with fruit and other flavors. Rice milk concentrate
and rice milk made from concentrate are both stable at retort times and
temperatures.
Rice Bran and Serum Cholesterol

Kahlon et al. (1989) reported that stabilized or parboiled rice bran lowered
serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic hamsters to the same extent as
oat bran did. Hegsted et al. (1990) reported that stabilized rice bran and
oat bran can lower cholesterol in humans. They fed 85-g/day stabilized
bran to 14 moderately hyperlipidemic people for six weeks. There was a
significant lowering, 8.3%, of total cholesterol and an increase, 11.8%, in
high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol. Saunders (1990) reviewed the litera-
ture on the properties of rice bran as a foodstuff. He concluded that, with
the increased attention paid today to the positive physiological benefits
that may accrue from consumption of a foodstuff over and above its
adequate nutritional content, literature reports on rice bran suggest a
plethora of attractive possibilities. Oryzanol in rice oil has been reported
to have hormone-like effects on the autonomic nervous system and to
have beneficial effects on the skin (Yokochi, 1977). Efforts are being made
by the rice-milling industry to add rice bran to the world's food supply.
Rice-Bran Oil
The prime reason for stabilizing rice bran is to extract the rice oil (Randall
et al. 1985). At present, edible rice-bran oil is obtained in Brazil, Japan,
and India only in those cases in which the bran can be extracted within a
short time after milling prior to FFA buildup. In these cases the bran is
steam-agglomerated (Japan) or pelleted (Brazil and India) prior to hexane
extraction. Oil refining to a high degree is practiced in Japan using either
alkali refining or physical refining. Cost-effective stabilization technology
using extrusion is now available on a scale suitable for small and large
two-stage or multistage rice-milling operations. Stabilization at single-
stage rice mills is considered impossible because of the poor economics
in extracting rice bran containing hulls and thus having low oil content.
The extrusion process has the advantage of not requiring additional pel-
leting prior to extraction and, in fact, the cost of stabilizing is probably
similar to the cost of pelleting. Extrusion conditions have a positive nutri-
tional effect on the bran as poultry feed and no negative effects on swine
feed. Most important, the stabilized bran can be stored for long periods
prior to extraction without loss of oil quality.
Since the economics appear favorable, one can expect that production
of edible rice-bran oil will increase in the near future through implementa-
tion of low-cost extrusion technology (Sayre et al. 1982; Saunders 1986).
For details about rice oil, the readers should read Chapter 13 of this book.
Feed Uses
Rice bran, mixed in adequate quantities with other ingredients, can be
used to feed domestic animals. However, because of its composition
and characteristics, it is subject to certain limitations. These are derived
principally from
1. High fiber content

2. High content of fat rich in unsaturated fatty acids
3. Contents of calcium and phosphorus in proportions different from
those required
4. Highly variable composition from one lot to another
5. High instability.
An adequate ration for single-stomached species usually contains 6%

or less of cellulose; that for ruminants may run as high as 35%. The high
fiber content of rice bran limits its use in rations for monogastric animals.
Defatted and huller brans require greater attention since they have a higher
fiber content.
The high oil content of bran coupled with its high unsaturated fatty
acid level makes it unsuitable for incorporation in unlimited proportions
in certain rations. Excessive quantities of bran in diets for pigs may impair
the quality of the carcass fat, which becomes soft.
Rice bran is a source of phosphorus, at least for certain animal diets;
pigs apparently utilize phytin phosphorus. However, the Ca/P ratio in rice
bran (1: 10) compares unfavorably with recommended ratios for animals
(1.5: 1-3: 1). The addition of calcium carbonate balances the ratio, but
the calcium alone should not exceed certain limits. An excess of calcium
in the diet decreases gains and tends to cause parakeratosis.
In animal husbandry, where balanced feedstuffs are used, the frequent
variation in bran composition is a disadvantage, especially when bran is a
major ingredient. The high chemical instability of bran is another factor.
Hydrolysis and oxidation of bran oils develop easily. Off-flavors and loss
of nutritive value are immediate consequences. Oxidation brings about
undesirable nutritional changes, such as loss of tocopherols and available
lysine, among other reactions. Parboiled rice bran is particularly suscepti-
ble to oxidative deterioration since most of its natural antioxidants are
destroyed. The possible occurrence of mycotoxins should be guarded
against since mold-infested bran may contain mycotoxins, especially in
warm and humid climates.
Bran is used in manufacturing "fish-soluble adsorbed feed" (Takei
1977). Exhausted viscera and scrap from processing fish and the residual
liquids from fish-meal manufacturing are mixed with defatted rice bran
and dried. The resulting feed contains about 45% crude protein, 90% of
which is fish protein and 10% bran protein.
Rice bran has been used with satisfactory results in pig diets. The
proportion of bran in the ratio varies according to the age and growth of
the animal. Bran is not recommended for suckling pigs and pigs weighing
less than 25 kg but can make up as much as 20% of the diet for fattening
pigs and about 80% for pregnant sows (Thrasher etal., 1967). Noland et
al. (1960) show that up to 40% rice bran can be used in growing and
finishing swine rations; more than 40% bran results in reduced weight
gains and feed efficiency, as well as poor-quality fat in the carcasses.
Pilot and field feeding trials of growing-fattening pigs in which moist-
heat-stabilized bran formed 20% of the diet, in partial substitution for
sorghum and corn, conducted on 60 and 100 pigs, respectively, showed
that daily weight gain, feed : weight gain, and feed : carcass weight gain for
diets containing stabilized bran were equal to, or higher than, those without
bran. This, coupled with the lower cost of the diet containing stabilized
bran and the good quality of the resulting carcasses, allowed significant
savings (Tortosa et al. 1977).
Up to 40% bran can be used in the total diet of poultry. The use of
raw bran in poultry feeds is risky. Destruction of tocopherols may cause
vitamin E deficiency, an increase in mortality rate, and a decrease in
masculine fecundity. As concerns broilers, oxidized fats are less danger-
ous if the amount of vitamin E in the diet is increased. In poultry feeding,
the lack of carotenoids in bran, which give color to the skin and the eggs,
should be corrected by the addition of xanthophylls to the feed. Kratzer
et al. (1974) reported that when raw bran was used at 60% of the diet to
replace corn in diets containing fish meal or soybean meal, the growth of
chicks was depressed by approximately 30% but, when autoclaved or
steamed rice bran was used instead of raw bran, a marked improvement
in growth was noted.
The incorporation of rice bran in diets for dairy cows increases milk
and butterfat production. It should be mentioned, however, that diets
containing too much bran affect the properties of the milk, resulting in
poor conservation of cheeses and of the fatty acids in butter. For this
reason, a proportion of 15-20% is recommended. However, up to 60%
bran has been used in the concentrate ration for dairy cows. Good results
have been obtained by feeding bran-containing diets to beef cattle and to
working bullocks and buffalo.
Industry Standards for Rice Bran

The rice-milling industry, in close collaboration with users in the food
industry, is developing standards for stabilized rice bran to ensure that a
dependable, high-quality bran reaches the user and consumer. As of Octo-
ber 1989, it appeared that the following standards would be adopted for
stabilized and parboiled rice brans (Saunders 1990):
Fat 16% (min)
Protein 13% (min)
Total dietary fiber 20% (min)
Crude fiber 9% (max)
Ash 10% (max)
Ash in parboiled rice bran 15% (max)
Moisture 12% (max)
Free fatty acid (of oil) 4% (max)
Silica (Si0 2) 0.1% (max)
Calcium carbonate 2% (max)
Calcium carbonate in parboiled
rice bran 6% (max)
Defatted Rice Bran

At present, food-grade defatted rice bran is not marketed in large quantities
in the United States. The situation may change in the near future. The
proximate composition of defatted rice bran is as follows:
Defatted Bran, % Defatted Parboiled Bran, %

Moisture 6-9 6-9
Protein 15-20 23-27
Fat 0.5-1.5 0.5-1.5
Fiber 10-15 16-20
Ash 9-12 11-14
Calories 2.14 kcal!g 1.30 kcal/g
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tion of three components of r -globulin by ion-exchange chromatography.
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Sawai, H., and Morita, Y. 1970b. Studies on r -globulin ofriceembryo. III. Molecu-
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34(1):61-67.
Sayre, R. N., Saunders, R. M., Enochian, R. V., Schultz, W. G., and Beagle,
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15
Nutritional Quali1y of Rice
Endosperm
Benito 0. de Lumen
University of California, Berkeley
Helen Chow
University of California, Berkeley
INTRODUCTION
Rice is the staple food of more than half of the world's population and
provides 20% of the per capita energy and 13% of the per capita protein
for humans worldwide (FAO 1980; Herdt and Palacpac 1983). In Asia,
where 91% of the world's rice is produced (FAO 1982), rice provides 35%
of the energy and 28% of the protein. In addition, rice provides minerals,
vitamins, and dietary fiber to the diet of rice-eating people. Thus, rice
plays a very important role in providing nutrients to a large segment of the
world's population. Improving its nutritional properties as well as its
functional attributes through conventional means of processing and the
promising techniques of genetic engineering is a continuing challenge to
rice scientists.
Knowledge of chemical composition, bioavailability of nutrients, and
the biochemical processes by which these nutrients are synthesized in the
developing rice grain are crucial in designing processing techniques and
genetic-engineering strategies. This chapter focuses on the content and
bioavailability of nutrients in the edible portion of the rice kernel, primarily
the endosperm. Other parts of the kernel are also included for comparison
363
purposes. The potential application of genetic engineering to improve

nutritional and functional properties is discussed because of the emerging
importance of these techniques to crop improvement.
The study of the distribution of nutrients in the rice kernel requires
the separation of the various parts or the use of specific staining techniques
for starch and protein on the whole kernel (Little and Dawson 1960; Del
Rosario et al. 1968; Barber 1969). Separation of the various parts is carried
out by hand dissection (Hinton 1948), which is a very tedious process, or
by abrasive milling using experimental mills or existing commercial mills
that can produce large amounts of materials in a short time (Primo et al.
1963; Hogan et al. 1964; Houston et al. 1964; Kennedy and Schelstraete
1974). All the data reported here are obtained from milled fractions. The
terms rough rice (the whole kernel including the hull) and brown rice (the
kernel with the hull removed) and the different milling fractions (un-
dermilled, milled, bran, polish) of rice are used in the operational sense as
differentiated from the anatomical sense. For instance, abrasive milling
removes the outer layers of brown rice to give milled rice and the by-
products bran and polish. Bran contains more of the pericarp, seed coat,
nucellus, aleurone layer, and germ than the polish, which contains rela-
tively more of the starchy endosperm (Juliano and Bechtel 1985).
GROSS COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF THE RICE KERNEL

AND ITS MILLING FRACTIONS
The composition of the rice kernel and its milling fractions have been
studied extensively (Juliano 1966, 1972, 1985). Milling brings about
changes in chemical composition, and the degree of milling determines the
amount of nutrients in the residual milled rice. Brown rice has a higher
content of all constituents except total carbohydrates compared to milled
rice (Table 15-1). The bran, which contains greater quantities of fat, pro-
tein, vitamins, and minerals, is removed during milling, resulting in re-
duced levels of these constituents in the remaining endosperm (Resurrec-
cion et al. 1979). Earlier studies also showed that the concentration of
thiamin in brown rice is about five times that in fully milled rice; while
niacin, phosphorus, potassium, iron, sodium, and riboflavin are two to
three times higher (Kennedy and Schelstraete 1974).
DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRIENTS IN MILLING FRACTIONS
Protein and Amino Acid Composition

The importance of rice as the single largest source of protein in the world
cannot be overemphasized. Although, among cereals, rice protein ranks
high in nutritional quality, the content of rice protein is low. The protein
ENDOSPERM: NUTRITIONAL QUALI1Y 365
Table 15-1. Composition of Brown and White Rice

Brown Rice White Rice•
Moisture,% 12.00 12.00
Kcal, 100 g 360.00 363.00
Crude protein, % 7.50 6.70
Crude fat,% 1.90 0.40
Ash,% 1.20 0.50
CHO, total, % 77.40 80.40
Fiber,% 0.90 0.30
Calcium, mg/100 g 32.00 24.00
Phosphorus, mg/100 g 221.00 94.00
Iron, mg/100 g 1.60 0.80
Sodium, mg/100 g 9.00 5.00
Potassium, mg/100 g 214.00 92.00
Thiamin, mg/100 g 0.34 O.o7
Riboflavin, mg/100 g 0.05 0.03
Niacin, mg/100 g 4.70 1.60
aUnenriched, fully milled.
Source: Watt and Merrill (1963).
content in the brown rice of 17,587 cultivars in the world collection at the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) averages 9.5%, with a very
wide range of 4.3-18.2% (Gomez 1979). Environmental factors, manage-
ment, and cultural practices affect the protein content of rice kernel. These
include the growing season (wet vs. dry), spacing of plants, added nitrogen
fertilizer, location of the plant in the field, intensity of solar radiation,
and temperature during seed development (De Datta et al. 1972; Gomez
and De Datta 1975; IRRI 1977; Resurreccion et al. 1977). Breeding
efforts to increase the protein content of rice have not been success-
ful because of the considerable effect of environment on protein and
the complex inheritance property in the triploid endosperm tissue (Juliano
1990).
The protein concentration is highest in the peripheral layers of milled
rice and decreases toward the center of the kernel (Houston et al. 1964;
Houston 1967; Hogan et al. 1964, 1968; Normand et al. 1966; Nunokawa
1972; Kennedy and Schelstraete 1974; Resurreccion et al. 1979; Pedersen
and Eggum 1983). The data of Kennedy et al. (1974) illustrate these findings
(Table 15-2).
Protein Fractions and Amino Acid Composition

The protein of rice endosperm is unique among cereal proteins in that it
contains predominantly the glutelin (alkali-soluble) fraction, whereas other
cereals, except oat, have prolamins (ethanol-soluble) as the major fraction
(Payne and Rhodes 1982). Since the prolamins are poor in lysine, the first
w
8:
Table 15-2. Protein Concentration of Fractions of Overmilled Rice

PROTEIN
RATIO WITH RESPECT

DRY MATTER% TO ORIGINAL KERNEL
Percentage of
Samplea Original Kernel Mean ± St. Dev. Range Mean ± St. Dev. Range
Original kernel 100.0 7.5 ± 1.3 6.0-10.2 1.00
First-pass flour 1.97 ± 0.54 14.5 ± 2.7 10.9-19.2 1.92 ± 0.15 1.68-2.18
Second-pass flour 2.19 ± 0.36 14.0 ± 3.0 10.2-20.0 1.84 ± 0.15 1.58-2.11
Third-pass flour 1.98 ± 0.50 13.2 ± 3.1 9.9-19.5 1.74 ± 0.17 1.53-2.07
Residual 87.20 ± 2.90 7.0 ± l.l 5.9- 9.4 0.93 ± 0.03 0.88-0.95
aAll flours through a 40-mesh screen.
Source: Kennedy and Schelstraete (1974).
ENDOSPERM: NUTRITIONAL QUALilY I 367
limiting essential amino acid in cereals, the lysine content of rice is higher
than in other cereals. This explains the higher nutritional quality of rice
protein (Bechtel and Juliano 1980).
The overall amino acid composition of milled rice is similar to that of
brown rice and rough rice (Houston et al. 1969; Houston and Kohler 1970),
but brown rice has a slightly higher lysine content than milled
rice (Cagampang et al. 1976; Eggum et al. 1982). This is explained by the
higher lysine content of rice bran and embryo. In the various portions
of the endosperm, the amino acid composition of the protein does
not vary appreciably (Normand et al. 1966; Kennedy and Schelstraete
1974).
The ratios of the various solubility protein classes in brown rice and
milled rice differ. The mean albumin : globulin : prolamin : glutelin ratios
for brown rice calculated from several reports is 9 : 7 : 4 : 80 (Mitra and Das
1975; Chavan and Duggal 1978; Wieser et al. 1980), while that of milled
rice is 8: 10: 12: 70 (Padhye and Salunkhe 1979). In the outer layers of
milled rice, the proportion of albumin and globulin ih protein is highest
and decreases toward the center, while the proportion of glutelin has
an inverse distribution (Houston et al. 1968). Albumin exhibit a steeper
gradient than globulin. The subaleurone layer is richer in albumin than the
rest of the endosperm (Resurreccion et al. 1979).
Protein Bodies
Many of the proteins in plant seeds are localized in subcellular storage
particles called protein bodies (PB). Mitsuda et al. (1967, 1969) isolated
such particles from rice polish and found that these rice protein bodies
were round and had diameters of 1.5-4 JLm. Analysis of the isolated
particles showed about 60% protein, while lipids and carbohydrates varied
from 10 to 28% and from 12 to 29%, respectively. Protein bodies found in
the aleurone layer differ significantly in chemical composition from those
found in the subaleurone layer and central region ofthe starchy endosperm
(Bechtel and Juliano 1980; Tanaka et al. 1980).
Subsequent studies by Tanaka et al. (1980) demonstrated that rice
storage proteins in the starchy endosperm are localized in two types of
protein bodies called PB-1 and PB-II. Proteins in PB-I and PB-II account
for 20 and 60%, respectively, of the total proteins of the rice starchy
endosperm (Ogawa et al. 1987). The major rice storage protein glutelin,
made up of two groups of20- and 40-kD proteins, is found in PB-II (Tanaka
and Ogawa 1986). PB-I contains polypeptides of molecular weights 10, 13,
and 16 kD and are prolamin in nature (Ogawa et al. 1987).
Indigestible fecal protein particles (FPP) were found in the fresh feces
of Japanese after a meal containing cooked rice (Tanaka et al. 1975, 1978).
The findings of Ogawa et al. (1987) that FPPs are actually PB-I suggest that
improving the digestibility of PB-I would improve the overall nutritional
quality of rice protein (Ogawa et al. 1989).
Biological Evaluation of Rice Protein

The amino acid pattern of rice is better than most cereals because of
relatively high levels of lysine, the first limiting essential amino acid in
cereals. The protein efficiency ratio (PER)-gain in weight in grams per
gram of protein eaten (using rats )-for milled rice is about 2.0, with a range
of 1.38-2.56, depending on the protein level, variety, and experimental
conditions used (Juliano 1972). Maximum values for PER of 3.5-4.0 are
obtained with egg protein, which is often used as a standard for evaluating
protein quality. Proteins with PER of2.0 or higher are considered of good
nutritional quality and produce good growth in young animals.
High-protein rice flours (first mill pass) from the overmilling of 12lots
of commercially milled rice have a PER of 2.1 (adjusted to casein standard
at 2.5) and protein content of 9-15.4%. The mean PERs for five different
fractions of two lots of rice (original and residual kernel, first-, second-,
and third-pass flours) do not differ significantly from one another (Kennedy
et al. 1974). Milner (1965) reported a PER of 1.84 for a high-protein rice
flour containing 14.2% protein. Thus, the protein content of the different
milling fractions of milled rice does not seem to affect the protein quality.
This reflects the observation that the amino acid composition does not
vary significantly in the various layers of the endosperm although the
quantity of protein differs (Normand et al. 1966; Kennedy and Schelstraete
1974). The differences in the ratio of albumin: globulin: prolamin: glutelin
are evidently not great enough to be detected by the PER assay.
A number of studies in humans have been carried out to evaluate the
nutritional quality of diets in which rice provides at least 30% of the total
dietary protein. These studies differ in the age and gender of the subjects,
the actual contribution of rice to the total dietary protein, and the type of
the other protein sources (Cullumbine 1950; Joseph et al. 1958; Rama Rao
1960; Roxas et al. 1978; Santiago 1984). In general, the conclusion is that
the apparent nitrogen digestibility and apparent nitrogen absorption of
brown-rice diets are lower than milled- and undermilled-rice diets. In
experiments in which no statistical differences are observed, the trend is
for brown-rice diets to have lower nitrogen digestibility and retention than
milled-rice diets. Miyoshi et al. (1986) confirmed these findings in young
men on a standard protein diet (1.2 g/kg body wt), in which the protein
digestibility in the brown-rice diets decreased but the nitrogen and mineral
balance were unchanged. In a subsequent study using a low-protein diet
(0.5 g/kg body wt), the nitrogen balance was negative for both brown rice
and polished rice, but that of the brown-rice diet was more negative
(Miyoshi et al. 1987). Furthermore, the apparent digestibility of energy,
fat, and absorption ofNa, K, and P decreased in the brown-rice diet. This
may be explained by the higher levels of dietary fiber and phytate in brown
rice compared to milled rice.
CARBOHYDRATES
Plant carbohydrates include starch, sugars, cellulose, hemicellulose, pec-

