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History

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 History

Table of Contents
Chapter: 1...................................................................................................................................... 6
Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic period ....................................................... 6
Chapter: 2.................................................................................................................................... 16
Indus Civilization Part 1: ........................................................................................................ 16
Origins, extent, society, economy and culture. ....................................................................... 16
Chapter: 3.................................................................................................................................... 24
Indus Civilisation Part 2: ........................................................................................................ 24
Important sites and Archaeological Discoveries, Contacts with other cultures, Problems of
decline ...................................................................................................................................... 24
Chapter: 4.................................................................................................................................... 34
Vedic Period Part 1: ................................................................................................................ 34
Political, social and economical life; Significance of the Vedic Age; Evolution of Monarchy
.................................................................................................................................................. 34
Chapter: 5.................................................................................................................................... 41
Vedic Period Part 2: ................................................................................................................ 41
Religious and philosophic literature; Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later
Vedic period ............................................................................................................................. 41
Chapter: 6.................................................................................................................................... 53
Mahajanpadas, Rise of Magadha, Nanda, Iranian and Macedonian Invasion and impact . 53
Chapter: 7.................................................................................................................................... 65
Jainism Buddhism and spread of Buddhism .......................................................................... 65
Chapter: 8.................................................................................................................................... 72
Maurya Empire Part 1: Foundation, Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthshhastra and
Ashoka ..................................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter: 9.................................................................................................................................... 78
Maurya Empire Part 2: Administration, Economy and Trade, Social Condition ................ 78
Chapter: 10.................................................................................................................................. 85
Maurya Empire Part 3: Dhamma of Ashoka and Decline of Maurya Empire ..................... 85
Chapter: 11.................................................................................................................................. 93
Satvahana Empire, Sung, Kanva, Kharavela ......................................................................... 93
Chapter: 12................................................................................................................................ 100
Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western Kshatrapas .......................................................... 100

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Chapter: 13................................................................................................................................ 107

Gupta Period Part 1: ............................................................................................................. 107
Foundation, Samudragupta, Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Kumargupta, Skandgupta ... 107
Chapter: 14................................................................................................................................ 116
Gupta Period Part 2: ............................................................................................................. 116
Administration, Economy and Trade, Society and Religious life, Science, Art and Culture
................................................................................................................................................ 116
Chapter: 15................................................................................................................................ 124
Gupta Period Part 3 .............................................................................................................. 125
Disintegration of Gupta Empire, Post Gupta Period, Vakataka Dynasty ........................... 125
Chapter: 16................................................................................................................................ 130
Harshvardhan, Chalukya, Pulkeshin .................................................................................... 131
Chapter: 17................................................................................................................................ 135
Rashtrakutas, Chola, Chera, Pandyan ................................................................................. 136
Chapter: 18................................................................................................................................ 144
Invasion of Ghazni, Chauhan Dynasty, Ghorian Invasions, Establishment of the Delhi
Sultanate ................................................................................................................................ 144
Chapter: 19................................................................................................................................ 149
Rajput Period: Gurjara Pratiharas | Pala | Culture, Administration, Architecture .......... 149
Chapter: 20................................................................................................................................ 160
Delhi Sultanate part: 1 .......................................................................................................... 160
Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Sayyids Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty ........... 160
Chapter: 21................................................................................................................................ 169
Delhi Sultanate Part: 2 .......................................................................................................... 169
Administration, Trade, Culture, and Society ....................................................................... 169
Chapter: 22................................................................................................................................ 175
Mughal Empire Part 1: ......................................................................................................... 175
Foundation, Expansion, Imperial Mughals | Sher Shah Sur ............................................... 175
Chapter: 23................................................................................................................................ 183
Mughal Empire Part 2: ......................................................................................................... 183
Administration, Trade and Economy, Religion and Society ................................................ 183
Chapter: 24................................................................................................................................ 192
Vijayanagar Empire Part 1: .................................................................................................. 192
Foundation, Expansion, Ruling Dynasty, Sri Krishnadevaraya .......................................... 192

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Chapter: 25................................................................................................................................ 198

Vijaynagar Empire Part 2:.................................................................................................... 198
Administration, Social and Economic Condition, Architecture, Literature ....................... 198
Chapter: 26................................................................................................................................ 206
Bhaktism, Sufism, and Sikhism ............................................................................................ 206
Chapter: 27................................................................................................................................ 216
Deccan Sultanate ................................................................................................................... 216
Chapter: 28................................................................................................................................ 221
Maratha Empire: Shivaji, Peshwa, Governance .................................................................. 221
Chapter: 29................................................................................................................................ 232
Advent of Europeans in India ............................................................................................... 232
Chapter: 30................................................................................................................................ 238
British Consolidation in India ............................................................................................... 238
Chapter: 31................................................................................................................................ 245
British Raj: Administration, Drain of Wealth, Economy, Famine ...................................... 245
Chapter: 32................................................................................................................................ 254
Sikh Empire, Maharaja Ranjit Singh ................................................................................... 254
Chapter: 33................................................................................................................................ 260
1857 Revolt: cause and consequences ................................................................................... 260
Chapter: 35................................................................................................................................ 270
Indian National Movement Part 1: ....................................................................................... 270
Rise of Nationalism, Indian National Congress, Moderate Nationalism ............................. 270
Chapter: 36................................................................................................................................ 275
Indian National Movement Part 2: ....................................................................................... 275
Partition of Bengal, Home Rule, Extremists, Muslim League ............................................. 275
Chapter: 37................................................................................................................................ 283
Revolutionary Movement in Indian Freedom Struggle ....................................................... 283
Chapter: 38................................................................................................................................ 290
Indian National Movement Part 3: ....................................................................................... 290
Rise of Gandhi, Swarajists, Civil Disobedience Movement, Dandi March ......................... 290
Chapter: 39................................................................................................................................ 304
Indian National Movement Part 4: ....................................................................................... 304
Quit India Movement, Netaji Bose and Indian National Army, Cabinet Mission .............. 304

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Chapter: 40................................................................................................................................ 313
Indian Independence, Partition of India, Integration of Princely States ............................ 313
Chapter: 41................................................................................................................................ 325
European feudalism ............................................................................................................... 325
Chapter: 42................................................................................................................................ 336
American Revolution ............................................................................................................. 336

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 History

Chapter: 1
Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic and Chalcolithic
period

 What is history?
o History is the period of human existence on this planet for which written evidence are
available to understand the various aspects.
 Pre history: period prior to invention of writing(e.g. very ancient period before the
emergence of civilizations)
 Proto history: period belongs during writing invented but we are unable to
read(e.g.Harappan civilization)
 History: period after the invention of writing. we mainly depend written sources to the
reconstruction for this period

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 Paleolithic Age:
o The term Palaeolithic was coined by archaeologist John Lubbock in 1865.
o Palaeolithic Age spanned from 500,000 years ago till 10,000 BC.
o During these years humans were hunter gatherers who roamed from location to location
in the pursuit of animals used for food and clothing.
o It is divided into three period’s viz. lower Palaeolithic, middle Palaeolithic and upper
Palaeolithic ages.

 Early Paleolithic Age:

o Early Paleolithic Age mainly spread in Western Europe and Africa and early human
lived a nomadic lifestyle.
o No specific human group was the carrier of Early Paleolithic period, but many scholars
believe that this era was a contribution of Neanderthal-like Palaenthropic men (Third
stage of hominid evolution).
o The early paleolithic age is also covers greater part of ice age.

 Tools:
o In lower Paleolithic phase, the tools were mainly hand axes and cleavers with some
flakes also.
o Tools used in Lower Paleolithic era were mainly cleavers, choppers, and hand axes.
These tools were mainly used for cutting, digging, and skinning the prey.
o These tools were found from Belan Valley of Mirzapur (U.P.), Didwana in Rajasthan,
Narmada Valley, and from Bhimbetka (near Bhopal, M.P.)
o These tool making techniques were based on direct percussion, indirect percussion and
pressure application.

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 Early Paleolithic Site:

o Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh has given evidence of lower Palaeolithic to the historic
period.
o The river valleys and foothills of the Chhotanagpur plateau, Orissa and Karnataka also
show evidence.
o In Andhra Pradesh, lower Palaeolithic tools have been found in inland areas as well as
the coastal areas.
o In Tamil Nadu, there is a stratigraphic sequence from the early Paleolithic to the
Mesolithic in Attirampakkam near Chennai.

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o Pebble tools of later date are found from various other regions such as Jhelum basin
(Dina and Jabalpur), The river terraces of Beas and Benganga (Himachal Pradesh) and
Ladakh and Pahalgaon in Kashmir valley.
o In Rajasthan, lower, middle, and upper palaeolithic tools have been found around Ajmer
and stray finds of lower palaeolithic tools occur in Luni valley.
o In lower Sindh, stone tools belonging to the lower, middle and upper palaeolithic were
found at sites such as Jerruck and Milestone.
o In the Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh, detailed studies have revealed a sequence of Stone
Age industries from the lower palaeolithic to protohistoric period.

 Middle Paleolithic Age:

o The lower Paleolithic cultures slowly transformed into the middle Palaeolithic by
shedding some of the tool types; and by incorporating new forms and new techniques of
making them.
o The Middle Paleolithic Age began around 150,000 BC and ended in 40,000 BC. It was
during these years that the tools and weapons used became a bit more advanced.
o Homo Neanderthal is from this period.
o In comparison to the lower Palaeolithic era, the tools in middle Palaeolithic became
smaller, thinner and lighter.
o The tools were made from quartzite, Flint, chart and Jasper stone.
o Middle Paleolithic-Hashmukh D Sankalia
o Tools were made from flakes which were thin pieces of stone that had been sheared
away from material using a striking method, probably with another piece of stone.

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 Paleolithic sites:

Madhya Pradesh, Narmada Valley

Gujarat
Madhya Pradesh Bhimbetka(Bhopal)

Rajasthan
Didwana, Bangor, Karmal Valley

Maharashtra Nevasa(Ahmednagar)

Jharkhand Singbhum

 Upper Paleolithic Age:

o The Upper Paleolithic period notices a further reduction in size and weight of tools.
o The tool types can be described as flakes and burins.
o The Upper Paleolithic period notices a further reduction in size and weight of tools.
o It is described as last phase of ice age.
o Appearance of homo sapiens
o Upper Paleolithic culture developed during the later part of the upper Pleistocene.
o The use of bone tools formed an important feature of the
o Upper Paleolithic period, mainly in Europe.
o Painting and carving begins in this age.
o In India, these are only reported from the cave called
o Muchchatta Chintamani Gavi at Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh.

 Upper

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 Paleolithic sites:
o Bhimbetka
o Belan River valley

 Mesolithic age:
o During the Mesolithic period, important large-scale changes took place on our planet.
o In India during the Paleolithic Age, early humans lived in cave- like dwellings. By the
Mesolithic Period, Indians were creating structures to express their religion and culture.
o Mesolithic period in human cultural history is defined as the earliest Holocene culture
that occurs before agriculture was started.
o The Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food- gathering.
o As the climate was getting warmer and the ice sheets were melting, some areas in the
northern latitudes rose as they were being freed from the weight of the ice.
o Caves were still used as dwellings, but by the time the period was over, they had
progressed into much more sophisticated constructions.

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 Tools:
o Tools are characterised by parallel-sided blades taken out from prepared cores of fine-
materials as chert, crystal, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian, agate etc. and were generally
one to five centimeters long.
o They were fitted into grooves in bone, wood and reed shafts and joined together by
natural adhesives like gum and resin.
o These new technological elements led to enhanced efficiency in hunting, collection and
processing of wild plant foods.

 Sites:
o In Maharashtra, some Mesolithic site have been found in Kasushoal, Janyire, Babhalgo
and Jalgarh in Konkan and the districts of Dhulia and Pune.
o In Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka along with Adamgarh, Chaturbhujnath
o Nala are major Mesolithic sites.
o In Odisha, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh are major mesolithic sites.
o In South India, Mesolithic sites are abundant in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh
o The lithic repertoire at Bagor, South Rajasthan, is perhaps one of the richest in the
world.
o Sarai Nahar Rai, Morhana Pahar and Lekhahia are significant sites in the state of Uttar
Pradesh.
o In Jharkhand Chhota nagpur plateau is a major Mesolithic site in India.
o In Odisha, Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh are major mesolithic sites.
o An analysis of the Mesolithic sites in India shows that although the basic pattern of life
remained more or less the same, the customs and traditions differed from one settlement
to another.

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 Change in lifestyle:
o Nomadism to Sedentary settlements
o Domestication of Plants and Animals
o Disposal of dead and making of Graves

 Mesolithic Art:
o At various sites in Bhimbetka, Adamgarh, etc. rock and cave paintings have been
discovered. In these paintings, various subjects including animals and human scenes
have been found. Animals are the most frequently depicted subjects either alone or in
large and small groups and shown in various poses.

 Neolithic Age:
o This period is considered as one of the significant cultural stages when man started
producing food and shifted to production economy from their previous hunting-
gathering stage.
o In Indian context, the Neolithic age dating between 8000 BC to 4000 BC is characterized
by the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals.
o No meaning New and lithic meaning stone.
o People used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stone. The use of
metal was unknown.

 Characteristics
o Human now could keep cattle, sheep and goats and protect crops from pests.
o Human transformed to food cultivator from hunting-gatherer.
o They habited mainly the hilly river valleys, rock shelters, and the slopes of the hills since
they were entirely dependent on weapons and tools made from stone.
o The Neolithic Age saw the man turning into food producer from food gatherer. It also
witnessed the use of pottery for the first time.
o People used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of polished stone. The use of
metal was unknown.
o The Neolithic Age is significant for its Megalithic Architecture.
o The Neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas.

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o Neolithic pattern in India may broadly be divided into three main broad groups:
 Eastern Group:
o Vindhyan region, middle Ganga plain, Chotanagpur plateau of Bihar, West Bengal and
Orissa and Northeast India.

 Southern Group:
o Andhra pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu (South India)
o Northern Group (Kashmir Valley): Burjhom

 Mehargudh:
o Mehrgarh is the oldest agricultural settlement in the Indian subcontinent Agriculture-
based Neolithic settlements.
o Mehrgarh is located on the Bolan River, a tributary of the Indus, at the eastern edge of
the Baluchistan plateau overlooking the Indus plain.

 Chalcolithic age:
o Indian Chalcolithic called as 'Age of Early Farmers', running from 3000 BC to 700 BC.
o The major crops which were cultivated were barley, wheat, lentil, bajra, jowar, ragi
millets, green pea, and green and black grams.
o The burial practice was another striking feature and the dead were buried in a particular
direction all over a particular area.

o The end of Neolithic (8000BC-4000BC) period saw the start of Chalcolithic culture.

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o The people of Chalcolithic Age were expert coppersmiths, ivory carvers, lime makers,
and terracotta artisans.
o The presence of painted pottery is a hall mark of the Chalcolithic period.
o Chalcolithic or Eneolithic, which means use of stone and well as copper was prevalent in
this period.
o The largest site of the Chalcolithic period is Diamabad situated on the left bank of the
Pravara River.

 Questionary:

1. What are differences between the Paleolithic, and Neolithic time periods?

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Chapter: 2
Indus Civilization Part 1:
Origins, extent, society, economy and culture.

 What is Civilisation and Culture?

o The Word Civilisation has been derived from Latin Word ‘Civilis’, which means
citizens.
o Civilisation is an advanced state of human society possessing historical and cultural
unity.

 Culture:
o The culture has been derive from Latin word ‘Cultura’, which means cultivation.
o The culture is a pattern of behaviors and thinking of a group of people living in society.

The culture is a pattern of Civilization is an advanced

behaviors and thinking of state of human society
Meaning
a group of people living in possessing historical and
society. cultural unity.

What is it? End Means

Represents What we are? What we possess?

Religion, art, dance, Law, administration,

Reflected in literature, customs, infrastructure,
morals, music, philosophy, architecture, social
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etc. arrangement, etc.

Higher level of inner Higher level of general

Expression
refinement. development.

Advancement No Yes

Culture can grow and

Interdependency Civilization cannot grow
exist

o Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in south Asia, which spread
across a vast area of land in present day India and Pakistan.
o The time period of mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700-
BC.1900 ie. For 800 years.
o Evidence of religious practices in this area date back approximately to 5500 BCE.

 The Indus Civilization was as old as the civilization of the valleys of Nile and
Tigris:

 Discoveries:
o The discovery of this ancient culture, one of the most remarkable archaeological finds of
modern times, compelled scholars to revise their understanding of the earliest history of
India and has in recent years sparked a heated debate about the original inhabitants of the
Indian Subcontinent.
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o In the 19th century, British engineers searching for ballast for a railway line in what was
then northwestern India and is now Pakistan stumbled upon the remains of an ancient
city known only to locals.
o The Indus Valley Civilization was as impressive as ancient Egypt and Sumeria.
o The Area of Harappan civilization is triangular in from.
o It is extended to near about 1.2 m sq. km.
o The Indus Valley Civilization, so named because many of its settlements were situated
along the Indus River, turned out to be one of the great cultures of the ancient world.
o East: Western UP
o West: Makran Coast, Baluchistan
o North: Manda, Jammu
o South: Narmada

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o John Marshal was the first person, who described the archeological ruins as ‘Indus
Civilization’.
o The Harappan civilization till recently showed no definite signs of birth and growth.

 Excavation of some sites:

o Harappa (1921) by Daya Ram Sahni,
o Mohenjo-Daro (1922) by R.D. Banerjee
o Dholavira (1967-68) by J.P. Joshi and (1990-91) by R.S. Bisht
o Kalibangan by Dr. A. Ghosh
o Lothal (1955-63), Chanhu-daro, Banawali (1975- 77), etc.
 Society:
o Harappans created sculpture, seals, pottery, and jewellery from materials, such as
terracotta, metal, and stone.
o The Indus valley population consisted of Proto-Australoid, Meditaranean, Alpinoid and
Mongoloid.
o The Indus River Valley Civilization, also known as Harappan civilization, developed the
first accurate system of standardized weights and measures, some as accurate as to 1.6
mm.
o The Harrpan Society was class divied society; this classification was based on economic
condition.
o All Indus valley sites have distinct burial of the dead practice. Surkotda and Dholavira
are two sites where the burial practice resembled the megalithic practice.
o The social and economic life of the people of Indus Valley
o Civilization was systematic and organized.
o They domesticated animals for transportation as well as africulture.
o The animals of the domestic category viz. zebu (Bos-indicus), buffalo (Bublus bublis),
sheep (Ovis arise), goat (Capra hircus), pig (Sus domesticus), ass (Equus asinus), horse
(Equus caballus), camel (Camelus dromedaries), elephant (Elephas maximus) and fowl

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(Gallus gallus) have been exploited as some of these were used in term of food
economy, some for transport and other for traction
o About 70 to 80 percent of the faunal assemblage of the Harappan sites belong to
domestic animals.

 Life style:
o Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women.
o In the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting
of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi- precious stone) bead and hundreds of micro
beads was found near the skull of a male.

 Foods:
o There are evidences of cultivation of Wheat, Barley, Rice,
Date, melon, lemon etc. people were cattle herders and
used milk and milk products.
o There are evidences that people made sweets.
o Half burnt bones give evidence of nonveg life.

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 Art and culture:

o The Indus valley civilization has marvelous craftsmen, skilled
in pottery, weaving, and metal working. Many sculptures, seals,
pottery, gold jewelry, and figurines in terracotta, bronze, ect.
Are found in the civilization.
o The large number of terracotta figurines and toys such as cart,
bull, elephant, monkeys, chariots; whistles etc. indicate that the
children entertained themselves.
o There are no clear evidences of Music in the civilization;
however, the finding of a dance girl bronze figurine gives some
insight about the social entertainment.

 Economy:
o Harrpan economy was an agrarian economy.
o The main crops were wheat and barely, they were
awear of plough.
o Harrapns were the first to grow cotton in the
world.
o The agriculture was in flourishing condition
which was due to timely and good rains.
o Predominantly Rainfed Crops as Irrigation was
based upon the rainwater but also the sources of
irrigations were available.
o Bullock cart played a vital role in the economic
life of the Harappan people.
o Three main types are reconstructed with the help
of the toy-wheels and cart frames discovered from
Lothal.
o The first type has a solid chassis which is concave
or flat. The second and third types have a
perforated chassis, but the latter has, in addition, a
detachable cross-b.ar
o There was use of many kinds of metals including Gold, Silver, Copper, Lapis Lazuli ,
Turquoise, Amethyst, Alabaster, jade etc.
o It has been guessed that among the precious stones in the Harappan civilization; Jade
came from Central Asia, Turquoise came from Iran , Amethyst came from Maharashtra
and Lapis lazuli came from Afghanistan.

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 Besides the raw material, they used to trade:
o Finished products of metals (pots and pans, weapon, etc.);
o Precious and semi-precious stones (beads, pendants, amulets, etc.); and
o Ornaments of gold and silver were also traded to various areas.

 They procured:
o Copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan;
o Chert blades from Rohri hills of Sindh;
o Carnelian beads from Gujarat and Sindh;
o Lead from south India;
o Lapis-lazuli from Kashmir and Afghanistan;
o Turquoise and jade from central Asia or Iran;
o Amethyst from Maharashtra; and
o Agate, chalcedony, and carnelian from
Saurashtra.

 Religion:
o They believed in polytheism.
o The Indus people probably worshipped
Mother Goddess, in addition to male and
female deities.
o The people of India, in fact, have always
held a belief in a female energy as the
source of all creation.
o They worshiped:
o Earth goddess/Mother goddess
o Pashupti
o Practiced phallic worship
o Nature(tree, fire, unicorn)
o Seven rayed sun

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 Questionary:

1. What are some contributions of the Indus Valley Civilization?

2. Why is the Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Harappa Civilization?

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Chapter: 3
Indus Civilisation Part 2:
Important sites and Archaeological Discoveries,
Contacts with other cultures, Problems of decline

o It can sometimes seem that historians and archaeologists have discovered everything that
there is to be discovered.
o But, in fact, the more they uncover, the more there is left to be found. Every
archaeological discovery made opens doors to new discoveries, and sheds light on old
ones, creating a never-ending circle of information.
o This never-ending circle is actually a great thing because everything we know about life
before us has come from these archaeological discoveries.
o Without some of the archaeological finds in this gallery, we may not have things like
modern computers, language skills, or accurate representation of dinosaurs.
o Some archaeological finds may seem like they didn't lead anywhere, but, in fact, some of
the most important information has come out of discoveries that seemed like a dead end.

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 City planning of Indus Valley Civilisation:
o The excellent drainage and
sanitation systems are
remarkable.
o Their town planning proves
that they lived a highly
civilized and developed life.
o The Indus cities whether
Harappa or Mohenjo-Daro in
Pakistan or Kalibangan,
Lothal or Sarcomata in India
shows Town planning of a
truly amazing nature. In both
the places the cities were built
on a uniform plan.
o The Town Planning System of
Indus Valley Civilization
(Harappan Civilization) was
city based.
o A few cities have citadels to the West built on higher platform and to the east of which is
the hub of residential area.
o The Indus cities were built on a uniform plan.

 Characteristics of cities:
 Streets:
o Straight and cut each other at right angles
o 13 to 34 feet wide
o The streets and roads divided the city into rectangular blocks
o Mains Streets- North to South
o Small Streets East to West

 Drainage System:
o Each house had its own drainage and soak pit which was connected to the public
drainage.
o They were covered and had manholes at intervals for cleaning and clearing purposes.

 Great Bath:
o It consists of a large quadrangle.
o Approximately 39 ft long, 23 ft wide and 8ft deep
o The water was discharged by a huge drain with corbelled roof more than 6 ft in depth.
o The Great bath had 8 ft thick outer walls.

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 Granaries:
o There is the ruin of a great granary at Harappa measuring 169 fit x 135 fit. These
granaries safely stored the grains, which were probably collected as revenue or store
houses to be used in emergencies.

 Administration in Indus Valley Civilisation:

o There is no recorded information on the Indus Valley Civilisations politics, but due to
sophisticated city planning, most historians agree that the early Indus Valley Civilisation
had a central government.
o The Indus River Valley Civilization must be a Theocracy government.
o Theocracy is run by a priest so there government and religion were combined.
o A citadel which was on of the highest points in the village.
o A sculpture found in the Indus Valley. Believed to be a Priest- King.

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 Mohenjo-Daro:
o Mohenjo-daro was discovered in 1922 by R. D.
Banerji, an officer of the Archaeological Survey of
India, two years after major excavations had begun at
Harappa, some 590 km to the north.
o Mohenjo-Daro is located west of the Indus River in
Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan, in a central position
between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra
River.
o It is sited on a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the
flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around 28 kilometers (17 mi) from the town of
Larkana.
o While most Harappan settlements have a small high western part and a larger lower
eastern section, there are variations. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat), the
entire settlement was fortified, and sections within the town were also separated by
walls.
o The settlement is divided into two sections, one smaller but higher and the other much
larger but lower.
o Archaeologists designate these as the Citadel and the Lower Town respectively.
o Mohan-Jo-Daro was buiilt nine times on earlier levels.

 Archaeological remains:
o Temple Like Structure
o Human Skeleton Huddled Together
o Indicating Violent Death
o Pashupati Mahadev Seals
o Seal Depicting Mother Goddess With Plant Growing In Womb
o Devastation By Flood
o Collegiate Building
o Assembly Hall
o Granaries
o Steatite Figure Of A Bearded Priest
o Bronze Dancing Girl
o Bronze Buffalo And Ram
o Cylindrical Seals of Mesopotamian Type three in Number
o Evidence Of Horse from a Superficial Level
o Fragment Of Woven Cloth
o Corbelled Drain

 Harappa:
o Harappa was discovered by Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni in 1921-23.

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o It was situated on the bank of the river Ravi in Montgomery,Punjab, Pakistan.
o The site of Harappa is larger than Mohenjo-Daro and gives more source materials to
know about the lost culture.

 Archaeological remains in Harappa:

o Stone Symbols Of Female Sex Organs
o Strengthening of Defences In Later Phases
o Single Roomed Barracks
o Granaries
o Bronze Image Of A Dog Attacking A Deer
o Sandstone Girl Dancer
o Reserved Slip Ware Of Mesopotamian Typ
o Evidence Of Coffin Burial
o Vanity Case
o Bronze Models Of 'Ikkas' And 'Bullock Carts'
o Working Platform
o Sandstone Steatite Of A Youth With Muscular Body

 Lothal:
o The Lothal was excavated by Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao in 1954.
o It was situated on the bank of river Bhogavo.
o The City was divided into Citad and the lower town and dockyard.

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 History

 Archaeological remains at Lothal:

o Medical Beliefs, Surgery of Skull
o Painting On Jar Resembling the Story of Panchatantra
o Harappan Game Similar To Chess Warehouse
o Terracotta Figurine Of A Horse
o Reserved Slip Ware Of Mesopotamian Type
o Evidence Of Joint Burial
o Practice of Trephination
o Evidence Of Rice
o Fire Altars
o Terracotta Models Of Ships / Boats
o Houses Having Front Entrances
o Shell Ornament Makers Factory
o Metal Workers Factory
o Persian Gulf Seals
o Bead Making Factory
o Houses Having Front Entrances
o Bronze Rod Stick with Measure Marks
o Dockyard
o A Merchant House
o 12 Bathrooms In The Citadel Area
o Impression Of Cloth On Sealing

 Chanhu-daro:
o The Chanhu-daro was discovered by N G Majumdar in 1931 and was later excavated on
a large scale by Mackay in 1935-36.
o It was situated on the bank of Sindhu in Sindh province of Pakistan.
o Chanhu Daro is the only Harappan city which does not have a fortified citadel.

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 History
 Archaeological remains Chanhu-daro:
o City Without A Citadel
o Small Pot
o Shell Ornament Makers Factory
o Metal Workers Factory
o Bead Making Factory
o Shell Ornament Makers Factory
o Bangle Making Centre

 Kalibangan:
o The sites of Kalibangan were excavated by BB Lal in 1961.
o The remains are situated on the bank of river Ghaggar.

 Archaeological remains:
o Practice of Trephination
o Medical Beliefs, Surgery Of Skull
o Terracotta Human Head
o Six Types Of Pottery
o Copper Bull
o Evidence Of Ploughing
o Camel Bones

 Surkotada:
o Surkotada site was excavated by Jagat Pati Joshi in 1972.
o The site was situated in Bhuj of Gujarat, between the Sabarmati and Bhogavo.

 Archaeological remains:
o Cities Where Lower Towns Were Fortified
o Remains of Bones of Horse
o Massive Fortification Wall of Semi
o Undressed Stones
o A Pot Containing Human Ashes
o Evidence of Pot Burial

 Dholavira:
o The Harappan site of Dholavira was excavated by JP Joshi in 1967-68.
o It was situated on the bank of river Luni of Kachchh district in Gujarat.

 Archaeological remains:
o The city of Dholavira has a rectangular shape
o Evidence of water reservoirs, with steps

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o Harapan inscription
o Stadium
o Seal Making
o Hemispherical constructions
o A soft sandstone sculpture of a male with phallus erectus

 Banawali:
o The site was excavated by Ravindra Singh Bisht in 1973.
o It is situated on the bank of river Saraswati.

 Archaeological remains:
o Terracotta Replica of Plough
o Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture and barley with good quality has
been found here.

 Diamabad:
o This site was discovered by B. P. Bopardikar in 1958
o Diamabad is situated on the left bank of the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari
River in Srirampur taluka in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra state in India.

 Archeological remains:
o Copper -Two Wheeled Chariot with a Rider
o Copper -Rhinoceros
o Copper -Elephant
o Copper -Buffalo

 Relations with other civilisations:

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 Trade Relations:
o The Indus Valley is mentioned in Mesopotamian record as Meluhha, they was connected
with the early cultures of Sumerians and Elamites.
o The Harappans were exported many commodities to Mesopotamia but, there is no
evidence of what they received in exchange.
o One Mesopotamian cylinder seal of this period identified its owner as a “Su-i-li-su,
Meluhha interpreter.”
o The Akkadian levels in the city of Eshnunna yielded Harappan material, including a
cylinder seal with a design of Harappan animals (an elephant, a rhino, and a gharial),
camelian beads, and Harappan pottery.
o Carnelian was mentioned in Mesopotamian texts.in considerable quantities.
o The Harappa was mentioned as source of copper by some Mesopotamian texts.
o Some mesopotemian text mentioned that the, Melluhas have large boats and seaworthy
craft for distance trade.

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 Decline of Civilisation:
o Theories of decline of Indus Valley Civilisation:
 Natural Calamities:
 Floods:
o Often hydrological calamities like floods, droughts, changing river courses and sea-
levels have been cited as responsible factors for the collapse of civilizations.
o There have been records of flooding at Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Dholavira, as
cited in the excavation reports.

 Tectonic Shifts:
o There is a direct archaeological evidence for at least one major earthquake at Dholavira
in 2200 B.C.

 Shifting of Sindhu:
o The Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river system which were the loci of Harappan settlements
and the Harappan agrarian economy was dependent on the natural floodwater of the
rivers.
o Changes in the course of the Ghaggar-Hakra, has also been cited as a major factor in the
decline of the Indus Civilization.

 Barbaric Invasion:
o Wheeler (1947), Piggott (1950) and Gordon (1958) and have separately supported a
foreign invasion theory.
o Bronze weapons and other kinds of weapons have been found on the surface of Urban
Harappan levels.

 Hypothesis of Aryan Invasion:

o There is no evidence of large scale invasion of people from outside India until
Alexander's time.
o The skeletons found in the excavations do not suggest the arrival of a new racial type.
o Most of the descriptions of the flora and fauna, the geography and climate mentioned in
the Rigveda suggest to their connection with the Indian subcontinent rather than a colder
arctic climate.
o John Dalas questioned that, there are no signs of destruction, war or any weapons.
o Vivekananda directly commented on the absurdity of this theory and European false
superiority complex as its origin. Aurobindo categorically called it a philological myth.

 Questionary:

1. What is the trade system in Indus Valley civilization?

2. Which is the largest site of Indus Civilization?

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Chapter: 4
Vedic Period Part 1:
Political, social and economical life; Significance of
the Vedic Age; Evolution of Monarchy

 Source of History:
 Literary Sources:
o Vedic Literature
o Pali, Prakrit Literature
o Foreign accounts

 Archeological Source:
o Archeology
o Epigraphy
o Numismatics
o Paleography

 Time line of Vedic Civilisation

Pre-Vedic Period Vedic Period Later Vedic period

3000 BC-1500 BC 1500 BC – 1000 BC 1000 BC – 600 BC

 Vedas:
o The word ‘Veda’ originates from the Sanskrit word Vid, which means ‘to know’
o The vedas are not only books of knowledge or a record of historical even.

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o The only source of Vedic culture is the Vedic literature. Amongst it are the four Vedas
(called Samhitas also), the Rig-veda, the Sama-veda, the Yajur-veda and the Atharva-
veda; Brhamanas, Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
o The Rig-veda is a collection of hymns; the Sama-veda is a collection of songs mostly
taken from the Rig-veda; the Yajur-veda is a collection of sacrificial formulas; the
Atharva-veda is a collection of spells and charms; Brahmanas contain observations on
various sacrificial rites and ceremonies; Aranyakas contain philosophic speculations
about the nature of truth; and Upanishads elaborate further philosophic speculations of
Aranyakas.
o Vedas are most celebrated possessions of Indian Civilisation.
o They reflect the growth and development of Human thought.

 Veda:

 Origin and advent:

o 1900 BC Harappan cities began to declined
o 1500 BC Harappan culture had been declined
o Harappan Economic and Administrative system had slowly declined
o It marked the end of Pre-Historic and proto Historic period

 Origin:
o The original home of Aryans is a controversial.
o According to Max Muller, Aryans Migrates from Central Asia/Southern Russian Steppe
plains
o Gananath Jha, D. S. Triveda, L. D. Kalla, is advocates of the theory of indigenous origin
of the Aryans.

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o There is a mass of literary evidence to show that Sapta-Sindhu was regarded by the
Vedic Aryans as their original home.
o Another argument in support of this view is that the Vedic literature was the expression
of the highly developed thoughts of the Aryans. If the Aryans had come to India from
outside it would be natural to find some traces of their thoughts and literary activities in
some of the places through which they had travelled.

 Early Vedic settlement:

o Saraswati (Naditarna) is mentioned as the holiest river in Rig Veda, named after
Harakwati (Hemland river) in south Afghanistan
o Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven
Rivers).
o The Vedic Age started with the Aryan settlements in the Indo-Gangetic Plains.
o Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven
Rivers).
o These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni
(Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.

o Rig-Vedic Aryans had

not established settlements in the southern India.
o The Ganga and the mountains of the Vindhya were the barriers not easy to cross in those
days.
o In the later scriptures, the country of Aryans is also designated as Aryavarta.

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o A total of 31 rivers have been mentioned in Rig-Vedic hymns, most of which belong to
Indus, Ganga and lost Saraswati system.
o The boundaries of Aryavarta included parts of Modern Afghanistan, Punjab and Sindh of
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and northern India up to Vindhyan mountains.

 Political Organisation:
o The Kula (family) was the basis of both social and political life of that period. It was the
smallest unit of the political system. Above the Kula, there were Village
or Grama, Clan or Vis, Jana, and the Country or Rashtra.
o Rashtra, probably, was divided into Janas.
o The officer of a Jana was called Gop. Every Jana was divided into smaller units called
Visa.
o Rig Vedic people were organized into tribes rather than Kingdoms.
o The administrative head of a Visa was called Vispati.
o The smallest unit was the village called Grama whose chief officer was Gramani.
o The village consisted of a group of families or Kulas.
o The head of a Kula or family was called Kulapa, Kulpati or Grahpati.
o In the Rig Veda, two popular assemblies ‘Sabha’ and ‘Samiti’ were given great
importance. The Samiti, mainly dealt with policy decisions and political business
included common people. Where the Sabha was less political in character mostly
included elders and nobles.
o The Rashtra was ruled by a King or Rajan. The purohits or domestic priests were
Rajan’s friend, philosopher, and guide. They were the first ranking officials of the
ministry of the King. Other important royal officials were ‘Senani‘ (army chief) and
‘Gramani‘ (head of a village).
o The autonomy of Rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called ”Sabha” & ”Samiti”.

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 History
o The Rajan had a primary court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and the
Gramanis (the chief of Grama). The main responsibility of Rajan was to protect the tribe.
o The King didn’t possess a standing army.

 Sabha and Samiti:

o The term Sabha denotes both the assembly (in early Rig-Vedic) and the assembly hall
(Later Rig-Vedic).
o It discussed pastoral affairs and performed judicial and administrative functions and
exercised judicial authority.
o Samiti was a folk assembly in which people of the tribe gathered for transacting tribal
business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned with religious ceremonies
and prayers. References suggest that the Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.
o Sabha performed judicial functions, which the Samiti did not. Later, the Sabha became a
small aristocratic body and samiti ceased to exist.

 Rig Vedic Society:

o Marriage was an important ritual and there were different types of marriages mentioned
in the Rig Veda. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their
husbands died or disappeared.
o Right to property existed in respect of movable things like cattle, horses, goats etc. and
also in respect of immovable properties like house and lands.
o The Rig Vedic society was essentially tribal and liberal. People owed their primary
loyalty to their tribe. The unit of the society was family and the birth of a son was
desired.
o Rig Vedic people were primarily agricultural and pastoral, who quantify their wealth in
terms of cows.
o The Society of Rig Vedic era was based on Relationship.
o During this period cow was not to be killed. According to the Rig Veda, those people
who kill or injure cow got the death penalty or driven out from the kingdom.
o Early Vedic people consumed milk and its products (butter, ghee, curd), vegetables,
fruits, and grains.
o Meat eating was mentioned but the cow was labeled as ‘Aghanya‘ i.e. not to be killed.
o Soma and sura were popular drinks.

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 History
o People loved entertainments included music, dance, chariot racing, and gambling or
dicing.
o Their dress were simply divided into three part:
 Undergarment – Nivi
 Garment – Vasa
 Over Garment – Adhivasa

 Women in Rig Vedic Society:

o Gargi was one of the greatest Vedic Scholars of her time.
o According to Sarvanukraamanika, there were as many as twenty women who are
credited with having composed the hymns of the Rigveda.
o Widows of this age were permitted to remarry.
o The position of women during the Vedic period was glorious on account of freedom and
equality.
o Some of the high class women were highly educated and they actively participated in
intellectual and philosophical discussions. One comes across reference in lady sages like.
Gosha, Apala, Lopamudra, Indrani, Maitreyi and Gargi.
o The use of the word 'Parapurva' a woman, who has had a second husband, proves that
widows were remarried. The word 'Didhisha' used in the Rigveda means the second
husband of a woman. Atharva Veda refers to 'Punarbha' that is, re-married widow.
o The scholars did not find any any reference to Sati or burning of widows in Rigveda. On
the other hand, Vedic hymns refer to remarriage of widows rather than their self
immolation.

 Economy:
o Among the other occupations, carpentry, pottery making, metal working, leather
working were famous.
o Products made out of copper, iron and bronze were in use.
o The cow was the most important part of the wealth. Most wars were fought for cows.
o In the early Vedic period the Aryans were depending mainly on a pastoral economy,
their main occupation was cattle-breeding. The domesticated cow, horse, sheep, goat,
dog etc. Wild animals like lion, elephant were known to them. They were not familiar
with the tiger.
o They had horse chariots.
o Rivers were used for transport.
o Cotton and woolen fabrics were spun and used.
o Money and markets were known to the Rig Vedic people but they were not used
extensively. Cows or gold ornaments of fixed value were the media of exchange.
o The economic life of the Rig Vedic people was sustained by a combination of
agriculture, cattle rearing, trade, and commerce. The Rig Veda attached great importance
to agriculture.

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 History
o Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins called ‘nishka’
were in use.

 Monarchy:
o In Monarchy, A state having a form of government in which the supreme power is
vested in a single person.
o The state, according to the ancient Indian view, has seven constituents.
 Svamin – Sovereign
 Amatya – Ministers or the Officials
 Janapada – Rashtra or the Territory
 Durga – Forts
 Kosa – Treasury
 Danda – Army
 Mitra – Allies
o The ancient text mentioned that, the monarchy have three power center.
o Good counsel (Mantriparishad)
o The king himself (Rajan)
o Administration (Rajyavyavastha)

 Significance of Vedic Period:

o Domestication of Animals
o Discovery of Iron
o Political system
o Mode of Warfare

 Questionary:

1. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.

2. What was the status of women in the early Vedic period?

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Chapter: 5
Vedic Period Part 2:
Religious and philosophic literature;
Transformation from Rig Vedic period to the later
Vedic period

 Vedic Literature:
o The general view on the Vedic literature is that the Vedas consists of four parts namely,
Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanisads.
o Samhitas are the collection of hymns and prayers.
o Brahmanas contain the descriptions and instructions of the rituals.
o Aranyakas are the texts of mysticism and symbolism.
o Upanisads contain the discussion of philosophy.
o Brahmanas, which describe rituals and Upanisads, which describe philosophy are treated
rival elements in the Vedic literature and Aranyakas are regarded as revolutionary or the
transitional phase from ritual to philosophy.

Vedic Literature

Sruti: That Which is Smruti: That Which

heard is remembered

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 History
 Veda:
o They are supposed to have been passed through oral tradition.
o They came to us in written form between 4-6,000 years ago.
o The essential fundamental part of each of the four Vedas is Samhita or collection of
humus and prayers in verse.
o Vedas are called Apaurasheya which means ‘not created by man but gifted by god’ and
‘Nitiya’ which means ‘existing in all eternity’.
o The Vedas are perhaps the oldest written text on our planet today. They date back to the
beginning of Indian civilization and are the earliest literary records of the whole Aryan
race.
o They are supposed to have been passed through oral tradition.

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 History
 Classification of Vedic Literature:
o The Vedic literature is broadly divided into two categories.
 Shruti: Shruti is “that which has been heard” and is canonical, consisting of revelation
and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal.
Shruti describes the sacred texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism viz. Vedas,
Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

 Smriti: Smiriti literally means “that which is remembered, supplementary and may
change over time”.
It is authoritative only to the extent that it conforms to the bedrock of Shruti and it
is entire body of the post Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature. It comprises Vedanga, Shad
darsana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas, Upangas.

 Shruti Literature:
 Vedas:
o The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were written in Sanskrit
and were handed down orally from one generation to the other.
o The Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Yajur Veda are collectively known an Traji. In later
years the Atharava Veda was incorporated in this group.

 Vedas and their Branches:

Vedas Branches

Rigveda Shakal, Sakhyan, Asavalyan, Mandukeya

Samaveda RaaNaayaneeya, Kautham

Yajur veda Kanva, Madhyandin

Atharvaveda Piplad, Sunak

 Rig veda:
o The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest text in the world.
o It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into
ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).
o Six mandalas (from 2nd to 7th) are the oldest mandalas and are called GotraMandalas
(Kula Granth), each of which is ascribed at a particular family of Rishi Gritsamad (2nd
mandala), Visvamitra (3rd mandala),Vamdeo (4th mandala), Atri (5th mandala),
Bharadvaj (6th mandala) and Vasistha (7th mandala).
o Gayatri mantra has been described in 3rd mandal.
o The 10th mandala contains the famous purushasukta which explains the 4 varnas –

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 History
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishiya and Shudra were born from mouth,arms, thighs and feet
of lord brahma.
o The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.
o The books were composed by sages and poets from different priestly groups over a
period of at least 500 years.
o There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early
Iranian Avesta.
o Here are references to a divine creeper, the Soma, whose juice was an energizer. Some
animals like horses, some rivers, and even some implements (like mortar and pestle)
were deified.
o Rigveda means the Veda of Adoration and mostly contains verses adoring or adulating
deities.
o Rig Veda dealt with procedure of wedding, the folly of gambling.
o Rigveda contains a sense of intimate communion between Nature and the Rishis or
visionaries.
o About two-thirds of Rigveda is about the gods Agni (Fire) and Indra (Ruler of the gods).
Other Rigveda gods include Rudra, the two Ashvins,Savitar and Surya, Varuna, the
Maruts and the Ribhus.
o Rigveda is the oldest, largest and most important of the Vedas, containing ten thousand
verses forming 1017 poems in 20 groups.

 Sama Veda:
o Samaveda consists of a selection of poetry mainly from the Rigveda, and some original
matter.
o Sama Veda derives its root from ‘Saman’ which means ‘melodies’. It is a collection of
melodies.
o The Hymns of Sama Veda were recited by special class of Brahmins called “Udgatri’’
during Soma Sacrifice.
o The verses are not to be chanted anyhow, but to be sung in specifically indicated
melodies using the seven svaras or notes. Such songs are called Samagana and in this
sense Samaveda is really a book of hymns.
o The Sama-Veda is the "Veda of chants" or "Knowledge of melodies".
o It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. Some of the
Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once.
o It has two parts, Purva-Archika (First Adoratona) and Uttar-Archika (Later Adoration),
containing verses addressed to the three gods Agni (Fire), Indra (King of Gods) and
Soma (Energizing Herb).

 Yajurveda:
o Yajur-Veda, the Veda of sacrificial formulas, consists of archaic prose mantras and also
some hymens borrowed from the Rig-Veda.

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 History
o Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but,
unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites.
o It is divided into 2 parts:

 Krishna Yajur veda:

o In this the instructions about rituals are mingled with verses from rig Veda, the chief
recession of this is taught by a school of teachers called Taittiriyans, it includes the
Brahmana prose within the samhita. This was called ‘’Black Yajur Veda’’.
o The recensions of Black Yajur veda are Taittirya, Katthaka, Maitrayani and
Kapishtthala.

 Shukla Yajur veda:

o At a later date other scholars called the Vajasaneyins separated the explanatory matter
from the verses to be recited and hence were called white (Shukla) Yajur-Veda, the other
being called the black (Krishna).
o This implies that the Krishna Yajur Veda includes the Brahmana prose discussions
within the Samhita (i.e. it has no Brahman) while the Shukla Yajur veda has separately a
Brahmana text, the Shatapatha Brahmana.
o Yajur veda refers to acts of worship such as oblations made into Agni or Fire. It has two
branches, Krishna or Black and Shukla or White. While both contain mantras or
incantations to be chanted at rituals, Black Yajur veda also has many explanations.
Those of White Yajur veda are Madhyandin and Kanva. The literary value of Yajur veda
is mostly for its prose, which consists of short terse sentences full of meaning and
cadence.

 Atharvaveda:
o Atharva was a legendary rishi and is considered to have sung the Atharva veda. He also
said to have done a fire-sacrifice or yagna.
o The custom is to enumerate Yajur Veda and Samaveda after the Rigveda, and mention
Atharvaveda last.
o Many poems relate to diseases like cough and jaundice, to male and female demons that
cause diseases, to sweet-smelling herbs and magic amulets, which drive diseases away.
o Atharvaveda contains about 6 thousand verses forming 731 poems and a small portion in
prose. About one seventh of the Atharvaveda text is common to the Rigveda.
o Atharvaveda means the Veda of the Wise and the Old. It is associated with the name of
the ancient poet Atharvan (The Wise Old One).
o Atharva was a legendary rishi and is considered to have sung the atharva veda. He also
said to have done a fire-sacrifice or yagna.
o There are poems relating to sins and their atonement, errors in performing rituals and
their expiatory acts, political and philosophical issues, and a wonderful hymn to Prithvi
or Mother Earth.

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 Brahmanas:

o The Brahmanas are the prose texts which explain the hymns in the Vedas, give
explanation and applications and related stories of their origin. They also have some
stories related to the certain persons related to the Vedic Text.

 List of Brahmanas:
o Aitareya Brahman is the part of Shakala branch of Rig Ved, which is ascribed by
Mahidasa Aitareya.
o The Shat-Patha Brahmana of Yajur Veda is the largest of all the Brahmanas of all the
Vedas.
o The Brahmanas are concerned with the religious rites and rituals.
o Brahmanas believe that rituals are essential for the sustain of the cosmos and the various
components.

 Upanishads:
o They primarily discuss philosophy, meditation, and the nature of God; they form the
core spiritual thought of Vedantic Hinduism.
o The oldest, such as the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, may date to the
Brahmana period, while the youngest, depending on the canon used, may date to the
medieval or early modern period.
o They are sacred tests of spiritual and philosophical nature.
o “Upa” means nearby and “sada” means sit. So Upanishads contain the knowledge
imparted by the gurus to their disciples.
o The Upanishads are regarded as part of the Vedas and as such form part of the Hindu
scriptures.

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 History
o Considered as mystic or spiritual contemplations of the Vedas, their putative end and
essence, the Upanishads are known as Vedanta ("the end/culmination of the Vedas").
o The Upanishads do not belong to a particular period of Sanskrit literature.
o There have been several later additions, leading to 112 Upanishads being available
today. But the major Upanishads are ten, Isha, Kena, Kattha, Prashna, Mundaka,
Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Shwetashwatara, Chhandogya and Brihadaryanyaka.
The teachings of the Upanishads, and those of the Bhagavat Gita, form the basis of the
Vedanta philosophy.
o The Isha-upanishad emphasizes the identity of the human soul with the divine soul.
o Each Upanishad is associated with a Veda, Isha-upanishad with Shukla Yajurveda,
Kena-Upanishad with Samaveda,.
o The earliest Upanishads may have been composed between B.C. 800 and 400.
o The Kena-Upanishad discusses the qualities of the divine essence and the relationship of
the gods to the divine essence.
o The Katha-Upanishad, through the story of Nachiketa, discussed death and the
permanence of the soul.
o Mandukya Upanisha is the shortest Upanishad, which is about three psychological states
walking, dreaming, sleeping and illumination.
o Chhandogya-Upanishad develops the idea of transmigration of souls.
o The rihadaryanaka -Upanishad, the longest of the Upanishads, bears the message of the
completeness of the divine essence, and the associated peace.

 Aranyakas:
o The word 'Aranyaka' is associated with the forest and Aranyakas are known as the 'forest
texts', which contain the meditations of hermits in forests and ascetics on God, man and
world.
o Aranyakas constitute the third stage of development of the Vedic literature.
o They are placed in between Brahmanas and Upanisads.
o The Aranyakas were written in Forests and are concluding parts of the Brahmans.
o Aranyakas don’t lay much emphasis on rites, ritual and sacrifices but have philosophy
and mysticism.
o It is indicated in Mahabharata that Aranyakas are the essence of the Vedas.

 Smriti texts:
Vedanga:
o This is also called as ‘ limbs of vedas’, because they are associated with the study and
understanding the Vedas.
o They are six in number. Just like the limbs of the body, they perform various supportive
and augmenting functions in the study, preservation and protection of the Vedas and the
Vedic traditions.

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 Shiksha (phonetics): Teaches the correct pronunciation of vedic hymns and mantras.
Pratishakhya is the oldest text on phonetics.

 Kalpasutra:
1. Shrauta sutra – sacrifices,
2. Grihya sutras – family ceremonies,
3. Dharma sutra – varnas, ashramas etc.

 Vyakarna (grammar): ‘Ashtadhyayi ‘(Panini)is the oldest grammar of the world.-

1.sivasutra contains phonology,
2. Astadhyayi contains morphology (construction rules for complexes),
3. Dhatupatha contains list of roots (classes of verbal roots),
4ganapatha contains list of classes of primmmitive nominal stems.

 Nirukta (Etymology): It deals with etymology, particularly of obscure words,

especially those occurring in the Veda. It also known as oldest dictionary of the world.

 Chhanda (metrics): it measures and divides vedic mantras by padas. ‘Chhandasutras’

(pingal) – famous text.

 Jyotisha (astronomy): it describes rules for tracking the motions of sun and moon. It is
the foundation of Vedic jyotish. ‘Vedanga jyotisha’ (lagadh muni) – oldest jyotisha text.

 Smriti:
Smriti texts are related to the social livings, customary law, traditional learning.
 Manu smriti
 Yajnvalkya Smriti
 Narad Smriti
 Parashara smriti
 Brihaspati smriti
 Katyayana smriti

 Puranas:
o They are late descriptions of ancient legends and consist of history of the universe from
creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and demigods, and
descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and geography.
o The word "Purana" means "old", and generally they are considered as coming in the
chronological aftermath of the epics.
o Narad Purana
o Markandey Purana
o Bhavishya Purana
o Shanda Purana
o Surya Purana
o Matsya Purana – Oldest Puranic Text

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o Garuda Purana
o Brahmanad Purana
o Brahma Purana
o Vishnu Purana
o Shiva Purana
o Padma Purana
o Shrimad Bhagvat Purana
o Agni Purana
o Ling Purana
o Varah Purana
o Vaman Purana
o Brahm Vaivertya Purana

 Upveda:
o Upavedas mean applied knowledge.
o Each Upaveda is associated with one Veda which is the source of knowledge for that.
o Rigveda – Dhanurveda -> Warfare.
o Sama Veda – Gandharvaveda -> Music and Dance.
o Yajur Veda – Sthapatyaveda Architecture.
o Atharvaveda – Ayurveda -> Medicine.

 Six Darshan:
Darshana Founder Basic Text

Sankhya Kapila Sankhya Sutra

Yoga Patanjali Yoga Sutra
Nyaya Akshpada Gautam Nyaya Sutra
Vaisheshika Uluka Vaiskesika Sutra
Purva Mimansha Jaimini Purva Mimansa Sutra
Uttar Minansa Badrayan Brahma Sutra

 Ramayana and Mahabharat:

o Ramayana is called as ‘Adi Kavya’.
o It was created by Maharishi Valmiki.
o Consists of 24,000 shlokas (verses) [originally 6000, later 12000 finally 24000] in 7
kandas (sections) and 500 sargas) and tells the story of Rama.
o Verses in the Ramayana are written in a 32-syllable meter called anustubh and ranges in
50000 lines in total.

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 Mahabharata:
o The Mahabharata is attributed to Maharishi Vyas and the tale known as Bharta is a
shorter version of 24,000 verses, while the Mahabharata contains 1 Lakh verses in 18
Parvans (chapters) and 1.8 million words which makes it 10 times longer than “Iliad and
Odyssey combined” and 4 times of Ramayana.
o Originally - 8800 - Jay Samhita, Later - 24,000 - Chaturvinshati Sahastri
Samhita/Bharata, Finally - 1,00,000 - Shatasahastri Samhita/Maha Bharata plus the
Harivamsa supplement.
o Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bhishma Parvan of Mahabharata.
o Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabharata.

 Religion of Vedic period:

o The mode of worship was simple. A great value was attached to the hymns. The Aryans
chanted hymns to appease the various divinities. There was no priestly class for
performing these religious sites. No shrine or temple was built.
o According to much later tradition they were classified under terrestrial (prithvisthana),
atmospheric (antarikshasthana or madhyamasthana) and celestial (dyusthana).
o They worshipped various manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the
Dawn, the thunder, the wind and the Air.
o Atmospheric Gods: Indra, Rudra (Probably lightning), Maruts, Vayu (wind) and
Parjanya.
o Celestial Gods: Dyaus (the sky), Varuna (vault of Heaven), Ushas (dawn), Asvins
(probably twilight and morning stars) and Surya.
o The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain.
o According to much later tradition they were classified under terrestrial (prithvisthana),
atmospheric (antarikshasthana or madhyamasthana) and celestial (dyusthana).
o Terrestrial Gods: Prithvi, Agni, Brihaspati (Prayer), and Soma.
o Vedic hymns were composed in praise of nature. Rigveda mentions that thirty three gods
and goddesses were worshipped by the Aryans.

 Yajnas and Sacrifice:

o The basic ritual according to Vedic tradition is Yajna. For obtaining health, wealth, long
life, offspring, cattle, victory, rains, good harvest, freedom from the evil power, total
salvation, etc. the offerings are made in Agni- Fire.
o The Yajnas or sacrifices were performed to propitiate the Gods who in turn would bless
their people with peace and prosperity.
o Yajna is the main ritualistic practice explained by the Vedas.

 Sacrifices:
 Rajasuya:
o This sacrifice conferred supreme power to King. The ritual was performed to build a
strong kingdom. The Word Rajasuya means King-engendering.

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 Asvamedha:
o Authorized the King an unquestioned control over an area.
o Notable performers of the this Horse sacrifice are Pushyamitra Sunga, Samudragupta,
Rajadhiraj Chola,

 Vajapeya:
o It was a chariot race in which the Royal Chariot was to win race against the kinsmen.
This elevated the Raja to a Samrat. This ritual was performed to maintain harmony in the
state. It is the highest form of Soma Yajna.

 Later Vedic Period:

o This period is based on the Vedic texts compiled after the Veda.
o This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Samhitas namely, the Samaveda
Samhita, the Yajurveda Samhita, the Atharvaveda Samhita as well as Brahmanas and the
Upanishads of all the four Vedas and later on the two great epics the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata.
 Political Organistion of Later Vedic age:
o Rise of Kingship
o Rise of Big State
o Rise of Imperialism
o Decline of Sabha and Samiti
o Changes in administrative machinery
o Arya vrata (Northern India )
o Madhyadesha (Central India)
o Dakshinpatha ( Southern India)

 Social Condition:
o Caste Society
o Education
o Status of women
o Foods and Drinks
o Dresses and Ornaments

 Four Ashrams:
o Brahamchari – For Student
o Grihastha – For householder
o Vanaprastha – Hermit (a stage of gradual detachment)
o Sanyasin – Who renounced the world fully

 Four Purushartha:
o Dharma: Dharma is given the foremost rank in the scriptures. Today, it coresponds to
religious, social and/or moral righteousness
o Artha: material and/or financial means of living

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o Kama : pleasure including sensual pleasures
o Moksha: Liberation; or renunciation as well as detachment

 Economic Conditions:
o Agriculture
o Economy and Trade
o Mobilisation
o Philosopic Speculation
o Scientific Development
o Later Vedic Gods

 Questionary:

1. What are the different sources that describe vedanga or limbs of the vedas?
2. What are 4 Vedas of Hinduism? Explain in details

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Chapter: 6
Mahajanapadas, Rise of Magadha, Nanda, Iranian
and Macedonian Invasion and impact

 Janapada to Mahajanapadas:
o As per the Vedic texts Aryan tribes were known as the Janas, which were the largest
social units. The term Janapada composed of janas means “people” or “subject”
and pada “foot”.
o In Early Vedic Period the polity was based on tribal affairs.
o The tribe was called Jana and the tribal chief was called Rajana.
o The Sabha – elder members/ wise
o The Samiti – decisions making process
o No regular Army

 In later Vedic period:

o King now claimed to be absolute masters of all their subjects.
o The chief function of the kings was of a military and judicial character.
o The polity of later Vedic period was shifted towards monarchy.
o The amalgamation of tribes and the increase in the size of kingdoms in the later vedic
age.
o The monarchs were the protector of his people and the laws.
o Emergence of the concept of King of Kings.
o The term “Rashtra”, which means territory, first appeared in later Vedic period.
o The King started maintaining an army and the Bureaucracy also got developed.