tin, gums and sugar alcohols, and acids. Noncarbohydrate compounds
such as lignin and organic acids are often included when carbohydrate is
determined by "difference" or as nitrogen-free extract. Since starch is the
major component of the rice grain, a number of studies have been carried
out with this constituent. A comprehensive treatment of the properties of
rice starch is found in Juliano and Bechtel (1985). This section focuses on
the distribution of starch, sugars, and fiber within the endosperm.
Starch
Starch is the only constituent of the rice grain that increases in concentra-
tion from the periphery to the center of the kernel. Starting with commer-
cially milled rice with 91% starch of which 32% is amylose, Normand et
al. (1966) obtained 12 milling fractions. The outer 3% of the kernel con-
tained 60% starch, while the twelfth fraction had 90% and the residual
kernel 94%. Amylose made up 26% of the starch in the first two fractions
and increased to 34% in fractions 7-12. Similar findings were reported by
Kennedy et al. (1974) and Resurreccion et al. (1979).
Sugars
The major sugar of the rice embryo and endosperm is sucrose, with small
amounts of raffinose, glucose, and fructose (Fukui and Nikuni 1959). In
milled rice, glucose is the major reducing sugar, followed by fructose
(Pascual et al. 1978). Brown rice contains 0.83-1.36% total sugars, with
reducing sugars ranging from 0.09 to 0.13%; milled rice contains
0.25-0.53% total sugars, with 0.05-0.08% reducing sugars (Juliano 1972;
Pascual et al. 1978).
Sugar concentration is affected by variety, degree of milling, and
processing. The total sugar concentration in both brown and milled rice
decreases toward the center of the kernel (Saunders 1977). Parboiled
rice has concentrations of total sugars and reducing sugars twice that of
untreated milled rice (Williams and Bevenue 1953). Sugars in the external
layer are about six times as concentrated as in the whole kernel and
account for 50-67% of the sugar in the original rice (Barber et al. 1967).
The sugars in the bran, which are about 10 times that of the whole kernel
(Saunders 1977), must diffuse into the endosperm during parboiling.
Fiber
The importance ofundigestible components in the food collectively termed
dietary fiber to human health and disease has been treated in reviews
(Wisker et al. 1985; Roth and Mehlman 1978). Dietary fiber is defined as
food components that are not digested by enzymes in the human gastroin-
testinal tract and includes cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, lignin, and
undigestible proteins. The crude-fiber (CF) values reported in many food
tables are considered inaccurate because the main components of fiber are
underestimated (Van Soest 1966; Baker 1977). The newer methods of fiber
analysis include the use of detergents and enzymes (Wisker et al. 1985).
In 1978, the American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) accepted
the neutral detergent method (NDF), developed by Van Soest and Wine
(1967) and improved by Schaller (1977) as an official method for analysis
of cereal grains.
Fiber is highest in the outer layers of the grain and decreases toward
the center. Crude fiber in brown, undermilled, milled, and milled parboiled
rice are 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, and 0.3%, respectively (Leung and Flores 1961;
Gebhardt et al. 1978). Houston (1967) analyzed the CF in different milling
fractions of two rice samples: a laboratory-milled high-protein rice and a
commercially milled, short-grain parboiled rice. In both samples, the fiber
in the outer 2-4% of the grain was six to seven times greater than the
original kernel and accounted for 17% of the total fiber. The NDF value
of brown rice (2.1%) is three times that of CF (0.7%). Approximately
70% of the fiber (NDF) is found in the bran and 10% in the endosperm
(Resurreccion et al. 1979). The only other NDF data reported on rice are
on rice breakfast cereals, which range from 0 to 0.1% (Baker and Holden
1981).
LIPIDS
Rice lipids are generally classified into nonstarch lipids found in the aleu-
rone layer, embryo, and protein bodies of the endosperm and in the starch
lipids, which are associated with starch granules (Juliano 1983; Choudhury
and Juliano 1980). Total lipids concentration (crude fat) for 241 milled rices
is 0.65%, with a range of 0.19-2.73%. (Simpson et al. 1965). Resurreccion
et al. (1979) reported 2.9% crude fat in brown rice (IR32), of which 51%
is found in the bran, 32% in the polish, and 17% in the endosperm. Within
the endosperm, lipids are unevenly distributed, with the highest in the
outer layer and a decrease toward the center of the kernel (Casas et al.
1963; Houston et al. 1964; Normand et al. 1966; Houston 1967; Hogan et
al. 1968).
MINERALS
The distribution of minerals within the rice grain generally follows that of
fiber and lipids. A typical pattern has the bran accounting for 42% of the
minerals in brown rice, the polish 26%, and the endosperm 32% (Resurrec-
cion et al. 1979). Minerals content is higher in brown rice than in milled
rice. Within the endosperm, the outer layers have the highest concentra-
tion, with concentration decreasing toward the center of the kernel.
The following data are typical of these trends. The first fractions
abraded during experimental milling have four to seven times more ash
than the original rice, with the ratios decreasing for each successive frac-
tion removed (Houston 1967; Houston et al. 1964; Hogan et al. 1968).
Residual rices, 85-90% by weight of the whole kernel, account for about
50% of the ash. Kennedy et al. (1974) obtained an average of 0.58% ash
on 12lots of milled rice. Average ash concentration of the first-pass flours
is 5%, giving a ratio of approximately 10 over the whole kernel. Ratios for
the percentage of ash of the milled fractions to that of the original rice for
six lots of rice are shown graphically in Fig. 15-1. Residual kernels account
for 60% of the ash in the original rice.
Phosphorus, potassium, silicon, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and
iron are the major mineral constituents in rice, all of which have been
studied with respect to their distribution within the endosperm.
MACROMINERALS
Phosphorus
Phosphorus and potassium are the most abundant mineral elements in
rice; reported values in milled rice range from 88 to 192 mg/100-g dry
weight for phosphorus and from 58 to 117 mg for potassium (Juliano 1972).
The distribution of phosphorus in the endosperm has been reported in
two studies. Normand et al. (1966) found 1.24% Pin the outer layer of
milled rice, Blue-Bonnet 50, for which the whole kernel had 0.14% P, nine
times as much in the outer layer as in the whole kernel. Concentrations
decreased as the center of the kernel was approached until the twelthlayer
had 0.085% and the residual kernel only 0.028%. The residual kernel, 53%
(..o)
z 29.5
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POTASSIUM ASH PHOSPHORUS MAGNESIUM
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SILICON IRON PHYTIC ACID
Figure 15-1. Ratio and standard deviation of contents of sodium, calcium, potassium, ash, phosphorus, magnesium, silicon, iron,
and phytic acid in flours and residual kernel of six varieties of rice with respect to those of the original whole-kernel
rice: (1) first-pass flour; (2) second-pass flour; (3) third-pass flour; (R) residual kernel. (Revised from Kennedy and
Schelstraete 1975a).
of the original rice, accounted for only 10% of the phosphorus in the whole
kernel.
Kennedy and Sci}elstraete (1975a) determined phosphorus in portions
of six different varieties of commercially milled rice, for which the mean
value in the original rices was 0.126%. Concentrations of phosphorus in
flour obtained by abrasive milling from three mill passes decreased from
the periphery to the center as in the Normand study (Fig. 15-1). First-pass
flour through a 40-mesh screen had nine times as much phosphorus as in
the whole kernel, while the residual kernel, 88% of the original rice,
accounted for 57% of the phosphorus. Data from these two studies are in
general agreement.
Potassium
Data for potassium were very similar to those for phosphorus (Kennedy
and Schelstraete 1975a), with a mean concentration of 128 mg/100 gin the
original rice. Distribution of potassium within the endosperm was also
similar to that of phosphorus (Fig. 15 .1) except that the gradient was not
so steep.
PhyticAcid
Phytic acid, myoinositol1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,-hexakis (dihydrogen phosphate),
is present in seeds in the form of salts of calcium and magnesium. Kennedy
and Schelstraete (1975a) reported a mean value with standard deviation of
132 ± 17 mg/100 g of phytic acid for the whole kernel of six lots of milled
rice of different varieties. Flour through a 40-mesh screen ftom the outer
layers (4 wt% of the rice) had 2972 ± 830 mg/100 g ofphytic acid, 23 times
that in the whole kernel, with values ranging from 1.9 to 4% of the flour.
Phytic acid concentrations decreased from the outer to the center portions
of the kernel; no phytic acid was detected in the residual rice.
Phytate phosphorus made up 30% of the total phosphorus in the whole
kernel and 77-70% in the flours; none was present in the residual rice.
Phytic acid in rice has been associated with the aleurone layer, which
lies between the outer layers and the endosperm of the seed. Aleurone
particles in the aleurone layer, as distinguished from protein bodies, de-
scribed earlier in this chapter, were found to have the following composi-
tion: moisture 14.9%; protein 11.7%; carbohydrate 7.9%; acid-soluble
organic phosphorus 11.3%; other forms of phosphorus 0.31%; total myo-
inositol 9.4%; potassium 9.45%; magnesium 8.3%; calcium 0.42%; and
zinc, iron, copper, and manganese, each less than 0.05% (Tanaka et al.
1973).
High-phytin-containing particles were isolated from rice grains by
Ogawa et al. (1975). Composition of these particles on a dry-weight basis
included 67.2% phytic acid, 1.26% protein, 0.47% carbohydrate, 18.9%

potassium, 10.8% magnesium, 1.4% calcium, and 0.13% iron. Manganese
and zinc accounted for 0.1%. Over 90% of the compounds in the isolated
particles were phytic acid, potassium, and magnesium. Electron micro-
scopic observation of the isolated particles confirmed that the electron-
dense material, which is embedded in aleurone particles, is composed of
potassium and magnesium salts of phytic acid.
Ogawa et al. (1975) suggested that aleurone particles are composed of
at least two major parts: (1) the high-phytin-containing particle that forms
the core of the aleurone particle and (2) the surrounding coat, which is
composed of protein and carbohydrate. The peripheral membrane appears
to have important roles in the dephosphorylation of phytic acid during the
germinatioh of grains.
Phytates have been considered to prevent the absorption of mineral
elements such as calcium and iron from the intestinal tract, particularly of
human subjects. Certain forms of iron phytate, however, appear to have
a high biological availability. Morris and Ellis (1976) reported monoferric
phytate to have a high bioavailability for the rat, essentially equal to the
reference salt, ferrous ammonium sulfate. This is the major form of iron
in wheat, a water-soluble complex of iron isolated from wheat bran. In
contrast, Morris and Ellis found ferric phytate with 3-4 moles of iron/
mole phytate to be insoluble and, as a dietary source, to have a low
bioavailability. Thus, it seems that the form of the phytate salt is important
in its bioavailability. Little work on the availability of mineral elements in
rice has been done.
Silicon
The rice plant is a member of the family Gramineae, the best-known group
belonging to silicicolous plants, those that selectively accumulate silicon.
Silica (Si0 2) content of rice plants may range from 5 to 20% at harvest,
depending on the silicon-supplying power of soils (Yoshida et al. 1959). It
is also possible to lower the silicon content of rice plants to about 0.1%
using water-culture techniques. Other than the fact that silicon does not
appear to be essential for growth, the role of silicon in physiological
processes is unknown. The greater part of the silicon absorbed by plants
is accumulated in the aerial parts and is deposited in the cell walls, espe-
cially in the epidermis of the leaf. The content of silicon is greater in
mature than in young plants. Yoshida et al. (1962) fractionated the silicon
in rice plants into three forms: (1) silica gel, the most prevalent form,
constituting 90% or more of the total silicon; (2) silicate ion, ranging from
0.5 to 8%; and (3) colloidal silicic acid, 0-3.3%.
Silicon is found in the root, stem, leaf blade, leaf sheath, and husk
ENDOSPERM: NUTRITIONAL QUALITY I 375
(hull) of the plant. It has been determined to constitute, as silica, about

97% of the ash or, calculated as silicon, 11% in the total husk (Houston
1972). Silicon has not been studied so extensively in the rice seed. A few
values, ranging from 32 to 291 mg/100 g, dry basis, for brown rice and
from 5 to 292 mg for milled rice, have been reported (Juliano 1966).
In the study by Kennedy and Schelstraete (1975b), the mean value of
silicon in six varieties of milled rice was 46 ± 30 mg/100 g, dry basis, with
the lowest value 13 mg for a short-grain Colusa and the highest 100 for a
long-grain Belle Patna. Within the kernel, as compared to the whole kernel,
silicon in first-, second-, and third-pass flour was, respectively, 14, 7, and
4 times more concentrated (Fig. 15.1). Mean value for the residual kernel
was only 4 mg/100 g. Of the seven mineral elements analyzed, silicon, as
the percentage of total ash, was the third most abundant in all fractions
except for the residual kernel, in which it was sixth. The forms in which
silicon appears in the rice kernel have not been studied, but it is possible
that they might be similar to those found in other parts of the plant.
Magnesium and Calcium

Mean concentrations of magnesium and of calcium in the whole kernel of
six lots of milled rice were 28 and 25 mg/100 g, respectively (Kennedy and
Schelstraete 1975a). Both elements had the highest concentration in the
periphery of the kernel, decreasing toward the center of the kernel. The
gradient for magnesium, however, was steeper than that for calcium, the
mean value for the first-pass flour being about 11 times greater than that
of the whole kernel for magnesium compared to 7 times for calcium. The
residual kernel accounted for 25% of the magnesium in the whole kernel
and 60% of the calcium.
In the only other study on calcium distribution within the endosperm
(Normand et al. 1966), the rice was milled deeper into the kernel. Starting
with a milled rice with a calcium concentration of 23 mg/100 g, calcium in
the flour from the first 3% of the outer layers was 20 times as concentrated
as that of the original rice. Calcium concentration in flour decreased in the
third pass, being seven times that of the original rice, while that from the
seventh pass was only 0.04 mg/100 g. Flours from these seven passes,
from the outer 31% of the whole kernel, accounted for 94% of the total
calcium. No calcium was reported for the remaining five flours or in the
residual kernel.
The Ca : P ratio in the diet is recognized to influence the absorption of
calcium as well as its loss from bones of experimental animals, but its
significance to man is controversial. In setting the recommended allow-
ances for calcium and phosphorus, a Ca: P ratio of 1: 1 is maintained
(Recommended Dietary Allowances 1980). TheCa: P ratio in rice is much
below this. The ratio in the whole-kernel milled rice (Normand et al.
1966) was 0.16: 1, higher (0.37: 1) for the first-pass flour, and gradually
decreasing until the ratio for the seventh pass was only 0.006: 1. In a study
by Kennedy and Schelstraete (1975a), the whole-kernel rice had a mean
ratio of 0.18: 1 with a range of 0.13-0.21. There was no consistent trend
in ratios for the flour and residual kernel: values ranged from 0.07 to 0.35.
Calcium concentrations were so low that even the highest ratio was much
below 1: 1.
Sodium
Of the macrominerals, sodium had the lowest concentration, with a mean
and standard deviation of 8.1 ± 2.2 mg/100 g for the original six varieties
of rice. Distribution within the kernel was the most even of all the constit-
uents analyzed, with sodium concentration in the first-pass flour only 1.5
times greater than that of the whole kernel. Residual kernels accounted
for about 63% of the sodium in the original rice (Kennedy and Schelstraete
1975a).
TRACE MINERALS
Iron
Concentrations of iron in brown and in white rice (12% moisture) are given
as 1.6 and 0.8 mg/100 g, respectively (Table 15-1). Values of 0.7-4.6 mg
for brown rice and 0.2-2.7 mg for milled rice have been reported (Juliano
1972). In the study by Kennedy and Schelstraete (1975a), the mean value
with standard deviation of 12lots of milled rice was 1.03 ± 0.65 mg/100 g,
dry basis. The lowest values, 0.26 and 0.37 mg, were in two short-grain
rices while the highest, 1.17-2.34 mg, were from five different lots of long-
grain Belle Patna.
First-pass flour had much higher concentrations, ranging from 5.6 to
35.6 mg, with mean and standard deviation of 15.1 ± 8.7 mg/100 g, about
15 times greater than that of the whole kernel. Concentrations decreased
as the center of the kernel was approached. Iron in residual rice accounted
for about 27% of that in the whole kernels.
Zinc
Mean values for 27 samples of unpolished and 100 of polished rice collected
from 22 countries and areas were 1.64- and 1.37-mg/100-g Zn, respectively
(Masironi et al. 1977).
Using a slope-ratio assay of gains in body weight of rats, the relative
availability of zinc in a lot of Calrose brown rice was found to be 40-50%

and that of milled rice 99% relative to dietary zinc sulfate set at 100%. The
higher content of phytic acid and dietary fiber in brown rice compared to
milled rice evidently accounts for its lower availability of minerals.
VITAMINS
Of the vitamins present in rice, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin have been
most studied. As is in most cereal grains, concentrations of these nutrients,
compared to other portions of the kernel, is lowest in the endosperm
(Table 15-3) (Houston and Kohler 1970; Kennedy et al. 1975). Distribution
of the vitamins within the endosperm has been studied only for thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, and pyridoxine.
Thiamin and niacin are probably the most important of the vitamins
in rice. When compared with the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)
on an energy basis, thiamin concentration in brown rice is more than
sufficient, being 0.09 mg/100 kcal (from Table 15-1) compared to 0.05
mg/100 kcal, the RDA for males nineteen to twenty-two years of age
(Recommended Dietary Allowance 1980). Milled rice, however, is low,
with only 0.02 mg/100 kcal.
Thiamin
Several studies on thiamin concentrations in various rice milling fractions
showed that concentrations were highest in the outer layers of the grain
(Houston et al. 1964; Normand et al. 1966). Typical of this trend are the
data of Kennedy et al. 1975 on raw and parboiled rices. The flour from the
outer 6.0% of the kernel accounted for 24% of the thiamin in the original
kernel of the raw rices but only 9% for the parboiled rice. Thiamin in the
flour of the raw rices was seven times more concentrated than in the
original kernel but only three times more in the parboiled rices. The
residual kernel after the third pass, about 88% of the rice, accounts for
32% of the thiamin in the original raw milled rice but, for the two parboiled
rices, 74%. Except for thiamin in the third-pass flour ofthe parboiled rices,
all flour had concentrations of thiamin greater than those for brown rice
(Table 15-1).
Niacin
Concentrations of niacin in the outer endosperm of ten raw and two
parboiled rices (Table 15-3), compared to that of the original rices, were
greater for niacin than for any of the other vitamins (Kennedy et al. 1975).
First pass flour of the raw rices had concentrations 13 times that of the
(,)
O:l
Table 15-3. Vitamins in Fractions of Overmilled Rice0

Vitamins FLOUR THROUGH A 40-MESH SCREEN
and Number of Original Residual Kernel
Rices Analyzed Kernel First Pass Second Pass Third Pass After Third Pass
mg/100 g, Dry Basis
Thiamin
Raw (6) 0.130 ± 0.040 0.98 ± 0.28 0.62 ± 0.19 0.47 ± 0.21 0.074 ± 0.020
Parboiled (2) 0.150 ± 0.030 0.59 ± 0.38 0.37 ± 0.19 0.26 ± 0.11 0.124 ± 0.013
Niacin
Raw (10) 1.540 ± 0.570 20.40 ± 6.80 10.00 ± 4.90 6.10 ± 3.10 0.73 ± 0.28
Parboiled (2) 3.200 ± 0.080 23.80 ± 1.20 55.60 ± 0.40 9.90 ± 1.30 2.08 ± 0.21
Pyridoxine
Raw (6) 0.140 ± 0.020 1.08 ± 0.16 0.74 ± 0.15 0.53 ± 0.13 0.09 ± 0.02
Riboflavin
Raw (6) 0.040 ± 0.003 0.20 ± 0.04 0.13 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.02 0.032 ± 0.002
Parboiled (2) 0.044 ± 0.006 0.19 ± 0.01 0.17 ± 0.005 0.10 ± 0.06 0.032 ± 0.002
aMean ± standard deviation.
Source: Kennedy et al. 1975.
ENDOSPERM: NUTRITIONAL QUALilY 379
original kernel; parboiled rices, 7 times. Second-pass flour of the parboiled

rices, however, had the greatest increase in concentration, 17 times that
of the original rice.
Niacin values of the second-pass flour of parboiled rices were the only
exception to the gradual decrease in concentration from periphery to
center, which was found with all the constituents except starch. Hinton
and Shaw (1953) determined that the aleurone layer (about 5% ofthe whole
grain) contained 80% of the niacin of the whole grain. Consequently, the
amount of niacin in milled rice depends a great deal on the amount of
aleurone layer left adhering to the endosperm.
Pyridoxine
Reported concentrations for pyridoxine in milled rice range from 0.037
to 0.69 mg/100 g (Juliano 1966). Kennedy et al. (1975) found a mean
concentration of 0.14 mg/100 g, dry basis, with values ranging from 0.11
to 0.17 mg for six different varieties of milled rice (Table 15-3). Values
were in the same range as those for thiamin. Flour from the outer 5-8%
of the kernel accounted for 25% of the pyridoxine in the original rice
kernel, and the degree of concentration was eight times that of the whole
kernel. Residual kernels after the third pass accounted for 57% of the
pyridoxine in the original rice.
Riboflavin
Concentrations of riboflavin in six milled rices and two parboiled rices are
shown in Table 15-3 (Kennedy et al. 1975). Riboflavin in flour from the
outer 5-8% of the kernels was about five times as concentrated as in the
original rices and accounted for about 14% of the riboflavin in the whole
kernel. Concentration in the residual kernels was about 70% of the original
rices. There was no essential difference between raw and parboiled rices.
OVERALL NUTRITIONAL QUALITY
Brown vs. Milled Rice