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 Mahajanapadas:
o The period from the fall of the kingdom of Videha early in the sixth century B.C. till the
rise of the kingdom of Magadha in the middle of the same century is known as the Age
of sixteen Mahajanapadas.
o The period of sixteen Mahajanapadas is mentioned in some ancient texts.
o Mahajanapada was one of the sixteen kingdoms or oligarchic republics that existed
in ancient India from the sixth to fourth centuries BCE.
o Kabul valley in the north-west to the borders of Bengal in the east, foot hill of the
Himalayas in the north to the river Godavari in the south.
o In most of the Mahajanapadas there were monarchies while in others there were
republican forms of governments.
o Extensive use of iron, expansion of agriculture and the growth of unban centres and
urbanization led to the emergence and formation of such territorial states.
o The monarchies were concentrated on the Gangetic plains while the Republican states
were situated on the foot of the Himalayas to the northwest of the monarchical states.

 Source:
 According to Angutar Nikay:
o Anga, Magadha, Kashi, Koshala, Vriji (Vajji), Malla, Chedi, Vatsa (Vamsa), Kuru,
Panchala, Matsya (Machchha), Surasena, Asmaka or Asaaka, Avanti, Gandhara and
Kamboj.

 According to Digha Nikaya:

Kashi-Koshala, Vriji-Malla, Chedi-Vamsa, Kuru-Panchal and Matsya-Surasen.

 Administration of the state:

 Monarchial states:
o Abolute Monarchy.
o King was the head of the administration of the monarchies.
o Kingship was generally hereditary, but system of elective kingship was also there.
o king was not autocratic
o The Monarch was not the state but a part of it.
o There was a well developed political system with limitations to the powers of the
king.
o The state was conceived as an organic whole like a human body with seven limbs
(saptanga theory)

 Republics:
o The republics consisted of either a single tribe such as the Shakyas and Koliyas, or a
confederacy of tribes such as the Vajji.
o The republican states believed in the theory of social contract for the creation of state.

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o The non-monarchical states or republics were called Gana or Sangha and on the basis of
their constitution were broadly divided into two categories viz., oligarchic and
republican.
o The assembly of each state was presided over by an elected representative who was
commonly known as the raja. This office was not hereditary and he was regarded as a
chief rather than a king.

 Mahajanapadas:
o According to Kautilya’s Saptang theory, the state was characterized by seven principles.
o The monarch, minister, state, forts, treasury, army and ally.
o No state satisfied all these seven aspects till 6th century BC.
o But from the 6th century BC, the widespread use of iron, led the formation of large
territorial state which were better equipped militarily.
o New implementation in economy, which fulfill the peasants needs as well as ruling class
needs.
o New urbanisation arises in the Gangatic plains and Ujjain, Takshsheela, Bharooch and
Vaishali had a wider economic reach.

 Anga:
o Anga comprised modern Bhagalpur and Monghyar districts of east Bihar.
o Located on the confluence of two rivers- Ganga and Champa.
o Capital: Champa formerly known as Malini.
o Champa river separated Anga from Magadha.
o Centre of trade and commerce.
o Merchants sailed from Champa to Suvarnabhumi for trade.
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o Bhaddiya and Assapura were two other important towns.
o Constant rivalry between Anga and Magadha.
o In the middle of 6th century B.C. Bimbisara, of Magadha is said to have killed
Brahmadatta, the last independent ruler of Anga and conquered Anga ceasing its
independence.
o Anga formed an integral part of the expanding Magadha.

 Kashi:
o The Capital was Varanasi(Banaras)
o Rivers Varuna and Asi which flew in the north and south of the capital city respectively
gave rise to name of its capital city Varanasi.
o very famous for the manufacture of cotton clothes.
o Rivalry between Kashi and Koshala.
o Jatakas refers to the annexation of Koshala by king
o Brahmadatta of Kashi.
o Kashi was finally conquered by Koshala shortly before the time of the Buddha.

 Koshala:
o The Capital of Koshala was Srawasti, earliest was Ayodhya.
o The kingdom was bounded on the east by the river Sadanira (Gandak), on the west by
Panchala, on the south by Sarpika or Syandika, and on the north by the Nepal hills.
o During the 6th century B.C. it was ruled by the kings like Mahakoshala and his powerful
son Prasenjit.
o Prasenjit was a contemporary of Buddha and was involved in a protracted struggle with
king Ajatasatru of Magadha.
o Vidudabha, the son and successor of Prasenjit invaded the Sakya kingdom.
o Koshala was defeated by Magadha and became a part and parcel of the Magadhan
Empire.
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 Chedi:
o The capital of kingdom was Suktimati
o Chedis or Chetis were one of the most ancient tribes of India.
o They had two principal settlements, one in Bundelkhanda and the other in the mountains
of Nepal and Sahajati also.
o A branch of Chedis had established an empire over Kalinga under a dynamic ruler
named Kharavela

 Vatsa:
o Udayana was the most powerful king of Vatsa who had a long rivalry with king Pradyota
of Avanti.
o The capital of Vatsa kingdom was Kaushambi or modern Kosam, near Allahabad.
o Udayana claimed himself to be a descendant of the race of Bharata.
o He had a son named Bodhi, but nothing is known about Vatsa after Udayana.
o Kingdom of Vatsa situated along the banks of the river Yamuna.

 Kuru:
o The capital was Indraprastha.
o Kuru kingdom Situated in modern day Meerut and Delhi.
o Kurus were famous for wisdom and had matrimonial relations with the Yadavas, the
Bhojas and the Panchalas.
o Hasthinapura was another important city of the Kuru kingdom.
o In the Buddha’s time, the Kuru kingdom was ruled by a titular chieftain named Koravya
who had no political importance.

 Panchala:
o The kingdom was divided into two parts namely uttara (north) Panchala and dakshina
(south) Panchala, the river Ganges forming the dividing line.
o The kingdom was situated in modern Buduan, Bareilly and Farrukhabad districts of
modern Uttar Pradesh.
o Ahichhatra – capital of the northern Panchala
o Kampilya – capital of the southern Panchala.
o Protracted rivalry between the kingdom of Panchala and Kuru for northern Panchala.
o Originally a monarchical kingdom Panchala turned towards republican system during
the sixth century B.C.

 Matsya:
o The capital of the kingdom was Viratanagara which is identified as modern Bairat near
Jaipur.
o Matsya or Machchha kingdom situated in modern day Jaipur including the whole of
Alwar and a part of Bharatpur area.

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o The Matsyas were usually associated with the Surasenas.
o The kingdom of Matsya subsequently was absorbed within the Magadhan Empire.
o Some famous inscriptions of Ashoka are found from Bairat.

 Surasena:
o The capital of this kingdom was located at Mathura on the bank of the river Yamuna.
o The rulers of Mathura belonged to the Yadu or the Yadav family.
o Krishna-Vasudev of the Mahabharata belongs to the Yadu dynasty of Mathura.
o Avantiputra, a king of Surasena was a disciple of Lord Buddha and during his reign
Buddhism became very popular in Surasena.
o This kingdom became an integral part of the Magadhan Empire.
o Greek writers refer to it as Sourasenoi and its capital as Methora.

 Assaka:
o The capital of the kingdom was Paithan, which is identified as Bodhan in Andhra
Pradesh.
o The kingdom of Assaka or Asmaka was situated on the bank of the river Godavari.
o The rulers of Assaka belonged to the Ikshvaku dynasty.
o It was the only Mahajanpad of Dakshinapath or South India.

 Avanti:
o The kingdom of Avanti was divided by Vindhya mountains into North and the South.
o Ujjaini was the capital of northern Avanti while Mahismati was the capital of south
Avanti.
o Kingdom of Avanti was situated in modern Malwa region of western India.
o It lay on the road from the Gangetic valley to Bharukachha (Broach) which contributed
to the prosperity of Ujjain as a great commercial centre.
o King Ptadyot was contemporary to Buddha.
o Pradyota known in the Buddhist texts as Chanda (cruel) was a very powerful king and
had rivalry with the neighbouring kingdoms of Vatsa, Magadha and Koshala.
o Pradyota was followed by four kings, the last being Nandivardhan who was defeated by
king Sisunaga of Magadha as a result of which Avanti became a part of the Magadhan
Empire.

 Gandhara:
o Its capital was Takshasila, a great centre education and trade.
o The kingdom of Gandhara situated in the modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi regions.
o King Pukkusati, the ruler of Gandhara was a contemporary of king Bimbisara of
Magadha.
o In the middle of the 6th century B.C he sent an embassy to king Bimbisara of Magadha
and waged a war on Pradyota of Avanti.

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o In the later half of the 6th century B.C. Gandhara was occupied by the Persians which is
mentioned in the Bahistan inscription of Persian emperor Darius.

 Kamboja:
o The capital was Rajapura.
o The Kamboja kingdom was situated in the extreme north-west part of India.
o It roughly corresponds to Rajaori (ancient Rajapura) and Hazara district of North-West
Frontier Province and Pamir regions).
o Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim who visited India during the first half of the seventh
century A.D refers to Rajapura which lay to the south or south-east of Punch.
o Kamboja which earlier had a monarchical constitution later on gave place to a republican
or Ganasangha form of government.

 Vajji:
o Videhans had their capital at Mithila which has been identified with Janakapura, a small
town in Nepal.
o Lichchhavis had their capital at Vaishali which has been identified with modern Basarh
in the Muzaffarpur district of north Bihar.
o The people of Videha adopted a republican constitution. Later on the republic of Videha
was included in the Vrijian confederacy.
o The Vrijian confederacy was faced with a challenge from the incipient Magadhan
imperialism. Ajatasatru, the Magadhan king launched a long war against Vriji and
destroyed it.
o Vaishali also served as the headquarters of the Vrijian confederacy.
o The rulers of Vajji were a confederacy of the eight clans (atthakula) of whom the Vajjis,
the Licchavis, the Jnatrika and the Videhans were the most important
o Vajji Mahajanapada lay to the north of the Ganges and extended as far as the Nepal hills.

 Malla:
o The Mallas originally had a monarchial form of government but during time of Buddha
it became an oligarchical state like the Vajji confederation.
o The Mallas maintained their independence till the death of the Buddha and soon after
were absorbed within the Magadhan Empire.
o The republican state of Malla situated to the north of the Vajji confederacy.
o The kingdom was divided into two parts with their capitals at Kusinara (Kushinagara)
and Pava respectively.
o Gautama Buddha had got Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar while Vardhaman Mahavira
had got salvation at Pava.
o Some of the greatest personalities of Buddhism like Ananda, Upali, Aniuruddha,
Devadatta and Khand-Sumana were belong to Mallas.

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 Rise of Magadh:
o The alluvial plains of this region and iron rich areas of Bihar and Jharkhand helped the
Magadha to rise into vast empire.
o The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is
also mentioned in the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
o At the time of Gautama Buddha Bimbisara was the King of Magadha He belonged to
Haryanka dynasty.
o The kingdom of Magadha in the Age of sixteen Mahajanapadas comprised the modern
districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar.
o Magadha was encircled by the rivers, the son and the Ganges. Giri- braja or Raj Gruh
was the original capital of Magadha. Later, however, its new capital was set up at
Pataliputra.
o The Mauryan Empire and Gupta Empire, both of which originated in Magadha, saw
advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, astronomy, religion,
and philosophy and were considered the Golden Age of India.

 Under Bimbisara:
o The Mahavamsa and Buddha Charita, written by Aswaghosa, state that the first famous
king of Magadha, Bimbisara, the son of Bhattiya a chiieftain, belonged to the Haryanka
dynasty.
o Magadha rose into prominence under the rule of Bimbisara who belonged to the
Haryanka dynasty.
o He ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was the
establishment of Magadhan empire.
o He also married to Khema, the daughter of chief of Madra clan in Central Punjab.
o He led campaign against the kingdom of Anga and defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga
along with its capital city Champa was annexed to the Magadhan empire.
o Pukkusati, the king of Gandhara, sent Bimbisara an embassy.
o He died in about 544 BC.
o He married Kosaladevi, daughter of king Mahakosala of Kosala,
o According to Mahavamsa, he married to Chellana the daughter of Chetak, the Lichchavi
chief of Vaisali.
o He then married Vasavi, a princess of Videha in the northward.
o Magadha’s most formidable enemy was Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti who
fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the two thought it wise to become friends.
o Bimbisara sent Jivaka, his physician, to Ujjain for medical treatment of Pradyota, the
king of Avanti, from jaundice.

 Under Ajatasatru:
o During his reign, Magadha witnessed all-round expansion and development.
o His greatest achievement was, the war with a powerful confederacy consisting of thirty

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six kingdoms and some republican territories, the chief being the Lichchhavis of
Vaisali.
o King Ajatasatru or Kunik was the King of Magadha Empire. He was the son of
Bimbisara.
o After the death of his father in about 495 B.C. Ajatasatru came to the throne of Magadha
Empire. He ruled for about 32 years, i.e., 495 B.C. to 462 B.C. He was a very ambitious
and powerful king.
o The war continued for about sixteen years but in the end Ajatasatru came out successful
and Vaisali was annexed to the Magadhan Empire.
o Ajatasatru died in about 462 B.C. after reigning for about 32 years.
o Shishunaga was the founder of this dynasty. He was an amatya nor of the last Haranyaka
ruler Nagdasaka. Shishunaga was succeeded by Kalasoka.
o During Kalasoka, Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha, and he also remembered
for organizing the second Buddhist Council at vashali.
o Udayin built the city of Pataliputra at the confluence of the Son and the Ganges rivers.
o The Shishunag Dynasty succeded the Haryank Dynasty.
o Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin who ruled for sixteen years.
o In Puranas he is mentioned as Kakavarna and in Sri Lankan texts he is mentioned as
Kalasoka.

 Nanda Dynasty:
o Mahapadmananda was the first ruler of the Nanda Dynasty.
o There are several theories about the birth of Mahapadmananda.
o According to Purana Mahapadmananda was son of Nandivardhana and a Non-Royal
queen.
o He was succeeded by his eight son.
o The Mahabodhivamsa mentions the name of the last Nanda king as Dhana Nanda who
was also a contemporary of Alexander the Great.
o The classical writers called Dhanda Nanda as Agrammes.
o He had a large standing army which included 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2,000
chariots and 3,000 elephants as described by the Greek historian Curticus. With his
fabulous wealth and strong army Dhana Nanda became a powerful ruler of Magadha.
o The Buddhist sources inform us that the Nanda kings had strong attraction for wealth
and that they resorted to unjust taxation from the people.
o Inspite of his power and wealth, Dhana Nanda lost the support of the people. He became
unpopular among his people for heavy taxation, his anti – Kshatriya policy.
o With the fall of the Nandas, Magadha entered into another phase of her glorious history
under the Mauryas. Under the maurya dynasty the Magadhan empire and Indian
civilisation reached the apex of glory.

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 Persian Invasion:
o The inscriptions at Persepolis and Naksh-i-Rustom mention northern Punjab as a part of
the Darius empire.
o He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be the richest and the
most populous province of the Persian empire. According to Herodotus, Punjab and
Sindh satrapy (province) was the twentieth in the Persian empire.
o The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the
Magadhan kings, took advantage of the political disunity on the north-west frontier.
o The Iranian ruler, Darius, penetrated into north-west India in 518 BC and annexed
Punjab, west of the Indus, and Sindh.
o The Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier until 4th century AD.

 Effect of Invasion:
o Introduction into India the Araminc form of writing, which later developed into the
Kharoshthi alphabet.
o Many of Asoka’s inscriptions found in north western India are witten in kharoshthi.
o The administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced in some measure by
that of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia.
o The monolithic pillar edicts of Asoka with their bell-shaped capitals are somewhat like
the victory pillars of the Achaemenid emperors which have been found in Persepolis.
o Promotion of Indo-Iranian trade
o Fusion of Iranian/Persian features in the Mauryan art.
o Religious impact

 Greek Invasion:
o Herodotus says that “the Indian sclad in garments made of cotton , carried bows of cane
and arrows of cane, the latter tipped with iron”.
o During the fourth century BC, the Greeks and the Persians fought for supremacy over
West Asia.
o India and Greece first came in to contact of each other through Persia , but no direct
connection was established until Alexander and his Macedonians success fully
challenged the might of Persia towards the end of the 4th century B.C.
o The Greeks and Indians did see each other as fighting foes in the year 480 B.C. when the
Indian contingent fought a battle of the Hellas under Xerxes.
o The Achaemenid Empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of
Alexander of Macedon. He conquered Asia Minor, Iraq and Iran and then marched
towards India.

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 Alexander:
o Alexander III, the Macedon, was the son of
Philip II and Olympians belonging to the race
of Epeiros, claiming descend from Achilles -
the hero of the Iliad.
o After the Persian Conquest Alexander crossed
the Hindu Kush and marched through Swat
and Gandhara.
o He conquered the Swat valley, stormed some
forts and subjugated the cities of Nysa and
Pushkalavati. The latter named city was very
near to modern Peshawar.

 Battelle of Headspace – 326 BC:

o In the battle, the army of King Porus was defeated by the Macedonian army of
Alexander due to natural cause and leadership of Alexander.
o King Porus was a man of gigantic and powerful body, and was gifted with heroic virtues.
o Lack of unity among them helped the Greeks to conquer these principalities one after
another. However, Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when they heard about the
vast army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha.
o The battle of Headspace (Jhelum) was fought between Alexander the Great and King
Porus on the bank of River Jhelum.
o King Porus was a man of gigantic and powerful body, and was gifted with heroic virtues.
o Porus was the king of Paurava Kingdom located in modern day Punjab district of
Pakistan.

 Effect of invasion:
o The political myth created by the Greek writers that the Western army was superior to
that of the Indian proved meaningless when Chandragupta Maurya not only drove out
the Greeks from the Indian soil, but also defeated the most powerful Greek ruler after
Alexander, Seleucus Nikator, and forced him to surrender a large part of his territory.
o Politically, thus, India raised as a mighty power of Asia soon after the invasion of
Alexander the Great.
o Alexander’s invasion of India carried both a political lesson and a political result.
o Alexander did not fight with the real political power of India which was represented by
the Nanda Empire. He fought with much smaller powers and won victory.
o Ashoka pillars were also influenced by Greek Art.
o The images of Buddha, under this art, showed a remarkable mixture of the Greek and the
Indian art of image making.
o Coins of India non inscribed on 'Uluk Model' of the Greeks
o Many Greek scholars came to India with Alexander and wrote on Indian histories which

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are relevant in constructions of contemporary socio-religious aspect.
o Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of copper cast have
been discovered.
o Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land sea paving way for
increased trade and cultural contacts between the two regions.
o Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of the Indus to that of
the Euphrates.
o Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due to destruction of
local powers by Alexander.
o Establishments of more Greek settlements in north-western region
o The images of Buddha showed a remarkable mixture of the Greek and the Indian art of
image making.
o India and Greek established trade contact.

 Questionary:

1. Explain in detail: Mahajanapadas by Buddhist Angauttara Nikaya

2. Why was Magadha so important in the history of India?

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Chapter: 7
Jainism Buddhism and spread of Buddhism

o Buddhist texts, generally speaking, follow logic in writing and were written in local
languages such as pali in northern and eastern parts of modern India and in texts such as
Ceylon chronicles languages used were local to area.
o Their teachings were simple to understand and were communicated to people in
interesting ways such as the usage of dialogues in explaining ideas.
o Jainism, on the other hand, though used local languages such as prakrit and
communicated their ideas well, yet included principles such as complete austerity along
with Brahmacharya in order to attain 'kevalya gyana' or enlightenment which did not go
down well with the majority.
o Secondly, due to the individualism found in Jainism principles, their living in groups
helps less in attaining the enlightenment through their own principles.
 Janism:
o Origin of Jainism
o Vardhaman Mahavir
o Principles of Jainism
o Spread of Jainism
o Jain Sangeeti

 Buddhism:
o Origin of Jainism
o Gautama Buddha Principles of Buddhism
o Spread of Buddhism
Buddhist Council

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 Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism :
o The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India
in the 6th century B.C.
o The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too
expensive.
o The superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads,
an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and
therefore not easily understood by all.
o Therefore, what was needed in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and
intelligible way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also be in a
language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the teachings of Buddha and
Mahavira.

 Jainism:
 Origin of Jainism:
o Rishabha is believed to be the founder of Jainism. He was the first of the Thirthankara.
o Some Jain texts believed that the Rishabha was the father of king Bharata, the first
emperor of the Indian subcontinent after whom India was originally named.
o Parshvanatha, the 23rd Thirthankara, preceded Mahavira and gave his followers a
definite identity as a distinct sect of dedicated ascetics.
o Jain doctrine is established upon undying, universal truths. Kevalya Gyana is absolute
knowledge and is the highest form of knowledge that a soul can attain. A person who has
attained Kevala Gyana is called a Kevalin. To get a status of a Jina, attaining Kevala
gyana is required first.

 Vardhman Mahavir:
o Mahavira was born in 599 BC in a princely family which belonged to the Jnatrika clan.
His original name was Vardhamana and his father's name was Siddhartha. Siddhartha
was married to Trishala, daughter of king Chetaka whose other daughters were married
into some prominent royal households of his time including that of king Bimbisara.
o His birthplace Kundagramawas a situated in Vaishali, the capital of Vajji Confederacy.
It is located inpresent day Muzaffarpur of Bihar.
o He was educated in all branches of knowledge but never enjoyed the materialistic life.
o At the age of 30 after the death of his parents, he renounced his family, became an
ascetic and proceeded in search of truth.
o He went from one religious leader to another and led a life of torture and self-
mortification
o In the 13th year of asceticism, on the 10th day of Vaishaka, outside the town of
Jimbhikagrama Mahavira attained the Supreme knowledge.

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o From now onwards he was called Jaina or Jitendriya (conquered his senses), Nragrantha
(free from all bonds) and Mahavira (brave)
o He died in Pawapuri in Magadhan kingdom, present day Nalanda of Bihar.

 Principle of Jainism:
 Principle and Beliefs of Jainism:
o Jainism, like Buddhism is non-theistic. It does not acknowledge existence of a supreme
divine creator. This is different from Vedic religion which is monotheistic and believes
in existence of a divine creator of this universe.
 Nine Tatvas:
o Soul (Jiva)
o Non-soul (Ajiva)
o Punya (Merit)
o Papa (Sin)
o Asrava {Influx of Karma}
o Samvara (stoppage of karmic matter)
o Bandha (bondage)
o Nirjara (shedding the karmic matter)
o Moksha (liberation)

 Triratnas:
o The first jewel - right view
o The second jewel - right knowledge
o The third jewel - right action
 Five Vows of Mahavir:
o Ahimsa
o Satya
o Asteya
o Aparigriha
o Brahmacharya

 Split:
o When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his
followers.
o Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn.
Thus, split Jainism into two sects:
 Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners
 Digambara: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners

 Royal Patrons of Jainism:

o Samprati Maurya, grandson of Ashok Maurya

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o King Kharavela of Kaling: set up Jain rock cut cave at Udaygiri.
o Gangs, Kadambs, Chalukyas, and Rastrakutas had patronized Jainism.
o Kings of King Amoghavarsha of Rastrakuta dynasty became a Jain Monk.
o The Chalukyan period rock cut caves at badami and aihole have the figures of Jain
Tirthankaras.
o Samatabhadra in Kanchi preached this religion.
o The Dilwara Jain temples at Mount Abu were built by Chalukya Dynasty kings between
11th to 13th centuries.

 Jain Sangeeti (Council):

o The conferences of Jainism are called Jain Sangeeti. The first jain Sangeeti was
convened in 300 BC and this conference was headed by Sthoolbhadra.
o The second Jain Sangeeti was called in 512 AD and was held in Vallabhi Gujarat. The
chairman was Devardhi Kshammaramana.

 Buddhism:
The Buddhism was founded by Gautam Buddha
 Life of Gautam Buddha:
o The Buddha was born in the year 563 B.C. in Lumbini. It is presently located in the foot
hills of Nepal in the region bordering the present day India.
o His father Suddhodana was a Sakya king and his mother Maya also came from a
princely family.
o He left his home to achieve enlightenment, and this event in Buddha’s life is known as
“Mahabhishkramana”.

 Event in the Buddha’s life:

Event in Life of Buddha Symbolized by:

Birth Lotus & Bull

The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana) Horse

Enlightment (Nirvana) Bodhi Tree

First Sermon (Dhammachakrapravartana) Wheel

Death (Par nirvana) Stupa

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 Principles of Buddhism:
 Four Noble Truths (Arya satyas):
o The world is full of sorrow – Dukkha
o Desire is the cause of sorrow – Dukha samudya
o If desire is conquered all sorrow is won over – Dukha nirodha
o Liberation from Trishna can be found by living according to Ashtangik Marg – Dukha
Nirodha way
o Three Jewels (Triratnas) – the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
o Code of Conduct.
o Belief in Nirvana.
o Belief in Ahimsa.

 Desire can be conquered by following eight fold paths (Ashtangirka Marg):

o Samyak Drist: Right Understanding
o Samyak Sankalpa: Right Resolve
o Samyak Vani: Right Speech
o Samyak Karma: Right Action
o Samyak Ajiv: Right Living
o Samyak Vyayam: Right Efforts
o Samyak Smriti: Right Mindfulness/thought
o Samyak Samadhi: Right Self-Concentration

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 Buddhist Work:
o The literary sources of Buddhism are the three “Tripitaka” written in Pali –Sutta Pitak ,
VinayaPitak, and AbhidhammaPitak.
o Dhammapad is known as the Gita of Buddhism. It is basically canonical text of
Buddhism.
o Aswaghosa, the buddhist monk was the writer of Buddhacharita. MilindaPanho is a
Buddhist Treatise about a dialogue between the Indo-greek king Menander and Buddhist
monk Nagasena.
o Sunyavada or the theory of void is propagated by a south Indian Buddhism Philosopher,
Nagarjuna. He wrote Mulamadhyamakarika, where he wrote that sunyata is the nature of
all things.

 Spread of Buddhism:
o Buddhists follow three main traditions; the Theravada or Southern tradition; the
Mahayana or Northern tradition; and the Vajrayana Tibetan tradition.
o Buddhism began to spread southwards from its place of origin in Northern India to Sri
Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Indo-China and other South East Asian countries.
o It also moved Northwards through Kashmir Afghanistan along the ‘Silk road’ into the
Himalayan kingdom’s (Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal), Tibet, Mongolia and other parts of
Central Asia, and also into China, and later Korea and Japan.

 Buddhist Council:
 First Council:
o It was held under the patronage of Ajatasatru (Haryanka Dynasty) in 486BC.
o Monk Mahakassapa Upali presided over the first council.
o It was held at Sattapani caves in RajGriha just after the death of Buddha.
o Compilation of Vinayapitaka and Sutta Pitaka was accomplished here.

 Second Council:
o In 383 BC. under the patronage of Kalashoka (Shishunaga Dynasty).
o It was held at Vaishali after one century of Buddha’s death (parinirvana).
o The second council was presided over by Sarvakamini.
o First division in Sangha took place. Theravedin and Mahasanghika split up here.

 Third Council:
o In 250 BC under the patronage of King Ashoka.
o It was held at Pataliputra
o It was presided by Mogaliputta Tissa.
o Compilation of AbhidhamPitaka was done.

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 Fourth Council:
o In the 1st century AD, under patronage of King Kanishka(Kushan dynasty).
o It was held in Kundalvana of Kashmir.
o Under the presidency of Vasumitra along with Asvaghosha.
o Buddhism was divided into two sects namely, Hinayana and Mahayana.

 Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism:

o The source of both the religion is vedic religion and both and indebted to Upanishads
o Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavir belonged to princely families and not to priestly
families.
o Both deny the existence of God.
o Both denied the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of performing sacrifices and
rituals.
o Both have accepted the theories of Karma rebirth and Moksha.
o Both taught in the language of the common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit which
was the language of the priests.
o Both of them were opposed to animal sacrifices.
o Both of them admitted disciples from all the castes and from both sexes.
o Both of them admitted Ahimsa as the prominent principle.
o Both, the religions came as a sort of reform of Hindu religion.
o Both the Religions were later on divided into two sects. Buddhism was divided into
Mahayana and Hinayana. Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara.

 Questionary:

1. What are Buddhism and Jainism? Why did Buddhism spread outside India
but Jainism could not?
2. What are the similarities and differences between Jainism & Buddhism?

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Chapter: 8
Maurya Empire Part 1: Foundation,
Chandragupta, Kautilya and Arthshhastra and
Ashoka

 Maurya Empire:
o Origin and Foundation
o Chankya – Arthshastra
o Chandragupta
o Bindusara
o Ashoka

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 Significance of Maurya Empire:
o The Mauryas are important in Indian history, they are considered to be first historical
dynasty in India.
o With the rise of Maryans, the political and cultural history of India begins.
o India witnessed political unity for the first time, under the banner of the Maurya dynasty.
o Uniform system of administration
o Indian foreign policy
o Statecraft
o Basic features of the social structure, the varna and caste system, and major institutions
of ancient Indian society and state emerged and took shape.

 Historical Sources:
 Literary Sources:
 Buddhist Text
o Jatakas
o Digha Nikaya
o Mahavansha
o Dipvansha
 JainText
o Kalpsutra
o Parishistparva
o Bhadrabahucharita
 Vedic Text
o Various Puranas
o Mudrarakshas of Vishakhadatta
o Arthshastra
 Other Sources
o Indica of Magasthenese
o Archeological Sources
o Edicts of Ashoka
o Rock edicts
o Pillar edicts
o Cave inscriptions.