When compared on an energy basis with the Recommended Dietary Allow-
ance per day (RDA) for adult women and when rice is a large part of the
diet (2000 kcal), brown rice would give more than sufficient niacin, thiamin,
and phosphorus-200, 190, and 154%, respectively (Table 15-4). Protein
would be nearly enough, 91%, and zinc would be 60%, but calcium and
riboflavin would be low, both about 23% of the RDA. Milled rice, however,
w
<X>
0
Table 15-4. Nutrients in Rice per 100 kcal Compared to Recommended Daily Allowances
NUTRIENT (RDAa) OVERMILLED RICEc
Brown Milled
Sex/Years of Age Male, 19-22 Female, 23-50 Riceb Riceh WK Fl F2 F3 R
Protein, g 1.5 2.3 2.1 1.8 1.85 3.7 3.5 3.10 1.68
Calcium, mg 27 40 8.8 6.5 6.2 45 19.2 13.2 4.2
Phosphorus, mg 27 40 61 26 31.5 294 174 103 20.2
Ca:P 1 1 0.14 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.11 0.13 0.21
Iron, mg 0.33 0.9 0.44 0.22 0.16 3.10 1.80 1.30 0.05
Thiamin, mg 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.02 0.03 0.26 0.16 0.11 0.02
Riboflavin, mg 0.06 0.06 0.014 0.008 0.01 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.01
Niacin, mg 0.67 0.65 1.30 0.44 0.38 5.40 2.60 1.50 0.18
0.80d 6.3d 14.4d 2.4d o.s2d
Pyridoxine, mg 0.067 0.1 - 0.034d 0.034 0.29 0.19 0.13 0.022
Magnesium, mg 12 15 - 7c 7 79 51 30 2.0
Zinc, mg 0.5 0.75 0.45 0.38
a RDA: Recommended daily allowance, Recommended Dietary Allowances (1980).
b Calculated from Table 15-1.
c Calculated from Kennedy et al. (1974, 1975) and Kennedy and Schelstraete (1975A): kcal/100 g for WK, whole kernel; Fl, first-pass flour; F2,
second-pass flour; F3, third-pass flour; and R, residual kernel, estimated by calculation to be 400, 375, 385, 410, and 400, respectively.
d Parboiled rice.
ENDOSPERM: NUTRITIONAL QUALITY 381
would be deficient in all the nutrients, with only protein, niacin, and
phosphorus supplying more than 50% of the RDA.
Since men have a greater energy requirement than women, 2900 vs.
2000 kcal, men can more easily meet their dietary needs for some nutrients
when eating the same types of food. For this reason, brown rice would
provide, in addition to phosphorus, niacin, and thiamin, more than suffi-
cient iron and protein, 230, 196, 189, 133, and 116% of the RDA, respec-
tively, and 90% of zinc needs. Calcium and riboflavin are again low: 33
and 23%. Milled rice would provide sufficient amounts only of protein and
phosphorus, each about 100% of the RDA, between 50 and 75% of zinc,
niacin, iron, magnesium, and pyridoxine needs, but less than 40% each of
thiamin, calcium, and riboflavin.
Nutritionally, desirable features of whole-grain brown rice in relation
to its energy value are an adequate amount of good-quality protein and
sufficient niacin, thiamin, phosphorus, potassium and, for men, iron. Less
desirable are the low concentrations of riboflavin and calcium, the low
Ca: P ratio, and the presence of phytates and fiber, one or both of which
may make certain mineral elements unavailable to the body.
Milled rice would provide sufficient protein and phosphorus for young
men and nearly enough protein for adult women, with insufficient amounts
of all other nutrients, with thamin, calcium, and riboflavin providing the
least, less than 40% of the RDA.
The low sodium content makes rice a recommended food for persons
on low-sodium diets. Also desirable for those on low-fat diets is the small
amount of fat, with a polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acid (P : S) ratio
of 2.1: 1.0.
Fractions of Overmilled Rice

Although all the various components, except for starch, were most concen-
trated in the periphery of the kernel, decreasing as the center was ap-
proached, the constituents varied greatly in the degree of concentration.
The most evenly distributed were sodium, protein, and riboflavin, which
had ratios of concentration in the outer layers compared to the whole
kernel of 1.5, 1.9, and 4.5, respectively, with the residual kernel accounting
for 70-80% of the amount in the whole kernel (Kennedy et al. 1974, 1975;
Kennedy and Schelstraete 1975a). Components with the steepest gradient
from periphery to center were fat, iron, and phytic acid, with ratios of 15,
17, and 22.5, respectively, while the residual kernel accounted for only
one-third or less of the amounts in the whole endosperm and none for
phytic acid.
As a result of the concentration in the periphery, all flour contained
more of the nutrients studied than did brown rice for the first-pass flour,
from nearly twice as much protein to four or five times as much calcium,
phosphorus, and niacin and seven times as much iron.
On an energy basis, the first-pass flour provided more than sufficient
nutrients to meet the RDA for both young men and adult women, except
for riboflavin, for which the flour provided 83% of the allowance. For men,
amounts of niacin, iron, and phosphorus were high: 8, 9, and 11 times the
RDA, respectively.
With the second- and third-pass flour, although the amounts of the
nutrients studied progressively decreased, they were still several times
greater than the RDA for both men and women, with the exception of calcium
and riboflavin, neither of which met the allowance. Niacin was particularly
high in the second-pass flour from parboiled rice, about 22 times the RDA.
Residual kernels were deficient in all nutrients with respect to dietary
allowances except that protein was sufficient for young men. Phosphorus
supplied 75% of the RDA, and niacin in parboiled rice 78%. All other
nutrients supplied only 40% or less.
Varietal and Other Differences

In assessing nutritive qualities, mean values of a variable number of samples
of rice have been used. This may be misleading in some instances where
variations in the whole grain occur as a result of environmental factors,
varietal differences, or, in the case of milled rice, the amount of bran removed.
In the work of Kennedy et al. (1974) with 6-12lots of rice, the original
raw milled rice in each lot differed in the amount of the constituent and in
the ratio of highest to lowest by factors ranging from as low as 1 in the
case of starch to a high of 9 for iron. Starch, phytic acid, and riboflavin
showed the least variation in concentration among lots. Ratios for 10 of
the 18 constituents studied were from 1.2 to 2.2. Niacin, magnesium and
fat, silicon, and iron had the greatest variation, with ratios of 3, 4, 8, and
9, respectively. Magnesium and fat have the same variation (ratio of 4).
Consequently, these variations should be kept in mind when using the
generalizations on nutritive value as just presented.
Nonnutrients
In addition to increased concentrations of many nutrients, flour from the
outer layers contained large amounts of silicon, phytic acid, and fiber. Two
long-grain rices contained 1.77 and 1.08% silicon, 17 and 19 times that of the
original milled rices. Flour from the medium- and short-grain rices had smaller
amounts, 0.14-0.46% silicon, while the residual kernels had a mean value of
only 0.004%. Whether the presence of the large amounts found in the flour
is desirable or detrimental is at present undetermined.
Phytic acid was also found in the outer layers of the milled rices, 3%
in the first-pass flours and 1.7 and 1.0% in the second and third passes.
Phytate phosphorus accounted for about 30% of the total phosphorus in

the original milled rice, 60-80% in the flour from all three passes, and none
in the residual kernels. Whether phytic acid aids or prevents utilization of
mineral elements should be studied.
Fiber is also concentrated in the outer layers. Flour from the first,
second, and third fractions had about 3, 2, and 1.5% fiber, compared to
0.5 and 0.25% in the original residual kernels (Houston 1967). Dietary fiber
is currently being studied by a number of investigators to elucidate its
effect on the utilization of nutrients.
MOLECULAR APPROACHES TO IMPROVING THE NUTRITIONAL

PROPERTIES OF RICE GRAIN
The application of recombinant DNA techniques and related methodolo-

gies have opened up the potential to improve agronomic characters, food-
processing traits, and food quality properties, including nutritional quali-
ties of plants as food sources. The rapid accumulation of knowledge on
gene expression processes in plants in the last five years has given us an
understanding of the structure, function, and organization of plant genes
that can bring us closer to practical application (Shewry and Mifiin 1984;
Higgins 1984; Croy and Gatehouse 1985; Gatehouse et al. 1986; Casey et
al. 1986; Goldberg et al. 1986; Goldberg et al. 1989). Since rice, which is
the single largest source of protein worldwide, already has a good balance
of essential amino acids, increasing its protein content will improve the
protein intake of a large number of people, especially those in developing
countries where protein-calorie malnutrition is prevalent. For instance, an
increase of 3% in rice protein without a decrease in grain yield will add
12.3 million tons of protein to the diet of rice-eating people (based on
410.9 million tons of total rice production in 1981-1982). Improving protein
retention and digestibility will bring additional benefits.
Strategies to increase the protein content of rice through genetic engi-
neering will have to take into consideration the inverse relationship be-
tween protein content and grain yield. In a given variety, grain yield and
protein content may be increased simultaneously up to a threshold point,
beyond which an increase in protein content results in a sacrifice in grain
yield (Fig. 15-2). A plant-breeding strategy to increase protein content
without decreasing grain yield is suggested by the observation that as
growth duration decreases, protein content increases among traditional
rice varieties (IRRI 1983). This relationship was initially considered to be
due to the low yield of early-maturing varieties and would not hold in high-
yielding varieties with short growth duration. However, the IRRI program
to produce early-maturing varieties showed that the negative correlation
4
c
-
DRY SEASON
~ 3
WET SEASON
0~~--L-~~--J_~--~-L--~~
0 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14
BROWN RICE PROTEIN (%)
Figure 15-2. Estimated threshold for brown-rice protein and rough-rice yield of
IR8 (from 964 obseNations) and of the high-protein line IR 480-5-9
(from 538 obseNations) for the dry and wet seasons at the Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute, 1968-1972. (Reprinted, with permission,
from American Association of Cereal Chemists.)
between grain yield and protein content has weakened considerably since
1979 and that the inverse relationship between protein content and growth
duration has remained strong (Juliano and Bechtel1985; IRRI 1983).
Studies on molecular mechanisms of protein biosynthesis in rice on
the DNA level are very few. However, knowledge of the molecular biology
of seed proteins in nonrice cereals and legumes that has accumulated in
the last few years may be applicable to rice as well, and the reader is
referred to reviews on this subject (de Lumen 1990; Goldberg 1989).
Molecular Biology of Seed Protein in Rice

Glutelin is the major seed protein in rice and accounts for approximately
80% of the total endosperm protein. The increase in brown-rice protein
content due to environment results mainly from an increase in glutelin
(Cagampang et al. 1966). The eDNA (complementary DNA) for rice glu-
telin has been isolated and sequenced (Takaiwa et al. 1986). The deduced
glutelin precursor has a 37 amino acid signal peptide sequence at the amino
terminus, followed by a 269 amino acid acidic subunit and a 193 amino
acid basic subunit. The glutelin precursor sequence is 38% homologous
with pea legumin and 37% homologous with soybean glycinin. These
findings suggest that rice glutelin and leguminous 11 S globulin have
evolved from a common ancestral gene (Takaiwa et al. 1987a). This glutelin
eDNA was used to isolate a genomic clone that has been sequenced
(Takaiwa et al. 1987a). The gene contains three introns and codes for a
preproglutelin protein of 499 amino acids identical with that deduced from
the glutelin eDNA. The 5'-flanking region contains a sequence similar to
the legumin box (Gatehouse et al. 1986) that may be responsible for seed-
specific and temporal-specific expression of glutelin genes during seed
development. Rice glutelin is encoded by a small multigene family of about
five copies per haploid genome (Takaiwa et al. 1987b).
Molecular Biology of Starch Biosynthesis in Rice Grain

Starch is the major constituent of milled rice, making up about 90% of the
dry weight of milled rice. It is therefore a major determinant of grain yield.
The reduction in grain yield in high-lysine cereals is due almost completely
to a reduction in nonstructural carbohydrates; i.e., starch plus sugars in
the seed (Doll, 1984).
Understanding the coordinate expression of genes of key enzymes in
starch biosynthesis and protein biosynthesis during seed development of
rice would be useful in designing genetic-engineering strategies to increase
protein content without a decrease in starch content.
A comprehensive discussion of starch biosynthesis in plants is found
in reviews (Preiss and Levi 1980; Preiss 1982; Juliano 1985). The formation
of new glucosidic linkages in a growing amylose or amylopectin molecule
is catalyzed by starch synthase via the transfer of glucosyl moiety from
ADP- or UDP-glucose. The nucleotide sugars are synthesized either
through the pyrophosphorylase reaction or the reversal of the sucrose
synthase reaction. The current thinking is that ADP-glucose pyrophosph-
orylase is a key regulatory enzyme in the starch biosynthetic pathway
because the isolated enzyme is allosterically activated by 3-P-glycerate
and Pi (Preiss 1982). However, the sucrose synthase reaction may also
play a very important role in converting sucrose into ADP- or UDP-
glucose in the developing rice grain (Murata et al. 1964; Lee and Su 1982).
Recently, UDP- and PPi-dependent sucrose synthase is suggested as a
biochemical index of sink strength in plant tissues (Sung et al. 1989).
The eDNA for rice ADP-pyrophosphorylase has been cloned through
the use of expression vectors and by screening antigen-producing clones
with anti-ADP-pyrophosphorylase produced from spinach-leaf enzyme

(Krishnan et al. 1986). Studies of this group showed that there are at least
two tissue-specific forms of ADP-pyrophosphorylase encoded by distinct
mRNA transcripts in wheat and rice leaf and seed. Analysis of genomic
DNA indicated that there are approximately three copies of the gene per
haploid genome.
As far as we know, eDNA and genomic clones of rice sucrose synthase
have not been isolated, although the genetic expression of sucrose syn-
thase in corn has been investigated in depth by the laboratory of Chourey
(Chourey et al. 1986; Gupta et al. 1988).
Transformation Techniques
A key to any genetic-engineering strategy requires introducing the desir-
able gene or set of genes into the genome of the target plant. Very rapid
progress has been achieved in this area in the last four years, and the
reader is referred to several reviews on plant-transformation systems for
detailed discussion (Gobel and Lorz 1988; Weising et al. 1988; Gasser and
Fraley 1989; Schel11987; Klee et al. 1987; Cocking and Davey 1987; Fraley
et al. 1986; Uchimiya et al. 1989).
Currently used gene-transfer techniques in plants can be broadly clas-
sified into one group that uses a delivery vehicle for DNA transfer and
another group that involves the direct transfer of DNA. The most com-
monly used vector is Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which causes tumorous
crown galls on infected species. The virulence of Agrobacterium is due to
tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids, which contain two regions necessary for the
transfer and integration of the bacterial genes: a transferred DNA (T-
DNA) domain that is transferred to the plant and a virulence (Vir) domain
that catalyzes the transfer but is not itself transferred. Molecular analysis
of the Ti plasmid revealed that the T-DNA and the Vir region do not have
to be in the same piece of DNA (Fraley et al. 1986), leading to the design
of intermediate vectors that can be multiplied in E. coli and manipulated
before introduction into Agrobacterium cells and infection of plants. A
typical vector contains the border sequences that define the limits of the
DNA transferred to the plant, a plant selectable marker such as kanamy-
cin resistance, an origin of replication that allows multiplication in Agro-
bacterium, another origin of replication for E. coli, and an E. coli selectable
marker such as spectinomycin resistance (Gasser and Fraley 1989). The
piece of DNA transferred to the plants bounded by the border sequences
contains the foreign gene and the selectable marker. The intermediate
vector is introduced into Agrobacterium cells containing the plasmid with
the Vir region and inactivated pathogenesis genes (disarmed Ti). Upon
infection of the host, the Vir DNA acts in trans to mobilize the transfer of
the DNA within the border sequences, and the phenotype conferred by
the kanamycin resistance gene is used to screen transformed cells during
plant regeneration. The most commonly used infection procedure is by
exposure of leaf disks to Agrobacterium cells (Horsch et al. 1985).
An important limitation of Agrobacterium-mediated gene transfer is
that the major cereal and legume crops have not been successfully trans-
formed because they are poor hosts and because of the inability to regener-
ate whole plants from leaf disks. Recent efforts to deliver DNA directly
into the genome of these plants have been reported. Such techniques
include facilitated uptake of DNA by protoplasts (Fromm et al. 1986;
Uchimiya et al. 1986), DNA application into reproductive organs (Luo and
Wu 1988; DelaPena et al. 1987), microinjection into cells of immature
embryos (Neuhaus et al. 1987), and rehydration of dessicated embryos
(Topfer et al. 1989). Of practical value is the stable transformation of
soybean by DNA-coated gold particles introduced into meristems by elec-
tric discharge acceleration (McCabe et al. 1988; Christou et al. 1988). The
introduced genes are inherited in a Mendelian manner (Christou et al.
1989). Of interest, also, is the regeneration of fertile rice plants from
transformed protoplasts (Shimamoto et al. 1989) since easy and reproduc-
ible production of transgenic cereals had not been reported previously.
SUMMARY
A large body of knowledge about the chemical composition and nutrient

availability in rice grain has accumulated in the last 30 years and continues
to expand. The application of recombinant DNA techniques and related
methodologies to plants has opened up the potential to improve the nutri-
tional and functional properties of the rice kernel without adversely affect-
ing desirable agronomic characteristics. Advances made through plant
breeding will complement the efforts being made in genetic engineering.
As techniques in molecular biology progress rapidly, our knowledge of
plant metabolic processes could be the limiting factor in identifying key
genes that can be manipulated to achieve desirable traits in rice.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We acknowledge the contribution of Emeritus Associate Professor Bar-

bara M. Kennedy (now deceased) who wrote the previous edition of this
chapter.
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INDEX
Abrasives, adding during milling, 376 Air velocity for aeration of stored rice,
Abrasive-type mill, 355-57 341
Acarus siro, 270 Alanine, 406
Acrocylindrium oryzae, 212 Albumin, 402, 403-4
Adaptiveness, breeding for, 54-56 Aleurins. See Protein bodies
Additive genes, 30 Aleurone grains, 391
Additives, and breakage, 375-77 Aleurone layer, 391, 395
Adsorption characteristics of brown rice, glutelin of the, 405
and fissuring, 367 protein bodies in, 402-3
Aeration sugars in, 401
during bran removal, 373-74 weight percent, 390
of stored rice, 336, 338-40 Alfisols, 127
system design, 337 and upland rice culture, 124
Aerenchymal tissue, 103 Allotriploids, 45-46
Africa Aluminum in brown rice, 410
changes in production, 4 Amino acids
stem borer pests in, 248 free, in rice grain, 406
Ageotropic growth habit, genetic control in milled rice, 404
of, 35 in rough rice, 403
Aggregate sheath spot, 218 Ammonia
breeding for resistance to, 63 experimental treatment of rough rice
Agricultural Handbook 500, 269 with, 376
Agricultural Research Institute (Taiwan), factors affecting volatilization, 142
67 Amphidiploid protoplasts, generation by
Ahasverus advena, 270 protoplast fusion, 81
Airflow rate for stored rice systems, 339- Amylases, 412
40 alpha, and grain size, 31
421
422 INDEX
Amylopectin, 399-400 Barnyard grass, development stage and

and stickiness, 40 herbicide use, 303
Amylose, 399-400 Basic vegetative phase (BVP), 32
as an index of parboiled rice quality, 396 Bengal famine (1942), role of brown spot
inheritance patterns, 40 in, 188, 207
in waxy and nonwaxy rices, 408 Benlate 50 WP, control of NBLS with, 210
Anaerobic respiration, 103 Bensulfuron-methyl for weed control
Aneuploid plants, 46-47 in transplanted rice culture, 295
Angoumois grain moth, 275 in water-seeded culture, 301
Anisomeric genes Bentazon for weed control, 159
for earliness, 32 in dry-seeded, flooded systems, 306
for grain dormancy, 35 in water-seeded culture, 301
Anther culture, 70-71, 80 Benthiocarb for weed control, in dry-
Anthesis, 18-19 seeded flooded systems, 306
and temperature, 120 Bifenox for weed control, !59
Anthocyanin pigments, genetic control of, in upland rice culture, 298
24 Biochemical properties, 411-13
Apomixis, search for, U.S. experiments, Biological controls
63 of rice gall midges, 252-53
Arkrose cultivar, optimum drying condi- of sheath blight, 217
tions, 365 See also Cultural controls
Aroma, heritability patterns, 41 Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), and soil
Aromatic compounds, 407-8 nitrogen balance, 141
Asia Biomass, 77
climate, and need for water-tolerant and yield, 83
plants, 36 Biotic factors, and culture, 127-32
Green Revolution in, 23 Biotin, 409
Aspartic acid-asparagine, 406 Birds
Asynaptic plants, meiosis in, 44 losses due to, 131-32
Asynchronous planting and insect pests, toxicity of insecticides to, 254
239 Birefringence endpoint temperature, 398-
Aus cropping, 146 99
Australia Black streak dwarf virus, genetic resis-
changes in production, 4 tance to, 38
high yield from, 50 Blast, 200-204
Automation of rice mills, 362 breakdown of resistance genes, 38
Autotetraploids, meiosis in, 46 in Colombia, 59
Avenae sativa, host toP. fuscovaginae, epidemic, 188
197 frequency of virulence genes in, 38
Avian toxicity of insecticides, 254 genetic resistance to, 37
Awning, genetic control of, 26 in Japan, 60
Axial-flow harvesters, 317 in Korea, 79
Azadirachta indica, 244 of Newbonnet semidwarfs, 63
resistance in upland rice, 164
in the southern United States, 62-63
Bacillus oryzae, 190 Blight, 189-92
Backcrossing, 72 genetic resistance to, 37
Bacterial diseases, 188-98 Bluebonnet
Bacterial leaf streak, 192-94 effect of humidity on head yield, 373
Bacterium oryzae, 190-91 moisture content and milling yields, 371
Baffle-type drier, 323 optimum drying conditions, 365
Bakanae, 198-200 Boom and bust cycles, 78
Band drilling, for fertilizer placement, 156 Brabender amylograph consistency, 400
Banded blight. See Sheath blight Bran
Bangladesh defined, 348
changes in production (1979-1988), 3 stabilizing to lipid hydrolysis, 362
extremes of moisture in, 7 storage of products, 272
Baok variety, inhibitor for tallness, 25 Brazil, changes in production, 4
INDEX 423
Breakage Caribbean, rice varieties by ecosystem,

during milling, 363-79 135
milling design to reduce, 358 Carpophilus hemipterus, 271
and milling duration, 374-75 Carpophilus pilose/Ius, 271
Breeding, 23-101 Caryopsis
Broadcast seeding, and nitrogen loss, 155 changes during ripening, 19
Broadleafs, 128 properties of, 389-419
Broken rice, defined, 348 Casioderma serricorne, 275
Bromobutide, for weed control, trans- Cathartus quadricol/is, 270
planted rice, 295 Cation exchange capacity, soils, 126
Bromus marginatus, host toP. fuscovagi- Cell culture, somatic, 81
nae, 197 Cellular biology, 79-82
Brown planthopper, 239-44 Cellulose, 401
biological control studies, 152 Central America, changes in production,
breeding for resistance to, 53 4
in Indonesia, 66 Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropi-
in Japan, 60 cal (CIAT), 59
resistance breakdowns in hybrids, 69-70 Cercospora, damage to upland rice, 164
resistance to, 39, 78 Cercospora leaf spot, genetic resistance to,
Tainung resistance to, 67 38
Brown rice, 311, 348 Cercospora oryzae, 209-11
consumer preferences in, 380 Chalky kernels
storage of, 271-72 and breakage, 364
weight distribution in the embryo frac- healing by parboiling, 368
tion, 395 heritability of, 40
Brown spot, 204-7 and temperature during ripening, 21
Bengal famine due to, 188 Chalky region, endosperm, 394
breeding for resistance to, 63 Chan dina cultivar, stem borer resistance
resistance to, 38 of, 250
Bulk method of population breeding, 72 Checking
Buprofezin, 244 correlation with breakage, 368-70
Burma, change in production (1979-1988), during drying, 365
2 from fast drying, 325
Butachlor for weed control, 159 Chemical changes in flooded soils, 126-27
in dry-seeded, flooded systems, 306 Chemical milling, 377
in transplanted rice, 295 Chilo po/ychrysus, 248
Butralin, 155 Chilo suppressalis, 130, 248
Chilo zacconius, 248, 249
cultivars resistant to, 250
China
Calcium in brown rice, 410 breeding research in, 58-59, 76
California Belle cultivar, 64 brown planthopper in, 60
California Pearl cultivar, moisture content change in production (1979-1988), 3
and milling yields, 371 Green Revolution in, 23
Cal oro second, 74
moisture content and milling yields, 371 Chlorine in brown rice, 410
optimum harvesting conditions, 364 Chlornitrofen for weed control, trans-
Calpearl, 64 planted rice, 295
Calrose, 62 Chloroplast genes, 49
as a mutant breeding success, 73 Chlorpyrifos
optimum harvesting conditions, 364 for rice gall midge control, 252
Carbaryl, for seed feeder control, 261 for storage insect control, 281
Carbofuran Cholesterol-lowering effect of rice bran,
avian toxicity of, 254 362
for rice gall midge control, 252 Chromogen pigment control, 24-25
stimulation of BPH infestation, 244 Chromosome number, 43
for weevil control, 253 Pyricularia oryzae, 202
Cargo rice. See Brown rice variations in, 45-47
424 INDEX
Chromosomes Cryptolestes pus illus, 277

assignment to linkage groups, 42 Cryptolestes turcicus, 277
mapping, 47 C3 plants and C4 plants, 291
See also Genetics Culms
Cigarette beetle, 277 characteristics in wetland rice, 55
Cleaning process, 349-50 in indica semidwarfs, 54
Climate Cultivars
and rice production, 108-23 brown planthopper resistant
and yield, 51, 76-77 IR36, 243
Cnaphalocrocis medina/is, 256-60 IR46, 244
Coated rice, 363 IRS, 13-15, 54, 60, 61-62, 69, 171
Cochliobolus miyabeanus, 204-7 Nato, resistance to NBLS, 211
Colchicine treatment to obtain a homozy- new, 171-72
gous diploid plant, 45 Peta, 13-14
Cold temperature stress, and sheath brown short -statured
rot, 197 and insect susceptibility, 240
Coleoptera, 273 and weed control, 306
Coleoptile, 392 stem borer resistant
Collar rot, 200 IR20, IR36, and IR42, 250
Colombia IR1561-228-3-3, 250
breeding experiments in, 59 stem rot resistant, 221
changes in production, 4 susceptibility to NBLS, 209
Colored bran balance (CBB), 381 Taichung Native 1, 54
Combining and breakage, 364-65 See also Disease resistance; Green
Competition between rice and weeds, 292, Revolution; Insect resistance; Re-
293-94 sistant cultivars; Semidwarfs
Concurrent flow rice drier, 327 Cultural controls
Consumer preference for rice gall midge, 252
in brown rice, 380 for stem borers, 249, 250
and deep milling, 382 for stem rot, 220
Consumption per capita, 4 for storage insects, 280-83
Contamination from insects, 273 water drainage, 158
in milled rice, 272 for weeds, 287-88
Continuous-flow driers, 322-28 See also Biological controls
Corcyra cephalonica, 278 Culture, 103-86. See also Cropping sys-
Cost of transplanting, 154 tems
Counterflow drier, potential of, 327 Cynaeus angustus, 270
Cracking, 333-36 Cyrtorhinus lividipennis
during drying, 365 effect of insecticides on, 244
healing by parboiling, 368 predator of BPH, 241
Critical point in rice drying, 329 Cytogenetics, 42-50
Crop calendar, by country, 110-18 of hybrid rice seed production, 74
Cropping systems, 164 Cytoplasmic inheritance, 49
intensity of, 172-75 of Cina, in HYVs, 77
intensive cultivation, and potassium of male-sterility (ems), 48-49, 72-73
response, 150
rice-based, 172-75
rotation for weed management, 291, 299
Crop residue management, 176 Dark respiration, 83
Crop ripening, criteria for, 19 Dawn cultivar, moisture content and
Cross-contamination during storage, 279- shelling, 371-72
80 Decamethrin, stimulation of BPH infesta-
Cross-flow drier, 322 tion, 244
Crustacea, crop damage by, 132 Deep-bed drying, 326
Cryptic structural hybridity, 48 simulation of, 333
Cryptolestes, 270, 275 Deep milling, 381-82
Cryptolestes ferrugineus, 277 and consumer preference, 382
INDEX 425
Deep plowing, and weed management, for tolerance to cool water temperatures,
288-89 34-35
Deepwater and tidal wetland ecosystem, for xylem vessel number, 37
yields in, 5 Dormancy, 35-36, 412-13
Deepwater rice culture, 160-62 in indica semidwarfs, 54
Degree of milling, 379-82 Double cropping
defined, 379 and economic return, 146
measurement of, 380-81 and insect damage, Indonesia, 66
Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Double transplanting, 15
high yield from, 51 Drainage
Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA and stem rot control, 220
Department of Agriculture, U.S., stan- for upland rice, 163
dards for milled rice, 349 Draining date selection, and rice quality,
Desiccation and recovery scores by 315
drought resistant variety, 140 Drechslera oryzae, 205-6
Desynapsis in irradiated material, 44 Drill seeding into dry soil, 158-60
Development Drought resistance, 36-37
grain, changes during, 394-95 breeding for, 53
stages, and herbicide choice, 303 cultivars showing, 139
Dextranase, 412 of deepwater rice cultivars, 161
Diamethametryne, 155 root and leaf characteristics, 56
Diatraea saccharalis, 248 Drying, 318-33, 365-66
Diazinon for rice gall midge control, 252 of broadcast seeded rice, 157
Dichlorvos for storage insect control, 281 and cracking, 334
Diclomezine, for sheath blight control, 216 rate, and cracking, 336
Diopsis, 248, 249 rate constant for paddy rice, 331
Diploid species, 43 Dry seeding
Direct seeding in bunded rice culture, 146
into flooded fields, 155-57 upland, 163
in lowland rice culture, 145-46 in deepwater rice areas, 161
onto puddled soils, 154-55 and weed management, 304-7
versus transplanting, 15 Duct design for an aeration system, 340-41
Disease resistance, 37-39, 53 Dwarf cultivars, 25
in Colombian semidwarfs, 59 and insect pests, 238-39
transferring genes for, 50 Dymrone, for weed control, transplanted
See also Insect resistance; Resistant rice, 295
cultivars
Diseases, 187-236
Disking for fertilizer placement,
156 Eastern Asia, production in, 3-4
Disk sheller, 352 Echinochloa Sp., 290
Disulfide bonding during parboiling and Ecological adaptation and growth, 32-37
cooking, 396 Economic constraints
Dithane M-45 50 WP, control of NBLS determining phosphorus source, 149-50
with, 210 on hybrid seed use, 76
Ditylenchus angustus, 228 Economic threshold
DNA, 406 for brown planthoppers, 241-42
chloroplast, structure of, 49 for green leafhoppers, 246
protoplasmic uptake, 82 for Leptocorisa, 260
recombinant, 82 for Oebalus pugnax, 258-59
sequencing, 50 for rice water weevils, 254-55, 257
Dominant genes for stem borers, 249
for dwarfism, 25 Economic traits, heritability, 31-32
lethal, 48 Ecosystems
for panicle expression, 26 and breeding research, 57-58
partial dominance, 30 major, in Africa, 133
for photoperiod sensitivity, 33 production and yield, 5
426 INDEX
Ecosystems (cont.) Fat content of SEM rice, 378. See also

research on, 71 Lipids
and rice varieties, 135 Fenitrothion for storage insect control, 281
Efficiency Fertility restoring genes, 49, 74-75
of fertilizer use, I 4 I Fertilizer management
of precipitation, 163 application during drill seeding, 158
Eggs, susceptibility to fumigants, 282 with direct seeding
Egypt, changes in production, 4 onto flooded fields, 156-57
Electrical conductivity changes in flooded onto puddled soil, 154-55
soils, 126-27 with drill seeding, 158-59
ELISA, for identifying tungro virus com- efficient use of, 139-40
plexes, 224 for irrigated transplanted rice, 147-52
Elite germplasm new technology in, 176
insect and disease resistant, !53 Fertilizer nitrogen, deep placement of,
international exchange of, 64 143-44
use in Indonesia, 66 Fertilizers
Embryo, 391-92 responsiveness of high-yielding cultivars
culture of, 70-7 I to, 139
glutelin of, 405 and upland culture weed control, 298
weight percent, 390 and weed management, 290, 294, 300
Embryonic axis, 392 See also Nitrogen fertilizer
Endosperm, 392-94 Field sanitation
glutelin in, 405-6 and infestation by insects, 280
lipoprotein in, 406 and ufra control, 228
protein bodies in, 403 Finish drying, 321
Energy management, and drying opera- First heading, 314-15
tions, 333 Fixed-bed driers, 320-21
Engelberg huller, 362-63 Flash drying prior to shelling, 372
breakage in, 373 Flat grain beetle, 277
Entisols, 127 Floating rice, 160-62
Entric fluvisols, and upland rice culture, Flooding
124 advantages of, 138
Environment and chemical changes in soils, 126-27
and cropping intensity, 174 floating rice varieties for, 119
and effects of herbicide use, 292-93 for lowland rice culture, 134, 136-38
and optimum spacing, 138 water contamination from herbicides,
and rice-weed competition, 129 293
Environmental controls on hexane emis- and yields, I08
sion from SEM, 377 Flour beetles, 276
Environmental Protection Agency, U.S., Flour mill beetle, 277
253 Flowering
Environmental segregation, 72 in deepwater rices, 161
Ephestia cautella, 270, 275, 278 genetic control of, 34
Epiblast, 392 Flutolanil, control of sheath blight with,
Equilibrium moisture content (EMC), 318- 216
20 Folic acid, 409
Erwinia, 188-89 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
Eswarakora group, response of RGM to, 1,50-51,52
252 IPM promotion by, 13 I
Evaporation, I 19 Food and Drug Administration, U.S., 363
Evapotranspiration, I 19 Food energy, regional dependence on rice,
Exporting regions, 5, 8 170-71
Friction-type mill, 357-59
Fructose, 401
False smut, 208-9 Fumigation, 282-83
Fan selection for an aeration system, 340 for insect control in stored rice,
horsepower (size) needed, 341-42 338
INDEX 427
Fungi Glucosidases, 412

diseases caused by, 198-213 Glutamic acid, 406
growth in stored rice, 337 Glutelin, 402, 405-6
insects that feed on, 278-79 Gogo-rantja culture, 146, 163
storage damage from, 367-68 Governmental subsidy and pricing policy,
Fungicides and growth in production, 6
for brown spot control, 207 Grain
for sheath blight control, 216 genetic control of size, 26
for P. oryzae infection, 204 genetic studies of, 30-31
Fusarium moniliforme, 198-200 Grain blast, 202
Grain quality, 40-42
and drying conditions, 320-21
Galactolipase, 412 of Japanese varieties, 60
Gall midge, resistance to, 39-40 shape, 31
See also Rice gall midge (RGM) type, and breakage on milling, 369-70
Gametic lethals, 48 Grain rot, 194-95
Gametophyte, monosomics in, 47 Grain yield
Gelatinization temperature, 395-96 correlation with protein content, 42
heritability patterns, 41 and plant type, 28
Gel consistency and amylopectin content, Grasses, 128
400 Grassy stunt virus, 222, 225-27
Genebanks, 69 breeding for resistance to, 53
collection of germplasm for, 83 brown planthopper vector for, 239
national, 52 epidemic, 188
Gene-for-gene hypothesis, 38 resistance breakdowns in hybrids, 69-70
Genes resistance to, 38, 78
anisomeric, and maturation time, 32 Green leafhoppers, 130, 244-47
anisomeric, and segregation for BVP, 33 biological control studies, 152
breakdown in insect and disease resis- resistance to, 39-40, 53
tance, 39-40 Green Revolution, 23, 51, 171-72, 178, 238
chloroplast, 49 and rice leaffolder epidemics, 256
for disease resistance, 37-39 second, in China, 74
fertility restoring, 49, 74-75 semidwarf indicas used in the, 54
for insect and virus resistance, 70 Green smut. See False smut
for insect resistance, 39-40 Growing season, extension of, 173
for male sterility (ms), 48-49, 72-73 Growth
mitochondrial, 49 and ecological adaptation, 32-37
for pigmentation, 24-25 rates, factors affecting, 6
sd~> 24, 27-28, 62, 73, 77-78 responses to low temperatures, 34
Genetic control of grain size, 26 Growth duration
Genetic diversity, reinstating in major genetics of, 32-33
cultivars, 77-79 and plant height, 28
Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU) Growth hormones, hybrid seed production
Program, 52, 66, 69 using, 74
Genetics, 23-101
nitrogen use efficiency differences, 141
Germination
and temperature, genetic factors, 34-35
temperature limits for, 120 Habataki cultivar, 60
Gibberella fujikuroi, 198, 199-200 Haploid plants, 45
Gibberella moniliformis, 199 Harvested area, by ecosystem, less devel-
Gibberellic acid, 413 oped countries, 133
response of dwarfs to, 25 Harvest index (HI), 77
Gleyic cambisols, and upland rice culture, effect of climate on, 21
124 and plant height, 27
Globulin, 402, 404-5 and plant type, 28
Glucose, 401 and yield, 83
428 INDEX
Harvesting, 313-18 Hoshiyutaka cultivar, 60

of broadcast seeded rice, 157 Hoyoku cultivar, 59
with drill seeding, 159-60 Hsien type. See Indica race
factors affecting breakage, 364-65 Hull, 390
timing of, 153 characteristics, and dormancy, 35-36
upland rice, 169-70 colors, genes controlling, 25
Heading stage, 18-19 Hulling, defined, 347-48
and need for solar energy, 122 Humic-gley soils, and upland rice culture,
and temperature, 121 124
Head rice, 311-12 Husked rice. See Brown rice
Head yield, 313-14 Hybridization
and checking, 325 Porteresia coarctata trials, 80
defined, 348 probes, 50
and tempering, 328 seed companies' work on, 64
Heat, generation in bulk storage, 337 Hybrids, 73-76
Heat summation units, 121 cytoplamic male-sterile, 60-61
Helminthosporium oryzae, 204 economic constraints on use of, 76
damage to upland rice, 164 intergeneric, 80
resistance to toxin of, 81 japonica!indica, 60-61
Helminthosporium sigmoideum, 219 sativa x australiensis, 80
Hemicellulose, 401 spontanea x sativa, 80
Herbicides, 129, 146, 155, 159, 306-7 tropical indica x Ponlai, 68-69
damage to rice plants by, 299, 302 tropical indica x semidwarf indica, 68-69
and drill seeding, 159 and yield, China, 58-59
for dry-seeded and flooded rice systems, Hydromorphic soils, 124
list, 306 in West Africa, 165
for irrigated transplanted rice, 152 Hysteresis in EMC, 318
in paddy floodwater, 296
for preemergence weed control, 130
for transplanted rice weed control, 295
for upland rice culture, 166 Impact sheller, 352
list, 298 Importing regions, 4, 8-9
and water management, 145 Inceptisols, 127
for water-seeded rice weed control, 157, phosphorus deficiency in, 149
301-4 Incomplete grain filling, healing by parboil-
and weed management, 292-93 ing, 368
Heritability Increase in production, rate of
estimates of economic traits, 31-32 from 1979-1988, 2
of recessives for dwarfism, 27 southern and southeastern Asia, 2-3
Heterobeltiosis, 74 Indented disk separators, 349-50, 359-60
Heterosis, 73 India
High-yield varieties (HYVs), 23, 52 change in production (1979-1988), 2
in India, 65 extremes of moisture in, 7
and rice gall midge infestation, 251 government support and yield, 6
traits of, 28 rice breeding experiments in, 65
Hirschmaniella oryzae, 229 Indica race, 20, 47, 51, 105
Histidine, 406 crosses with dwarfs, 25
Histosols, 127 hybrids, 60, 68-69
Hoja blanca virus linkage groups, 42
breeding for resistance to, 63 shattering in, 35
and brown spot, 205 Individual kernel drying, 329-30
in Colombia, 59 Indonesia
resistance to, 38 breeding experiments in, 66
Hopperburn, 239 change in production (1979-1988), 2
Hordeum vulgare, host toP. fuscouagi- government support and yield, 6
nae, 197 IPM success in, 131
Horizontal resistance to the BPH, 244 pest control in, 79
INDEX 429
Inhibitor genes rotational method of, 147

dominant, for tall height, 25 yields in the wetland ecosystem, 5
recessive, for short height, 25 Iso-loss line, additive leaffolder and stem
Insect damage, inhibiting in stored rice, borer damage, 257
337-38
Insecticides
for brown planthopper control, 240, 244 Jagannath mutant, 65, 73
cost of, 237 Japan
overuse of, 66 breeding experiments in, 59-61
proper use of, 79 change in production (1979-1988), 3
for rice gall midge control, 252 government support and yield, 6
for rice water weevil control, 255-56 high yield from, 51
secondary pest outbreaks following use Japanese varieties, segregation for photo-
of, 239 period and temperature response, 34
for seed feeder control, 261 Japonica race, 20, 47, 51, 105
for stem borer control, 250 linkage groups, 42
for water weevil control, 254 sd 1 gene, 59-61
Insect pests, 130-31, 237-68 shattering in, 35
control methods, 152-53 Jauanica race, 51, 105
damage to upland rice, 165 shattering in, 35
of stored rice, 269-85 Jikkoku cultivar, 59
Insect resistance, 39-40, 53, 67
See also Resistant cultivars
Instituto Columbiana Agropecuaria (ICA), Kakatiya cultivar, ROM resistance of,
59 251-52
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), 131, Karyotype, 47
!53 Oryza sativa, 43
disease management technology, 188 Keng rice. See Sinica race
Intercropping, 174, 175 Kernel size, and breakage on milling, 370-
Intergeneric hybrids, 80 71
International Rice Germplasm Center Kernel smut, 63
(IRGC), 53 Kokumasari variety, 59
International Rice Research Institute Korea
(IRRI), 1, 52, 57-58, 105, 121, 123, blast disease in, 79
144, 164, 238 breeding experiments in, 61
breeding at, 68-71 Koshihikari hybrid, 60
harvester types, research on, 315 Kresek, symptom of BB infestation, 191
puddling's effects, research on, 13 7
weed control research, 129
International Rice Testing Program (IRTP), Land preparation
52, 64 for direct seeding onto flooded fields,
International trade, 7-8 !56
Internode elongation, 17 for drill seeding, 158
Intervarietal hybrid, sterility of, 47-49 mechanizing, 176
Iron regional variations, upland rice culture,
in brown rice, 410 167
deficiency, 166 and weed control, 287-88
requirement of rice, 166 upland culture, 298
uptake, and water condition, 126 Lasioderma serricorne, 269-71
Irradiated mutants, 25 Latheticus oryzae, 270
Irrigation, 119, 146-60 Latin America, rice varieties by ecosys-
constraints on yields, 175 tem, 135
importance of, 133 Leaf blight
lowland rice culture, nitrogen transfor- epidemic, maize in the United States, 78
mation processes in, 143 symptom of bacterial blight, 191
and monsoon dependence, 105, Leaf elongation, and temperature, 120
108 Leafhopper, as a vector for tungro, 223-25
430 INDEX
Leaf streak, genetic resistance to, 37 Magnaporthe salvinii, 220