 Nanda Empire:
o The Nanda Dynasty was founded by Mahapadma Nanda.
o The Nanda dynasty was known as first empire builder of India.
o Nandas formed a vast army, including 200000 infantry, 20000 cavalry, 2000 war
chariots and 3000 war elephants.

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o At its peak, the Nanda Empire expanded from Bengal
in the east to Punjab in the west. In the southern side it
extended to the Vindhya Range.
o Dhananada was last emperor of Nanda Dynasty.
o He was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with the
help of Vishnugupta Chanakya.

 Origin of Maurya:
o There is no unanimity to the ancestry of the Mauryas.
o The Buddhist works like Mahavamsa and Mahavamshatika, have attempted to link the
Mauryan dynasty with the tribe of the Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged.
o In the Divyavadana, Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is described as Kshatriya
Murdabhishikta or anointed Kshatriya.
o The theory of Kshatriya origin offers a more satisfactory explanation of the origin of the
Mauryas.

 Chankya(371-283 BC):
o “The earth, long harassed by outlander, now turned for protection and refuge”.
o Chankya was mentor, guide and strategist and also the Prime Minister of Chandragupta
Maurya.
o He was not only a political scientist, but an economist, a diplomat and a successful war
strategist.
o Traditional accounts mention a story, that Vishnugupta was a teacher at the Taxila
University.
o Arthashastra, a collection of aphorisms on realpolitik, was written by Kautilya.
o It is a treatise on statecraft and public administration.
o It is the most important source for writing the history of the Mauryas and is divided into
15 adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas.
o The book was rediscovered by Rudrapatna Shamasastry, the librarian of Oriental
Library, Mysore, in 1909 and translated by him.

 Chandragupta Maurya(321-298 B.C):

o According to Mahavamsa Tika, he was the son of Moriya chieftain.
o He was educated at Takshashila by Kautilya.
o Earlier, he was mentioned by Plutarch and Justin.
o The North West part of India was controlled by Greeks.
o He first liberated Sind, and then he established his authority over Punjab.
o He defeated Eudemus, and Peithon, who were ruling the north-western parts of Indian
subcontinent until around 316BC.
o Chandragupta Maurya deposed Dhanananda/Agrammes with the help of Chanakya.

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o By his conquests of Punjab, Sind and Magadha, Chandragupta made himself the master
of the entire Indo-Gangetic plains and beyond, as far as the Hindukush.
o He conquered territories outside the geographical boundaries of India.
o In 305 BC, Chandragupta marched against Selucus Nikator, who was Alexander’s
General controlling the northwestern India.
o In this war Seleucus was defeated miserably and handed over to Chandragupta,
the Arachosia (Kandahar), Paropanisade (Kabul), Aria (Herat) and Gedrsoia
(Baluchistan).
o The victorious king Chandragupta married the daughter of Seleueus and presented him a
gift 500 war elephants.
o Selucus sent Megasthenes to Chandragupta’s Court, he stayed at Pataliputra and wrote
his famous work “Indika”.

o His empire extended up to the borders of Persia in the north-westin the east it consisted
of Magadha and probably Bengal, in the west it was bounded by the western sea near
Saurastra; in the south it extended up to the Chitaldrug district of Mysore and Nellore
district of Madras with Pataliputra as its capital.
o In the later years of his life Chandragupta abdicated his throne in favor of his son
Bindusara.
o He became a disciple of Bhadrabahu, a Jain saint. Chandragupta Maurya is believed to
have spent his last days at Shravanabelagola.
o He is believed to have died by practicing Santhara.
o He also conquered Saurastra, which has been proved by the Girnar Rock Inscription of
Rudradaman.
o Chandragupta annexed the neighbouring province of Avanti and its capital Ujjain
became a seat of Maurya viceroyalty.
o The discovery of Asokan Rock Edict in Sopara in Konkan region of Maharashtra refers
to the conquest of a part of Maharashtra.

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 History
 Bindusara (298 – 273 BC):
o Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha”
meaning slayer of enemies.
o He probably reigned 298 to 273 BC
o He conquered Deccan upto Mysore.
o Nikator’s successor Antichus I Soter, King of Syria,
replaced Megasthenes with Deimachus as a Greek
ambassador at mauryan court under Bindusara’s
Patronage.
o Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain
and Takshashila.

 Ashoka:
o “Ashoka worked for real need of men. Amidst tens
thousands of names of monarchs that crowed the columns
of history, the name of Ashoka shines, and almost shines
alone, a star. From the Volga to Japan his name is still
honored. More living men cherish his memory today than
have ever heard the name of Constantine or Charlemagne”
o H G Wells, Outline of History.
o According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, he captured
power after killings of his brother, but some inscriptions
indicates that some of his brothers were appointed as Governor in important places like,
Taxshila, Tosali, Ujjayini.
o Devanampriya Priyadarsi Asoka ascended the throne of Magadha in 273 B.C.
o He was at Ujjain when Bindusara, died.
o His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggesting a disputed succession.
o He was one of the greatest monarchs of history.

 Kaling War:
 Cause:
o Earlier, Kaling was a part of Magadha empire under the Nanda, but due to
Chandragupta’s revolt against the Nanda, it became independent state.
o Pliny mentioned that, the Kaling has a vast army.
o The Kaling was the center of trade with Yavdwip (Java), Malaya, Ceylon.
o Ashoka conquered Kalinga in13th year of his reign.
o The 13th Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga and casualty of both side.
o After the Kaling war, he abandoned “Bherighosh” policy in favour of “Dhammaghosh”
o The 13th edicts also mention victory of Asoka’s Dhamma over Greek Kings, Antiochus
of Syria, Ptolemy of Egypt, Antigonus of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene, Alexander of
Epirus and Cholas, Pandyas etc.

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 Questionary:

1. What were the reasons for success of Mauryan Empire?

2. Who was Chandragupta Maurya?

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Chapter: 9
Maurya Empire Part 2: Administration, Economy
and Trade, Social Condition

 Satang Theory:
o The term Rastra, denoting a kingdom, was frequently used in the Manusmriti. The
Rastra depended on the king.
o The theory of state formulated in the Arthashastra is called the Saptanga theory of state.
o The state is depicted as an organization consisting of seven organs or elements.
o Nature of state imagined to be total anarchy, in which might be right.

 Swami:
o Monarch or the Master, Most Important element of state.
o The whole state machinery revolves around monarch.
o The mains duty of king is welfare of state and people.

 Amatya:
o It refers to Ministers or secretaries, Amatya stands for the governmental machinery.
o The main function of the amatya was to conduct the business of the government whereas
the Mantrins were charged with the duty of advising the king.

 Janapada:
o It refers to state and the people of the state.

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o The territory should have a good climate, should provide grazable land and should be
fertile so that it yields grain with little labour, it should be inhabited by industrious
peasants who are capable of bearing the burden of taxes, it should be loyal and devoted
to state.
 Durga:
o It refers to fortified capitals.
o The state should have a number of forts at strategic locations, to ensure defense against
foreign invasions.
 Kosa:
o Kosa refers to treasury of state. Kautilya defined that, the Kosa, filled with gold, silver,
precious jewels and gems, should be able to stand the strain of expenditure during
famine.
o Without Kosa, it is impossible to maintain army
 Danda:
o It refers to the Military or the Army.
o According the Kautilya, the state should have regular, dicsiplined and well trained army,
the army should consist of hereditary, hired, forest and corporation soldiers comprising
infantry, charioteer, elephantary and cavalry.
 Mitra:
o It refers to allied or friend.
o Kautilya defined that; the king should maintain friendship with traditional friends.
o They would help in emergency as well as economy and trade.

 Mauryan Administration:
o Under the Mauryans, India extends its territory from Hindukush to Bengal and Himalyas
to Godavary Valley.
o The machinery of government was organised in the Mauryan rule.
o The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy and institutions comparable to
modern Indian administration.
o Mauryan Empire has been divided into 3 distinct zones
o Pataliputra was the capital of vast empire
o The empire was probably divided into five provinces:

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o Northern Provinces – Uttrapath: Taxshila
o Southern Provinces – Dakshinapath: Suranagri
o Central Provinces – Magadh: Pataliputra
o Eastern Provinces – Pranchyapath: Toshali
o Western Provinces – Avanti path: Ujjain

 King:
o King was the real head in the Mauryan polity. King wielded legislative, executive,
judicial and military powers.
o In the highly centralized administration, King used to select ministers, high officials and
established a well-planned system of supervision and inspection.
o The Rajan/Nrupa should be highly educated, he should be pure, faithful to his promise,
and wise.
The Duties of King:
o Executive
o Judicial
o Legislative
o Administrative
o Ecclesiastical, Revenue
o Military
o Enlightened

 Mantri Paarishad:
o The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, who were consulted in specific issues such as
emergency.
 The Mantriparishad consist of:
o Yuvaraj: Heir-Apparent
o Purohita: The chief priest
o The senapati: The commander in chief
o Amatya: Civil servants and few other minister
o The Arthashastra declares that sovereignty is possible only with assistance.
o The classical writer refer three important classes of officers.
o Agronomoi – District Official
o Astynomoi – City Commissioners
o Military officers
o The main function of mantrins was to advise the king whereas the scope of the work of
the mantriparisad included the whole administration
o Rock edicts III and VI of Ashoka throw light on the functioning of the council of
ministers.
o According to RC Majumdar: Mantrins, sannidhata, samaharta formed the higher branch
of administration.

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o Next came the lower branch consisting mainly of superintendents of various
departments.
o Mauryan Officers:
o Rajuks/Pradeshiks – charged with welfare of Janapada, Pradeshas or districts.
o Mahamaantris – charged with administrations
Amatyas Secretaries

Mantri CM
Purohita Chief Priest
Senapati Commander-in-chief
Sannidhata Chief Treasury Officer
Samaharta Revenue Collector
Dhamma Mahamatra Created by Ashoka to propagate Dhamma
Lipikars , Prativedics and Yukta Scribes and reporters and Sub-revenue
officer
Pradeshiks District Magistrate
Durgapal Head of fort
Dandapala Police Supretendent

 Municipal administration
o Municipal administration: The Mauryas developed a well organised system of municipal
administration.
o It was divided into several wards, and each ward into several groups of households.
o Nagaraka – Head of the town
o Sthanika – Head of the ward
o Gopa – Head of some villages
o Gramika – Head of a village
o A number of cities such as Pataliputra. Taxila, Ujjain. Toshali, Suvarnagiri, Champa,
Isila, and Kausambi are mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka.
o Megasthenese has described in detail the administration of Pataliputra.
o According to Indica, Patliputra was administered by thirty officials divided into six
committees.
o First committee – Industry and crafts.
o Second committee – it charged with arranging food, comfort, security and residence for
foreigners.
o Third committee – registration of births and deaths.
o Fourth committee – trade and measurement.

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o Fifth committee – inspection of manufactured goods.
o The sixth committee – collect taxes on the goods sold.

 Military administration:
o The most striking feature of Mauryan administration was maintenance of a huge army.
o The army was headed by Senapati, who was immediate junior to the King.
o The army was often led by the king himself.
o According to Pliny, Chandragupta have 6, 00,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 war
elephants besides chariots.
o According to Megasthenes the administration of Army was carried by a board of 30
officers divided into six committees, each committee consisting of 5 members.
 Committee for navy – Headed by navadhyaksha
 Committee for infantry – Headed by Padadhyaksha
 Committee for cavalry – Headed by Ashvadhyaksha
 Committee for elephantary – Hastyadhyaksha
 Committee for chariots – Rathadhyaksha
 Committee for transport
o There was a separate department to look after the production and maintenance of a
variety of armaments whose chief was known as ayudhagaradhyaksha.
o Spies or secret agents were an important part of administration.
o According to the Arthashastra, there were two types of spies sanstha (posted in certain
places) and sanchara (used totravel to different places).

 Maurya Judiciary:
o The Mauryas developed a system of courts from local level to the Central level.
o Arthshastra refers to the existence of two kinds of courts Dharmasthiyas, which is
dealing with civil matters and Kantakasodhanas, which are dealing criminal cases.
o Arthshastra mentions about the four sources of law.
o They are dharma (sacred law), vyavahara (Usage), charitam (customs and precedents)
and rajasasana (royal proclamations).

 Taxation System:
o The Mauryas had developed a gigantic administrative and military set-up and to support
and maintain this administrative and military structure they developed a very extensive
and complex system of taxation.
o Taxes were of two kinds viz. Bali & Bhaga.
o The Bhaga was the king’s share of the produce of the soil which was normally fixed at
1/6th, though in special cases it was raised to 1/4th or reduced to 1/8th.
o The taxation system was mentioned in Rummindei inscription, Indica and Arthasashtra

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 Economy:
o Sitadhyaksha was the chief of the Agriculture department.
o R S Sharma mentioned that the whole Basin of Ganga was used for cultivation.
o In the fertile Gangetic plain a variety of taxes are mentioned such as bali, bhaga, shulka,
Kara, etc. Megasthenes states that one-quarter of the produce had to be paid as tax.
o The advanced agricultural technologies also mentioned in Arthashastra.
o The state provide facility of irrigation and water supply.
o Sudarshna Lake – Girnar
o Cotton fabrics were made at Madhura, Aparanta, Kalinga, Kashi, Vanga, Vatsa and
Mahisa. Vanga (East Bengal), Pundra (West Bengal) and Suvarnakudya (in Assam) was
famous for white and soft textile dukula, Kashi and Pundra were noted for linen fabrics,
kshauma, and Magadha was famous for patroma, a fabric made from trees.
o Megasthenes refers to the artisans and craftsmen as the fourth class in his seven-fold
division of India society.

 Trade:
o Internal and External trade was carried out in Mauryan Era.
o The Jatakas mentioned trade stories of merchants.
o Indigo, cotton and silk was most traded property.
o Magadha, Kausanbi and Pataliputra was main centers of trade.
o Khayber Pass connected to Silk route

 Officer related to trade:

o Panyadhyaksha: Superintendent of commerce
o Samasthadhyaksha: Monitoring malpractices in trade
o Pautvadhyaksha: Superintendent of Measures and
Weights
o Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of Mines
o Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of Metallurgy
o Lavanyadhyaksha: Salt Suprentendent
o State produced goods known as Rajapanya.
o The use of currency became a fairly common feature of the Maurya period.
o Punch-marked silver coins, which carry the symbols of the peacock, and the hill and
crescent, called karshpana, formed the imperial currency of the Mauryas.

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 Society:
o Megasthenes mentioned in his book Indica that there existed seven castes in India which
included
 Philosophers – Intellectuals, Probably Brahmins and Shramanas
 Councilors – Advisors, Scholars
 Soldiers – Warrior, Commanders
 Herdsmen – Hunter gatherers, Shifting cultivators, Horticulturists
 Artisans – Weavers, Potters, smiths
 Magistates – Officers, Secretaries, administrators
 Cultivators – Farmers
o The above division seems to be economic rather than social.
o The urban way of life developed.
o Magasthenese has stated that slavery did not exist in India.
o Forced labour and bonded labour did exist on a very limited scale but were not treated so
harshly as the slaves in the western world.
o Polygamy – Royals
o Women Enjoys high status
o Offend against women punishable
o Arthasashtra advocates Svayamvar and Widow remarriage
o Prevalence Joint family system

 Questionary:
1. What was the economy of the Mauryan Empire?
2. Discuss in detail: 1. Satang Theory
2. Municipal and Military administration

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Chapter: 10
Maurya Empire Part 3: Dhamma of Ashoka and
Decline of Maurya Empire

 Dhamma of Ashoka and Decline of Mauryan Empire:

o After Kalinga [current coastal Odisha] he gave up war.
o He started to execute Dhamma[prakrit term for Dharma]
o Asoka’s Dhamma did not involve worship of a god, or performance of a sacrifice. He
felt it’s his duty to instruct his subjects through teachings of Budhha.
o He appointed officials, known as the Dhamma mahamatta who went from place to place
teaching people about Dhamma.

The various reasons for the fall of the Mauryan Empire:

 The partition of the Empire
 Highly centralised administration
 Weak monarchs after Ashoka
 Independence of the provinces
 Internal revolt
 Foreign invasions
 Asoka’s policies
 Brahminical reaction

 Ashoka
o Ashoka, the son of Bundusara and Subhdrangi, the last great
Mauyrya emperor.
o He succeeded to the throne in 268-69 BC.

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o Earlier, he was governor of Ujjain and Taxsheela in his father reign.
o He married to vedisa, princes of Ujjain.
o Mahendra, Tivara (the only one mentioned in an inscription), Kunala and Taluka were
prominent among Ashoka’s sons. Two of his daughters Sanghamitra and Charumati
were known.
o In his 9th year of reign, he invaded Kaling, which is mentioned in 13th rock edicts.
o He embraced Buddhism under the Upagupta.
o After Kalinga war, He emphasized bherighosha instead of Yudh Ghosh.

 What is Dhamma?
o The word Dhamma is the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’. The term
‘Dharma’ has been variously translated as piety, moral life, duty, righteousness and
religion.
o Dhamma incorporated a way of life that included a number of ideals and practices.
o Literary Sources:
o Divyadana, Avadana, Manjusri Mulakalpa and
o Puranas contain references to Ashoka and his religious policy.
o Sri Lankan Pali literature, such as Dipvamsa and Mahavamsa mentioned Ashoka
Dhamma Policy.
o 34 lithic records of Ashoka

 Dhamma:
What is Dhamma?
o He questioned himself in 2nd edicts.
o Apasinave bahukayane daya dane sache sachaye.
o It is absence of sin, many good deeds, charity, donation, truthfulness and purity.
o Ashoka declared following acts as ‘Asinvas’
 Irsa – Envy
 Krodha – Anger
 Nithuliya – Cruelty
 Chandiya – Fury
 Mane – Pride
o He believed in non-violence, he talks about non violence in 3rd, 4th, 11th rock edicts.
o Many hundred thousands of living beings were formerly slaughtered everyday in the
kitchen of Priyadarshi, but now only two peacocks and one deer are killed.
o He expressed in his 7th rock edicts that, the Royal patronage was not limited to any
particular sect.

 Dhamma Vijaya:
o Dhamma vijaya was an important aspect of Ashoka's activities.
o Dhamma vijaya is conquest by piety in place of the earlier conquest by military might.

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o He appointed Dhamma Mahapatra for Dhama Vijaya
o He adopted Dhamma as State Ideology.
o He declared that "all men and my children" and "whatever exertion I make, I strive only
to discharge debt that I owe to all living creatures."
o He organized 3rd Buddhist Council, he sent Buddhist monk to Sri Lanka, Burma, Central
Asia and China.
o He used his enormous wealth for Buddhism and subjects. He gave necessary things to
about 60000 Bhikkus. He built 84000 pagodas or viharas forbhikkus. He gave up
viharjatra but took Darmajatra.
o The Dhamma of Ashoka was thus a practical code of socio-religious ethics.

o Ashoka's manifold Dhamma instructions consisted of the virtues of:

 Kindness (daya)
 Generosity (dama)
 Truthfulness (sace),
 Inner and outer purity (sochaye)
 Saintliness (sadhuta)
 Gift of Dhamma (damadiina)
 Gratitude (katajiiutii)
 Purity of heart (bhiivasuddhi)
 Firm devotion(drdhabaktita)
 Attachment to morality (Dammarati)
 Non injury (aksati)
 Equal treatment (samiicaranam)
 Well known in doctrine (bahusuta kalunagane)
 Harmlessness toward all of life(avihisa bhutiim)
 Liberality (diinam)
 Self control (sanyama)
 Purity of heart (bhava suddhi)
 Moderation in spending and saving (apa-vyayatii, apa bhandatii)
 Firm devotion (dadha bhatika)
 Attachment to morality (katamnata),
 Gentleness (madavam)
 High energy (usahena)
 Careful examination (paikhiiya)
 Conduct (sila)
 Obedience (susaya)

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 Edicts of Ashoka:
o Ashoka’s lithic inscriptions are
scattered in more than 33
places.
o The edicts were deciphered by
James Princep.
o Their language is Pali with
provincial modifications. The
script used is Brahmi except in
the north-west where Kharoshti
is used.
o The edicts are divided into:
o Pillar Edicts
o 14 Major Rock Edicts
o Major Rock Inscriptions
o The edicts gave Asoka the
opportunity to expound his
dhamma.
o While different major rock edicts talk about various aspects of the dhamma, the Major
Rock Edict XI contains an elaborate explanation of the dhamma, apart from dealing with
charity and kinship of humanity.

 Pillar Edicts:
o Seven pillar Edicts exists at Allahabad- Kosam, Delhi-Topara, Delhi –Meerut,
Rampurva, Laurya- Araraja, Lauriya – Nandangarh and Nigali – Sagar.
o Minor pillar edicts have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Rummindei, Nigalisagar.
o All the Pillars are monoliths.
o Pillar Edict I: Asoka’s principle of protection to people
o Pillar Edict II: Defines Dhamma as minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion,
liberality, truthfulness and purity
o Pillar Edict III: Abolishes signs of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride etc
o Pillar Edict IV: Deals with duties of Rajukas
o Pillar Edict V: List of animals and birds which should not be killed on some days and
another list of animals which have not to be killed at all occasions. Describes release of
25 prisoners by Asoka.
o Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma Policy
o Pillar Edict VII: Works did by Asoka for Dhamma Policy. He says that all sects desire
both self-control and purity of mind.
 Other Pillars
o Rummindei Pillar Inscription: Asoka's visit to Lumbini & exemption of Lumbini from
tax.

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o Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: It was originally located at Kapilavastu. It mentions that
Asoka increased the height of stupa of Buddha Konakamana to its double size.
 Major Rock Edicts:
o Major Rock edicts have been found at Mansehra (Hazara) , Shahbagarhi (Peshwar) Kalsi
Dehradun, Girnar (Junagarh), Sopara (Thana) , Dhauli (Puri), Jougarh (Ganjam) ,
Iragudo (Kurnool) , Roopnath (Jabalpur) , Bairath ( Jaipur), Sasaram, Gavimatha, Palki
& Gundu (Hyderabad) & Yerragudi.

No of Edicts Teachings

MRE 1 Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive

gathering.
MRE 2 Equal treatment to men and animals
MRE 3 Issued after 12th year of reign, The edict is
generous to Brahmans and Sramanas.
MRE 4 Bheriodhosh is not ideal for human being,
declares Dhammghosh as ideal to human
being
MRE 5 Introduction of Dhamma Mahamatra,
concerns about the policy towards slaves and
masters
MRE 6 Mahamattas are told to make their reports
about the condition of peoples, to the king at
any time and place.
MRE 7 It pleads for toleration amongst all sects.
MRE 8 It mentioned Dhammayatra to Bodhgaya in
his 10th year of reign
MRE9 Condemn ceremonies
MRE 10 It condemns the desires for fame and glory
MRE 11 It elaborates Dhamma and mentions its
spread.
MRE 12 Direct and determined request for tolerance
among different religious sects.

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MRE 13 Most Important for Ashokan history, Victory
of Asoka’s dhamma over Greek Kings,
Antiochus, Ptolemy, Antigonus, Magas,
Alexander and Chola, padya
MRE 14 It mentions the engraving of inscriptions by
Asoka in different parts of the country.

o Minor Rock Edict Carved by the engraver Capada, this edict speaks of Asoka becoming
a more ardent follower of Buddhism.
o The minor rock inscriptions, related to Asoka's faith in Buddhism, include the minor
rock edicts, the Queen's edict, the Barbara cave inscriptions and Kandahar inscriptions.
o The Queen's Edict It mentions Asoka's second queen, the mother of TIvala, Karuvaki.
 Barbara Cave Inscription:
o It mentions Asoka's giving away the Barbara cave to the Ajivika sect in the twelfth year
of the King's consecration.
 Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription:
o Issued ten years after the adoption of Dhamma policy by Asoka, it expresses satisfaction
over the implementation of Asoka's policy.

 Stupa:
o Ashoka was a king who not only emphasised his concepts through inscriptions but also
presented some concepts through monuments and symbols. The stupas were one of the
main monuments, which had been built by king Ashoka in various places of his empire.
o The term stupa (Pali Thupa) means a heap or mound.
o Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang, and Ashovandana mentioned Ashokan
Stupa.
Hiuen-Tsang's records mentioned following stupa in empire:
 Nalanda
 Patliputra
 Rajgriha
 Pushkalavati
 Kahsmir
 Taxsheela
 Kannuj
 Kausambi
 Kapilvastu
 Kaling
 Kosala
 Sanchi
 Lumbini

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 Kushinagar
 Sarnath
 Vaishali
 Gaya

 Disintegration of Maurya:
o The Mauryan Empire was founded by a policy of blood and iron and could only be
maintained by following the same policy.
o Some historians consider Ashoka's nonviolent policy responsible for the fall of the
empire.
o After the Kalinga war, Mauryan army does not involve any armed confrontation.

 Cause of decline:
 Weak Successor of Asoka:
o After the death of Emperor Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire collapsed within five decades.
o Vedic, Buddhist and Jain text give information about seccesor of Ashoka Maurya.
o The quick succession of rulers weakened the imperial control over administration. The
early three kings, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Asoka, had organised the administration
in such a way that it needed strict supervision.
o The empire divided by his sons
o The immediate problem for Asoka's successors was whether to continue his
o Policy of Dhamma and its predominance in the government.

 Vastness of Empire:
o The Maurya Empire was too vast in its extent. While extending to the farthest corners of
the Indian sub-continent it also included territories outside the natural frontiers of India.
o This vastness was itself a source of weakness rather than of strength because of the lack
of communication and proper administration.
o After the death of Ashoka empire divided into western and eastern parts.

 Pacifist policy of Ashoka:

o Some historians have believed that, the Ashoka’s policies of non-violence and pacifism
led to the weakening of the empire.
o The military attitude was also absent from the minds of the people.
o Since he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the
kingdom.
o Government machineries were used to propagate non violence, it was responsible for
military pacifism.

 Centralized administration:
o The nature of the Mauryan State necessitated a king of strong abilities. It was a system
which required the king to be in direct touch with all aspects of the State's functionaries.

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o Highly centralized administration under the Mauryas became a problem with the later
Mauryan kings who were not as efficient administrators as their predecessors.
o Economic Problems
o This theory is given by D Kausambi
o He argued that the State took excessive measurer to increase the taxes on a variety of
things, and the punch-marked coins of this period show evidence of debasement of the
currency.
o Deforestation led the famine and floods.

 Rise of Local politics:

o The great Mauryans were capable for controlling the distance province, because they
have personality, charisma and greatness.
o But after the Ashoka, no single son was capable to ruling the united empire.

 Brahmanical revolt:
o Mahamahopadyay Har Prasad Shastri believed that, the Dhamma policy of Ashoka
resulted in Brahmanical revolt.
o But some historians – R K Mukherjee, H C Raychaudhri, Nilkantha Shastri disagree
with HP Shahstri because there is no adequate ground to believe that Ashoka ill-treated
the Brahmins.
o The Mauryan kings employed Brahmins as high officials.
o Mauryan army Commander Pushyamitra was Brahman.
o Ashoka followed a policy of universal toleration and amity among all the religious sects.
o There is nothing to believe that Ashoka was animated by any anti-Brahminical bias to
any degree.

 Questionary:

1. What are the causes of the downfall of the Maurya Empire?

2. What is the dharma of Ashoka?

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Chapter: 11
Satvahana Empire, Sung, Kanva, Kharavela

 Sunga and Satvahana Period:

o After the death of Ashoka, None of the later Mauryas was efficient to keep vast Magadh
Empire intact.
o Independent kingdoms arose out of the provinces.
o Foreign invasions were occurring in the northwest.
o In the South, the Satavahanas rose to power and in the Gangetic plains, Sunga or Shunga
dynasty replaced the Mauryas.

 Sunga Empire(185 – 78 BC):

o Literary Sources
o Matsya Purana
o Vishnupurana
o Bhagvad Purana
o Harshcharita

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 Pushyamitra Sunga(185 – 151BC):
o According to Mahabhasya and Ashtadhyayi, Sungas were Brahmans from Bhardwaj
family.
o Sunga Dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Sunga.
o He assassinated last Mauryan ruler Brihadrath in 186 BC.
o Pushyamitra captured the throne of Magadha and founded a new dynasty known as the
Sunga Dynasty.
o Capital of Shunga Dynasty Was Pataliputra and its major centers were Ujjain, Mathura,
Saket, Sanchi, and Kapilavastu. Vidisha was capital of later Shunga rulers.
o His empire extended up to Punjab in north west, Bengal in the east, Narmada in the
south and some parts of northern Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh.
o He conquered Vidarbha and also he repulsed two Greek invasion led by Demetrious and
Menander.
o He also repulsed Kalings’s Kharvel.
o He is also known to have performed an Asvamedha Yagna.
o Patanjali a contemporary to Pushyamitra Sunga.
o He re-established Sanskrit Grandeur and Vedic practices.
o Ayodhya Inscription of Dhandeva mentioned that, the Pushyamitra Sunga performed
two Ashvamegh Yagya.
o He was succeeded by his son Agnumitra.

 Agnimitra:
o Earlier he was viceroy of Vidisa.
o He was the hero of Malvikaganimithram of Kalidasa.
o Vasumitra fought war with Yavanas on the southern bank of Sindhu River is mentioned
in Malvikagnmitra.
o Bhagbhadra received ambassador from Greek King Antialcidas
o Devbhuti was the last king of Sunga dynasty.