Leaves Magnesium
characteristics, wetland rice, 55 in brown rice, 410
development of, 15-16 nutrient amounts in brown rice, 408
genetic control of characteristics, 28-29 Mahsuri cultivar, brown spot resistance,
senescence patterns, 19-20 207
Lecithin in milled rice, 400 Maintainer line in hybridization research,
Leersia hexandra, ROM host, 252 76
Leersia sayanuka, weed host to Xantho- Malathion for storage insect control, 281
monas cinnamoha, 192 Male sterility
Legume crops, 176 in Chinese wild rice, 24
Lepidoptera, 278 gene for (ms), 48-49, 72-73
pests of stored grain, 273 Maliarpha separatella, 248, 249
Leptocorisa, 260 Manganese
Lesser grain borer, 274 in brown rice, 410
Lethal genes, 48 and brown spot, 205, 207
Level terrain for lowland rice culture, 125 uptake, and water condition, 126
Life cycle Manifold system for aeration of stored
of the green leafhopper, 245 rice, 339
of the rice plant, 13 Manzeb, for brown spot control, 207
Lindane for storage insect control, 281 Market, international, 104
Linkage groups, 42, 47 Market price
Linked traits, for adaptation to adverse international, 8
conditions, 57 and real price of rice, trends in, 9
Lipase, 412 Mars cultivar, 63
Lipid bodies, 391 Maternal influence on chalkiness, 40
Lipids, 406 MCPA, 2,4-D weed control
bound, 399-400 in dry-seeded, flooded culture, 306
Liposcelis divanatorius, 271 in water-seeded culture, 30 I
Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus, 130, 253-56 Mechanization, new technology in, 176-78
Lodging resistance Meiosis
and plant height, 27, 28 in asynaptic plants, 44
trade-off with drought tolerance, 168-69 in autotetraploids, 46
Lolium perenne, host toP. fuscovaginae, Melibiose, 401
197 Mendelian genes, 26-27
Loonzian. See Brown rice Mepronil, sheath blight control with, 216
Lophocateres pusillus, 270 Merchant grain beetle, 277
Losses, financial and intangible, in con- Metals
taminated product, 272 removal during cleaning, 350
Lowland rice culture toxicity in upland rice production, 165-
ammonia volatilization in soils, 142 66
direct seeded, 145-46 Methoxychlor for storage insect control,
and nitrogen fertilizer application, 149 281
soils suitable for, 125-27 Methyl bromide, fumigation with, 282
and weed competition, 130-31 Metica I semidwarf, 59
and zinc deficiency, !51 Microvelia atronlineata, effect of insecti-
Low-temperature stress, and sheath rot, cides on, 244
211 Microwave drying, 366
Lysine, 402 Milled rice, 311
distribution of, 403 consumer preferences in, 380
Lysocephalin in milled rice, 400 insect infestability of, 272
Lysolecithin in milled rice, 400 proximate analysis of, 397
Milling, 347-88, 395
Minerals, 408
Machinery settings, and breakage, 379 in brown rice and its fractions, 410
Madagascar, changes in production, 4 Mitochondrial genes, 49
Magnaporthe grisea, 202 Moisture conservation, and puddling, 136
INDEX 431
Moisture content Nephotettix cincticeps, 246

and breakage, by variety of rice, 364 transmission of tungro virus by, 224-25
changes in, and cracking, 334-35 N ephotettix nigropictus, 244
during harvesting, 314 transmission of tungro virus by, 224-25
measures of, 312 Nephotettix virescens, 130, 244
and milling yields, 371-72 transmission of tungro virus by, 224-25
and optimum soil conditions, 138-39 Newbonnet cultivar, 63
Moisture stress Newton's law of cooling, analogy to thin-
and capacity of the soils to retain water, layer drying of small grains, 331
165 Niacin, 409
effects of, 138 Nilaparvata baberi, vector for grassy stunt
and upland rice production, 163 virus, 226
varietal differences in tolerance to, 139 Nilaparvata lugens, 130, 239, 244
See also Relative humidity vector for grassy stunt virus, 226
Molecular cytogenetics, 50 Nilaparvata maeander, 239
Molinate weed control Nilaparvata malay anus, 244
in dry-seeded, flooded systems, 306 Nilaparvata muiri, vector for grassy stunt
in water-seeded culture, 301 virus, 226
Mollusks, crop damage by, 132 Nira cultivar, optimum harvesting condi-
Monosomic plants, 46-47 tions, 364
Monozet, for sheath blight control, 216 Nitrification-denitrification, as a nitrogen
Morphologic traits, 24-27 loss mechanism, 142
Moths, 278 Nitrogen
Mulching and the brown planthopper, 240
and moisture conservation, 164 loss of, 141-42
for Sclerotium oryzae control, 221-22 midseason application guide, 158-59
Multiple cropping response of insect pests to, 238
and the brown planthopper, 240 responsiveness and plant type, 28
early-maturing types for, 69-70 and upland rice culture, 165-66
and insect pests, 239 Nitrogen fertilizer
and vulnerability to pests, 78 balance sheet, 148
Mutations and emergence of bacterial blight, 189
breeding from, 73 and false smut, 208-9
endosperm, 40-41, 60 and resistance to blast, 204
induced, 62 responses of upland rice, 168-69
by irradiation, 25 and responsiveness to irradiance, 123
Myanmar (Burma), breeding experiments role, with brown spot, in 1942 famine,
in, 66 207
Myo-inositol-1-phosphate synthetase, 412 and sheath rot, 211
and stem rot control, 220
See also Fertilizers
Nitrogen fixation, 141
Najas guadalupensis, 290 in flooded soils, 127
Nakataea sigmoidea, 220 microbial, in a flooded soil, 56
Narrow brown leaf spot, 209-11 Nitrogenous compounds, caryopsis, 402-6
breeding for resistance to, 63 Node blast, 201-2
National Agriculture Research Center Nonwaxy rice starch, 400-401
(Japan), 60-61 North America, changes in production,
National Fertilizer Development Center, 4
u.s., 149 Notched belly imperfections, 21
Nato cultivar, optimum drying conditions Nucellus, 391, 395
for, 365 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR),
Natural enemies of BPH, 244 measurement of lipids in rice, 381
Near infrared measurements of milling Nutrients
effects, 381 availability, and puddling, 137
Neem (insecticide), 244, 247 from crop residues, 125-26
Nematode diseases, 227-29 and fertilizer use efficiency, 139-40
432 INDEX
Nutrients (cant. ) Palorus ratzeburgi, 270

from flooded soil, 108 Panicle blast, 202
leaching of oxidized forms, 125 Panicle initiation, 16-17
Nutritional value, 40-42 nitrogen fertilizer topdressing at, 156
and protein content, 396, 402 and nitrogen topdressing, 144
Nutsedge, as a competitor to upland rice, Panicle number, and tiller number, 29-30
167 Panicles
additive gene action controlling, 30
characteristics in wetland rice, 55
Oebalus pugnax, 130, 260 critical need for solar energy, 122
Oligogenes genetic control of character, 26
breakdown of, 38 heritability of characteristics, 31
for disease resistance, 38 and temperature, 121
inheritance of plant height, 27 Pantothenic acid, 409
Oochikara cultivar, 60 Parathion, methyl, for seed feeder control,
Organic manures, and HYVs, 151 261
Ornithine, 406 Parboiled rice, 395-96
Orseolia oryzae, 250-53 breakage of, 361-62
Oryseolia oryzivora, 250-53 drying of, 366
Oryzaephilus mercator, 270, 277 effect of humidity on head yield, 373
Oryzaephilus surinamensis, 270 milling of, 359, 368
Oryza glaberrima, !05 physical changes in, 411
crosses with Oryza sativa, 48 vitamin content of, 408
shattering in, 35 Parenchyma cells, endosperm components,
Oryza sativa, I 05 392
amylose fraction, gene controlling, 40 Parthenogenetic females, RWW, California
brown spot susceptibility, 206 and Japan, 254
chromosome complement of, 42-43 Pedigree selection for breeding experi-
ecogeographic races of, 51 ments, 72
genetic diversity of, 51-52 Pencycuron, for sheath blight control, 216
host toP. fuscovaginae, 197 Pendimethalin
infection by Xanthomonas cinnamoha, dry-seeded, flooded systems, weed
192 control, 306
reproduction of BPH on, 240 upland rice culture, weed control, 298
shattering in, 35 Percolation
sterility in interspecific crosses with losses and puddling, 136
0. glaberrima, 48 rate, and productivity, 109
Ovary culture, 80 Pericarp, 390-91, 395
Overmilling. See Deep milling dormancy of, 36
Overproduction in Japan, 59-60 glutelin of the, 405
Oxadiazon, 159 Peroxidase activity, 412
upland rice culture weed control, 298 Peru, changes in production, 4
for weed control, transplanted rice, 295 Pesticides for control of storage insects,
Oxisols, 127 281-83
phosphorus deficiency in, 149 Pest management
Oxyflurofen for weed control in upland chemicals for, 187
rice, 298 water drainage for, !58
Oxygen Peta cultivar, crosses with semidwarfs, 27
exchange from atmosphere to soil, 126 pH
soil levels of, 137 changes in flooded soils, 126
Oxytetracycline, for control of P. fuscova- and phosphorus sources, 149
ginae, 198 range in soils, 124
in upland soils, 165-66
Paddy rice, drying rate constant k, 331. and water management, 142-43
See also Rough rice and zinc deficiency, 159
Paddy separators, 352-55 Phalguna cultivar, RGM resistance of,
Pakistan, change in production (1979- 251-52
1988), 3 Phenoxy herbicides, 159
INDEX 433
Philippines Plant regeneration in somatic cell culture,

change in production (1979-1988), 3 81
government support, and yield, 6 Plant spacing, 137-38
Phleum pratense, host toP. fuscovaginae, Plant type, component traits, 28
197 Platygaster oryzae, 253
Phorate for rice gall midge control, 252 Plodia interpunctella, 270, 275, 278
Phosphate fertilizer, placement for weed Plow sole, 125
control, 306 Polishing, 359-61
Phosphine, fumigation with, 283 Pollen culture, 70-71, 80
Phospholipase, 412 Pollination, 19
Phospholipids, 406 Ponlai type, 54. See also Sinica race
in milled rice, 400 Population growth, 4
Phosphorus, 144, 205, 207 and agricultural production index, 8-9
banding and upland rice culture, 169 and need for rice, 82-83, 171
in brown rice, 402, 408, 410 and projected rice production, 237
deficiency of, 149-50 and rice consumption, 9-10
and direct seeding onto flooded fields, Porteresia coarct at a, 80
!57 Postharvest management, 311, 318
Phosphorylase, 411-12 Potash fertilizers. See Potassium
Photoelectric sorting, 361-62 Potassium, 144
Photoperiod, 121-22 in brown rice, 408, 410
breeding plants insensitive to, 23 deficiency of, 150
critical, for panicle initiation, 33 and direct seeding onto flooded fields,
effect on development, 21 157
optimum, defined, 32 and sheath rot, 211
and segregation for temperature re- Precipitation
sponses, 34 distribution, and yield, 109
Photoperiod-sensitive phase (PSP), 32 and yield, I 08
Photoperiod sensitivity Preharvest quality, 313-14
cultivar variations in, 122 Prelude cultivar, optimum harvesting
of deepwater rice cultivars, 162 conditions, 364
genetic basis of, 54 Pretilachlor, for weed control, transplanted
inheritance patterns, 32-33 rice, 295
of male sterility, 76 Pributycarb, for weed control, transplanted
and panicle development, 17 rice, 295
Photosynthesis Processing
genetic code for enzymes involved in, 49 effects on the caryopsis, 395-96
in the reproductive and ripening phases, stages of, 311-12
109 Production
Physicochemical properties, 396-411 annual, world, 237
Physiological diseases, 132 by country and region, 106-7
Phytase activity, 413 by ecosystem, less developed countries,
Phytin, 402 133
Phyzopertha dominica, 275 factors affecting increases in, 23
Piperophos for weed control, 155 and growing period, 172
in upland rice culture, 298 overview and production, 1-11
Pirimiphos methyl, for storage insect technology, future outlook, 170-78
control, 281 world levels of, 1-2
Plant growth, 13-22 regional distribution, 104
Plant height, 27-28 Projections of the need for rice, 10, 170,
heritability of characteristics, 31 237
inhibitor genes, 25 Prolamin, 402, 405
Planthoppers, 130 change during grain development, 410
as vectors for grassy stunt virus, 226 Propanil weed control
See also Brown planthopper; White- in dry-seeded, flooded systems, 306
backed planthopper; Zigzag in upland rice culture, 298
planthopper in water-seeded culture, 301
Planting, and harvest preparation, 314-15 Propiconazole, for brown spot control, 207
434 INDEX
Protease, 412 moisture stress limitations, 138

Protectants for storage insect control, 281 and nitrogen transformation processes,
Protein 143
accumulation in developing grain, 408-9 wetland yields, 5
distribution in milling fractions, 397 yield constraints in, 56, 175
genetic control of content, 41-42 Ratna cultivar, stem borer resistance of,
utilization in parboiled rice, 411 250
Protein bodies, 392-94, 402-3 Ratoon cropping, 20, 175
timing of appearance, 408, 410 fertilizer for, 159
Proteoglycans, 401 and tungro infection, 245
Protoplasmic DNA uptake, 82 RD6 and RD15 cultivars from mutant
Protoplast fusion, 70-71, 81-82 breeding, 73
Proximate analysis, 396-97 Recessive genes
Pseudomonas, 188, 189 for dwarfism, 25
Pseudomonas fuscouaginae, 195-98 for floating ability, 36
Pseudomonas glumae, 194-95 for growth habit, 35
Pseudomonas oryzae, 190 for panicle expression, 26
Ptinidae, 270 for photoperiod sensitivity, 33
Pubescence, genes controlling, 25 for short height, 25
Puddling, 145 for water tolerance, 36
and direct seeding, 154-55 Recilia dorsalis, transmission of tungro
and land preparation, 154 virus by, 224-25
for lowland rice culture, 134, 136-38 Reciprocal crosses, and pollen sterility,
and weed type, 294 73-74
Pupae, susceptibility to fumigants, 282 Reciprocal translocation, 44
Pyongyang variety, Korea, 61 Recombinant DNA, 82
Pyralid moths, 278 Recurrent selection, 73
Pyrazoxyfen for weed control, trans- Redox potential, nutrients affected by, 126
planted rice, 295 Regional distribution of rice production, 6
Pyrethrins, for storage insect control, 281 Reimei variety, 73
Pyrethroids, for storage insect control, 281 Relative humidity
Pyricularia oryzae, 200-204 and P. oryzae infection, 203
Pyridoxine, 409 and rice gall midge infestation, 251
Pyroderces rileyi, 271 and stress cracking, 372-73
Pyrozolate for weed control, transplanted See also Moisture stress
rice, 295 Relay cropping, 175
Pyrroline, 2-acetyl-1-, 407-8 R-enzyme, 411-12
Reproductive phase, 13, 16-19
photoperiod dependence of duration,
122
Q-enzyme, 411-12 Republic of Korea (South Korea)
Quality change in production (1979-1988), 3
of cooked rice, 41 high yield from, 51
from mixing-type driers, 323 Residual insect infestations in storage
Quantitative traits, genetics of, 27-32 areas, 279
Quarterly Bulletins of Statistics, 1 Resistant cultivars
Quinalfos for rice gall midge control, 252 to bakanae, 200
to blast infections, 204
to brown planthopper, 243
to brown spot, 207
Radicle, 392 for controlling bacterial blight, 192
Raffinose, 401 to grassy stunt virus, 227
Ragged stunt virus, 222 to green leafhopper, 246
brown planthopper vector for, 239 to narrow brown leaf spot, 211
Rainfall and upland rice yield, 162-64 to rice gall midge, 251
Rain-fed ecosystems to rice leaffolder, 260
dryland yields, 5 to rice water weevils, 255
lowland rice culture, 109, 134-46 to stem borers, 250
INDEX 435
to stem rot, 221 Sabog-tanim method, 163

to tungro virus, 225, 246 Safety of aerosol-applied insecticides, 281-
Resources, genetic, 51 82
Respiration of stored rice, 336-37 Salinity in deepwater areas, 162
Return sheller, 355 Saroc/adium oryzae, 211-13
Rexark variety Sasanishiki hybrid, 60
optimum harvesting conditions, 364 Sativalspontanea cross, 79-80
temperature and milling breakage, Saturn, moisture content and shelling,
372 371-72
Rhizoctonia oryzae, 217 Sawtoothed grain beetle, 277
Rhizoctonia oryzae-sativae, 218 Scalping machine, 349, 350
Rhizoctonia so/ani, 213-17 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
Rhyzopertha dominica, 270, 274 structure of caryopsis, 389
Riboflavin, 409 Scirpophaga incertulas, 248, 249
Ribonuclease, 412 cultivars resistant to, 250
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 406 Scirpophaga innotata, 248, 249
Rice: Chemistry and Technology, 40 Sclerotia! fungal pathogens, 213-22
Rice bran, defatted, from SEM processing, Sclerotium oryzae, 218-22
378 Screen separators, 349-50
Rice culture, 103-86 Scutellum, 392
Rice Diseases (Ou), 187-236 Sedges, 128
Rice dwarf, GLH vectors for, 245 Seedbed preparation
Rice flour, high protein, 382 in dry seeding and flooding systems, 305
Rice gall midge (RGM), 250-53 and weed management, 288-89, 294
Rice Genetics and Cytogenetics, 23-101 Seed coat, 391
Rice Genetics Newsletter, 25, 27, 37, 39, weight percent of the caryopsis, 390
42, 43, 47 Seed companies, work on hybrid develop-
ems sources, list, 49 ment, 64
Rice harvesters, 316-18 Seed-feeding insects, 260-61
Rice, insect pests, 237-68, 269-85 economic thresholds for Oebalus
Ricelands, classifications, 132-33 pugnax, 258-59
Rice leaffolder (RLF), 256-60 Seeding for upland rice, 168
Rice oil, from SEM processing, 378 Seedling blast, 201
Rice plant, growth and development, 13- Seedlings
22 growth, 15
Rice-processing machinery, 348-63 respiration rate and grain size, 31
Rice root nematode, 229 treatment with zinc, 151
Rice straw, nutrients returned to the soil, Seed, weed free, 290
126 Selection for breeding experiments, 71-72
Rice water weevil, 253-56 Self-sufficient regions, 5
Ripening phase, 13, 19-20 Semidwarfs, 24, 59, 62-63
Rockefeller Foundation, breeding experi- diseases of, 187
ments at, 71 genetics of, 27
Rodents, losses due to, 131 impact on total production, 3-4
Roots and sclerotia! fungus incidence, 213
development, and temperature, See also Cultivars; Genes; Green Revo-
121 lution
and drought resistance, 36-37 Semisterility, lines breeding true for, 48
pulling resistance heritability, 37 Sesamia calamistis, 248, 249
Rough rice, 320 Sesamia inferens, 248
defined, 347 Shading
drying, 318-33 experiments in, 122-23
EMC equation for, 319-20 protection for upland rice, 164
harvest, 311-18 Shakti cultivar, RGM resistance of, 251-52
storage, 336-42 Shallow-bed drying, model, 331-33
RTSV virus, role in tungro, 223 Shattering, 35
Rubber roll sheller, 351-52 and grain moisture, 169
Rusty grain beetle, 277 and temperature during ripening, 21
436 INDEX
Sheath blight, 213-17 Starbonnet cultivar, 62, 63

genetic resistance to, 38 moisture content and shelling, 371-72
in Japan, 60 Starch, 396-98
susceptibility of semidwarfs, 63 fractionation of, 400
Sheath brown rot, 195-98 granules, endosperm, 394
Sheath rot, 211-13 Starch synthetase, 412
breeding for resistance to, 63 Starchy endosperm, weight percent, 390
Sheath spot, 217 Steaming
Shedding, 35 effect on quality, 396
Shelled rice. See Brown rice before milling, and breakage reduction,
Shelling, 351-52 376
defined, 347 Stem borers, 130, 247-50
Shifting import/export regions, production list, 248
changes in, 5 resistance to, 39-40, 63
Shiranui variety, 59 Stem maggots, resistance to, 39-40
Shuttle breeding, 70 Stem nematode, 227, 228
Siam 29 group, response of RGM to, 252 Stem rot, 218-22
Silica, and P. oryzae infection, 204 in California, 63
Silicon in brown rice, 408, 410 resistance to, 38
Single-seed descent, 72 Sterility
Sinica race, 51, 58 following bacterial blight, 190
shattering in, 35 and chromosomal abberations, 44
Sink formation, partitioning of energy for, in haploid plants, 45
77 intervarietal hybrid, 47-49
Sitophilus oryzae, 270, 275 Stink bugs, 130
Sitophilus zeamais, 270 breeding for resistance to, 63
Sitotroga cerealella, 270, 275 Stoners, 350
Sizing, 359-61 Storage, 336-42
Smallfiower umbrella sedge, development changes due to, 410-11
stage and herbicide use, 304 and cracking, 336
Soaking temperature, effect on quality, and milling yields, 366-68
396 properties of undermilled rice, 380
Sodium in brown rice, 410 protection afforded by the hull, 390
Sogatella furcifera, 242 stability of SEM rice, 378
Soils Straighthead, breeding for resistance to, 63
characteristics of, 124-27 Streptomycin, for P. fuscouaginae control,
moisture tension and yield, 166 198
problem, 175-76 Striped stemborer, breeding for resistance
structure, and puddling, 136-37 to, 53
type, and advantages of percolation, Stripe virus
109, 119 in Japan, 60
Solar radiation, 122-23 resistance to, 38
Solvent extractive milling (SEM), 377-79 Stripper harvesters, 317-18
Somaclonal variants, 81 Sucrose, 401
Sorting, photoelectric, 361-62 Sugars, 401
South America, production in, 5-6 Sulfur dioxide, experimental treatment of
Southern and Southeastern Asia, produc- rough rice with, 376
tion in, 2-3 Sun checking, and breakage, 364
Southern naiad, 290 Suncrack, 333-34
Sowing, of upland rice, 168 Surekha cultivar, RGM resistance of, 251-
Spacing for upland rice, 168 52
Spain, high yield from, 51 Sustainability of riceland, 10
Sphaerulinia oryzina, 210 Sustainable rice production, 178-79
Spikelet, heritability of characteristics, 31 Synthetase, myo-inositol-1-phosphate, 412
Spike-toothed cylinder harvester, 316-17,
318 Taichung Native 1 (TN!) variety, 54, 62
Sporophyte, monosomics in, 47 Taiwan, breeding experiments in, 54, 66-
Sri Lanka, breeding experiments in, 67-68 67
INDEX 437
Taxonomy of Phytopathogenic Bacteria, and nitrogen topdressing, 144

193 quantitative studies of, 30
Tebonnet variety, 63 and temperature, 120
Teleomorphs Tiller number, 15
G. fujikuroi, to F. moniliforme, 199 and panicle number, 29-30
Magnaporthe grisea to Pyricularia and planting density, 137
oryzae, 202 Tillers
Magnaporthe salvinii to Sclerotium characteristics in wetland rice, 55
oryzae, 220 heritability of, 31
Sphaerulinia oryzina to Cercospora Tilling
oryzae, 210 and rice growth, 125
Thanatephorus cucumeris to Rhizoctonia and weed management, 288-89, 300
so/ani, 215 Tissue culture, 73, 80
Temperature Tocopherols, 406-7, 409
drying, and cracking, 336 Tong-il variety, 3
and the drying rate constant k, 331 Toxic substances, and anaerobic decompo-
effect on breakage during milling, 372 sition in flooded soils, 127
effects on crop maturity, 20-21 Trade policies, links to production, 177-78
as a limiting factor in rice culture, 119- Transfer methods, and breakage, 367
21 Transitory yellowing, GLH vectors for,
and maturation time, 33-35 245
and ripening time, 20 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM),
and tetraploidy, 46 structure of caryopsis, 389
Temperature sensitivity, 197, 211 Transplanting
genetic basis of, 54 cost of, 154
of male sterility, 76 critical air temperature for, 120
Tempering versus direct seeding, 15
and breakage, 365-66 irrigated, 147
of partially dried rice, 325 in lowland rice culture, 134
Tenebroides mauritanicus, 270 and weed control, 293-97
Terpenoids, effect on BPHs, 243 Trap crop, protecting against GLH with,
Terraces for lowland rice culture, 125 247
Tetraploid plahts, 43, 46 Tray-type separator, 353-54
Textural profile, soils Tribolium audax, 270, 276
and nitrogen applications, 148 Tribolium castaneum, 270, 275, 276
and rooting depth, 165 Tribolium confusum, 270, 276
and water penetration, 124 Tribolium destructor, 276
Thailand Tribolium spp., 276
breeding experiments in, 68 damage to stored rice, 269-71
change in production (1979-1988), 2 Trichoderma, and R. so/ani survival,
extremes of moisture in, 7 216
pest control in, 79 Triphenyltin acetate, for brown spot con-
water tolerance studies, 36 trol, 207
Thanatephorus cucumeris, 215 Triploid plants, 45-46
Thiamin, 409 Trisomy, 46
Thin-layer drying, simulation models, 330- Triticum aestivum, host toP. fuscovagi-
33 nae, 197
Thiobencarb for weed control, 159 Triveni cultivar, resistance to BPH,
in transplanted rice, 295 244
in upland rice culture, 298 Tropical storms, and culture, 123
in water-seeded culture, 301 Tryptophan, distribution in the rice kernel,
Threshing, 153 382
of indica semidwarfs, 54 Tungro virus, 222, 223-25, 246-47
mechanization of, 177 breeding for resistance to, 53
Tillering, 15, 137 control using varietal rotation, 66
and evapotranspiration, 119 epidemic, 188
and flooding, 109 GLH vectors for, 245
in indica semidwarfs, 54 resistance breakdowns in hybrids, 69-70
438 INDEX
Tungro virus (cont.) Waika virus, 223-24. See also RTSV virus
resistance to, 38, 78 Water
spherical form of, 38 net requirement for, 119
Typhae stercorea, 270 requirement for, 103
resistance to deficit, 36-37
tolerance for excess, 36
Watergrass, 290
development stage and herbicide use,
Ufra nematode. See Stem nematode 303
Ultisols, 127 Water management
phosphorus deficiency in, 149 for drill seeding, 158
United States for rice water weevil control, 255
breeding experiments in, 61-64 and seeding practices, 145
changes in production, 4 direct seeding onto puddled soil, 154
government support and yield, 6 and stem borer activity, 249
high yield from, 51 for weed control, 130, 291-92, 295
production in, 5 in water-seeded rice, 300-301
smooth-hulled varieties grown in, 25 Water mold complex, breeding for resis-
University of California, Davis, 315 tance to, 63
Upland rice culture, 162-70 Water-seeded rice, 300-304
Africa and Latin America, 133-34 Water weevils, 130
soils suitable for, 124-25 breeding for resistance to, 63
weed management, 297-300 Waxy character, heritability of, 40
and weed pests, 128-29 Waxy rice, 408
Urea amylose content, 399
basal incorporation into drained soil, starch of, 394, 400
147-48 Waxy starch granules, 398
deep placement of, lowland rice culture, Weather conditions, impact on world
149 production, 2
fertilizer, demand for, 142 Weed Control In Rice, 128
U.S.S.R., changes in production, 4 Weed management, 166-67, 287-309
Ustilaginoidea virens, 208-9 and broadcast seeding, 155
Utilization, 8-9 chemical, and U.S. hybrids, 62
Utri Rajapan cultivar, resistance to BPH, and direct seeding, 146
244 onto flooded fields, 156
with drill seeding, 159
for irrigated transplanted rice, 152
mechanizing, 176-77
and optimum spacing, 138
Validamycin, for sheath blight control, 216 in rain-fed areas, 144-45
Valine, 406 in water-sown rice, 157
Vascular disease, bacterial blight, 191 and yields of deepwater rices, 161
Vegetative phase, 13, 15-16 Weeds, 128-30
genetic basis of, 54 as fodder for animals, 295
Vertical resistance to pathogens and in- in dry-seeded flooded fields, list,
sects, 38-40 305
Vertisols, 127 in transplanted rice fields, list, 296
phosphorus deficiency in, 149 in upland rice fields, list, 297
and upland rice culture, 124 in water-seeded rice fields, list, 302
Vietnam, brown planthopper in, 60 Weevils, as stored rice pests, 273-74
Vikram cultivar, RGM resistance of, 251- Wetland rice culture, and zinc deficiency,
52 151
Virus diseases, 222-27 Wet tillage (puddling), 125
insects as vectors of, 130 Whitebacked planthopper, 242
Vitamins, 408 resistance to, 39-40
A, B12• and E, 409 Tainung resistance to, 67
in brown rice and rice fractions, 409 White rice. See Milled rice
INDEX 439
Wild Abortive ems, 77 and plastic mulching, 222

in China, 75-76 and weed competition, upland rice, 166
Wilted stunt virus, 226 weed control as a limiting factor, 297
Wire loop cylinders, 317 See also Harvest index
World Climate Research Program, predic- Yield losses
tions of, 83 from bacterial blight (BB), 190
World Crop and Livestock Statistics, I from brown planthoppers, 241, 242
World production, trends in, 9 from C. suppressalis, 249
World Rice Statistics, I from hopperburn, 239
from rice gall midge damage, 251
from rice leaffolder damage, 257
Xanthomonas, 188, 189 from rice water weevils, 254
Xanthomonas campestris, 191, 193 from sheath rot, 211
Xanthomonas cinnamoha, 192 from stem rot, 218
Xanthomonas oryzae, 189-94 Yield, regional, 104
Xanthomonas oryzico/a, 193 in the developed countries, 177
Xylem vessel number, heritability for, 37 and ecosystem, less developed coun-
tries, 133
by latitude, I 08
Yellow dwarf virus trends in Asia, 7
resistance to, 38 in the tropics and temperate zone, 123
vectors for, 245
Yield
and biomass, 83 Zea mays, host toP. fuscovaginae, 197
breeding for, 54-56 Zenith
ceiling, 76-77 effect of humidity on head yield, 373
and characteristics of wetland rice, 55 optimum drying conditions, 365
constraints in rain-fed ecosystems, 56 optimum harvesting conditions, 364
correlation with total solar radiation, 122 temperature and milling breakage, 372
factors affecting, 50, 173 Zigzag planthopper, resistance to, 39-40
and flooding, 138 Zinc
of F 1 hybrids, 74 in brown rice, 410
and growth period, 172 deficiency, 151
of hand versus combine harvesting, 365 in alkaline soils, 159
head, 313-14 tolerance to, 152
and nitrogen uptake, 148 and direct seeding onto flooded fields,
per plant, heritability of, 31 157
INDEX
Abietic acid, HLR-Mickus process for Agricultural uses of hulls, 274-76

adding, 38 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, gene transfer
Abrasive milling, 315 using, 386
Abrasives, rice hulls as, 270 Air-classification process, for flours, 17-18
Absidia corymbifers, yellow rice-associ- Alanine in rice germ, 333
ated, 196 Albumin, 367
Absorbent qualities of hulls, 280 in bran and polish, 329
Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, 258-59 in rice germ, 333
Acetic acid, 265 Alcohol dehydrogenase, 258-59
acid-parboiling with, 41 Alcoholic fermentation
concentration in fermentation, 259-60 for producing beverages, 206-19
tolerance, genetic property, 259 for producing vinegar, 256
Acetification, 258-61 Aleurone, 321
for producing rice vinegar, 256 phosphorus in, 333
submerged, 260-61 Aleurone layer, 321
Acetobacter aceti for making vinegar, 254- oil in, 295
55 phytic acid in, 373
Acid parboiling, 41-42 type j particles, 324-25
Actinomycete, yellow rice-associated, 196 Aleurone particles
Activated carbon from hulls, 280-81 composition of, 373
Activation energy phosphorus and protein content, 325
for browning reactions, 172 Alkali digestion test, 157
of water removal, 172 Alkaline extraction of bran, 342-44
Additives used in preparing quick-cooking flowchart, 343
rice, 137 yield and composition, 345
ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, 385-86 Alkali treatment, quick-cooking process,
Africa, rice cultivation in, 1 136-37
397
398 INDEX
Amarillo (yellow rice), 196 Amylose/amylopectin ratio, 178-79

American Association of Cereal Chemists and rice flour product, 16
(AACC), 21 Anka fermented solid, 195, 199-201
American Frozen Foods, 230-31 Antioxidants in cereals
Amino acids oryzanol, 298-99
balance in composite flours, 20 in Rice Krispies, 247
enrichment with, 35-49 See also Butylated hydroxyanisole
in milling fractions, 364-69 (BHA); Butylated hydroxytoluene
profile of rice vinegar, 263 (BHT)
in rice, beans, and soybean proteins, 164 Antithiamin factor in bran, 352
in rice bran and polish, 329 Antitrypsin, in bran, 338
in rice germ, 322-23, 333 Apical meristerm, 321
in rice hulls, 273 Arak starter cultures, 197
in vinegar, 258 Arare (cracker), 233
Aminopeptidase Arlesienne variety
activity of Aspergillus oryzae, 264 canned-rice characteristics, 150
in vinegar mash, 257, 262 effect of heating canned rice, 151
Ammoniated rice hulls, nutritive value of, Arroz fermando (yellow rice), 196
277-78 Ascorbic acid, adding to cereal, 43
Amulomyces, 197 Asia, rice cultivation in, 2
Amylase, 202, 210 Aspartic acid, in rice germ, 333
activation during steeping, 59 Aspergillus jiavus, yellow rice-associated,
fungal, in fermentation, 206 196
a-Amylase Aspergillus oryzae, 205, 257, 262, 264
content of milled rice, 16 function in sake brewing, 213, 214, 217
in koji for vinegar, 257 in miso culture, 205
in vinegar preparation, 253 saccharification by, 198
J3-Amylase in koji-making, 204 Australia, rice exporting by, 5
Amylognim of starches for rice cakes, by Autoclave fermentation vessel for vinegar
source, 240 production, 258
Amylographic gelatinization and quality, Avorio process for parboiling, 73, 77
102
Amylograph pasting curves
long-grain varieties, 103-4
by mill type, for flours, 14-15 Baby foods, 186-89
of rice flour, 11-12 broken rice used in, 10
Amylograph peak viscosity to measure the formulated, 189
extent of steaming, 16 packaging, 189-92
Amylomyces in fermentation starters, rice polish used in, 353
201-2 Bacillus subtilis, yellow rice-associated,
Amylopectin, 3, 93 196
and gel formation, 189 Baking
and rice-cake character, 243-44 bran used in, 353
in waxy rice flour, 9 changes in raw rice during, 237-38
Amylose, 3, 369 rice flours used in, 9-33
and canned-rice characteristics, 148-51 Balilla, canned-rice characteristics, 150
and character of rice products, 6 Bamboo leaf-wrapped rice, 245-46
and expansion during parboiling, 84 Barley, production by region, 4
and freezing, 170-71 Basmati varieties, 94, 106
and gelatinization temperatures, 17 Bedding and litter, use of hulls for, 278
and gel formation, 189 Belle Patna variety, utilization of, 149
and grain type, 51-52 BEPT. See Birefringence end-point tem-
in Jasmine rices, 106 perature
and quality, 102, 103 Beriberi, 35, 38
and rice breads, 27-28 BHT. See Butylated hydroxytoluene
and subjective appeal, 148 (BHT)
INDEX 399
Bibingka (rice cake), 244 ready-to-eat, 180

Biotin, changes with milling, 36 shredded rice, 184
Birefringence end-point temperature Brewing, 178
(BEPT) and gelatinization temperatures, broken rice use in, 10
17 shao-hsing wine, 210-13
of rice flour, ll Broken grades
Bitaibah (noodle), 243 fabricating quick-cooking rice from, 137
Bleachiqg of rice oil, 306-7 flour from, 10
Bluebelle variety, utilization of, 149 Browning reactions
Blue Bonnet variety activation energies, 172
phosphorus distribution in, 371-72 during drying, 62
popping characteristics, 179 during parboiling, 84
processing for quick cooking, 128-29 vacuum processing to prevent, 161-62
utilization of, 149 Brown Patna, 168
Blue protein, Cu-containing glycoprotein, Brown Pearl, 168
329 Brown rice
Bostwick consistometer, baby food testing composition of, 365
with, 189 defined, 364
Bran, 313-62 flours, 15
and cholesterol levels, 225 storage problems of, 13
chemical constituents, 325-31, 335 freezing properties of, 168
color and quality, 95-96 grades and requirements, U.S., Ill
defatted, 357 nutritional quality, compared with milled
defined, 364 rice, 379-83
extrusion cooking, 338, 339 quick-cooking, 132, 139, 142
flavor and color, 348 Bumping treatment, 128, 131
fractionation, 341-48 Burma, rice exporting by, 5
functional properties, 349 Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) antioxi-
heating after milling, 3 dant, 69
histology and histochemistry, 316-17 in cereals, 190
industry standards, 356 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) antioxi-
nutritional properties, 350-52 dant, 43, 69
oil in, 295 in cereals, 190
from parboiled rice, 67
particles, 317-25
processes, 314-16, 337, 339-40 Calci!lm, 375-76
proximate analysis of, 325-27, 328 distribution in the grain, 19
stabilization, 337-8, 340-41 FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to
standards, 356-7 rice, 47
sugars in, 370 fortification standards, 48
utilization, 352-56 RDA in rice, 380
vitamins, 331-32 Calcium carbonate, milling with, 315
See also Rice-bran products and bran composition, 326-27
Breads Calcium:phosphorus ratio, 375-76
acid-leavened, 202-3 Calcium silicide manufacture from hulls,
and flour characteristics, 14 280
Breakage, 9-10 California Pearl
and drying of parboiled rice, 63 freezing properties, 167
during milling, 315-16 for gun-puffing, 182
Breakfast cereals, II, 177-94 for puffed rice, 181
broken rice use in, 10 Calrose
fortification with rice and minerals, canned fried rice prepared from, 160-61
186 canning of, 165
hot rice, 179 characterization, 12
puffed rice, 180-83 Candida tropicalis, growth on rice hull,
puffing by extrusion, 183-84 288
400 INDEX
Canned fried rice, 159-63 Chien tsong (bamboo leaf-wrapped rice),

Canning, 147-67 245
flow diagram, 166 China
of rice pudding, 232 production, percentage, 177
of soups, 158-59 rice exporting by, 5
varieties, 148 Chinese red rice, 201
Carbohydrates, 369-70 Chiou-chu preparation, 198
in commercial bran, 327 Cholesterol levels
in fibers, 323 and bran, 225, 353-54
in hulls, 271 and fiber, 20
in seed coat, 324 Chromoprotein in the embryo, 333
in type a particles, 318 Chu chong tsaw (for red rice), 200-201
Carboxymethylcellulose, use in rice Chu (starter for fermentation), 198
breads, 28 Ciglon variety, canned-rice characteristics
Carrier, rice hull products as, 281 150
Carter Dockage Tester, 114 Citric acid cycle, 265
Caryopsis, 65, 316 Classification of rice crackers, 233-34
enzymes in, 330 Cleaning of rice for parboiling, 55-56
swelling during steeping, 59 Coleoptile, 321
variations in, 51 Coleorhiza, 321
Cassava in fermentation starters, 201 Color
eDNA of bran, 348-49
for ADP-pyrophosphorylase, 385-86 of hulls, and quality, 91,95-96
for rice glutelin, 384-85 of pericarp, and quality, 91
CeCoCo mill, 18 and quality, canned rice, 158
Cellulase in chiang mash, 204 United States Standards for Rice, 113
Cellulose Colored rice varieties, 94
in bran, 327 Color sorting
in germ, 322 automated, 115
Central Food Technological Research of parboiled rice, 67-68
Institute (CFTRI) (India), 71-72 See also Photoelectric sorting
Centrifugal fluidizing bed drier, quick- Compartment separators, 57
cooking rice preparation, 141-42 Composite flour for baking, 20-21
Century Patna, 102 Composition
characterization, 12 of grains used for shao-hsing wine, 207
Cereals ' and quality after processing, 157
production by region, 4 Compressing. See Bumping treatment
vitamin D fortification, 43 Concrete building blocks, rice hull aggre-
world-wide use of major, 3-4 gate in, 279
See also Breakfast cereals Conditioning during drying, 63
Cesariot, canned-rice characteristics, 150 Consistency of fermented grains, 196
CFTRI process for parboiling, 71-72, 77 Consumer acceptability, 89
Chalkiness of cookies with rice flour, 27
and grade, 115 Continuous parboiling, 80
and parboiling, 55 Cookies, 22-27
and quality, 99-100 Cooking
Checking in quick-cooking processes, 138 automatic equipment for, 143
Chein tsong snack food, 245 loss of vitamins by, 37
Chelating agents in rice vinegar, 262-63 and quality, 101-8
Chemical characteristics Copper, in bran, 329
of hulls, 271-74 Corn
of rice flour, 10 production by region, 4
Chemical treatment starch use in rice breads, 28
of hulls, 276-78 waxy-type flours from, 17
in the quick-cooking process, 136-37 Costs
Chiang fermented paste, 195, 203-5 of freeze-dried rice, 172
INDEX 401
of pressure parboiling, 82 Dough improvers, use in rice-substituted