 Contribution of Sunga period in Indian History:

o Sungas were immediate successors of Maurya in North India.
o They rules for 112 years.
o Resurrection of Vedic religion.
o Renovation of Sanchi and Bharhut Stupa.
o The Sungas patronised art and architecture.
o The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time.
o Patanjali composed Mahabhashya in this period.

 Kanva dynasty:
o Kanva or Kanvayan dynasty was Founded by Vasudev Kanva.
o Mentioned that, the “Vasudeva will be king, 9 years. His son Bhumiraitra will reign 14
years. His son Narayana will reign 12 years. His son Susarman will reign 10 years.
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These are remembered as the Surigabhritya Kanvayana kings. These four Kanva
Brahmanas will enjoy the earth. They will be righteous. In succession to them the earth
will pass to the Andhras”.
o He assassinated last Sunga king Devbhuti.
o At Vasudeva Kanva’s acession, Sunga empire was finished in north west India.
o Greek controlled Punjab region.
o Gangatic plains was divided into many small kingdoms.
o Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulesr:
o Vasudeva
o Bhumiputra
o Vishnu Narayan
o Sushrma
o The last ruler Sushrma was defeated by First Satvahan king Simukha.

 Kharvela of Kalinga (209 – 169 BC):

o The Kalinga was ruled by Mahameghvarman dynasty which was ruled 250 BC to 400
AD in present day Odisha region.
o Kharvela was the most powerful ruler of Kalinga.
o Kharvela believed that, he was belonged to epic time Chedi dynasty.
o He was follower of Jainism.
o Kharvela described himself as “the worshiper of all religious order and the restorer of
shrines of all gods.”
o After the decline of Mauryas, Kalinga rose to power around 1st century BC in the area of
modern Odisha.
o Hathigumpha inscription is the main source of his reign.
o He led successful military campaign against Magadha and Satvahanas.
o The Kalinga Kingdom was expanded till Ganga to Kaveri from north to south by
Kharvela.

 Hathigumpha inscription:
o The Hathigumpha, on the southern side of Udaygiri was inscribed by Kharvela in 2nd
century BC.
o It consists of seventeen line in Brahmi letters.
o The inscription is starts with Jain Namokar Mantra.
o Inscription described Kharvela as religious tolerant and benevolent king.
o 1st year: he repaired gate, rampart and structure of Kalinga Nagri.
o 2nd year: he sent to Asikanagara with that troop that marched up to the river
Kanhavemna.
o 5th year: he extended a canal built by Magadha rulers.

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o 12th year: he attacked Uttrapath and brought back holy idols of Jain Gods.
o 13th year: he attacked Magadha and defeated “Briahaspatimitra” or Probably
Pushyamitra.

 Satvahana Empire:
o Satvahana Empire was arose on the ruins of
Maurya Empire in south central part in 1st century
BC.
o The rise of the Satavahanas Empire in south-
central India provided much-needed peace and
stability to the land.
o The Satvahana are mentioned in Puranas as
Andhra.
o According to Bhagvat, Matsya, Vishnu and Vayu
listed 30 ruler of this dynasty.
o The Purana referred them only as Andhra.
o But, the Satvahana inscription referred them as only Satvahana
o Satavahanas dynasty ruled from Pune in Maharashtra to Coastal Andhra Pradesh in the
second century BC onwards.
o They have been mentioned as Satavahanas, Satakarnas, Andhra and Andhrabhrityas in
the Puranas and Coins.
o The Aitraya Brahman described them as sons of Visvamitra.

 Simuka:
o The founder of Satvahana empire was Sumika.
o He captured all present day Maharashtra and Malwa.
o He was succeeded by Kanha.

 Kanha:
o He was mention as Kanha raja in Nasik cave inscription.

 Satkarni:
o He was the first powerful ruler of Satvahana.
o He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharvela.
o Nanaghat Inscription was belongs to him.
o Sanchi inscription referred him as ‘Rajan Sri Satkarni’.
o He performed two Ashvamegh and one Rajasuya.
o He known as Dakshinadhipati(Lord of dakshinapath)

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 Hala:
o Hala was known for compilation of ‘Gatha Saptashati’.
o During the reign of the Western Satrap Nahapana, the Satavahanas lost a considerable
territory to the satraps, including eastern Malwa, Southern Gujarat, and Northern
Konkan, from Broach to Sopara and the Nasik and Pune.
o Coins and inscription of Nahapana have been found around Nasik.
o The 1st century CE saw another incursion of the Sakas of Central Asia into India, where
they formed the dynasty of the Western Kshatrapas.
o The four immediate successors of Hala had short reigns totaling about a dozen years.

 Gautamiputra Satkarni:
o The lost power of Satavahana was revived by Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described as
the destroyer of the Shaka, Paha lava and Yavana Power.
o He was the first king bearing matronym
o He assumed the title of Sakayavana pallavnisudan and Trisamudrapibatohayavhana.
o He was succeeded by his son Vashisthiputra Sri Pulamavi.
o His empire extended from Malwa in the north Karnataka in the South and Andhra and
Maharashtra.
o Gautamiputra was the first Satavahana ruler to issue the portrait-type coinage, in a style
derived from the Western Satraps.
o The lost power of Satavahana was revived by Gautamiputra Satkarni who is described as
the destroyer of the Shaka, Paha lava and Yavana Power.
o His achievement has been described in Nashik prashasti (eulogy) inscription of his
mother Gautami Balashri, which credits him with extensive military conquests.
o He overthrew the Sakas, Yavanas, and the Pahlavas; destroyed the Ksaharatas; and re-
established the glory of the Satavahana.

 Vashisthiputra pilamavi:
o He has been rightly identified with Siropolemaiou, whom Ptolemy calls king of Baithan
or Paithan (Pratisthna), which may have been the capital of the later Satavahanas.

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o He extended the power of Satvahanas to further south and it was now extended up to
Bellary district of Modern Karnataka.
o He was the contemporary of Chastana.

 Vashisthiputra Satkarni:
o He married to daughter of Mahakshtrap Rudradaman I.
o According to Junagadh Rock inscription, he was defeated twice by Rudradaman I.

 Yagnashri Satkarni:
o He was considered to be the last great king of Satvahana dynasty.
o The Satavahanas Empire collapse when Abhiras seized Maharshtra and Ikshvakus and
Pallavas appropriated the eastern province. Their greatest competitors were the Sakas
who had established their power upper Deccan and Western India.

 Administration:
o The administration was carried out according directive of Dharmashtras.
o Satavahanas administration was simple and inspired by the Mauryas.
o The King was the protector of the religion and had divine attributes. He possessed the
qualities of ancient Gods.
o There we several officials to help the king.
o The Satvahana had three feudatories.
 Raja
 Mahabhoja
o The most important were ‘Senapati, ‘Mahabhoja’, ‘Koshadhyaksha’, ‘Rajadoot,
‘Amatya’ etc.
o The king himself led his armies in the battle-field and was commander-in-chief of his
forces.
o The Kingdom was divided into the Janpadas and subdivided into Aharas.
o The ruler of each Ahara was an Amatya.
o Ahara was divided into Grama which was under the headmen called Gamika.
o Two feudatories Mahasenapati and Mahataravalara were created in the Satavahana
Dynasty.
o Uparakshita’ who was charged with the duty of building cave.
o The Satavahana started the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahman and
Buddhist monk.

 Society and religion:

o The Satavahana society was divided into classes.
o This division was based on economic activity and status.
o The first class consisted of high officials and feudatory chief who ruled over provinces
and districts.

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o The second class included petty officers like Amatyas Mahamatras and wealthy traders.
o In the third class were the middle class peoples such as Vaidyas or physicians, writers,
peasants, goldsmiths, perfumers etc.
o The fourth and the last class were constituted of the lowest vocations such as carpenters,
blacksmiths, fishermen and gardeners.
o Women were honoured. They were given higher education and they took part in
religious functions. Some of the rulers even added their mother’s name to their own
name, such as Gautamiputra, Vashisthiputra, Pulumavi, Kaushakiputra etc.
o The Satavahana rulers are also remarkable for their contributions to Buddhist art and
architecture.
o They built great stupas in the Krishna River Valley, including the stupa at Amaravati and
Nagarjunkonda.
o The stupas were decorated in marble slabs and sculpted with scenes from the life of the
Buddha, portrayed in a characteristic slim and elegant style.
o The Nanaghat inscription refers to other gods like Dharma, Indra, and guardians of the
four quarters Yama, Varuna, Kubera, and Vasava.
o Karle Chaitya was famous, it is 40 meters long, 15 meters wide and 15 metres high. It
has rows of 15 columns on each side.
o Satvahanas ruler claimed to be Brahmanas.
o The worship of Siva and Krishna was popular.

 Questionary:

1. Discuss in detail: Pushyamitra Sunga, Hathigumpha inscription.

2. Describe the Society and Economic and Religious Conditions during the Rule
of Satavahana Dynasty.

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Chapter: 12
Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Kushanas, Western
Kshatrapas

 Post Maurya Period in NW India:

o The most important political developments of the Post-Maurya period was the onslaught
of foreigners from the north-west.
o The first among them were the Bactrian Greeks, known in earlier Indian literature as
Yavanas; the word was derived from the Old Persian from Yauna, signifying originally
Ionian Greeks but later all people of Greek nationality.

 Indo Greek:
o They were known as Yavanas in Sanskrit and Yonas in Prakrit, in the Indian Literature.
o The term “Indo-Greek” is generally used because these kingdoms were almost always
separated from Bactria and thus differed politically from the Greco-Bactrian kingdom.
o They were rulers of Bactria, Bactria, situated between the Hindu Kush and the Oxus was
a fertile region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West.
o The Greeks of Bactria were originally Satraps of the Selucids Empire in West Asia.
o Diodotus I revolted against Selucids and established independent kingdom.
o Bactrian kings who conquered and ruled over territory of India were called Indo – Greek
rulers.
o The Greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when Persian emperors
settled the Greek exiles in that area.

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o For nearly 150 years, the Indo-Greeks ruled North-Western India mainly under two
different branches, the house of Euthydemus and the house of Eukratides.
o Antiochus II, who was a king of the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom, marched towards
India and defeated the India king Subhagsena is Kabul in around 206 BC.

o Demetrius I, son of Euthaydemus I, was the first Graeco-Bactrian king to have invaded
India proper.
o He sent Appolodotus & Menander for further conquest.
o Appolodotus conquered Sindh and marched up to Ujjain.
o Menander extended his rule up to Mathura and from there attempted to capture
Patliputra, but was stopped by Vasumitra.
o His coins bear legends in Greek and Prakrit written in Greek and Kharoshthi
script.(Heracles)
o His capital was Sakal or Sialkot in modern day Pakistan.
o Many Indo – Greek kings were influenced by Buddhism.

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o Demetrius was succeeded by Menander.
o Menander was also known as Minendra or Malinda in Pali literature. He was the most
famous ruler of Indo Greeks.
o According to Strabo, the conquest in India by the Bactrian Greeks was achieved mostly
by Menander.
o He probably advanced beyond the hypanis (Beas) as far as the river Imaus or Isamos,
usually identified as the Yamuna.
o His kingdom was extended from Kabul to Mathura.
o He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
o In the “Milindapanho” dialogues between the Meander II and Nagasena have been
recorded.
o His coins have been engraved with “Dhammachakra”.
o Antialcidas belonged to Eucratides, he sent his ambassador Heliodorus to the court of
Bhagbhadra.
o He built Besnagar pillar near Bhilsa, which was devoted to Vasudeva.
o The last known Greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the former defeated by
moga and the latter by khadphisus.

 Indo Scythians:
o In 1st century BC Greek rule in
Gandhara was supplanted by the
Sakas.
o Sakas are mentioned in the
Ramayana, Mahabharata and
Mahabhashya along with Yavanas.
o They were also mentioned
Harivamsa purana, maekandeva
purana, kalakachryakathanka
prashasti of Samudragupta and
Mathura lion inscription.
o They were nomadic tribe originally
lived in Central Asia.
o The earliest Saka kingdom was
established by in a region of the
extreme north-western section of
the Indian subcontinent, which
included Darel and Swat on the Indus and also Gilgit and the Chilas area. The area was
then known as a part of Chi-pin.
o A dated copper plate inscription found at Taxila, capital of Maues mentions the
enshrining of some relics of Sakyamuni Buddha in a Stupa and the construction of a
Sangharama by one Patika.

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o He was succeeded by Azes I
o The first known Saka ruler Moga or Maues.
o Maues probably conquered Gandhara to the west of the Indus from the Indo-Greek ruler,
Artemidorus.
o Unlike the Greeke rulers, Sakas style themselves on their coins Basileus Basileon,
corresponding to the Prakrit on the reverse Maharaja Rajarajasa.
o He conquered Gandhara and the Sind Sagar Doab including Taxila.
o Azes-I annexed the territory of the last Indo-Greek Hippostratos after a long resistance.
o Numismatic evidence suggests that Maues ruled over territories from eastern
Afghanistan to Gandhara.
o His capital was “Sirkap” and he issued a large number of copper coins and few silver
coins.
o Bimaran casket was found in Jalalabad, it containing coins of Azes II.
o The Sakas divided into five branches, which was known as Kshatrapas or
Mahakshtrapas.

 Parthians:
o Gondophernis was the most powerful ruler of Parthian lines.
o The name of Gondophernes is associated with the Christian apostle St. Thomas who,
according to Christian tradition visited the Court of Gondophernes for the propagation of
Christianity.
o The Saka domination in north west India was followed by Parthians.
o They were an Iranian people, who lived Sakas.
o In Sanskrit texts, the two peoples were mentioned as Saka-Pahalvas
o After the Gondophares, The Indo-Parthian rule in India ended and soon Kushanas
overpowered them.
o The first known ruler was Venomous, who rules in Archosia and Seistan.

 Western Kshatrapas:
o The title Kshtrapas mentioned in Bahistan inscription.
o There were two important branches of Western Kshtrapas.
 Kshaharatas
 Kardamakas

o Bhumaka was a Kshatrapas of Kathiawar, he and his son Nahapana were responsible for
extension of Saka power.
o They occupied Western Deccan, North Maharashtra, Malwa and Kathiawar.
o Eight Cave Inscriptions discovered at Pandulena, near Nasik, Junnar and Karle prove the
inclusion of a considerable portion of Maharashtra in his dominions.
o The known members of the Kshaharata, Khaharata, or Chaharata, family are Ghataka,
Bhumaka and Nahapana.
o Ghataka belongs to Mathura region.
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o The Saka – Kshatrapas were involved in prolonged conflict with the Satavahana
Dynasty.
o According to Nasik inscription and Jogalthembi hoard, Nahapana was badely defeated
by Gautamiputra Satkarni, who annexed southern provinces of Kshatrapas territory.
o Nahapana himself was overthrown by Gautamiputra is proved by the testimony of the
Jogaltembhi hoard which consisted of Nahapana's own coins and coins restruck by
Gautamiputra.
o After the death of Nahapana, the Kshatrapas were succeeded by Kardamakas.
o Chastana was the founder of Kardamakas dynasty.

 Rudradaman I(130 – 150):

o Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit. Although a foreigner settled in India, he
issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
o Rudradaman I was succeeded by seven rulers.
o Most famous Saka ruler was Rudradaman.
o He represents himself as a Mahakshtrapas.’
o The Junagarh rock inscription says that he was chosen as a protector by all castes and
thus adopted the “Mahakshtrapas” title.
o He twice defeated Satvahana king “Saatkarni” for two times.
o Rudradaman conquered Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat, Konkan end Yaudheyas .
o He repairs the Sudarsan lake in Junagadh, which was built by Maurya emperor Ashoka.
o The last known ruler Rudrasimha III, who ruled upto A.D. 388, has been mentioned in
Bana’s Harshacharita as having been killed by the Gupta monarch, Chandragupta II.
o The Guptas then annexed the Saka territories.

 Kushanas:
o According to Hou Han-Shu, he conquered and occupied Kabul (Kao-fu), western Bactria
(P’uta), Kashmir and certain other parts o f north-western part of Indian subcontinent.
o He was succeeded by his son Vim Kadphisis.
o He annexed whole territory of North West India as far as Mathura.
o The Kushan or Kushano o f the epigraphical and numismatic sources of India and
Central Asia, and Kuei-shauang o f the Chinese sources was the name of a tribe which
together with other tribes formed a tribal confederacy of rather mixed origin.
o This tribal confederacy is known as the Yueh – chi in Chinese sources.
o The Kushanas were a branch of Yueh-chi tribe of Central Asia.
o Vima issued gold coins which show a considerable Indian influence, unlike those of his
father which included copper imitations of Roman denarii.
o Vima Kadphises was one of the few early foreign rulers who became a zealous adherent
of an Indian creed.
o He converted to Shaivism and proclaimed himself as Maheshwara on his coins.
o Kadphises II was succeeded by Kanishka in 78 A.D. as the third king of the Kushana

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dynasty. He was the greatest of the Kushana Emperors of India.
o The Kushanas were one of the five tribes in which the Yuechi tribe was divided.
o Kujul Kadphisis was the founder of this dynasty.

 Kanishka: (78 – 120 CE)

o At the time of his accession to the throne, the Kushana Empire included within its
boundaries such territories as Afghanistan, a large part of Sindh, the Punjab, portions of
Parthia, and Bactria.
o He conqured Kashmir and founded a new town, Kanishkapur.
o He convoked the last great Buddhist council in Kundalvan, Kashmir, chaired by
Vasumitra, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized.
o The scholars who resided in Kanishka’s court were Vasumitra, Asvaghosa, Nagarjun,
Charaka and Parsva.
o He built many Buddhist monasteries and repaired many old ones.
o He fought against the Chinese and annexed the territories of Khotan, Yarkand and
Kashgar.
o The kanishka empire was extending from Gandhara in the west to Banaras in the East, in
the East, and from Kashmir in the North Malwa in the South.
o He started Saka era in 78 CE.
o Numismatic evidence shows that he actually became a convert to Buddhism.
o It was during Kanishka’s reign that Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and
Hinayana.
o Saurashtra, Malwa and Rajasthan formed part of his dominion.
o The capital of Kanishka was at Purushapura (modern Peshawar).

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o Ashvaghosa – Buddhacharita
o Nagarjuna – Madhyamika Sutra
o Vasumitra – Mahavibhasa Sastra
o Charaka – Charaka Samhita

 Successor of Kanishka:
o Vashiska
o Huvishka
o Last great ruler was Vasudeva

 Impact:
o They issued large number of Gold coins.
o They settled in India and completely identified themselves with our culture.
o They patronized and cultivated Sanskrit literature
o They introduced Satrap system.
o The coming of foreign established contacts between India to China and India to Central
Asia.
o As a result India received gold from Altai mountains from Central Asia and from Rome
through trade.
o Some foreign rulers converted to Vaishnavism.
o Kanishka – Buddhism and Shaivism
o Menander – Buddhism
o Vasudeva – Vaishnavism
o Greek introduced Hellenistic art in the North West India.
o Kushana gave rise to several schools of art:
o Gandhara School of art
o Mathura School of art
o They ultimately lost their identity in India.

 Questionary:

1. When did the Scythians live?

2. Why was the Kushan Empire important?

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Chapter: 13
Gupta Period Part 1:
Foundation, Samudragupta, Chandragupta
Vikramaditya, Kumargupta, Skandgupta

o The Gupta Empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, was an ancient Indian realm that
covered much of the Indian Subcontinent from approximately 320-550 CE.
o Gupta rule, while solidified by territorial expansion through war, began a period of peace
and prosperity marked by advancements in science, technology, engineering, art,
dialectics, literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.

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 The Gupta Empire:
 Introduction:
o The Gupta Empire was believed to be a dynasty of the
Vaishya caste, the third of the four Hindu castes
representing merchants and farmers. Founded by Sri
Gupta c. 240-280 CE, there are contradictory theories
regarding the original homeland of the Guptas.
o India divided into foreign kingdoms and indigenous
smaller kingdoms.
o Satvahana dominated South India
o Sunga and later dynasty controlled Magadha and
central India
o North West territory was controlled by Greeks, Sakas, Kshtrapas
o North India dominated by Kushana
o After the decline of the Maurya Empire, India witnessed many foreign invasions as well
as internal political turmoil.
o Eclipse of these rulers ushered political disintegration and paved the
o way for the rise of several minor kingdoms
o In the beginning of 4th century AD no large state structure exists in India.
o Guptas laid foundation in this political separation

 Sources:
 Literary Sources:
 Puranas:
o VayuPurana
o Matsya Purana
o Bhagvat Purana
o SkandaPurana
o MarkandeyaPurana
 Vishakhdutta: Devi Chandragupta and Mudrarakshasha
 Kalidasa: Abhignanshakuntalamand Meghaduta
 Sudraka: Mrichchkatikam

 Chinese Travelogue:
o Fa – Hien
o Hiuen Tsang
o I – Tsing

 Inscription:
o Allahabad (Prayag) stone pillar inscription of Samudragupta
o Mehrauli iron inscription
o Junagadh rock inscription of Skandgupta

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 Coins:
o Gupta coins throw light on general and numismatic history.
 Monuments:
o Monuments are source of artistic and religious history

 Significance of Gupta empire:

o Sanskrit poetry, drama and art grew in importance, resulting in the Gupta period to be
known as the classical age of Indian culture and arts.
o Substantial changes in social and economic development.
o The Gupta period marks the important phase in the history of ancient India.
o The long and efficient rule of the Guptas made a huge impact on the political, social and
cultural sphere.
o This period is known as “Goldan Age of India” or “Classical Age of India”.
o Major scientific advances were realized in the fields of astronomy, engineering and
mathematics.
o The Gupta age is marked by startling development:
o Emancipation of India from foreign rule
o Political unification of North India
o Revaival of Hinduism and Vedic culture
o The decimal system of numerals, which included the concept of zero, was developed.
Later, Arab traders adopted this revolutionary concept and passed this mathematical
system to the Europeans.

 Origin and Foundation:

 Origin:
o The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally
given rise to various speculations.
o Traces of Gupta rule in Magadha are found as the 2nd century AD.
o Chinese traveler mentioned Sri Gupta as Che-Li-Ki-To, he built temple near
Mrigakshvana.

 Gatotkacha:
o The names of Sri Gupta's immediate successors are not known.
o The earliest name of the Gupta family of Magadha which appears in inscriptions is that
of Maharaja Gupta who was succeeded by his son Maharaja Ghatotkacha.
o Sri Gupta and Gatotkacha adopted title ‘Maharaja’.

 Chandragupta I (320 – 335):

o Chandragupta I was the first independent sovereign, who ascended the throne in 320 A.
D. the initial date of the Gupta Era.
o He adopted title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’, he was the first powerful ruler of his family who
extended its power and prestige to a considerable extent.

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o According to Purana, ‘the king born of the Gupta family will rule over the Janapadas
situated along the Ganga such as Prayag, Saketa and Magadha.
o But there is no evidence of his conquest of above mentioned Janapadas.
o Kaumudi Mahaotsava thrown light on his conquest of Magadha.
o Like his great fore-runner Bimbisara he strengthened his position by a matrimonial
alliance with the Lichchhavis of Vaisali, and laid the foundations of the Second
Magadhan Empire.
o The union of Chandra Gupta I with the Lichchhavi family is commemorated by a series
of coins having on the obverse standing figures of Chandra Gupta and his queen, the
Lichchhavi Princess Kumaradevi, and on the reverse a figure of Lakshmi with the legend
“Lichchhavayah”, probably signifying that the prosperity of Chandra Gupta was due to
his Lichchhavi alliance.
o He was succeeded by his son Samudragupta.

 Samudragupta (335 – 380 ):

 Samudragupta Parakramank:
o He referred himself as ‘Lichchavi Dauhitra’.
o He was greatest king of his dynasty, as well as
one of the greatest of ancient India.
o It is clear from the Allahabad prasasti and from
the epithet Tatparigrihita applied to Samudra
Gupta in other inscriptions that the prince was
selected from among his sons by Chandra Gupta
I as best fitted to succeed him.
o He also mentioned in ‘Arya Manjusri Mulkalpa’
and Javanese text Tantrikamandaka.
o Chinese text mentioned that, the king of Ceylon
sent his ambassador to Samudragupta’s court.
o Most detailed and authenticate record of
Samudragupta’s reign is preserved in Prayag
Prashashti (Allahabad inscription).

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 Achievements:
o His achievements, successes and 39 victories are mentioned by his court poet
“Harisena”.
o He wrote a long inscription engraved in Allahabad in Sanskrit on the Ashoka Pillar
known as “Prayag Prashasti”
o Two types of rule were prevalent. Direct rule in Bengal, Bihar, U.P., and parts M.P. and
indirect rule.
o After defeating the kings he returned the kingdom to them on conditions of 1) Tribute, 2)
personal appearance in court of Samudragupta and 3) had to marry their daughters with
him.

 His military campaign:

 First in Uttrapath or Aryavrat:
o According to Allahabad inscription he defeated 9 kings in his northern campaigns and
annexed them into his empire. He called it as “Digvijaya”.
o The nine kings of Aryavarta defeated by him were Nandin, Balavarman, Nagasena,
Rudradeva, Chandravarman, Mathila, Gangapathinaga, Nagadatta and Achyuta.

 Forest conquest:
o Samudragupta conquered the Atvika Rajya (forest kingdoms) of Jabalpur, Reva, Nagpur
and Bundelkhand in the Vindhya region.

 Dakshinapath:
o He adopted Dharmavijaya policy of Chankya in his south campaign.
o His conquest in south India are marked by three main featues:
o Capture the enemy – Grahana
o Liberate him – Moksha
o Favoring him by reinstating him in his Kingdom – Anugraha
o He defeated the Twelve Kings of South India.
o These kings became his vassals and they accepted to pay tributes.
o Mahendra of Kosala
o Vyagraraja of Mahakantara
o Mantharaja of Kowrala
o Mahendra of Pistapura
o Swamydatta of Kottura
o Damana of Yarandapalli
o Vishnugopa of Kanchi
o Hastivarman of Vengi
o Neelaraja of Avamukta
o Ugrasena of Palakkad
o Kubera of Devarashtra
o Dhananjaya of Kustalapura

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 Conquest of Border state:
o The boundary states conquered by Samudragupta were Kamarupa in Assam, Samatata in
Bengal, Kartripura in Punjab and Rohilkhand and Nepal.
o After these conquests, Samudragupta performed “Ashwamedha sacrifice” to
commemorate his victory.
o He took the title “Ashwamedha Parakrama”.
o He issued gold coins with the figure of horse on them.
o They were on among the eight types of gold coins issued by him.
o The Standard Type, the Archer Type, the Battle Axe Type, the Ashvamedha Type, the
Tiger Slayer Type, the King and Queen Type, and the Lyre Player Type.
o The rich variety of gold coins of Samudragupta not only marks the height of ancient
technical skill in the art of coinage but also exhibits the prosperity of the empire.
o He was successful in creating a vast empire under his direct control, which extended
from Jamuna and Chambal in the west to Brahmaputra in the east and Himalaya foothills
in the north to Narmada River in the south.
o Briliant as a general and as statesman, Samudragupta possessed many qualifications
which are more suited to a life of peaceful persuits.
o Samudragupta had great attachment to art literature and learning.
o He composed many poems in Sanskrit and earned the title of Kaviraj
o He was a patron of Buddhist philosopher and author Vasubandhu.
o He was follower of Vaishnavism, besides tolerant towards other creeds
o He was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II, born to Dutt devi.

 Chandragupta Vikramaditya (380 – 415):

o The Mathura stone inscriptions mention Chandragupta-II as Samudragupta's successor.
o The Gupta Empire reached peak of territorial expantion.
o He married to Dhruva Devi, which was mentioned in three Gupta inscription as a mother
of Kumargupta I, and Kubernaga is known as the mother of his Daughter Prabhavati
Gupta.
o The most important external events of the reign were the Emperor's matrimonial alliance
with the Vakataka king Rudrasena II, son of Prithivisena I, and the war with the Saka
Satraps which added Malwa and Surashtra to the Gupta dominions.
o Mehrauli iron pillar throws some light about the conquests of Vikramaditya.
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o The most important event of his reign is his conquest of Western Malwa and Saurashtra,
which were under the rule of Saka Kshtrapa.
o He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom.
o After this victory the Gupta empire was extended towards Malwa, Gujarat, Saurastra or
Kathiawar region which opened a new avenue for useful contract with the Western
World.
o With the conquest of Western India, Chandragupta II made the ancient city of Ujjain as
second capital or political headquarters.
o He perfomed Ashvamegha Yagna and assumed the titles Sakari and Vikramaditya.
o According to Mahrauli pillar inscription, king Chandra conquered Vanga(Bengal),
crossed the Sindhu and defeated the confederacy of Vahlikas(Balkha).
o He carried his father’s policy of unification of Aryavart.
o He also expelled Kushanas from Mathura.
With this Gupta empire extended to:
o West – Malwa and Gujarat
o North West – Hindukush up to Bactria
o East – Bengal
o South – Narmada
o Chinese pilgrim Fa – Hien visited India during the reign of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
o He spent three years in Patliputra, out of his nine year stay in India.
o Chandragupta Vikramaditya was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine
gems or Navratna adorned his court.