See also Economics wheat flours, 20-21
Crackers, 226, 235-36, 238 Drier blancher, 160
fried (aghe arare), 234 Dry fractionation of bran, 341
momaka shell, 234 Dry-heat treatments, quick-cooking pro-
Cracking and drying of parboiled rice, cess, 131-32
63 Drying
CRGA process for parboiling, 77 advantages of vacuum processing, 63
Crispix, 185 dielectric heating, 79-80
Crisp rice, 230 equipment for, 63-64, 160
Crispy Cakes, 228 infrared, 242
Crista!, canned-rice characteristics, 150 of parboiled rice, 62-63
Cross-linkages in rice starch, 154-55 pneumatic equipment,for stabilizing rice
Crystal rice process, 73, 77 bran, 339-40
Cup Rice (instant), 122 for quick-cooking rice processing, 78
Cutin Dry pack canned rice, 151-52
in rice hulls, 273 Dry soup mixes, quick-cooking rice in, 131
in type a particles, 318 DSC. See Differential scanning calorimetry
Cytochrome C, 329, 333 DTA. See Differential thermal analysis of
Cytochrome oxidase, in vinegar produc- rice hull
tion, 258-59 Duribe variety, canned-rice characteristics,
150
Daily caloric intake, percentage rice, 3

Dairy cows, bran feed for, 356 Economics
Deacidification of rice oils, 306 of parboiling, 81-82
Defatted rice bran, analysis, 357 of rice-oil production, 354
Delignification of hulls, 271-72 See also Costs
Della variety, 94, 106 Emulsifying capacity of bran, 349-50
physical and chemical characteristics, Encapsulation to preserve flavors, 233
107 Endosperm, 321
Delta variety nutritional quality, 363-95
canned-rice characteristics, 150 Energy
effect of heating canned rice, 151 for extrusion cooking of bran, 339
Deodorizing rice oil, 307 hull utilization for, 269, 282-84
Department of Agriculture, U.S., 90 recovery from rice-hull disposal, 289-90
Dephytinized bran, chemical composition See also Fuel
of, 335 Engleberg huller, 314
Diastase, processing with, 188 Enrichment, 35-49
Dielectric heating, 79-80 laws requiring, 48
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) Enthalpy value, as a measure of starch
to evaluate starches, 22 damage during grinding, 15
to measure gelatinization temperatures, Environment during growth, and quality,
14-15 90-91
Differential thermal analysis (DTA) of rice Enzymes
hull, 282-83 in bran, 330
Discoloration digestion to produce high-protein flour,
due to the maillard reaction, 62, 84 19
of parboiled milled rice, 59 Epiblast, 321
and steaming, 61-62 Epidermis, 270
See also Color Epithellar gland, 321
DNA, complementary Ethanol
for ADP-pyrophosphorylase, 385-86 fermentation for making vinegar, 257-58
for rice glutelin, 384-85 percentage in vinegar fermentation, 259-
Dockage, standards for, 113-14 60, 262
Dosci (pancake-type product), 203 Extraction of oil from rice bran, 302-3
402 INDEX
Extruded products Fissuring

flavoring of, 232-33 in dry-heat treatment, 132
fried rice snacks, 246-47 in microwave processing, 139
pellets for rice cakes, 227-28 in pre-cooking processes, 128
precooked baby foods, 188-89 Flame sterilization, canned products, 163-
puffed rice, 183-84 64
quality, and bran content, 226 Flavor
rice cakes, 228-29 additives in extruded products, 232-33
ricelike, 142 of bran, 348-49
Extrusion cooking, 20 Florescent glumes, type a particles, 317
in bran processing, 301-2 Flours, 9-33
for bran stabilization, 338-39, 341 from broken rice, 138
brown rice, 15
composite, for baking waxy-rice, 17
Face powder, rice starch in, 21 See also Rice flour
Fakau (rice cake), 244 Food and Drug Administration, U.S.,
ingredients, 245 278
Farinaceous foods, quick-cooking process, Food, bran in, 353
129 Fortification
Fat with amino acids, 43-46
absorption by brans, 349-50 of Rice Krispies, 247
content of brans, 67 Fractionation processes for bran, 341-48
Fatty acids flowchart, 347
bran sources of, 351 yield and chemical composition, 348
polyunsaturated, in rice oil, 307 Freeze-drying, 135-36, 171-72
in rice bran oil, 297, 305 general principles, 171-72
saponification of, in rice oils, 306 moisture absorption in fruit, 191
Federal Grain Inspection Service (USDA), Freeze resistance of waxy rice-flour
296 pastes, 11.
Feed Freeze-thaw treatment, quick-cooking
bran for, 354-56 process, 132-33
energy values of rice by-products, 352 Freezing
rice bran and rice germ as, 313 characteristics of the product, 169-71
Fermentation and flour type, 17
anaerobic growth of saccharolytic process, 167-71
molds, 201 of rice, 167
liquid state rice foods, 206 technology, 167-69
for rice cake preparation, 244 Fried rice
rice products, 195-223 canned, 159-63
rice vinegar preparation, 252-58 frozen, 169
starters, 197-99 Fructose, 369
during steeping, 58 in rice bran, 327
Ferric compounds Fuel
phytate, 374 paddy hull as, 82
pyrophosphate, HLR-Mickus process for rice hull as, 282
adding, 38 See also Energy
See also Iron Fungi, as saccharifying agents, 198
Fertilizers, annual use of, 5 Furfurals
Fiberboard, rice hull utilization, 279-80 from hulls, 284
Fiber content, 370 in roasted bran, 348
and cholesterol levels, human, 20
of milled rice, 383
pericarp cell walls and, 319 ,8-Galactosidase in chiang mash, 204
type h particles, 323 Gardner meter, tristimulus color measure-
Filtration ment, 158
in brewing, 212 Gas-liquid chromatography, to identify rice
rice hulls for, 285 vinegar components, 262
INDEX 403
Gelatinization, 152 size and shape, 97-98

and conditions during steaming, 61 type and milling yields, 101
defined, 22 Granola snacks, 230
during parboiling, 83 process flow diagram, 231
in the quick-cooking process, 129-30 Green grains, and parboiling, 55
Gelatinization temperature Growth medium for microorganisms, rice
and grain type, 51-52 hull, 288
and quality, 102 Guar gum, use in rice breads, 28
of rice flour, 11-12 Gums
by mill type, 14-15 as gluten substitutes in bread, 27
suitable for rice breads, 27-28 guar, use in rice breads, 28
General Foods, 126, 128, 131, 142, 144 locust bean, use in rice breads, 28
Genetic characteristics, and quality, 90 removing from rice oil, 306
Germ, 321 Gun-puffed rice, 182-83
chemical composition of, 332
nitrogenous compounds in, 333
oil in, 295 Harusame (noodles), 241-43
pentosans and lignins, 332 Heat-damaged kernels, 114
separation of, 316 Heat of combustion for rice hull, 283
size distribution of, 336 Heat-stabilized brans
sugars, 332 moisture content, 337
type g particles, 320-23 particle-size distribution of, 335
vitamins in, 333-34 Heat treatment method, rice oil extraction
Glassine in cereal packaging, 192 from bran, 302
y-Globulin in the embryo, 333 Hemagglutinin in bran, 352
Globulins, 367 Hemicellulase, use in preparing quick-
in bran and polish, 329 cooking rice, 137
in rice germ, 333 Hemicelluloses
Glucoamylase in bran, 327
in koji for vinegar, 257 and pasting properties of starch, 12
in vinegar preparation, 253 Hemoproteins in the embryo, 333
Glucose, 369 n-Hexane
in rice bran, 327 extraction using, 303
Glutelin, 367, 384-85 for fractional sedimentation, 346-47
in bran and polish, 329 High-protein flour, 17-19
in endosperm, 365 High-protein food
Glutinous rice flour, 17-19
in crackers, 235-36 from rice bran, 19
for making shao-hsing wine, 207 Hiochic bacteria
for rice cake, 243 classification of, 218
Glycerides Lactobacillus homohiochi, 260
removing from rice oils, 307 sake spoilage by, 217
in rice bran oils, 297-98 Histology of commercial rice bran, 321
Glyceryl monostearate, use in rice breads, HLR-Mickus process
28 for niacin fortification, 38
Glycolipids in rice bran oils, 297, 298 rice premix, 39
Grades, 89-119 for thiamin fortification, 38
brown rice, 111 Hua Tiao, 213
milled rice, 110 Hong-ru wine, 219
of rice for parboiling, 56-57 Hot cereals, 179-80
rough rice, 112 Hua-tiao wine, 213
special and numerical, 115-16 comparison of processes, 214
Grain "Huller bran" composition, 326
gauge, 97 Hulls, 269-94, 351
properties, for shao-hsing wine, 207 amino acids, 273
quality, 89-90, 91, 92-94 ash, analysis, 274
shape tester, 96-97 ash plant, 289
404 INDEX
Hulls, (cont.) Infusion, adding threonine and lysine by,

carbohydrates, 271 45-46
chemical properties, 271 Insects
chemical treatment, 276 and bran deterioration, 338
color and quality, 91, 95-96 effects on parboiled rice quality, 54
composition, 271 Instant noodles, 241-43
cutin, 273 manufacturing process, 241
delignification, 271 Instant rice, 121
inorganic component, 274 physicochemical properties of, 140
lignin and cutin, 272 Institute of Nutrition of Central America
lipid, 272 and Panama, 45
morphology, 270 lnstron press for measurement of firmness,
organic acids, 273 157
physical properties, 270 International market price, 5
physical treatment, 278 International Rice Research Institute
protein, crude, 272 (IRRI), 365
reviews, 260 Iodine-blue reaction (amylose), 157
utilization, 274, 288 IR-8
active carbon, 280 characterization, 12
agricultural uses, 274 protein in, 384
animal and poultry feeding, 274 IR-480, protein in, 384
bedding and litter, 278 Iron, 376
building materials, 279 availability in phytate, 374
calcium silicide, 280 changes with milling, 36
carrier, 281 FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to
cement, 281 rice, 47
colloidal usage, 282 pyrophosphate, 38-39
fiberboards, 279 RDA in rice, 380
fuel, 282 Italy, rice exporting by, 5
fufural, 284 Ivory Coast, rice importing by, 5
hydrolytic products, 288
industrial uses, 280 Jadavpur University Process for parboil-
pressing aids, 285 ing, 72,77
rubber compounds, 285, 287 Japanese Agricultural Standard (JAS) for
single cell proteins, 286 rice vinegar, 261
sodium silicate, 286 Japan, rice exporting by, 5
steel industry, uses by, 288 Japonica rice, 177
vitamins, 273 Jasmine types, 94, 106
Hydration conditions, effect on properties physical and chemical characteristics,
of frozen rice, 170 107
Hydraulic cement utilizing rice hulls, 281-
82
Hydrophilic character of flour, and baking Kellogg Company, 181, 247
qualities, 24-25 Kellogg, J. H., 230
Hydrothermal processing, 76 Kernels
Hypocotyl in type g particles, 322 composition, 364
damaged, 114
dimensions and grade, 96
quality characteristics, 91
Idli, 15, 202-3 Kneading dough for rice crackers, 238-39
Image analyzers for grading by grain size, Koji, 195, 204, 205
97 from bran, 353
India, percentage of world rice production, for brewing sake, 213
177 for making vinegar, 254-55
Indica rice, 177 preparation of, 198-99
Indonesia, rice importing by, 5 for making vinegar, 256
Infrared drying, 242 for wine making, Taiwan, 213
INDEX 405
Kokuhorose types, 106 loss on parboiling, 76

Kong-Yen Food Co., 260 in rice germ, 333
Kuriowa technique for making vinegar,
254-55
Kyokay yeast, 252-53 Macrominerals, 371-76
Magnesium, 375-76
fortification standards, 48
L202 variety, physical and chemical char- RDA in rice, 380
acteristics, 107 Magnolia variety, utilization of, 149
LaBelle variety, characterization, 12 Maillard reaction, 62, 84
Lactobacillus Malau (rice cakes), 226
function in sake brewing, 214 Malek process for parboiling, 75, 77
homohiochi, in vinegar production, 260 Manucol SS LL alginate, use in rice
Latent heat of vaporization of water, 172 breads, 28
Layer cakes, 29 Market price
and flour characteristics, 14 and brewers' use of rice, 10
from wet-milled flour, 16 international, 5
Legumes as a protein source, 165 See also Economics
Lethal ratio, and processing times, 163 Mash seed, 215
Lignins for shao-hsing wine, 210
in bran, 327, 332 Maturity, and chalkiness, 99
in hulls, 271-72 Meals-Ready-to-Eat (MRE) program, 155
Lignocellulose in hulls, 271-72 Medium-grain types
Lipase, 202, 330 classes, types, and grades, U.S., 109
and bran deterioration, 337-38 physical and chemical characteristics,
in chiang mash, 204 104
inactivation by heating, 52, 67 processing characteristics, 178-79
inactivation in bran processing, 300-301 Mehta process for producing rice ash, 287
inhibiting with extrusion cooking, 20 Merck & Company, premix process, 38
in koji for vinegar, 257 Methionine, 164 ·
and shelf-life of brown-rice flour, 15 deficiency in bran, 350
and stability of rice oil, 3 loss on parboiling, 76
Lipids, 370-71 Methocel, use in rice breads, 28
distribution in the grain, 19 Methods of Farmers, 197
effect on retrogradation, 156 Methods of Farming, 206
in germ, 322 Methylcellulose, use in rice breads, 28
in hulls, 272 Methylethylcellulose, use in rice breads,
See also Rice-bran products, oil; Rice 28
oil Microorganisms for sake brewing, 214
Lipolytic fungi in fermentation starters, Microwave cooking, 143
202 Microwave energy, use in quick-cooking
Lipoprotein membrane, 320 processes, 139
Lipoxygenase, and stability of rice oil, 3 Microwave-type products, 123-24
Lite Energy Rice Cake Machine, 226 Mii-fen (noodles), 241-43
Locust bean gum, use in rice breads, 28 Milled rice, 6
Long-grain types grades and requirements, U.S., 110
California, 104 Millet, production by region, 4
chemical and physical characteristics, Milling
103-4 basic operations, 100
classes, types, and grades, U.S., 109 and bran production, 314-16
processing characteristics, 178-79 degree of, defined, 113
quality characteristics effect on B vitamins and iron, 36
conventional, 105 effects on flour, 13-15
Newrex/Rexmont-type, 105 and granular size, 241
scented, 93, 106 heating rice bran after, 3
Lysine, 43-46, 164, 367, 368 and nutritional value, 35
deficiency in bran, 350 of parboiled rice, 65-68
406 INDEX
Milling, (cont.) Niacin, 377-79

quality of, 90 adding to cereal, 43
rubber roller mills, 80-81 in bran, 333
solvent extractive, 303-5 distribution in the grain, 19
of wheat for shao-hsing wine, 209-10 FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to
Milling degree, oil as a measure of, 296 rice, 46-47
Milling yield, 100-101 fortification of cereal with, 186
and drying of parboiled rice, 63 HLR-Mickus process for adding, 38
hull, 288-89 in hulls, 273
and moisture content, 108-9 loss on cooking, 37
of parboiled rice, 52-53 in overmilled rice, 378
Minerals, 371, 372 in parboiled rice, 52
in bran, 330-31, 351 RDA in rice, 380
in hulls, 274 Nicotinic acid
loss on washing and cooking, 35 changes with milling, 36
in rice germ, 333 See also Vitamin B
Minute Rice, 126 Nigeria, rice importing by, 5
Mishiian (popped rice), 246 Nissin Food Company, 122
Miso fermented paste, 195, 205, 353 Nonglutinous rice
MJB Rice Co., 144 in crackers, 236
Mochi-Gome type, 106 in noodles, 242
popping characteristics, 179 Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN)
Mochi (rice cakes), 226, 243 in bran, 328
Moisture content in rice germ, 333
of bran and polish, 336-37 Nova 66, utilization of, 149
of cereals, and packaging, 190 Nucleases in koji for vinegar, 257
and chalkiness, 99 Nucleotides, and vinegar quality, 262
heat-stabilized rice bran, 337 Nutrients
and quality, 108-9 distribution in the grain, 19
and storage properties, 69 in enriched rice, 35-49
terminal conditions, puffing processes, in parboiled rice, 52, 84
134 Nutritional properties, 90, 91
Molds of bran, 350-52
and bran deterioration, 338 brown rice versus milled rice, 379-83
effects op parboiled rice quality, 54 fortification of ready-to-eat rice break-
Monascus purpureus, 199, 201 fast cereal, 186
Moromi mash, 215 protein in canned products, 164
in brewing sake, 213 quality of bran components, 351-52
in vinegar production, 253 rice endosperm, 363-95
Moto yeast starter for brewing sake, uses of rice oil, 307-8
213 variations among sources, 382
Mucor, mold in fermentation starters,
201-2
Mycotoxins, 355 Oats
comparison of hulls with rice hulls, 271
production by region, 4
National Academy of Science, U.S., 273, Odors, and grade, II4
274 Oil content, changes on parboiling, 83-84
proposed fortification of cereal products, Okaki (cracker), 233
47-48 Organic acids in hulls, 273
National Research Council, U.S., 38 Organoleptic properties, maintaining in
Nato variety, utilization of, 149 processing, 154
Near-infrared analysis of oil in rice, 296 Orlean's Process, 260
Nenkau (rice cake), 226, 243 Oryza glaberrima, I
ingredients, 245 Oryzanol
Newrex/Rexmont type, 105-6 pharmaceutical qualities of, 308, 354
quality of, 94 in rice bran oil, 298-99
INDEX 407
Oryza sativa, I, 90 Patna rice

red rice, as a pest, 115 brown, 168
Oven-puffed rice, 181-82, 230 microwave processing of, 139
Oven-toasted rice, 247 Pearl rice, brown, 168
Overmilled rice, nutrients in fractions of, Peckiness, 114
381-82 Pedicel, type d particles, 319
Oxidases, and bran deterioration, 337-38 Pekka fermented rice, 195
Oxidation, protection of vitamins A and D, Penicillin fermentation, 261
43 Pentosans
Oxidative browning in bran, 332
vacuum processing to prevent, 161- in rice hulls, 284, 288
62 in type a particles, 318
See also Browning reactions Pepsin inhibitor in bran, 352
Ozai-Durrani method, 129, 131, 137 PER. See Protein efficiency ratio
freeze-thaw process, 133 Pericarp, 321
for quick-cooking rice, 126-27 color and quality, 91
oil in, 295
phosphorus in, 333
Packaging of rice cereals, 189-92 red, 55
Paddy rice, 52 removal during whitening, 316-17
characteristics for parboiling, 53-55 type e particles, 319
Pakistan, rice exporting by, 5 type i particles, 323
Pancakes Peripheral abrasion to produce high-
acid-leavened, 202-3 protein rice flour, 18-19
mixes, 11 Peroxidase, and bran deterioration, 338
Pantothenic acid, changes with milling, pH
36 and discoloration during steeping, 59
Parboil canning characteristics, 104 and nitrogen extractability of bran,
Parboiled rice, 6, 51-88 344
canned, effects of steaming, 151 Phosphate treatment, use in preparing
color and milling requirements, 113 quick-cooking rice, 137
dielectric heating, 79 Phospholipids, in rice bran oils, 297,
economics, 81 298
flour from, 15 Phosphorus, 371-73
pressure processing, 82-85 in bran, 330
property changes, 83-84 distribution in the grain, 19
quick-cooking, 78, 139 in germ, 333
recent developments, 80 in milled rice, 383
sugars in, 369-70 RDA in rice, 380
Parboiled rice bran, 81, 336 Photoelectric sorting, 67-68
oxidative deterioration of, 355 Physical characteristics
Parboiling of rice bran, 334-37
acid, 41-42 of rice flour, 10
conditions, and canned-rice characteris- of rice hulls, 270-71
tics, 148-51 Physical treatment of hulls, 278
processes, 55-68, 69-70, 71-77 Phytic acid, 373-74, 382
Parenchyma, 270 in aleurone particles, 325
Particle-size distribution Phytin in bran, 330
of bran, 335-36 Pigs, bran feed for, 355-56
by mill type, 13 Plant-transformation systems, 386
Pastes, fermented, 203-5 Plumule, 321
Pasting Polish
defined, 22 in baby foods, 353
of flours, 17 defined, 364
and protein/starch content, 18 proximate analysis of, 325-27, 328
and quality, 102 Polishing, 315
viscoamylograph for evaluating, 22 for wine making, 208
408 INDEX
Polysaccharides in overmilled rice, 366