 Kalidasa:
 Abhignansakuntalam: Story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala
 Malavikagnimitram: love story of King Agnimitra with Malavika,
 Vikramorvasiyam: love story of King Pururavas and celestial fairy Urvashi Raghuvams
Kumarasambhava.
 Vetala Bhatta: Nitradipa
 Varahamihira: Astronomer, Astrologer and Mathematician.
He is famously known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika, a book on mathematical
astronomy. His other important contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the
Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and other subjects of human interest.
 Vararuchi: His reign witnessed pinnacle of power and prosperity. He was succeeded by
his son Kumargupta.
 Amarasimha: Amarkosh, It is also known as Namalinganushasana.
 Dhanvantari: Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the world’s first surgeons and medical
practitioner from Gupta era. He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda.
He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine. Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta
Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari. He is also credited for the discovery of the
antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt. Dhanvantari is

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considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.
 Kshapanak: Jyotishshashtra
 Shanku: Silpashstra Ghatakarpura: scholar and sculpturist

 Kumar Gupta Mahendraditya(415 - 455):

o He maintained his hold over vast empire.
o The earliest known inscription of his period is from Bilsad.
o The Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription of Kumaragupta's minister mentions his fame
having spread to the four oceans.
o A stone inscription from Mandsor mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole
earth.
o He perfomed Asvamedha sacrifice, his coins founds near Satara.
o He issued several new types of coins, which was devoted to Kartikeya.

o He was known as the founder of Nalanda University.

o In his last days, a people named as Pushyamitras and Huns became a threat to empire.
o The last years of his reign were disturbed by the northern
o Barbarians called Hunas.
o The Hunic danger was averted by his son and crown prince Skandagupta.

 Skandagupta (455 – 467):

o Skanda Gupta assumed the titles of Kramaditya and Vikramaditya.
o It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire,and the gold
coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to that.
o Bhitari inscription is important for the history of Skandagupta as crown prince and

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monarch.
o The Junagarh inscription mentions the restoration of the embankment of Sudarshana
Lake.
o He repulsed the attack of Barbaric Hunas and saved India from foreign clutches.
o R.C. Majumdar rightly remarked of him as a ‘Savior of India’.
o It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and the gold
coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to that.
o In comparison to the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted by
Skandagupta were limited.
o In addition to following the earlier system of weights, he introduced a new, heavier
weight system for gold coins but generally his coins had less gold in them than earlier
coins.
o He was succeeded by his brother Puru Gupta.
Some of the successors of Skandagupta, mentioned in inscriptions, were:
o Budhagupta, Vainyagupta, Bhanagupta, Narasimhagupta Baladitya, Kumargupta-II and
Vishnugupta.
o It is unlikely that all of them ruled over a vast empire, as Chandragupta-II and
Kumargupta-I had done in an earlier period.
o The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D. but by then their power had already
become very insignificant.
o The Gupta Empire was well organized state which achieved the political unification of a
large part of India under the umbrella of its paramount sovereignty, establishing a sphere
of influence which was much wider than that of its direct dominion and administration.

 Questionary:

1. Who were Chandragupta Maurya, Chandra Gupta 1 and Chandra Gupta 2?

2. Why was Samudragupta important?

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Chapter: 14
Gupta Period Part 2:
Administration, Economy and Trade, Society and
Religious life, Science, Art and Culture

 Gupta Administration:
o In contrast to the Maurya rulers, the Gupta kings
adopted pompous titles such as Paramdaivata,
Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka , Prithvipati and
(Damodar copper plate inscription) Parameshvara,
which signify that they ruled over many lesser kings in
their empire.
o In the Mauryan period, the political authority was
concentrated in the hands of the king. But, the Gupta
administration was decentralized in nature. It means
that feudatories i.e. local Kings and smaller chiefs ruled a large part of their empire.
o Markandeya Purana mentioned that, the primary duty of a King was to follow
Rajdharma, which put the duty to protect his subjects foremost.
o The Gupta rulers had set up a systematic administrative machinery.
o Gupta empire has a vast territory, to administrate their vast empire Gupta rulers followed
a middle course between the strict imperial control and full local autonomy
o They continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic administration with
nomenclature that was mostly borrowed or adopted from earlier times.

 Empire:
o The empire comprised of two types of territories:
o The territory directly under control of the Gupta emperors or their home dominion.
o Autonomous feudatory states subjected to allegiance to the paramount king through the
payment of customary tributes and presents.
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 Army:
o The Guptas must have had a big army organisation.
o The numerical strength of the Gupta army is not known.
o Evidently the king maintained a standing army, which was supplemented by the forces
occasionally supplied by his feudatories. Horse chariots receded into the background,
and cavalry came to the fore. Horse archery became an important element in military
tactics.

o The mantri (prime minister) stood at the head of the civil administration.
o The king maintained a close contact with the provincial administration through a class of
officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas.
o Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as
Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from among the princes.
o Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis.
o Nagara Sreshtis were the officers looking after the city administration.
o The villages in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
o Under the Gupta, the Gramika became more important.

 Local administration
o Adhisthandhikarana – municipal board
o Ayadhikarana – district office
o Takuladhikarana – possibly, rural board.
o The full adhisthanadhikarana is said to consist of four members:
o The Nagarasresthi – guild president
o The Sarthavaha – chief merchant
o The Prathamakulika – chief artisan
o The Prathamakayastha – chief scribe

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Officer Function

Mahabaldhikrita Commander – in – chief

Mahadandnayak Chief Justice

Mahapratihar Maintenance of Royal Palace

Bhandagaradhikreta Head of Royal treasury

Vinayasthitisansathapak Head of education department

Dandapashika Police department head

Mahapaksha-patalik Head of account department

Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for all central department

Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry

Mahamahipilapati Controller & executor of elephantry

Official to present different guests at the

Vinayapura
King’s court
Yuktapurusha Office to keep account of war booty

Khadyatpakika Khadyatpakika

Khadyatpakika Officer in charge of Army Stores

Mahanarpati Head of infantry

Mahasandhivigrahak Post-war conciliation

 Society
Contemporary legal texts:
From the Account of Fa – Hien:
o The Gupta emperor credited with the reorganised of Hindu society.
o Many legal text were written during this period, the best-known being the
o Yajnavalkya, the Narada, the Brhaspati and the Katyayana.
o These smrtis provide an ideal representation of society from the Brahmanical point of
view.
o Caste system became rigid
o The Brahmans were given land on a large scale and they claimed many privileges which
are listed in the Narad.

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o The social supremacy of the Brahmans is also reflected in the economy of the period, as
attested by the frequency of tax-free land-grants made to them.
o A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society.
o Untouchability entered in the society, Fa – Hien mentioned that, the Chandalas lives
outside the villages.
o In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during the Gupta period. It had
two branches - Vaishnavism and Saivism. Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites
o Education of a limited kind was permitted to upper- class women but they were not
allowed to participate in public life.
o Pre – Puberty marriage was advocated and strict celibacy was recommended for widows.
o Ganika or Nagarvadhu, the royal courtesan was mentioned in Kamasutra and
Mrichchkatikam (Vasantsenas).
o The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period.
o However, Prabhavati gupta, the daughter of Chandragupta II, managed the affairs of
state for some 20 years.
o Vegetarianism was popular, but meat was also in food for some elite class.

 Economy:
o The Gupta period had witnessed great prosperity, owing to the flourishing trade,
agriculture and industry. Prosperity due to Roman trade. Chandragupta Vikramaditya
had conquered Malwa and Saurashtra, by overthrowing the Saka rulers had established
direct link of the Guptas in India with Roman trade.
o In the subsequent paragraphs a brief discussion on economic condition of India under the
Gupta is attempted.

 Agriculture:
o Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was
usually called Kshetra.
o Southern India was known for black pepper and spices.
o Kalidasa describes agriculture and animal husbandry as the mainstay of the royal
exchequer, since the major portion of revenue came from the land, at one-sixth of the net
produce.
o The Amarakosha, the Sanskrit lexicon belonging to this period, also refers to a large
variety of fruit and vegetables.
o The manufacture of textiles of various kinds was one of the more important industries at
this time.
o Lands not under cultivation were variously called as Khila, Aprahata.
o Sugar cane and wheat were grown in the north-west and rice in Magadha and further
east.
o Silk (Kashuma and Pattvastra), muslin, calico, linen, wool and cotton were produced in
great quantity.

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o Junagarh inscription mentioned that, the Sudarsana Lake was repaired by Parramatta and
his son Chakarpali, governor of Skandgupta for Saurashtra.
o Ghati Yantra also used for the irrigation.

 Industries:
o Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list
many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen
who manufactured them.
o Crafts production covered a very wide range of items.
o Gold may have been obtained from the Byzantine Empire in exchange for Indian
products, although Huan – tsang mentions that it was also produced indigenously in
huge quantities.
o Black polished ware was replaced by an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip.
o There were items of ordinary domestic use like earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets,
metal tools for domestic use and so on; simultaneously a wide variety of luxury items
including jewellery made of gold, silver and precious stones; objects made of ivory; fine
clothes of cotton and silk and other costly items had to be made available to the elite
class and affluent sections of people.

 Guild system:
o Guilds refer to organizations of artisans, and traders, which have high place in the
society.
o In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds were increased and these activities are recorded in
various literature, inscription, clay seals etc.
o The Indore Copper plate inscription mentions about a guild of oilmen.
o The Mandsor Inscription mentions the guild of silk weavers.
o The guild system declined after the Gupta Period
o The guild was the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial
enterprise.
o In ancient history, the glimpses of guild systems are seen in Jatakas Tales.
o There is a mention of Guild of architects in Raghuvamsa.

 Trade:
o The west coast ports served as the link in India’s trade contacts with the Mediterranean
region and Western Asia.
o Trade between northern India and South-East Asia was conducted through the ports of
the east coast.
o Several inland routes connected India with China through Central Asia and Tokharistan
and across the Karakorum Range and Kashmir.
o Some important sea ports of the Gupta period were:
o Brighukachchha
o Khambhat

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o Tamralipti,
o Arikamedu,
o Kaveripattnam,
o Pratishthana,
o Sopara

 Coinage:
o In Indian numismatic, Imperial Gupta coinage occupies a place of great importance.
o They are regular in size and weight and bear figure and name of issuer.
o The Hindu art was remarkably creative in Gupta period.
o Gupta gold coin display superb craftsmanship and are masterpiece of design and
technique.

 Coinage of Samudragupta:
o Standard Type
o Archer Type
o Battle – Axe Type
o Ashvamegh Type
o Tiger Slayer Type
o Lyrist Type

 Coinage of Chandragupta II:

o Standard Type
o Chhatara Type
o Archer Type
o Horsemen Type
o King and Queen Type
o Couch Type
o Lion Slayer Type
o Chakravikrama Type
o Copper Coins
o Silver Coins

 Kumargupta Coinage:
o Standard Type
o Swordsman Type
o Chhatara Type
o Archer Type
o Horsemen Type
o Elephant – Rider Type
o Elephant – Rider and Lion Slayer Type
o Rhinoceros Type
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o Kartikeya Type
o King and Queen Type
o Apratigha Type
o Lyrist Typs
o Lion Slayer Type
o Garuda with out – stretched Wings Type
o Copper Coins
o Silver Coins

 Coinage of Skandaagupta:
o Archer Type
o King and Queen Type
o Chhatra Type
o Horseman Type
o Silver Coinage
o Silver coins of the Guptas were modeled on design of the coins of the rulers whom they
had defeated in the western territories i.e. The Western Kshatrapas
o The first Gupta Gold coin hoard was discovered from
o Kalighat in West Bengal in 1783
o The largest Gupta Gold Coin hoard is the Bayana Hoard
o Some scholars believe that the coins depicting Chandragupta and Kumaradevi were
issued by Samudragupta as commemorative medals or coins commemorating the
marriage of his mother and father
o The term ‘Lichchavayah’ is found engraved on the coins of Chandragupta Kumaradevi
type coins.
o Guptas issued coins in Silver only for their western territory Gupta coins in lead and
copper are very few in number.
o The change in weight standard was introduced during the reign of Skandagupta

 Religious life:
o The Gupta period had witnessed the synthesis of Brahmanical Hinduism with heterodox
creeds. The integration of various heterodox creeds like Saivism, Vaishnavism and
Shakti cult with Brahmanical Hinduism, had marked the culmination of the Gupta
period.
o The Gupta period has been traditionally known as a period of Brahmanical renaissance.
The Gupta Period was marked by great transformation in Hinduism and Buddhism.
o There is no evidence of any persecution of Buddhists during the rule of the Imperial
Gupta.
o Indian speculative philosophy apparently obtained a strong foothold in our theology in
the Gupta period, and finally obtained supremacy for the Vedanta school all over India.
o Gupta rulers themselves were very sophisticated and benevolent.

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o The synthesis of heterodox creeds gave rise to neo-Hinduism or Puranic Hinduism, the
flavour of which is still found in contemporary Hinduism.
o The Vedic form of worship by performance of yajna did not survive much. In order to
make a synthesis with Vedic Hinduism, 'yajna' or sacrifice was retained along with idol
worship. Yajna lost its prominence in the form of image worship.
o The Puranas were rewritten in order to accommodate Siva and Vishnu as the chief Gods.
Not only they were considered the chief Gods, but were also attributed with
extraordinary powers.
o Most of the Vedic Gods passed into oblivion and were replaced by new Gods according
to the concept of neo-Hinduism. Gods like Siva, Vishnu, Kartikeya, and Ganesha who
belonged to the heterodox creeds formerly replaced all the Vedic Gods.
o The rise of Vajryan or Tantric Buddhism seen in Gupta period.
o Buddhism accepted the theory of incarnation of Buddha and thus prepared the way for
assimilation by Hinduism. Jainism however remained much original in its creed.
o One of the interesting features of religious development during the Gupta Period was the
wide prevalence of worship of 'Shakti' or mother goddess.

 Literature:
o The Gupta period had witnessed a brilliant development in the fields of art, architecture,
sculpture and literature.
o Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta were patrons of art and culture.
o The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature.
o Bhasa
o Kalidasa: Kumarasambhava, Raghuvamsa, Meghaduta.
o Shudraka: Mricchaktik Amarsimha, Panini and Varuruchi were prominent Sanskrit
Grammarian.
o On the whole Gupta period was a bright phase of in the history of classical literature.
o Sanskrit was a court language of Guptas.

 Science and technology:

o The Charaka samhita and the Sushruta samhita by Charaka and Susruta were the most
important works of medicine. Their conclusions are presented in the Ashtanga Sangraha
by Vagbhatta I.
o Books on the diseases of animals, particularly horses and elephants, now appeared for
the first time.
o The Vriddha Garga Samhita is the only work on astrology prior to Varahamihira's Brihat
samhita, which is a collection of ancient Indian learning and sciences.
o There was a corresponding development in the field of science.
o Geometry attained great heights and many theorems relating to circles and triangles are
mentioned.
o The treatises of Astanga-sangraha and Astanga-hrdayasamhita were mostly compilations
from earlier texts.
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o The most famous work in mathematics was that of Aryabhatta, the Aryabhattiyam which
was written in 499 A.D. the work deals with arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
o Trigonometry was also being cultivated during this time.
o Indians took the lead over the Greeks as far as mathematics is considered.
o The Surya Siddhanta is the most important and complete astronomical work of the
period.
o Nagarjuna is mentioned as a great chemist. The famous Iron Pillar near the Qutub-Minar
stands as a silent witness to assert the striking metallurgical skill of the Hindus.

 Questionary:

1. What are Samudragupta and Kumargupta? Explain any five types of

Samudragupta Coinage and Kumargupta Coinage.
2. What was religious life in Gupta periods?

Chapter: 15
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Gupta Period Part 3
Disintegration of Gupta Empire, Post Gupta
Period, Vakataka Dynasty

 Post Gupta Period:

o The Gupta empire provided political unity, good administration and economic and
cultural progress to North India. The period, has been rightly regarded as the most
glorious epoch in Indian history.
o The decline of the Gupta dynasty a little after the 5th century A.D. triggered a process
of political fragmentation in the whole subcontinent.
o Feudatories and subjugated powers declared their independence and made way for
emergence of small kingdoms.
o The different ruling dynasties that gained supremacy after the fall of the Gupta power
were the Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, the Maukahris in the Kannauj province, the later
Guptas, the Maitrikas of Vallabhi and Sasanka of Bengal (Gauda) and so on.
o The different dynasties that dominated the Deccan and the southernmost states were the
Vishnukundins, Kadambas, the Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas.

 External Factors:
o Huna Invasion

 Internal Factors:
o Weak Successor
o Civil Strife
o Decline of Economy
o Geographical Problems
o Later Guptas pacifist polity due to Buddhism

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 Huna Invasion:
o The primary credit for safeguarding India from Huna’s barbaric invasions goes to
Skanda Gupta who checked their advance when they were at the height of their power.
o Around 500 AD, Hunas under a chieftain Ramanila is known to have conquered
Gandhara.
o The Huna were a Central Asian Xionite tribe that consisted of four hordes: Northern
Huna, also known as the Black Huns; Southern Huna, the Red Huns; Eastern Huna, the
Celestial Huns; and the White Huns, the Western Huna.
o The White Huns, those who invaded the Gupta Empire during the reign of Kumaragupta,
were also known as the Hephthalites, and caused great damage to the failing Gupta
Empire.
o Later, the Huna Power in Punjab regions is known to have consolidated
under Toramana.
o Kura Inscription mentioned him as ‘Rajadhiraja Maharaja Toramana Shahi Jaula’.
o The feudal structure of the administration was a facilitating factor for Huna’s conquest.

 Mihirkula:
o He was son of Tormana, His reign extended up to Gandhar to Gwalior.
o He was tyrant ruler.
o He was defeated by Narsinhagupta Baladitya and Yashodhraman of Malwa.
o He took refuge in Kashmir and died shortly.

 The Maukharis :
o They held the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj, had conquerred a part of
Magadha. Gradually they overthrew the later Guptas and made them move to Malwa.

 The Maitrakas :
o They established a kingdom in Saurashtra with Valabgi as capital. Under the guidance of
Bhatarka, Valabhi not only became the seat of learning and culture, but also a centre for
trade and commerce. It survived the longest Arab attacks.

 The Pushyabhutis :
o Their capital was at Thanes war. The most important ruler of the dynasty was
Prabhakarvardhan. He assumed the title of parambhattaraka maharajadhiraja. He married
his daughter Rajyasri with the Makhauri king, Grahavarman. The marriage alliance
strengthened the two empires. Harshavardhana belong to this family.

 The Gaudas :
o They ruled over a territory in Bengal and were quite lesser-known of the four kingdoms.
It’s most powerful and ambitious ruler was Sasanka. He invaded Makhauris, killed

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Grahavarman and detained Rajyasri.

 Vakataka:
o The Vakatakas Empire extended from
the southern edges of Malwa and
Gujarat in the north to the
Tungabhadra River in the south and
from the Arabian Sea in the western to
the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east.
o They were the most important
successors of the Satavahanas in the
Deccan and contemporaneous with the
Gupta’s in northern India.
o Their inscriptions are found over a
wide area extending from Poona to
Satna.
o They established close relationship by
contracting alliances with the Nagas of
Padmavati, the imperial Guptas, the
Kadambas of Kamataka and the
Vishnukundins of Andhra Pradesh.
o Vakataka matrimonial alliance with the Bharasiva Nagas of Padmavati who were very
powerful in central India was contracted by Pravarasena I. His son Gautamiputra was
married to the daughter of the Naga king Bhavanaga.
o From where they moved southward to Vidarbha and other regions of Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh and Kamataka and exercised considerable influence over wide areas of
the Deccan.
o The most important alliance of this period was undoubtedly the Vakataka-Gupta
matrimonial alliance which was contracted between Vakataka king Prithivisena I of the
Nandivardhana-Pravarapura branch and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of imperial
Gupta dynasty. Vakataka crown prince Rudrasena II, son of Prithivisena I married
Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, Bom of the Naga princes Kuberanaga.
o The most important alliance of this period was undoubtedly the Vakataka-Gupta
matrimonial alliance which was contracted between Vakataka king Prithivishena I of the
Nandivardhana-Pravarapura branch and Chandragupta II Vikramaditya of imperial
Gupta dynasty. Vakataka crown prince Rudrasena II, son of Prithivisena I married
Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, Bom of the Naga princes Kuberanaga

o The Vakatakas were one of the greatest powers of Deccan in mid 3rd century.
o The location of the early capital of the Vakatakas seems to have been in the town of
Kanchanaka.

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 Vindhyashakti:
o Purana mentioned Vindhyashakti, the founder of the dynasty.
o He ruled Vidisa, and Vidarbha.

 Emperor Pravarsena I:
o From the position of the king of a petty kingdom in Vindhya region he rose to be the
ruler of a big empire which included all the territory from Bundelkhand-Baghelkhand
region of Madhya Pradesh to the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra including all the
intervening region of Madhya Pradesh.
o Vindhyashakti was succeeded by his son Pravarsena I or Pravira, who was the only ruler
to assume the title ‘Samrat’.
o He is known to have performed four Ashvamegha and one Vajpeya Yagna to
commemorate his successful campaigns.
o He was succeeded by his grandson Rudrasena I
o After his death Vakatakas were divided into Pravarpura – Nandivarshana branch and
Basim or Vatsgulma branch

o It is interesting to note that Samudragupta did not attack the Vakatakas; he probably felt
that the Vakatakas would be useful alliaes.

 Prithivisena I:
o Rudrasena was succeeded by his son Prithivisena I, who annexed Kuntala to Vakatakas.

 Rudrasena II:
o He married to Prabhavati Gupta, Daughter of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
o After his death, Prabhavati Gupta assumed the reign’s administration as regent fro the

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minor king Divakarsena.
o In her regency, Gupta overthrown foreign Western Kshtrapas ruler by her illustrious
father.

 Pravarsena II
o Narendrasena: Narendra Sen attacked the territories of the Gupta empire in Malwa,
Kosala and Mekhala during the period of Budha Gupta which weakened the authority of
the Guptas in Madhva Pradesh and Bundelkhand.
 Prithivisena II
o After his death his kingdom probably annexed by Harishena of Vatsagulma Branch.

 Basim branch:
o The Basim branch was founded by Sarva Sena or Dharmaraja, a younger son of Emperor
 Pravar Sena I
 Vindhyashakti II
 Pravarsena II
 Deva Sena
 Harisena

o He was the most powerful ruler of Basim Branch.

o He was patron of Buddhist architecture.
o Three of Buddhist Ajanta cave; two Viharas and a Chaitya were excavated and decorated
during his reign.
o According to XVI inscription of the Ajanta cave inscription, he captured Malwa, Kosala,
Kalinga and Kuntala.
o At death of Harisena, Vakataka kingdom was at zenith of its power and prestige.
o Varahdeva was a minister of Harishena known for excavating the rock cut vihara of
Ajanta cave.

 Fall of kingdom:
o The Vakatakas empire, which was thus at zenith of its glory at about 500 AD,
disappeared within less than 40 years.
o Greater part of empire was occupied by Chalukyas.
o Kadambas of Karnataka, Kalchuris of Northern Maharashtra and Nala of Bastar absorb
most of territories during the weak successor of Harisena.

 Polity and Administration:

o During the regency of Prabhavatigupta, Patliputra influenced Vakataka polity
o They did not claim divine origin
o Only Pravarsena assumed title of Samrat
o Kingdom divide into number of Rajya, Kata, Patta, Marga, Ahara, Bhoga, Bhukti and
Rashtra.
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o Vakataka polity had important place for allies
o The Vakataka land grants refers to three type of feudatories
o Agrakmahishi of Rudrasena II and Ajjitabhattarika were only known queen of
Vakatakas.
o Bellora and Chammal plate inscription mentioned administrative units.
o Dashkumarcharita of Dandin gives a picture of political and social life of Vakataka
period.
o Mantri, Adhyakasha Kulaputra, Sarvadhyaksha, Ajvasvanmis and Rajyadhikaris
mentioned in Dashkumarcharita.
o The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of art and architecture.
o The rock cut Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas of Ajanta was built under the patronage of
Vakatakas.
o It was rediscovered by captain John Smith of Madras regiment in April 1819

 Questionary:

1. What are the political conditions during the Gupta period?

2. What is Vakatakas Empire?

Chapter: 16

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Harshavardhana, Chalukya, Pulkeshin

 Harsha and Chalukya:

o The political history of India during 7-12th century CE saw multiplicity of powers,
which were rooted to their respective regions. The hallmark of politics of this period lies
in the emergence and development of local and regional powers.
o After the downfall of the Gupta Empire in the middle of sixth century CE, several
independent states rose to power in southern and northern India.
o In North India Vardhan rose to prominent and in South India Chalukya dominated most
of South India polity and history.

 Sri Harsha:

o Bana – Harshacharita
o Sri Harsha – Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda
o Madhuban and Banshkera inscriptions

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o Aihole inscription of Pulkeshin II
o Coins of Harsha
o Foreign Accounts
o Hiuen Tsang Accounts
o Their son was Prabhakara Vardhana, known to his contemporaries as the valiant victor
of the Huns and to history as the father of one of India's greatest monarchs.
o He had defeated the ruling kings of Sind and Gurjara, the chief state in Rajputana, and
had also conquered the kings ruling in Malwa and Gujarat at the close of the sixth
century.
o Devgupta of Malwa and Sasanka Gaud attacked Kannuj and killed Grahvarma and
imprisoned Rajyashri.
o Rajya Vardhana as the grandfather of Prabhakara.
o Rajya Vardhana's son and successor was Aditya Vardhana who married a princess by the
name Mahasena Gupta Devi.
o Prabhakara Vardhana married Yasovati by whom he had two sons and a daughter.
o Rajyashri married to Grahvarma of Kannauj.
o Devgupta of Malwa and Sasanka Gaud attacked Kannuj and killed Grahvarma and
imprisoned Rajyashri.
o Rajyavardhan led army to defeat Gaud and Devgupta.
o He defeat Devgupta but killed by Sasanka Gaud.

 Harsha (606 – 647):

o Then he defeated Devagupta of Malwa and annexed it to his kingdom. By 612 CE, he
achieved complete control over Pancha Sindhus of Punjab. Kannauj, Bihar, Orissa and
other places were added to his kingdom. He defeated Dhruvasena II of Vallabhi. Later
he gave his daughter in marriage to him and established a good relationship with him.
o Harshavardhana became the king of Thaneswara at the tender age of 16 year, after the
death of his elder brother Rajyavardhana. Harsha made Kanauj his seat of power.
o Harshavardhana, with the help of Bhaskara Varma of Kamarupa attacked Shashanka
Gaud (Bengal) and took revenge. But as long as Shashanka was alive, he could not
defeat him completely.
o By the seventh century CE, Patliputra loosing his supremacy and was not the main
centre of power, losing its reputation, other side Kanauj was taking the main place in the
north Indian politics.
o Heuen Tsang tells that his military establishment consisted of 5,000 elephants, 20,000
cavalry and 50,000 infantry.

 War with Pulkeshin II:

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o Harsha established his hold over the
whole of north India. The regions
modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa were under
his direct control. But his sphere of
influence was much more extensive.
The peripheral states such as
Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi and
Kamarupa acknowledged his
sovereignty.
o He led his campaign towards South
India but, but defeated by Chalukya
king Pulkeshin II, who was
subjugated whole South India.
o Aihole inscriptions say that Harsha’s
Harsha (joy) flew away seeing his
war elephants falling in the battle
field. Hiuen Tsang also mentions about Harsha’s defeat. Narmada river became the
border between these two empires.
o Except this he Harsha did not face any serious opposition and succeeded in giving a
measure of Political unity to a large part of India.

 Administration:
o Harsha empire was divided into Bhukti, Vishya, Pathaka and Villages
o Huan Tsang informs us that harsha was indefatigable and the day was too short for him.
o Law and Order was not well maintained, because Huan Tsang was robbed but, Fa-Hien
not mentioned any botheration.
o Important officials of the state were mentiond by Banabhatta in his Harshacharita.
o Harsha governed same as Gupta did.
o Primary source of revenue was crown lands.
o According to Huan Tsang, his revenue divided into four parts.
o Harsha administration became more feudal and decentralised.
o Harsha was the supreme authority of his empire.
o One part was earmarked for the expenditure of the king, a second for scholars, a third for
the endowment of civil servants, and a fourth for religious purpose.

 Religious Policy:
o He prevented animal sacrifices in the empire and prohibited the practice of non
vegetarian food.
o The opponents of Buddhism and characterless people were punished by him.
o He brought the remains of Buddha’s teeth from the king of Kashmir and keeping it

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inside built a stupa over it at Kannauj.
o Religious council at Kannauj 643 CE: Harshavardhana conduced a huge Buddhist
council at Kannauj for religious debate and to felicitate Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang
explained the philosophy of Mahayana in this council.
o Religious council at Kannauj 643 CE: Harshavardhana organised a conference known
as Maha Moksha Parishad at Prayag which comes once in five years.
o He was the follower of Shaivism but later on became Buddhist.
o Number of Stupas and Viharas and Monasteries were constructed by him.

 Hiuen Tsang:
o He left China in 629 AD; He crossed the desert of Gobi, visited several places in Central
Asia like Kashagar, Samarkand and Balkha and reached Takshsheela, Afghanistan.
o From Takshsheel, he went to Kashmir and then visited several places in India like
Mathura, Kannauj, Shravasti, Ayodhya, Kapilvastu, Kushinagar, Sarnath, Vaisali,
Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Bodha-Gaya and Nalanda.
o He remained at the University of Nalanda for about five years.
o He spent many years at Harsha court and described court and life in those days.
o He wrote a detailed description of India during the reign of Harsha in his book ‘Si-yu-
ki’ or ‘Record of the Western Countries’.

 Social life:
o Chinese accounts show us that Patliutra and Vaishali werw in a state of decline.
o The Varna system still remains.
o The Brahamanas and Kshtriyas have led a simple life but, priests and nobles led a
luxurious life.
o Hiuen Tsang calls the lower caste people as agriculturists.

 Economy:
o Agriculture, industries and trade, both internal and external, were in a flourishing
condition. Cities like- Peshawar and Taxila in the North-West were, of course, destroyed
by the invasions of the Hunas and Mathura and Pataliputra had lost their previous
significance, but Prayag (Allahabad), Banaras and Kannauj were prosperous cities
within the empire.
o Agriculture, industries and trade, both internal and external, were in a flourishing
condition. Cities like- Peshawar and Taxila in the North-West were, of course, destroyed
by the invasions of the Hunas and Mathura and Pataliputra had lost their previous
significance, but Prayag (Allahabad), Banaras and Kannauj were prosperous cities
within the empire.

 Nalanda:

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o According to Hiuen-Tsang, Nalanda was the most famous and greatest university of
India.
o Nalnda was the most famous centre of Buddhism, which was divided into 18 sects, at the
Harsha time.
o Nalanda have 10,000 students, they were taught Mahayana Buddhism.
o The Nalanda monastery was supported from the revenue of 200 villages.
o Nalanda was the most famous university of the ancient India. It had international fame.
o During Harsha’s reign, its glory was at its zenith.
o Harsha is known for his religious tolerance, able administration and diplomatic relations.
o Although he was patron of Buddhism, yet he exhibited tolerance towards other religions.
o He was also a scholar and poet and the historian called him the last great Hindu emperor
of India, but he was neither a staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country.
o He was also known as Shiladitya.
o These writings throw valuable light on the political, economic, social and religious
conditions of the seventh century CE, and great importance from the historical point
view.
o Harsha used to spend one fourth of his income on scholastic activities.
o This gave impetus to literary activities.
o He established an administrative system of a high order, the object of which was welfare
of people.
o He himself was a great scholar and literary figure. He wrote three plays-Ratnavali,
Priyadarsi and Nagananda.
o His court poet named Baṇabhatt wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.
o These writings throw valuable light on the political, economic, social and religious
conditions of the seventh century CE, and great importance from the historical point
view.
o This gave impetus to literary activities.
o Mayura, Matanga, Divakara, Bhartrihari etc were the famous scholars of the Court of
Harsha.
o He died in 647 AD.
o Many modern historians have accepted their version and have, therefore, concluded
that “Harsha was the last great empire-builder of Hindu period and his death
marked the end of all successful attempts to restore the political unity of India.”

 Questionary:
1. What was the reason behind rivalry between Chalukya and Pallavas?
2. What is Religious Policy?

Chapter: 17
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Rashtrakutas, Chola, Chera, Pandyan

 Rashtrakutas:
o The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother
tongue.
o Rashtrakutas claimed to be descendent of Satyaki, a Yadav chieftain and close
associated of Krishna.
o The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta or Malkhead rose to prominence in Western Deccan
after the decline of the Badami or Vatapi Chalukyas.
o The Rastrakutas played in important role in the history of Deccan and South India for a
period of nearly two centuries from AD 753 to 9.
o The geographical position of Rashtrakutas led to their being involved in alliances as well
as wars with both their northern and southern neighbouring kingdoms.

 Dantidurga:
o Dantidurga, who was probably contemporary of Pulkeshin II, was the founder of the
Rashtrakutas dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa from them.
o Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the
Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan.

 Krishna I:
o He defeated the Gangas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the magnificent
rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora. The next important king of this dynasty
was Govinda III. He achieved victories over north Indian kingdoms.

 Govind II:
o He was deposed by his younger brother Dhruva raja.
 Dhruvraja:
o He was known as Nirupama.
o Dhruva is said to have defeated the Gangas, Pallavas and Vengi Chalukyas and he led

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his armies against northern Indian rulers, and occupied Kanauj and defeated
Dharmapala.
o Probably his kingdom extended over the country from Ayodhya to Rameshvaram.

 Govind III:
o He extended the Rashtrakutas Empire from Banaras to broach and from Kannauj to Cape
Comorin.
o He defeated Western Ganga king Maralsalba, Dantivarman of Kanchi.
o It was during his time that the tripartite struggle for control over Kannauj was at peak
between the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas.

 Amoghvarsha or Sarva:
o He was one of the greatest rulers of the Rashtrakuta tradition.
o He was a follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor.
o He composed the Kavirajamarga, the most punctual surviving abstract work in Kannada,
and Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit.
o He moved the Rashtrakuta superb capital from Mayurkhandi in the Bidar locale to
Manyakheta in the Gulbarga region in the advanced Karnataka state.

 Krishna II:
o He established matrimonial alliance with Chedi ruler Kokalla and Chola ruler of
Thanjavoor.
o He had fought wars with Eastern Chalukya.

 Krishna III:
o The last prominent ruler of Rashtrakuta Dynasty:
o He was the last great warrior and capable ruler of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of
Manyakheta. He was a wise manager and adroit military campaigner. Krishna III
defeated the Cholas in Battle of Takkolam and captured Tanjore. He expanded further to
Rameshwaram. He also built Gandmartandamitya and Krishneshwara temple at
Rameshwaram.
o At his peak, he ruled an inconceivable realm extending from Narmada stream in the
north to the Kaveri waterway delta in the south.

 Indra III:
o Amoghvarsha II
o Krishna III
o Khottiga
o Karkka II

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 Administration:
o The Rashtrakutas Empire was divided into several provinces called Rashtra under the
control of rashtrapatis.
o They were further divided into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis.
o The next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of
bhogapatis.
o The Rashtrakutas do not appear to have had any organized bureaucracy.
 Society and Religion:
o The worship of Siva and Vishnu was popular in the Rashtrakuta territory.
o The Rastrakuta rulers Amoghavarsha I, Indra III, Krishna II and Indra IV patronized
Jainism.
o There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and
Dharwar.

 Economy:
o The economy was also in a flourishing condition. There was an active commerce
between the Deccan and the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta kings promoted the Arab trade by
maintaining friendship with them.

 Cultural contribution:
o The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.
o Trivikrama – Nalachampu
o Haklayudha – Kavirahasya
o Jinasena Parsvabhudaya, a biography of
Parsva in verses. Gunabhadra Adi
purana, the life stories of various Jain
saints.
o Sakatayana – Amogavritti, grammer
work.
o Viracharya Ganitasaram, Matematics.
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 History
o The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of the Rashtrakutas.
o Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language.
o Pampa – Vikramasenavijaya.
o Ponna – Santipurana.

 Architecture:
o The rock-cut temples at Ellora and Elephanta belong to this period.
o The monolithic Kailasanatha temple was excavated during the reign of Krishna I.

 Chera:
o The Cheras were one of the ruling dynasty of the Sangam age, who ruled over parts of
Kerala and Tamilham.
o The word Chera probably derived from Cheral, meaning "declivity of a mountain" in
ancient Tamil. They were also known as ‘Keraputras’ and their kingdom was situated to
the west and north of the Pandya kingdom.
o The first Chera Dynasty had ruled in Sangam Era while second Chera Dynasty had ruled
from the 9th century AD onwards.
o The area ruled by Cheras included Cochin, North Travancore and Southern Malabar.
o Their capital was Vanchi Muthur in Kizhanthur-Kandallur and Karur Vanchi.

o Sengutturan was the greatest king of the Chera dynasty as mentioned in the Chera
tradition. He had defeated the Chola and the Pandya kings.
o He was known as red Chera and he was contemporary of Paranar.
o The Chera power declined at the end of the 3rd century A.D. They again acquired power
in the 8th century A.D.
o The earliest king was Udiyanjeral.
o The Chera Kings adopted the “Bow and arrow” as a crest or cognizance of their dynasty.
o The only source of knowledge of the first Chera dynasty is Sangam Text.
o Cheras ruled in North Travancore, Cochin and Southern Malabar.
o The Chera rulers also occupied high position in the history of south India.
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o Nedunjeral Adan was a famous Chera king. He conquered Kadambas with his capital at
Vanavasi.
o Nedunjeral Adan had a good relation with the Greeks and Romans who came in large
numbers as traders and set up large colonies in south India.
o Nedunjeral Adan fought a battle with the father of the Chola king Karikala. In this battle,
both the kings were killed.
o Nedunjeral Adan was called as Imayavaramban.

 Later Chera:
o The last Chera King in the second Chera Dynasty was Rama Varma Kulashekhra. He
ruled from 1090 to 1102 AD. After him Chera Dynasty ended.
o Kulashekhara Varma or Alwar founded second Chera dynasty.
o His capital was Mahodayapuram(present Kodungallur).
o The Chola Dynasty ruled from 300 BC until late 13th century AD, although their
territories kept changing.
o Their ruling span can be divided into 3 parts namely Early Cholas, Medieval Cholas and
Later Cholas.
o The second part of the Kulasekhara empire in the 10th and 11th centuries was
characterised by a series of great conflicts with the Cholas in what became known as the
"Hundred Years War".
o The last Chera King in the second Chera Dynasty was Rama Varma Kulashekhra. He
ruled from 1090 to 1102 AD. After him Chera Dynasty ended.

 Pandyas:
o The Pandyas of Sangam Age (4th Century B.C. to 3rd Century A.D.) became renowned
for the establishment and patronage of the three Tamil Sangams at Thenmadurai (South
of the Cape), Kapatapuram, and Kudal (Madurai).
o The noted rulers of the early Pandyan age were Aryappadai Kadanda Nedunj Cheliyan,
Palayagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludi and Ugrapperuvaludi.
o Nedunj Cheliyan is referred to as the most popular warrior among the Early Pandyas,
winning a battle at Talaialanganam against a coalition of forces from Cholas and
Cheras and five other kingdoms.
o The Pandyan history could be divided into four major heads:
o The Sangam period lasting till the early centuries of the Christian era
o The first Pandyan Empire (from the 6th century A.D. to the 9th century A.D.)
o The second Pandyan Empire (A.D.1190-1310)
o The rule of the Tenkasi Pandyas lasting till the Seventeenth century A.D.
o The Pandya country, as per the traditions extended from the Podukottai district to
Kanyakumari in south and Achankovil River in Kerala (west) to River Vegai (Madura)
in East.
o The kingdom was ordinarily divided into 5 principalities which were known as “Five

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Pandyas”. The early days capital of Pandyas is Korkai.
o The Pandya Kingdom was first mentioned by Megasthenese who said that their kingdom
was famous for pearls.
o The word Pandya is derived from the Tamil word, 'Pandi' which means the 'bull', and
considered a symbol of masculinity, strength and valour by the early Tamils.
o The first Pandyan Empire was established by Kadungon in the 6th century by defeating
the Kalabhras.

 Maravarman Avani Sulamani

 Jayantavarman alias Seliyan Sendan
 Arikesari Maravarman: Kochadaiyan Ranadhiran
 Maravarman Rajasimha I : Jatila Parantaka Nedunjadayan
 Maravarman Rajasimha II

 Varaguna I :
o Srimara Srivallabha:
o He invaded the island of Ceylon in the reign of Sena I ravaged the northern parts of the
island and sacked the capital Anuradhapura.

 Varaguna II :
o Parantaka Viranarayanan:
o He scored off several victories over the Pallavas and their confederates at Pennagadam
on the South bank of river Kaveri.

 Maravarman Rajasimha II :
o Virpandya was the last ruler of first Pandya kingdom and defeated by Aditya Karikala.
o With this the history of the major and significant Pandyan rulers of the first Empire came
to an end.
o In the first empire several rock cut cave temples excavated.
o The Chola rule in the Pandya country was established during the time of Rajaraja I
(A.D.985-1014) Rajendra I (A.D.1012-1044), the son and successor of Rajaraja I
maintained the Chola supremacy over the Pandya kingdom.

 Second Pandya kingdom:

o The first independent Pandyan king was Jatavarman Kulsekhara.
o His domain comprised the present Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli and southern
Pudukkottai district areas.

 Sundar Pandyan:
o Maravarman Sundara Pandya I was the younger brother of Jatavarman Kulasekhara I.
o Sundara Pandya invaded the Cola country in A.D.1219, defeated Rajaraja III, set fire to

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Uraiyur and Tanjore and performed Virabhiseka in the coronation hall of the Cholas at
Ayirattali.
o His inscriptions are found in the Chola country, i.e. the districtsof Tanjore and
Trichinopoly.

 Jatavarman Kulasekhara II:

 Sundar Pandyan II:

 Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I:

o He was the most celebrated monarch of the second Pandyan empire. The empire reached
the acme of its prosperity under him. To him goes the credit of bringing the whole of
southern India upto Nellore and Cuddapah in the north and to Ceylon in the south, even
outside to Ceylon, and with his secondary capital of Kanchipuram under his rule.
o He defeated Someshvara Hoyasala Sri Rangam.

 Jatvarman Vikram Pandya: Co-regent

 Jatvarman Virpandya: Co-regent

 Maravarman Kulasekhara I:
o He was the last powerful ruler.
o The Venetian Marco Polo and the Muslim scholar Wassaf visited the Pandyan country.
o His death leads to the Pandyan Civil war between Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and
Jatavarman Vira Pandya in 1308-1323.

 Kafur’s invasion:
o During 1310-1311, Alauddin Khalji sent an army under Malik Kafur to the southernmost
kingdoms of India. After subjugating the Hoysalas, Malik Kafur invaded the Pandya
kingdom.
o He raided several places in the Pandya territory, including their capital Madurai.
o Once again the Muslim invasion of the Pandya country took place in A.D.1319.
o There was also a plundering raid under the leadership of Khusru Khan, a general of
Mubarak Shah.
o In A.D.1323, there was another invasion of the Pandya country by the Muslims during
the reign of Ghiyasudin Tug lug and this resulted in the establishment of the Muslim rule
in the Pandya country.
o Kampanas overthrew of the Muslim Sultanate in A.D.1374.
o Here the Pandyas continued to rule till about the middle of the 17th century A.D. These
Pandyas were called as the Tirunelveli Pandyas or Tenkasi Pandyas.

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o They owed allegiance to the Vijayanagar emperors and had matrimonial alliance with
the imperial dynasty. The power of the Tirunelveli Pandyas declined with the
establishment of the Nayak Kingdom of Madurai.

 Questionary:

1. What was the contribution of Rashtrakutas to Indian history?

2. What is Chera dynasty?

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Chapter: 18
Invasion of Ghazni, Chauhan Dynasty, Ghorian
Invasions, Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate

 Political Condition of India at the eve of invasion:

o Politically, India was divided. There were many kingdoms which constantly fought
against each other for fame and extension of their territories.
o On the northwestern frontier there were three principal kingdoms.
o The Brahmin dynasty of the shahyas ruled over a large territory extending form Kashmir
to Multan and form Langhan to sir hind.
o The Pratiharas ruled at Kannauj. Rajyapala was the ruler of Kannauj at that time.
o Mahipala I ruled over Bengal but his kingdom was weak.
o There were independent kingdoms in Gujarat, Malwa and Bundelkhand as well.
o In the south, the later Chalukyas and the Cholas had their powerful kingdoms.

 Ghazni:
o Ghazni was the capital of a large Turkish kingdom. Alptigin, a Turkish slave rose to
become the ruler of Ghazni.
o After his death in 963, his slave and son-in-law Subaktigin seized power and conquered
many regions around Ghazni.
o After his death in 997 his son Mahmud ascended the throne.

 Mahmud of Ghazhni:
o Yamin-ud-Daulah Abdul Qasim Mahmud Ibn Sabuktegin was an Afghan of the Turkish
origin.

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o Mahmud was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavite dynasty which ruled from 997
AD until his death 1030 AD.
o Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into a wealthy capital of an
extensive empire.
o At the time of his accession Ghazna was a small dominion.
o During the first two years of his reign Mahmud consolidated his position in Ghazna.
o His swift and decisive conquests of Khorasan, Sistan and Ghur made him the most
formidable power in that region.
o The Ghaznavid Empire roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.
o He gave nominal allegiance to the ‘Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad’ and Caliph recognized
him as the legitimate ruler of the occupied lands.
o He was also the first ruler to carry the title Sultan (“Authority Holder”).

 Invasion:
o Mahmud is said to have vowed to invade India once a year and, in fact, set out to such
expeditions.
o The first large-scale campaign began in 1001 and the last ended in 1026.
o The first expeditions were directed to the Punjab and northeastern India while in his last
campaign Mahmud reached up to Somnath on the southern coast of Gujarat.

 Objective of invasion:
o To Seek Wealth
o Indian Conquest
o Propagation of Islam

 Main Invasion:
o It was one of the most beautiful and richest Hindu temples of that period. Mahmud
marched from Ghazni in December 1025 and marching through Multan and Ajmer he
crossed the Rajputana desert to reach Somnath.
o War against Jaipal 1001 A.D
o War against Anandpal, 1008, A.D
o Invasion on Mathura and Kanauj, 1018 – 1019 A.D
o Invasion on Kalinjar, 1021 A.D
o The Somnath Expedition, 1025 A.D
o The 16th and the most famous of Mahmud’s invasion were on Somnath, a holy Hindu
Temple on the sea-shore in Kathiawar.
o He broke the idol of holy Somnath Linga.
o The loot of the temple was worth 20 lakh dinars.

 Impact of Invasion:
o Invasions of Mahmud massacred thousands of Indian soldiers. It gave a severe blow to

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Indian military power.
o Exposed hollowness of India’s political and military system.
o Severe setback to Indian art. Mahmud destroyed several artistic temples and idols.
o Devastation of men and money.
o Punjab and frontier region was annexed into Ghazni Empire.
o As a result of Mahmud’s invasions, several Hindus embraced Islam.
o As a result, Muslims found a suitable base for Indian conquest.

 Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori:

o The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became independent after the death of
Mahmud.
o Muhammad Ghori conquered Multan and Uchch in 1175 A.D.
o The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam,
popularly known as Shihabud Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur.
o In 1178 AD., Muhammad Ghori invaded Anhilwara (modern Gujarat). But king of
(probably Bhimdev or Mulraj II) Anhilwara defeated him disastrously. This defeat
panicked Muhammad Ghori to the extent that for next 20 years he dared not peep into
Gujarat.

 Chauhan Dynasty:
o The Chauhan were the feudatories of the Gurjar-
Pratiharas who in the Battle of Rajasthan assisted
Nagabhatta I to defeat and protect the borders from the
Arab Invasions.
o The Chauhan king of Sakambhari Ajayaraj Chauhan
established a City Ajayameru, which was later known
as Ajmer.
o Arnoraja: Vigrahraja:
o He captured Dhillika (Delhi) from the Tomar
Kings and extended the empire from Ajmer to Delhi,
including most parts of Today’s Haryana. Someshvar
Prithviraj

 Prithviraj Chauhan:
o Prithvraj Vijay contains a detailed account of Prithviraj Chauhan.
o Prithviraj Raso, a semi-historical, semi-legendary account was composed by court poet
Chand Bardai.
o He was one of the last independent Hindu kings to sit upon the throne of Delhi.
o He was also mentioned as Rai Pithora in some Muslim accounts.
o He was a chivalrous lover and doughty Champion who united Ajmer and Delhi.

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 Conflicts:
o Paramars of Abu
o Chaulukya of Anhilwad
o Chandelas of Mahobba and Khajuraho
o Gahadvala of Kannuaj
o Due to continuous military operations, Prithviraj extended his empire to Sambhar,
Gujarat and East Punjab and Rajasthan.
o Prithviraj – Sanyogita
o War with Ghur
o Prithviraj Chauhan died in 1192 A.D. at the age of 43.
o He was succeeded by his son Govindraj.

 Battle of Tarain:
 First Battle to Tarain (1191 AD):
o The conflict between Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori started for the fort of Tarabhinda
(Bhatinda).
o The Hindu princes of north India formed a confederacy under the command of bold and
chivalrous Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and defeated Ghori in the
battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191 A.D. Muhammad Ghori felt greatly humiliated by
this defeat.
o Little attempt was made by Prithviraj to oust the Ghurids from the Punjab.

 Second Battle of Tarrain:

o Muhammad Ghori invaded India again in 1192 AD with 1, 20,000 infantry.
o The second battle of Tarain was a decisive battle. It was a major disaster for the Rajputs
as well as Indian History.
o The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet of the invader.

 Establishment of Sultanate:
o In 1193 another invasion by Muhammad Ghori was directed against the Gahadavala
ruler Jayachandra. Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s forces. Kanauj was occupied by the
Muslims after the battle of Chandawar.
o Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite general Qutb-uddin
Aibak to make further conquests in India.
o The Battles of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish rule in
India.
o Conquest of Bengal and Bihar:
o Muhammad-bin –Bakhtiyar Khilji, defeated Indra Daman, the king of Bihar in 1197 AD.
o He massacred thousands of Buddhist monks and burnt their libraries.
o Qutb-uddin consolidated his position in India by occupying places like Delhi and
Meerut.

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 Cause of defeat:
o The most important cause was that they lacked unity.
o Indian Rajput Kings were divided by factions.
o Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of Muslims.
o Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving
cavalry.
o The Hindus were always on the defensive, which was on the defensive, which was
always a weak position.
o High morals of Rajputs rulers, and customs of battling.

 Questionary:

1. What was the condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion?

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Chapter: 19
Rajput Period: Gurjara Pratiharas | Pala |
Culture, Administration, Architecture

 Political condition:
o Earlier in the ancient period there was the strong Magadha empire which frightened the
foreign invasions such as Alexander’s and Huna’s invasions.
o There was little sense of national unity and the frontiers of India remained neglected.
o During the Rajput period, north and central was ruled by Pratiharas of Avanti – Ujjain,
Palas Bengal, Chauhan of Delhi, Chandels of Bundelkhand Solankis of Gujarat and
Parmaras of Malwa.
o The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Deccan), the Chalukya kingdom of Kalyani and the
Chola kingdom of Tanjore were the important kingdoms of the South India.
o The Ancient Indian History came to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulkeshin II.
o From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the
hands of various Rajputs dynasty.
o There was no strong central authority.
o The Rajput rulers usually remained busy in utilizing their energy in fighting among
themselves.

 Political un-stability:
o Following were the chief features of the political condition of India that were primarily
responsible for the political un-stability of India:
o Political disunity.
o Mutual distrust and acrimony.
o Auto-cratic and self-willed rulers.

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o Feudal system
o Absence of border defence policy.
o Old military organization.
o Old military strategy.
o Traditional high ethical norms in fighting i.e. protection to refugees and vanquished
enemies, not attacking the unarmed enemies; adhering to lofty moral conventions in-
spite of being harmed several times.

 Rajputs:
o The term Rajput denotes a tribe or clan, the members of which claimed themselves as
Kshatriyas belonging to the 'solar' or lunar' dynasties.
o Descendents of Kshatriya
o In the accounts of Bana and Indian Puranas, "Rajapura" is mentioned as a highborn
Kshatriya.
o According to the contemporary literary sources, the Rajputs were originated from the
highborn Kshatriyas.
o R C Majumdarr, Dr Dashtath Sharma and Pandit Gauri Sankar Ojha supports this view.
o Foreign Origin:
o Many historians believe that that they are the brood of distant invader like Sakas,
Kushanas, Huns who were hinduized.
o However this theory had less acceptability.
o In a broad spectrum no single origin-theory can be held to be authoritative.

 Gurjara Pratiharas:
o They were believed that, they are descendent of Laxman.
o The Pratiharas also called as Pratiharas because they were originated from Gurjara or
South Rajasthan.
o Local officers
o Early rulers ruled over Uppar Ganga valley and Malwa.
o They are mentioned in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II, the records of Hieun Tsang
(Ku-Che-Lo)and the Hashacharita of Bana.
o Gurjara Pratihara stood as the bulwark of India‘s defence against the Muslim invaders.

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o After the fall of the empire of King Harsha, Pratiharas played an important role in
unification of Northern India.
o They ruled from the 8th century to the beginning of 11th century.
 Nagabhatta I
 Vats raja
 Nagabhatta II
 Ramabhadra
 Mihira Bhoja or Bhoja I
 Mahendrapala I
 Bhoja II
 Mahipala I
 Mahendrapala II
 Devapala
 Vinayakapala
 Mahipala II
 Vijayapala II
 Rajyapala
 Trilochanapala
 Yasahpala

 Nagabhatta I:
o The Gurjara Pratihara dynasty was founded by Nagabhatta I in the region of Malwa in
the eighth century C.E.
o His rule was prominent because of his successful confrontation with the Arabs. He
established an empire extending from Gujarat to Gwalior and defied the Arab invasions
towards further east of Sindh.

 Varsaraja:
o Varsaraja waged a successful war with Bengal, but was defeated and exiled for a time by
Dhruva of Rashtrakutas dynasty.

 Nagabhatta II:
o Nagabhatta II revived the lost prestige of the empire by defeating the rulers of Sindh,
Andhra, Vidarbha and Kalina.
o He drove Chakrayudha out of Kannauj, which was installed by Dharmapala as a ruler of
Kannauj, and made the city his capital.
o He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat.
 Mihirbhoja:
o Adivarah-Prabhash
o He was the most powerful ruler of the line and the most powerful ruler in India during
second half of 9th century.
o His successful campaign:
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o Bundelkhand
o Punjab
o West and Central India
o War with Rashtrakutas and Pala
o In his time the empire of Kannauj was bounded by the Sutlej on the north west, the
Hakra on the west, Narmada in the south and Pala in the east.
o Mihirbhoja was not only a great conqueror but also a great lover of art and literature. He
was a great patron of men and letters.
o Rajashekhara, the Poet, Dramatist, and critic and author of Kavyamimamsa adorned his
court.
o Consequently his reign was regarded as the glorious period of Pratihara ascendency.

o Mihirbhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala.

o He succeeded in maintaining the empire of his father and also extended it further by
annexing Magadha and parts of Northern Bengal. He lost some parts to the Kings of
Kashmir.
 Bhoja II
 Mahipala: He was the last capable ruler of dynasty.

 Decline of Pratihara dynasty:

o Due to the weak successor, Parmaras of Malwa, Chandelas of Bundelkhand and
Kalachuris of Mahakosal declared independence from Kannauj.
o Rashtrakutas Indra III captured Kannauj.
o By the end of 10th century Gurjar Pratihara controlled only small state centered on
Kannauj, which was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazhni.
o Yasahpala was the last ruler of Kannauj.

 Summary:
o In Parihara administration King was supreme authority with titles.
o The appointment of the samantas and singing on giants and charities were also the works
of the kings.

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o No reference of Council of ministers.
o Kottpala, Tantrapala, Dandapakshika, Dutaka Vyaniharina and Baladhikrta mentioned as
high rank officials.
o The entire state was divided into many bhuktis. There were many mandals in each bhukti
and each mandala had several cities and many villages as well.

 Social Condition:
o Pratihara inscriptions and the records of Suleiman Al Tajir and Ibn Khurdabad throw
light on social condition.
o According to Rajashekhara Women enjoying high status.

 Economy:
o Economy was based agriculture.
o Source of income was the tax derived from the bulk of agricultural production.

 Religion:
o Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakti sect were important sect of Sanatan religion.
o Varsaraja, Mahendrapala, Trilochanapala were worshipers of Shaivite.
o Mihirbhoja was worshiper of Vishnu.

 Art and Architecture:

o The Gurjara-Pratihara rulers were great patrons of arts, architecture and literature.
Mihira Bhoj was the most outstanding ruler of the dynasty.
o The extraordinary Teli-ka-Mandir in Gwalior fort is the oldest surviving large-scale
Pratihara work.

 Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj:

o The Pratiharas of Central India, the Palas
of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of
Manyakheta wanted to establish their
supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile
Gangetic Valley.
o Their Tripartite struggle lasted nearly 200
years and weakened all of them and
enabled the Turks to overthrow them.

 Pala empire:
o In ancient times, Bengal was known as Vanga or Gauda.
o Bengal was part of Gupta Empire and Pundravardhan was the provincial centre.
o Dgarmaditya, Gopachanda and Samachara were early known rulers of Bengal.

 Sasanka:
o Bhavishya Purana mentioned Gauda region.

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o The rise of Gauda under Sasanka was the most significant political development in the
history of Bengal during the 6th – 7th centuries.
o Hiuen Tsang and Banabhatta referred to Sasanka as the master of Gauda, whose capital
was Karnasuvariia.
o Bana called Sasanka, Gaudadhama ('the vile of Gauda') and Gauda-bhiijanga ('the
serpent of Gauda').
o Arya-Manjusrimulakalpa mentioned Sasanka’s defeat by Harsha.
o Sasanka's death in about AD 637 triggered a period of 'anarchy' in Bengal.
o There are no clear evidences of the origin and early history of the Palas.
o Epigraphic sources of the contemporary era and official Pala records are generally silent
about the tribe, origin and early history of the Palas.
o The Pala dynasty, which was founded by Gopala in about AD 750, restored political
stability in Bengal after a long period of anarchy.
o Gopala extended his power to Magadha.