in hulls, 272 RDA in rice, 380
See also Sugars in rice vegetable mixtures, 164-65
Polyunsaturated fatty acids in rice oil, 307 in seed coat, 324
Ponlai, for making shao-hsing wine, 206, seed, molecular biology of, 384-85
207 solubility of, in parboiled rice, 52
Popped rice, 246-47 and subjective appeal, 148
and rice type, 179 yield of utilizable, 3
Potassium, 371, 373 Protein bodies, 325, 367-68
Potato starch, use in rice breads, 28 phosphorus and protein content, 325
Pouches, retort, 155-56 in the starchy endosperm, 320
pouch for packaging instant cereals, 191 Protein efficiency ratio, 368
Poultry, bran feed for, 356 after amino acid fortification, 46
Powdered premix, 41 of bran, 350
Precooked cereal with fruit, 188 of concentrates from bran, 343-44
Pregelatinized products of flours for baking, 20
flours, 16 improving by fortification, 44
rice, 130-3 i of yellow rice, 197
Premix Protoplasts, DNA uptake by, 387
kernels, 38-41 Provascular bundle, 321
powdered, 41 Proximate analyses
Pressure parboiling, 82-85 of bran, 325, 328
Primary root, 321 of defatted bran, 357
in type g particles, 322 polish, 325-27, 328
Processed rice products, 3 of rice-flour and wheat-flour cookies, 25
composition and properties of brans, 334 of rice varieties grown in California, 10
Processes Pseudomonas, function in sake brewing,
canned fried rice, 162-63 214, 216-17
canning, 151-55 Puffed rice, 79-80, 180-84
for quick cooking, 125-40 Puffing, 130-31
Processing conditions for, 84-85
behavior during, 101-8 gun-puffing, 133-35
characteristics of rices for, 178-79 during microwave processing, 139
duration and lethal ratio, 163 of Oriental rice cake, 236-37
and quality, 90 oven, 230
of rice oil, 300-307 Puh-li Winery, 207
variables aff~cting cooking time, 123 Pyridoxine, 379
Producer gas from rice hull, 283-84 changes with milling, 36
Production, world levels, 3, 5, 177 in overmilled rice, 378
Proline in rice germ, 333 RDA in rice, 380
Propylgallate antioxidant in cereals, 190 Pyrolysis of rice hull, 283-84
Proteases, 210 Pyruvic acid, 265
in chiangmash, 204
inhibitors, and bran deterioration, 338
in koji for vinegar, 257 Quaker Oats, oatmeal, 191
Protein Quality, 89-119
alkaline extraction from bran, 342-48 of canned rice, 148
biological· evaluation of, 368-69 characteristics of specialty rices, 107
in bran, 328-29 components of, 94-95
for cattle feed, 21 of cooked rice, 142-43
and expansion during parboiling, 84 of cross-linked rice, 154-55
in germ, 322-23 measures of, 156-58
in hulls, 272 variety and grain type effect on, 92
increasipg content by genetic engineer- See also Color; Discoloration
ing, 383-84 Quick-cooking rice, 121-46, 179-80
in milling fractions, 364-69 chemical treatments, 136-37
nutritional quality of bran, 351 freeze-drying, 135-36
INDEX 409
parboiled, 78-79, 80 changes with milling, 36

processes, 125-35, 137-40 distribution in the grain, 19
recent developments, 140-42 FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to
types, 123-25 rice, 46-47
Quick vinegar process, 260 in hulls, 273
loss on cooking, 37
in overmilled rice, 378
Radish rice cake, 244 in parboiled rice, 52
Raffinose, 369 RDA in rice, 380
in rice bran, 327 in rice-flour and wheat-flour cookies,
Ragi fermented solid, 195 25-26
Ralston Purina, 185 Rice-bran products, 348. See also Bran
Raw milled rice, color and milling require- flour, 19-20
ments, 113 oil, 295, 354. See also Rice oil
RDAs. See Recommended daily allow- flowchart for production of, 301
ances protein concentrate, 342-45
Ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals, 179, Rice bread, 27-29
180 Rice cakes, 15, 29-31, 202-3, 226-28, 239
vitamin and mineral fortification, 42-43 extruded, 228-29
See also Meals-Ready-to-Eat (MRE) ingredients, 244
Real Foods Pty Ltd., 226 machine, 227-28
Recipes Oriental, 243-45
for rice breads, 30 Rice, canned, characteristics, 148-51
for rice cookies, 23-24 Rice cereal for infants, 187-88
Recombinant DNA, 383 Rice chalkiness, 115
Recommended daily allowances of major Rice Chex, 185
nutrients found in rice, 380 Rice composition, 365-66, 369-77
Red pericarp, 55 Rice conversion process, 73-75
Red rice, 115 Rice cookers, automatic, 143
Chinese, 199-201 Rice cookies, 22-26
Regional Rice Quality Laboratory, 102 Rice cooking, 142-43
Requemado (yellow rice), 196 Rice crackers, 233
Retort pouches, 155-56 flowchart, 235
Retrogradation glutinous, 235-36
of baby foods, 189 nonglutinous, 236
in canned rice, 149 Rice endosperm, nutritional quality, 363-
defined, 22 95
and freezing, 170-71 Rice enrichment, 35-49
lipids' effects on, 156 Rice flour, 9-33, 178
and parboiling, 53, 83 in baking, 9, 20
of waxy-rice flours, 17 in extruded quick-cooking ricelike prod-
of wheat starch for fermentation, 210 uct, 142
Rexoro rice in extruded rice cakes, 228-29
freezing characteristics, 169 high-protein, 17-19, 368
utilization of, 149 milling effects, 13-19
Rheological properties of rice slurries and products, 22-25
gels, 10 properties, 10-13
Rhizopus, molds in fermentation starters, for quick-cooking rice pudding, 139
201-2 in retort pouches, 155-56
jauanicus in hong-ru wine fermentation, in strained baby foods, 187
219 See also Flours
rhizopodiformis, yellow rice-associated, Rice Fries, 230-31
196 Rice, grades and requirements, 110
Rhutou kau (rice cake), 245 Rice grains, and cake uniformity, 239, 241
Riboflavin, 379 Rice Growers Association of California
addition of, 39 Parboiling Process, 75-76
to cereal, 43, 186 Rice-hull ash, analysis of, 275
410 INDEX
Rice hulls, 269-74 Rice vinegar, 196, 251-67

Rice Inspection Handbook, 90, 108 Rice, world trade, 5
Rice Inspection Manual, IOI Riviana Foods, 305
Rice Krispies, 247 Roughage for ruminants, rice hulls as, 276
in granola bars, 230 Rough rice
marshmallow treats, 247 damaged kernels, 114
snack ingredients, 247-48 defined, 364
Riceland Foods, 227 dockage, 113
Rice liquor, 219 grades and grade requirements, 112
Rice milk concentrate, 353 odors, 114
Rice oatmeal cookies, 23 production by region, 4
Rice oil, 19, 295-311 world production of, 295
bleaching, 306 Rubber compounding
bran oil, 297, 301, 305 comparison of reinforcing agents, 287
composition, 297, 305 rice-hull derivatives used in, 285-86
fatty acid esters, 305 Rye, production by region, 4
free fatty acids, 308
glycerides, 297
glycolipids, 298 Saccharification
oryzanol, 298 for producing rice vinegar, 256
phospholipids, 298 of rice hulls, 272
sterols, 298 Saccharolytic molds
tocopherol, 300 anaerobic growth of, 201-2
deacidification, 306 Saccharomyces cereuisiae, for making
degumming, 306 vinegar, 255-56, 257
deodorization, 307 Saccharomyces formosanesis, in hong-
determination by NIR, 296 ru wine, 219
dewaxing, 305 Saccharomyces formosensis, 200
extraction, 302-303 Saccharomyces rouxii, in miso culture,
limit on use of, 3 205
processing, 300-307 Saccharomyces soya, 205
properties, 305 Sake, 196, 213-17
wax in, 299 brewing process, flow diagram, 216
winterization, 307 comparison with shao-hsing wine, 214
utilization, 307 microorganisms, 214
See also Rice-bran products, oil Samshu rice wine, 197
Rice, peanut butter cookies, 23 Saponification of acids in rice oil, 306
Rice polish. See Polish; Polishing Saponins in bran, 349
Rice production Satake Engineering Company, 96
China, 3 rice whitening machine, 19
India, 3 Saturn variety, utilization of, 149
Rice pudding, 138-39, 163-64, 231-32 Saudi Arabia, rice importing by, 5
canned, 163-64 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Rice quality and grades, 89-119 of the rice hull, 270
Rice, rough grades, 112 of rice scutellum, 323
Rice, simulated, 41 Scented long-grain types, 93, 106
Rice snacks Schule process, 70-71, 77
flavor, 232 Sclerenchyma, 270
in the Orient, 233-47 Scutellum, 65, 321
See also Snack foods in type g particles, 322
Rice starch, amlogram, 240 Second heads, flour from, 10
Rice starch in face powder, 21 Seed coat, 321
Rice utilization, 6 in type i particles, 323
Rice varieties grown in California, proxi- in type j particles, 324-25
mate analyses, 10 Seed mash, 215
Rice vegetable mixture, canning flow Seed protein, molecular biology of, 384-85
diagram, 166 Seeds, contaminant, and grades, 115
INDEX 411
Sekihan, retort rice in, 155 Sorghum

Semisolid method for the manufacture of production by region, 4
rice vinegar, 256-58 waxy-type flours from, 17
Senbei (cracker), 233 Sorting. See Color sorting
Senegal, rice importing by, 5 Soups
Sensory analysis, rice and wheat cookies, canned, 158-59
26-27 dry mixes, quick-cooking rice in, 131
Serine in rice germ, 333 Soya lecithin, use in rice breads, 28
Shao-hsing wine, 196, 206-13 Special K, 181-82
brewing process, 214 Spread-Factor Test (cookies), 23-25
flow sheet, 211 Stabilization of bran, 337-41
grains for, 207 Standard Identity for Enriched Rice, U.S.,
starters, 209-10 46-47
Shelled grains, effects on parboiled rice Standards
quality, 54 for rice vinegar, 261
Sheller bran, 314 soundness and purity, 90
composition, 326 for stabilized rice bran, 356
Short-grain types See also Federal Grain Inspection Ser-
classes, types, and grades, U.S., 109 vice (USDA); Food and Drug Ad-
physical and chemical characteristics, 104 ministration, U.S.; Japanese Agri-
processing characteristics, 178-79 cultural Standard (JAS); United
for quick-cooking rice, 123 States Standards for Rice
Shredded rice cereal, 184-86 Starbonnet variety, utilization of, 149
Sierra rice (yellow rice), 196 Starch, 369
Silica damange during flour milling, 14
in hulls, 270 in germ, 322
hulls as a source of, 286, 288 granule properties and baking, 16-17
in type a particles, 318 molecular biology of synthesis, 385-86
Silicon, 374-75, 382 Starch synthase, 385
from pyrolysis of hulls, 284 Starchy endosperm, typefparticles, 319-
Simulated rice, 41, 142 20
Single-cell proteins on rice-hull substrate, Starters
286 for fermentation, 197-99
Snack Food, 225,226,230 for shao-hsing wine, 209-10
Snack foods, 22, 225-49 for vinegar fermentation, 252-58
cracker (arare) flowchart, 235 Steaming, 69-70
in the Orient, 233-47 for bran stabilization, 340-41
Soak-boil-steam-dry methods for quick during brewing, 209
cooking, 126-30 effects on canned rice, 149, 151
Soaking of steeped rice, 60-62
enriching with lysine during, 44 uniformity of product, 241
enzyme action during, 84 Stearins, removal from rice oil, 307
Sodium, 376 Steel, rice hulls in, 288
Sodium chloride treatment, quick-cooking Steeping, 69
process, 136 effects on canned rice, 149
Sodium hydroxide treatment, quick-cook- during parboiling, 57-59
ing process, 136-37 during wine making, 208-9
Soil treatment with rice hulls, 278-79 Sterile glumes, type b particles, 318
Solid-state fermentation for vinegar prepa- Sterols, in rice bran oils, 297, 298
ration, 253-56 Storage characteristics
Solid-state foods, fermented, 196-203 of bran, 337-38
Solvent processing of breakfast cereals, 186
extraction of oil from rice bran, 302-3 changes in pasting properties of rice
to produce low-oil, high-protein rice flour, 12
flour, 19 of milled rice, 68-69
and storage properties, 69 and moisture content, 108
See also n-Hexane of rice oil, 307
412 INDEX
Subaleurone layer, albumin in, 367 Thioalcohols, and parboiled rice quality,
Sucrose, 369 59
in rice bran, 327 Thioethers, and parboiled rice quality, 59
Sucrose synthase, 385 Threonine, 43-46
Sugars, 369-70 deficiency in bran, 350
in bran, 332 Threshing, effects on parboiled rice qual-
Sunbonnet variety, utilization of, 149 ity, 54
Surface oil measurement, and milling Threshold, grain yield and protein content,
degree, 296 383-84
Surface stickiness, measurement of, 157 Tieng-chiou-niang, 195, 203
Sweet rice, 3, 93 Tocopherols
Syneresis in rice bran, 331-32, 351
prevention with waxy-rice flour, 9 in rice bran oil, 297, 300
of waxy-rice flour products, 17 and storage properties, 69
See also Vitamin E
Toro types, 94, 106
Tai-chung in rice noodles, 242 physical and chemical characteristics,
Taiwan, percentage of world rice produc- 107
tion, 177 Total oil measurement, and milling degree,
Tane-koji spores, 198 296
Tape ketan fermented paste, 203 Tau-pan-chiang, production flow sheet,
Tapioca starch, use in rice breads, 28 204
Temperature TP 49, utilization of, 149
of fermentation to vinegar, 257 Trace minerals, 376-77
terminal conditions, puffing processes, Trade
134 in rice, historic, 2
Tempering world, rankings of rice in, 5-6
effects on rice cake volume, 227 Transformation techniques, genetic, 386
of parboiled rice, 64-65 Translucency and quality, 99
in puffed rice preparation, 134 Trichome, in type c particles, 318-19
Test weight, 98 Tristimulus color factors
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Gardner meter for measuring, 158
102 rice brans, 349
Texas Patna Trypsin inhibitor in bran, 352
freezing properties, 167 Tryptophan
utilization of, 149 deficiency in bran, 350
Texas Rice Research Foundation, 102 loss on parboiling, 76
Texture, 156-57 Tsai lai, fermentation of, 201
Thailand
production levels, 177
rice exporting by, 5 Uncle Ben's Quick Rice, 133
Thermal cycling, quick-cooking process, Uniform Rice Performance Nurseries, 91
129 Unilever Ltd., 131
Thiamin, 377 United States
in bran, 333 production, percentage, 177
changes with milling, 36 rice exporting by, 5
distribution in the grain, 19 United States Standards for Rice, 90, 97-
FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to 98, 101, 108, 114-15
rice, 46-47 color and milling requirements, 113
fortification of cereal with, 43, 186 Uruguay, rice exporting by, 5
HLR-Mickus process for adding, 38 USSR, rice importing by, 5
in hulls, 273
loss on cooking, 37
in overmilled rice, 378 Vacuum processing
in parboiled rice, 52 drying, advantages of, 63
RDA in rice, 380 to prevent browning reactions, 161-62
rice- and wheat-flour cookies, 25-26 Vinylguaiacol in roasted bran, 348
INDEX 413
Viscoamylograph, for evaluating pasting, Wet fractionation of bran, 342-48

22 Wet milling, 15-17
Vitamin A Wet pack canned rice, 151-52
adding to cereal, 43 Wheat
fortification of cereal with, 186 for making shao-hsing wine, 207-13
Vitamin B production by region, 4
adding to cereal, 43 starch, use in rice breads, 28
B 1 derivatives, solubility in organic substrate for rice vinegar, 257
solvents, 42 Whitening process, 316-17
B 1 use in acid-parboiling, 41 bran from, 314-16
B6 fortification of cereal, 186 White rice, composition of, 365
in rice bran, 331 Wild rice (Zizania palustris), 177-78
Vitamin D Wine, shao-hsing, 206
adding to cereal, 43 Winterization of rice oil, 307
FDA (U.S.) standards for addition to Wisutal 1201 alginate, use in rice breads,
rice, 47 28
Vitamin E, 3 World trade, rankings of rice in, 5-6
adding to cereal, 43 Wright rice premix
See also Tocopherols formulation, 40
Vitamins, 377-79 procedure for preparing, 38
in bran, 331-32, 351
enrichment with, 35-49
in overmilled rice, 378 X-M Rice Milling Process, 303-5
in rice germ, 333-34 X-ray diffraction pattern of cereal starch,
Volume increase during steaming, 61-62 53
Water
Yeast
for shao-hsing wine, 206-7
function in sake brewing, 214-15
use of rice-hull char for purification, 285
growth on rice hulls, 288
Water absorption
kyokay, for sake, 252-53
and amylose content, 149
Yellow rice, 196-97
of bran, 349-50
Yellow wine, 217, 219
rate of, 129, 130
Yield
and rice cake processing, 241
head and total, on parboiling, 52
and steeping temperatures, 58-59
of milled rice, 100-101
Water-extraction/sedimentation of bran,
versus mill returns, 82
344-46 per hectare, world increases, 3, 5
Waxed glassine in cereal packaging, 192
Waxes
commercial uses of, 308
in rice bran oil, 297, 299 Zein, HLR-Mickus process for adding, 38
removing, 305-6 Zenith variety, utilization of, 149
in type a particles, 318 Zinc, 376-77
Waxy (glutinous) rice, 6 RDA in rice, 380
and freezing, 170-71 Zizania palustris, 177-78
physical and chemical characteristics, Zoutsong snacks, 246
107 Zygopichia japonica, 205
Weetabix, 181 Zygosaccharomyces japonica, 205
Wenger X-200 extrusion unit, 184 Zygosaccharomyces soya, 205

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Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 90-21387

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

D. E. BAYER, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Botany, University of

T. W. MEW, Ph.D., Head, Plant Pathology Department, International

the agronomy of rice plants, especially the genetics, breeding, cultivation,

Davis, California B.S. Luh

1 Overview and Prospects of Rice Production 1

2 Rice Plant Growth and Development 13

3 Genetics and Breeding 23

4 Rice Culture 103

5 Rice Diseases 187

6 Insect Pests of Rice 237

7 Insect Pests of Stored Rice 269

8 Weed Management 287

9 Harvest, Drying, and Storage of Rough Rice 311

11 Properties of the Rice Caryopsis 389

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

S. BARBER, Ph.D., Director, Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de

ROBERT R. MICKUS, Director, Research and Product Development,

Persons interested in the production and utilization of rice cereal will

Davis, California B.S. Luh

2 Ri~e Flours in Baking 9

3 Rice Enrichment with Vitamins and Amino Acids 35

5 Rice Quality and Grades 89

6 Quick-Cooking Rice 121

7 Canning, Freezing, and Freeze-Drying 147

8 Breakfast Rice Cereals and Baby Foods 1n

9 Fermented Rice Products 195

10 Rice Snack Foods 225

11 Ric~Vinegar Through Acetification of Rice Wine 251

12 Rice Hulls 269

13 Rice Oil 295

14 Rice Bran: Chemistry and Technology 313

15 Nutritional Quality of Rice Endosperm 363

Paddy production ( MUiion tons) Yield (t /ha)

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1988

increase in 1988. The rate of increase in production during this decade

Production in Southern and Southeastern Asia

1979 'eo 'al '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 1988

1979 onward, following increased government subsidies and improved

Production in Eastern Asia

Production of North and Central America

Production of South America

Production in Other Regions

The Balance Sheet

1. traditional importers, such as Bangladesh, Malaysia, Madagascar,

2. shifters, such as Indonesia, South Korea, the Philippines, and

RICE ECOSYSTEMS AND GRAIN YIELD

cultures (38%). Likewise, dryland culture in Africa (46%) shared a nearly

o~~~~~ .... .. ....

1960 1970 197!5 1980 1985 1988

extreme excesses or deficits in water regimes suppress grain yields. In-

The rice traded in international markets during the decade (about 4% of

importing region, followed by Africa (over three million metric tons in

OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE

factors such as domestic consumption and fluctuations in production

vegetative phase-from seed germination to panicle initiation

120- Day var iety

Days from sowing 10 harvest 120 days

Days from sowing 10 harvest 150 days

Seedling growth varies from 0 to 90 days, depending upon the method of