 Dharmapala:
o Dharmapala was the most powerful ruler of Pala dynasty.
o The Tibetan historian Taranath describes Dharmapala kingdom to have stretched from
the Bay of Bengal to Delhi and Jullunder in the north and to the Vindhya ranges in the
south. In addition he also states that Dharmapala also had a large number of vassal states
in the periphery of his kingdom in the Punjab, the western hills, Rajputana, Malwa and
Berar.
o The outstanding political fact of the period from 750 to 950 C.E. was the tripartite
struggle among the three great powers, the Prathiharas, the Palas and the Rastrakutas, for
imperial suzerainty of northern India and for the possession of Kanauj, the imperial city
of the time.
o Badal inscriptions contains the eulogy of a line of heradietry ministers of Pala, begins
with Ganga, the Ministers of Dharampala.
o He was a great patron of Buddhism.
o He is said to have founded the famous Viktramashila University, which was most
important centre of Tantric Buddhism.
o His reign considered as high-water mark of power and glory of Pala empire

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 Devapala:
o According to Nalanda copper plate, he was in close relation with Srivijaya empire, and
Sailendra king Balaputradeva sent ambassador to his court.
o Amoghavarsa I was the Rastrakuta contemporary of Devapala.
o According to R C Majumdar, his suzerainty was acknowledged over the whole of North
India from Assam to border of Kashmir,
o He assumed the title of Parameshvara, Parambhattrka,
o During the reign of Devapala the Pala arms were crowned with success everywhere.
o The reigns of Dharmapala and Devapala constitute the most brilliant chapter in the
history of Bengal.
o He was Buddhist.
o He was succeeded by ruler called Vigrahapala.
o He made Mudgagivi (Munger) his capital.
o Arab traveler Suleiman mentioned that, the Devpala’s troops were more numerous than
Pratihara and Rashtrakuta,
o He refers Pala Empire as ‘Ruhmi’.
o Vigrahpala
o Narayanpala
o Rajyapala
o Gopala
o Vigrahpala II

 Mahipala:
o He was the ninth Pala king expelled the Kambojas and regained the kingdom.
o He is rightly considered the founder of the second Pala Empire; his half-century rule still
celebrated as a memorable period in the history of Bengal.

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o His rule was marked by two important events-the conscious revival of Buddhism; and
the invasions of the Pala kingdom by powerful kings from other parts of the sub-
continent.
o Around C.E 1023, Mahipala was attacked by the illustrious Rajendra Chola of the
Southern Chola dynasty.
o In the end of his rule, Kalchuri king Gangeydeva defeats him.
o He was criticized for not joining the Hindu confederacy against Mahmud of Ghazhni.
o Mahipala saved the Pala Empire and to a large extent restored its old glory against great
odds, which is a highly credible achievement.
o Madanpala was the last king of this dynasty.

 Administration:
o The Administration of Pala Dynasty was quite organised system.
o During the reign of Dharampala and Devapala, Bengal successfully got involved in
politics of northern India.
o The Pala grants are specifically related to maintenance of law and order and of
administration of justice.
o The pala records (land charters) refer to rajas, Rajputras, Ranakas, Rajarajanakas,
Mahasamantas, Mahasamantadhipatis, etc. They were probably feudatories who were
given lands in lieu of military services.
o Pala Empire was divided into separate Vuktis (Provinces). These Vuktis were segmented
into Vishaya (Divisions) and then Mandala (Districts). Other smaller units were
Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka.
o The Pala kings gave land grants to Brahmans, priests and temples.

 Social condition:
o Social life during the Pala period was marked by the emergence of feudalism in Bengal.
o During this period Buddhism had earned enormous patronage of the Palas.
o Devdasis system was popular.

 Art and Architecture:

o Art and Architecture of Pala Dynasty furnished the accomplishment in the field of
terracotta, sculpture and painting.
o One of the finest instances of architecture of the Pala period is a creation of Dharmapala,
the Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur. In addition to that several enormous structures of
Vikramshila Vihar, Odantpuri Vihar, and Jagaddal Vihar proclaim to be the masterpieces
of the Palas.

 Economy:
o The main source of economy during the Pala period was agriculture.
o Salt production also shared a significant position in the agricultural economy during the

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Pala period. The "Irda inscription" of Nayapala refers to the production of salt.

 Social changes during Early Medieval period:

o Early medieval period was marked by many social changes.
o The law books of the post-Gupta centuries contain agriculture in the samanya-dharma
(general job) of all the varnas.
o The well-known Chinese traveller of the early seventh century, Hsuan-Tsang, mentions
shudras as agriculturists.
o An important phenomenon of this period was the proliferation or increase in the number
of castes.
o Land grants played significant role in the society.
o Al-biruni, who came to India beside with Mahmud Ghaznavi in the first quarter of the
eleventh century, also notes the absence of any variation flanked by the vaishyas and
shudras.

 Condition of women:
o Inferior Status of Women
o Education and Women
o Pre-Puberty marriage
o Property inheritance rights
o Practice of Sati

 Following texts are useful for reconstructing the social fabrics throughout the era.
o Kalhana’s Rajatarangini
o Naishadhiyacharita of Shriharsha
o Prabandha Chintamani of Merutunga
o Soddhala’s Udaya-Sundari-Katha
o Adipurana of Jinasena
o Vigyaneshwar’s commentaries on the Manusmriti and Yajnavalkyasmriti
o Manasollasa
o Mayamata
o Aparajitapriccha

 Art and Architecture:

o The new regional kingdoms led to the emergence of new regional cultural zones such as
Bengal and Odisha in the North, Gujarat and Maharashtra in Central India as well as
Andhra, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu in the South.
o The period between C.E 750 and 1300 is a period of cultural creativity in India.
o During the early medieval period of Indian History, whole country was politically
divided into numerous regional states.
o Though politically divided, India witnessed a growth of new and rich cultural activities
in the fields of art, literature and language.

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 Temple architecture:
o The Indian Silpashstra recognize three main types of temples known as the Nagara or
‘Northern’ style, the Dravidian or ‘Southern’ style, and the Vesara or hybrid style.
o Nagara temple belongs to the country from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas, Vesara from
the Vindhyas to the Krishna and the Dravida from the Krishna to the Cape Camorin.
o In ancient Sastra or literature the temple is referred as Devagriha, Devalaya, Devakula
etc.
o In the Vastusastra the North Indian temples are known as Prasada while as the Southern
Indian temples are known as Vimana, Harman and occasionally as Prasada.
o The term mandira for the first time occurs in Banabhatta Kadambari, a text of 7th
century C.E.
o Sculptural tradition of this period was marked through a sure amount of slenderness and
an accent on sharp angles and rows. The roundness of bodily form acquires flatness. The
curves lose their convexity and turn into the concave.
o Sculptures in stone and bronze were carved during this period.
o Western and Central Indian sculptures, Eastern Indian and Himalayan metal images,
Gujarati and Rajasthani book and textile illustrations, Bengal terracottas and wood
carvings and sure Deccan and Odisha miniatures registered this new conception of form
through the post tenth centuries.

 Samantas System:
o Restrictions on the movement of the peasants
o Due to growing practice of land grants, there was a emergence of anew agrarian
economy in early medieval period.
o Delegation of fiscal and criminal administrative power to religious beneficiaries
o Characteristics of new agrarian economy:
o The grant of barren as well as cultivated land,
o Transfer of peasants to the grantees
o Growth of the rights of the grantees
o Multiplicity of taxes
o Growth of a complex revenue
o Wide regional variations in the agrarian structure
o Imposition of forced labour
o Remuneration in land grants to officials.
o Evidence founds in Arthashashtra and Ashokan Edicts.
o Allahabad Prasasti referred ‘border kings' as Samantas of his dominion.
o The process of 'samantisation' was accelerated by two factors: the lack of money for the
payment of salaries and the new ideas that royal prestige depended on the size of a
king‘s samantachakra.

 Evidences:

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o Samantachudamanayah appears in a Pallava inscription.
o In north, the term first appears in Bengal inscription and Barbara hill cave inscriptions of
Maukharis chief Anatvarman.
o Mandsor Pillar Inscription of Yasodharman
o Maitrakas of Vallabhi mentioned themselves as Mahsamnta.

 Harshacharita of Bana:
o Mahasamantas – Higher than the ordinary samantas.
o Satru-mahasamanta – Conquered enemy chief.
o Aptasamantas – Those who willingly accepted the vassalage of the overlord.
o Pradhan samantas – Most trusted hands of the emperor.
o Pratisamanta
o Anuraktamahasamantas

 Questionary:

1. Describe the socio-religious and economic condition of Gurjara-Pratihara

Empire.
2. Write a note on the Art and Architecture flourished under Gurjara-Pratihara
Empire.

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Chapter: 20
Delhi Sultanate part: 1
Slave Dynasty, Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty,
Sayyids Dynasty, Lodi Dynasty

 Delhi Sultanate
o The rulers who ruled substantial parts of the
North India between AD1200 to AD1526 were
termed as Sultans and the period of their rule
as the Delhi Sultanate.
o These rulers were of Turkish and Afghan
origin.
o The main ruler who was overthrown by the
invading Turk Muhammad Ghori from Delhi
was Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
o These Sultans ruled for more than 300 years
(from around AD 1200 to AD 1526).
o The last of the Delhi Sultan, Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Mughals under the
leadership of Babur in AD1526 who established the Mughal Empire in India.
o During this period of around three hundred years five different dynasties ruled Delhi.
o All these dynasties are collectively referred as the Delhi Sultanate
o Mamluks (AD 1206–AD 1290) (popularly known as slave dynasty)
o Khaljis (AD 1290–AD 1320)
o Tughlaqs (AD 1320–AD 1412)

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o Sayyids (AD 1412–AD 1451)
o Lodis (AD 1451– AD 1526).

 Mamluk Dynasty(1206 – 1290):

o Ghori left no male heirs to succeed him, and his provincial viceroys soon established
their own authority in their respective jurisdictions.
o Taj-ud-din Yildiz, governor ascended the throne of Gazhani.
o Nasir-ud-din Qabacha was the governor of Multan and Uch.
o Qutub-ud-din Aibak ascended the throne of Delhi
o With Qutbuddin Aibak, begins the period of Mamluk (Owned in Arabic) Sultans or the
slave dynasty.

 Qutubuddin Aibak (1206-1210)

o He was Turkish slave-general of Ghori’s army.
o Due to first independent Muslim ruler of North India, Most of the scholars consider
Aibak as the real founder of Mulsim rule in India.
o Aibak had to face many revolts from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs.
o He built two mosques one at Delhi and other at Ajmer, both got material got by
demolishing numerous temples.
o He has been also known for Qutub Minar.
o He was known as ‘Lakh Baksh’.
o Aibak died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while playing chaugan (Polo).

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o After his sudden death, he was succeeded by Aram Shah, he was incapable rule to rule
Turkish Kingdom.

 Iltuttmish:
o Iltutmish belongs to Ilbari tribe of Turkstan.
o He was sold to a merchant of Bukhara and the latter sold him to Qutbud-din Aibak.
o He ascended the throne of Delhi with the titile of Shamsuddin.
o Iltutmish had to face several formidable problems in early part of his carreer.
o The position of Iltutmish was challenged by Taj-ud-din Yalduz, the ruler of Ghazni, and
Nassir ud-din Qabacha, governor of Sindh. Khilji noble, Ali Mardan Khan, the Governor
of Bengal, asserted his independence.
o He defeated Yaldauz in AD 1215 in the battle of Tarain. In AD 1217 he drove away
Qabacha from Punjab.

 Mongol:
o Genghis Khan, the dreaded leader of the Mongols, advanced as far as the Indus in
pursuit of jal-ud-din, the Fugutive prince of Khwarzam or Khiva, who sought refuge at
the court of Delhi.

 Bengal
o Iltutmish realised the political necessity of avoiding a confrontation with the Mongols,
Iltutmish turned him away.
o He defeated Ghiyasudin Iwaz, who proclaimed independence during Aibak.

 Rajputs:
o After the death of Aibak, the Rajputs did their best to drive away the Turks.
o Chandels, Pratiharas, Chauhan, Jaden Bahttis established their sovereignty in the
territory of Sultanate.
o He led some successful campaign against Rajput chiefs, but he could not defeayts
Chalukyas of Gujarat.
o He also destroyed the temple of Mahakal of Ujjain.
o He separated the Delhi Sultanate from Ghazni, Ghor and Central Asian politics.
o The reign of Iltutmish saw the decline of Lahore and the rise of Delhi.
o Delhi gradually became the greatest centre of learning and culture in the East.
o Great scholars like Nur-ud-din, Mohammad aufi, Minhaj-ud-siraj and Hasan Nizami
were assembled in his court.

 Raziya:
o His reign marked the beginning of a struggle for power between the monarchy and the
Turkish chiefs (some time known as Chahalgani or the forty).
o They wanted to install a puppet to throne, but soon they realised that, the Raziya was not

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prepared for their play.
o Realising the worthless of his sons, Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziyatuddin for
the succession.
o But after his death his son Ruknuddin Firoz ascended the throne with the help of army
leaders.
o She led army against Wazir, Nizam ul mulk Junaidi, Rantahmbhor and Lahore.
o She was killed by Turkish nobles because, they could not reconcile themshelves to the
rule of a women.
o However, with the help of loyalist, Raziya soon ascended the throne.

 Ghiyasudin Balban:
o Balban ruled in an autocratic manner and worked hard to elevate the position of the
Sultan. He did not allow any noble to assume great power. He even formulated the
theory of kingship.
o He was also belongs to lbari tribe of Turkestan.
o He was purchased by Iltutmish from Khwaja Jamaludin of Bussorah.
o Balban was determined to break the power of the Chahalgani.
o He suppressed Mewat, Doab, Awadh and Katihar revolt but failed to capture
Ranthambhor and Nagaur of eastern Rajputana.
o He was a part famous slave band ‘Chahalgani’ or ‘The Forty’.
o Ibari Turks ruled India for about 8 decades, but under them the kingdom of
o Slave dynasty controlled present day Punjab, UP, Bihar with Gwalior and Sind and
curtain part of central India.
o Bengal and Rajput chiefs were independent from his suzerainty.
o After his death, the Mamlukas were replaced by Khiljis to the throne of Delhi.

 Theory of Kingship:
o The Destruction of “the Forty”
o Divine right of Kings
o Royal descent
o Organization of the Spy System
o Reorganization of Army
o Policy of blood and iron
o Suppression of Rebellions

 Khiljis (AD 1290–1320):

 Jalaludin Firuz:
o The Mongols, under the command of a grandson of Hulagu, Abdullah attacked Punjab
and reached near Sanam. Jalal-ud-din marched against them personally and reached the
banks of the river Indus
o According to Barni and some modern scholars, he was Turks with Afghans characters.

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o Jalaluddin ruled only for a short span of six years.
o He was succeeded by his nephew and son-in-law Allaudin Khilji.
o He was very old when he ascended the throne of Delhi.
o He was the founder of Khilji dynasty.
o According to Barani, The first and the only Mongol invasion during the reign of Jalal-
ud-din Khalji took place in 1292 A.D.

 Allaudin Khilji:
o Earlier he was Arizi-i-Mumalik(Minister of War).
o In AD 1294, he led the first Turkish expedition to southern India and plundered
Devagiri.
o In July AD 1296, he murdered his uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and
crowned himself as the Sultan.

 Expansion:
o Ala-uddin khilji was a instinctive imperialist.

 North:
o Alauddin first began his territorial conquest with a campaign against Gujarat.
o In AD 1299, He defeated Anhilwara Patan and captured Somnath.
o In AD 1301, Ranthambhore fort was captured by himself.
o In AD 1303, Alauddin besieged Chittor, another powerful state of Rajputana.
o In AD 1305, Khalji army under Ain-ul-Mulk captured Malwa.

 Deccan:
o In AD 1306–07, he led fresh campaign in Deccan.
o Yadav kingdom of Devagiri, under its competent ruler Ramchandra Deva.
o Telingana, with its capital at Waragnal under Pratap Rudra Deva l of the Kakatiya
Dynasty.
o Kingdom of Dwarasamundra ruled by the powerful Hoyasalas.
o Pandya kingdom.
o He was died in 1316.
o After his death his royal-eunuch general Malik Kafur ascended the throne for 35 days.
Kafur’s reign known as criminal rule.
o He was deposed by Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah.

 Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah:

o Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah was soon murdered and Khusrau ascended the throne, who
was Hindu convert of the lowest class from Gujarat.
o Khusrau assumed the title of Nasiruddin.
o He reconverted to Hinduism.

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 Tughlaq (AD 1320–1412):

o The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghazi Malik who ascended the throne as
Giyasuddin Tughlaq in AD 1320 and this dynasty ruled till AD 1412.
o Giyasuddin rose to an important position in the reign of Alauddin Khalji.
o Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad Tughlaq ascended the throne.
o Juna or Muhammad Tughlaq:
o Accounts of Ibn Batuta and Ziaudin Barani gave information about Muhammad
Tughlaq.

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 Achievement:
o He led expedition against Deccan, Orissa and North West.
o He led expedition to Qarajal , which was situated in the Kumaun hills.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324-51) is best remembered as a ruler who undertook a
number of bold experiments, and showed a keen interest in agriculture.

 Transferred of Capital:
o The most contentious step which Muhammed-Tughlaq under took soon after his
accession was so called transfer of the capital from Delhi to Deogiri. It was renamed
Daulatabad.
o He transferred his capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daultabad) to maintain his power in
north and south, and to avert the confrontation with Mongols.
o Only the elite class transferred to new capital.
o Soon he ordered the people to return from Dauletabad to their homes in Delhi.

 Token Currency:
o Another controversial project undertaken by Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the
introduction of “Token Currency”.
o Muhammad introduced a copper coin (Jittal) in place of silver coin (tanka) and ordered
that it should be accepted as equivalent to the tanka
o The next experiment of Muhammad Tughlaq was the creation of the department of
agriculture. It was called Diwan-i-Kohi.
o Muhammad Tughlaq, was died in Thatta.
o He was succeeded by his cousin Firuz Tughlaq.
o He led expedition against Nagarkot, Bengal and Deccan.
o The unusual growth of the slave system was marked as feature of Firuz’s reign.
o He took special interest in town planning.
o After his death, the political control of Delhi gradually weakened.

 Timur’s invasion:
o Timurlane, son of Turghey chief of the Gurkan branch of the Barlas Turks, was born at
Kesh in Tranoxiana.
o He ascended the throne of Samarkanad in 1369.
o He launched an expedition to conquered Persia.

 In India:
o Timur started his expedition from Kabul in August 1398 and reached Delhi in December
1398. On his way to Delhi, he captured and looted all the towns. Sultan Mahmud Shah,
the last Sultan of the Tughlaq dynasty and his Vazir’ (Prime Minister) fled from Delhi.
Timur ordered a general massacre and plunder which continued for 15 days.
o Timur started his back journey from Delhi in January 1399. On his way he plundered
Meerut, Hardwar, Kangra and Jammu. Before leaving India, he appointed Khizr Khan as

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governor of Multan, Lahore and Dialpur.

 Sayyids Dynasty:
o After Khizr Khan’s death Mubarak Shah (AD 1412–34) and Muhammad Shah (AD
1434–45) ascended the throne one after another.
o In 1445 AD, Alam Shah ascended the throne and became the Sultan. He proved a totally
incompetent Sultan.
o All of these rulers tried to control rebellious regions like Katehar, Badaun, Etawah,
Patiali, Gwalior, Kampil, Nagaur and Mewat but they failed due to the conspiracy of the
nobles.
o Khizr Khan defeated Sultan Daulat Khan and occupied Delhi and founded Sayyid
dynasty.
o Alam Shah’s Wazir Hamid Khan invited Bhalol Lodi to take charge of the army and
after realizing that it would be difficult to continue as Sultan, Alam Shah left for Badaun.
o This was time of rise of Rajput chieftains in Rajputana, Bahmani Kingdom, Vijaynagar
Kingdom in Karnataka etc.

 Lodi Dynasty:
o The Lodi dynasty was a Pashtun dynasty that rules northern India from 1451-1526.
o It was founded by Bahlul khan who belonged to the Lodi tribe of Afghanistan.
o The Lodis were the last ruling family of the Sultanate period and the first to be headed
by the Afghans.
o It was ended after Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by Babur from Kabulisthan in 1526 Battle
of Panipat.

 Bahlol Lodi:
o He was a nephew of Sultan Shah Lodi, governor of Lahore and Sirhind.
o Bahlol Lodi successfully suppressed the revolts in Mewat and Doab. In AD 1476 he
defeated the Sultan of Jaunpur and annexed it to Delhi Sultanate. He also brought the
ruler of Kalpi and Dholpur under the Suzerainty of Delhi. However, he failed to
reoccupy Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan.
o He was succeeded by his Nizam Khan, who became the Sultan with the title of Silkandar
Lodi.
o He re-annexed Bihar, Dholpur, Narwar and some parts of the kingdom of Gwalior and
Nagor to the Delhi Sultanate.

 Ibrahim Lodi:
o In Mewar, a new power under Rana Sanga was on its zenith.
o Daulat Khan the governor of Punjab also rebelled. Sultan’s behavior caused much
dissatisfaction.
o The rebellions Daulat Khan sent an invitation to Babur at Kabul to invade India. Babur
defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in AD 1526 in the battle at Panipat.

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o Lbrahim Lodi the eldest son of Sikander Lodi, ascended the throne with the unanimous
consent of the Afghan nobility in November 1517 A.D.
o His reign proved a period of revolts.
o Firstly his own brother Jalal Khan rebelled. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi got him murdered.
o Bihar declared its independence.

 Conclusion:
o The Sultanate of Delhi, which had its birth on the battlefield of Tarain in AD 1192,
breathed its last in AD 1526 a few miles away on the battlefield of Panipat.

 Questionary:

1. What is Lodi Dynasty and Mamluk Dynasty?

2. What is the difference between the Khiljis and the Mughals?

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Chapter: 21
Delhi Sultanate Part: 2
Administration, Trade, Culture, and Society

 Delhi Sultanate Part 2:

o The Sultanate of Delhi was a part of Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad, because many
Sultans declared themselves ‘Lieutenant of Faithful’, and include his name in Khutba.
o With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new ruling class emerged in India. This
new class introduced a new administrative system.
o A few of the administrative institution had their roots in Arab and Central Asia from
where the new ruling group came.
o But in fact, the Sultans though professing a nominal allegiance to the Caliphate.

 Sultan:
o The position of the Sultan was always under
pressure from the powerful group of nobility
and Ulema.
o Balban stressed the special position of the
Sultan as 'shadow of God' (zill al Allah) on
earth.
o The Sultan’s office was the most important in
Sultanate and supreme political military
authority and even legal vested in him.
o He was responsible for safety and security of
state.

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o The Sultan was subordinate to Shriah, just as Hindu monarchs were subject to Dharma.
o The Sultan was the central figure in the administrative set up.
o He was the head of the civil administration and Supreme Commander of the army.

 Nobility:
o The nobility was a powerful group under Sultan.
o Most of nobles were Afghan and Turkish including Provincial governor, military
commanders, and high ranking officials.
o Nobles, particularly those who were based at Delhi, emerged as a very powerful group
and at times even played a role in the selection of the sultan.
o The group of Chahalgani (group of 40 nobles), which was created by Iltutmish, also
emerged very powerful.

 Ulema:
o The religious intellectual group of Muslims was collectively referred as Ulema.
o They were in in charge of judicial matters and worked as Qazis at various levels.
o Ulemas managed religious matters and interpreted religious regulations for Sultan.
o This group used to pressurize the sultan to run the Sultanate as per the religious laws of
Islam.
o But Sulatns like Allaudin Khilji ignore them.

o The Wazir - He was the Prime Minister of the state and headed the financial department.

Assistant under Wazir:

o Naib Wazir – Deputy
o Mushrif Mumalik – Account General
o Mustaufi I Mumalik – Auditor General
o Nazir – Supervisor of revenue collection
o Wakoof – Expenditure Supervisor
o Kazi-e-Mumalik – Chief Justice
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 High Ranking offices:

 Diwan –I- Ariz:
Ariz-i-Mumalik was the head of the department of Diwani-i-arz and in that capacity was
the controller-general of the military department.
o Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of Dagh (branding) and huliya (description) and
cash payment to the soldiers in order to strengthen his control over the army. The
contingent stationed at Delhi was called hasham-i-qalb and Provincial contingents were
called hasham-i-atraf
 Diwan –I- Risalt:
o He was the minister of foreign affairs he was in command of state tie ups with
neighboring kingdoms and also was assigned the task of allowancing with powerful
rulers.

 Sadr –Ur –Sadar:

o He was the head of the religious department. His work was to the safeguard the Islamic
Laws and its upkeep

 Amir –I-Mazls –Shahi:

o He was the minister who looked after the festivals of the state, and made sure of all the
public conveniences and arrangements during festive seasons.

 Diwan-I-Insha:
o Dabir-i-Khas was the minister who looked after the local correspondence of and
different offices.

 Provincial Administration:
o During the 14th century the provinces were partitioned into Shiqs for administrative
convenience.
o The Provinces were under governor called Amir.
o He was a deputy of the Sultan in his area.
o The Shiqdar assisted the governor in the maintenance of law and order and provided
military assistance. He also supervised the functioning of the smaller administrative
units.
o Shiqtas divided by Paragana, which was headed by Amil.
o The shiqs were administered by the Shiqdar.
o The duties of the Faujdar were similar to the Shiqdar. The Kotwals were placed under
the Faujdar
o Subsequently the Shiqs got transformed into Sarkar during the Afghan period.
o Faujdar was another officer along with Shiqdar at the provincial level. Their duties are
not clearly articulated, and often the role of the two seems to overlap.

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 Iqta System:
o From the 14th century we hear of Wallis or muqtis who are commanders of military and
administrative tracts called Iqta.
o After the establishment of the Sultanate Iqta system was introduced by the Sultans.
o The institution of the Iqta had been in force in early Islamic world as a form of reward
for services to the state. In the caliphate administration it was used to pay civil and
military officers.
o The Khwaja was appointed to keep a record of the income of the Iqta.

 Revenue:
o The Source of Revenue was religious and secular.
o The former called Zakat was due only from Muslims, the latter included land tax and
Jizya which the non Muslims to Pay.
o Land Revenue was collected by Khot, Mukkadam and Chaudhri.

 Army:
o The army consisted of infantry, cavalry and elephant corps.
o Turks, Perians, Afghans and Indians were recruited to Army.
o Balban established department of army.
o Allaudin had the largest standing army.
o He introduced Dagh system and also he was the first Sultan who paid salary in cash.

 Economy and Social Life:

o The chief included the emergent Zamindars and other administrative cadre.
o India convert Muslims rose into prominence during the reign of Allaudin.
o Hindus were treated with distrust and humiliation, and the Sultanate rule was a period of
moral degradation of Hindus.
o Al Beruni and Ibn Batutah’s account were most important source of to examine the
economic and social condition of Sultanate.
o With the establishment of settled rule of Sultanate, the economic condition was in good
condition.
o Ulemas and Bramins were important part of Society.
o Muslims were divided into divided into two categories: nobility and the chiefs.
o The nobles, mostly Turkish, Persian and Abbasynian Muslims, were divided into three
classes: the Khans, the Maliks and the Amirs.
o Many Hindu costumes became part of Muslim life and many Muslims costumes founds
in Hindu life.

 Position of Women:
o The liberty of women was much restricted.
o The Purdah became common among the Hindu and Muslim women.
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o Sati was practiced among certain class.
o Cast system was strictly followed.

 Place of Hindus:
o The empire was not a homogeneous political entity.
o Hindu Converts were admitted to all the honours of Muhammadan nobility.
o Barani bewails the privileges enjoyed by the Hindus under Muhamad Bin Tughlaq rule.
o The period between 1351 and 1388 AD may be regarded as economically prosperous.
o Peasants formed overwhelming majority of population.
o Trade increased immensely during the Delhi Sultanate. Currency system existed, which
was based on the silver tanka.
o Allaudin’s attempt to control price.
o Bengal and Gujarat were famous textile industry.
o India imported high grade textile, glassware and horse from West Asia.
o Some travelers mentions food grains, the fruits flowers.
o Ibn Batutah says that it could produce two crops every year.
o The coastal trade was in the hand Marwaris and Gujratis.
o Bohra Muslims also participate in trade.
o Rice, Sesame, Sugarcane and cotton were grown in good quality and quantity.

 Slavery:
o Slavery system had existed in India as well as West Asia.
o The Most usual method of acquiring slaves was capture in a war.
o The Turkish, Caucasians, Greek and Abyssinian slaves were imported from their native.

 Religion:
o New religion came with Turkish ruler.
o Buddhism had lost its influence.
o Only in certain part of India and East Bengal did the majority of the population turn
Muslim.
o The theologians considered Apostasy from Islam to be capital crime.
o Force conversion was practiced in some time span.
o Bhakti and Sufi movement became very popular.
o Muinudin Chisti, Nizamudin Auliya, Baba Farid of Ajodhan, Shah Alam Bukhara,
Bhaudin Zakaria of Multan, and Shaibudin Suhravardi of Syhet were famous Sufi saints.
o Chaitanya of Bengal, Gnaneshwara Tukaram and Namdeva of Maharashtra, Vallabha
and Kabir of Banares and Guru Nanak were famous Bhakti saints.
o Braj and Avadhi of Hindi, Punjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, Malyalam, Kannad, Oriya,
Assamese and Sindhi had their origin about this time.
o New Persian language was the official language of court.
o Urdu grew out as mixture of Hindi and Persian.
o Grammer of Urdu was same as that of Hindi but some words were taken from Hindi,

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Persian and Turkish.
o Some of these languages grew out of Apbramshas or Prakrit.
o It was used in some ruler’s court and rituals of Hindus.
o Turkish state in India was militaristic, aristocratic and theocratic.
o Trade and Local administration was dominated by Hindus.
o Nature of State.
o Jizya was imposed in Non Muslim.
o The early Mulism Turkish State established itself in north India by virtue of conquests.
o In practice, the Turkish State was not theocratic but evolved according to its special
needs and circumstances despite the fact that the main ruling class professed Islam.

 Questionary:

1. What is the historic significance of the Delhi Sultanate and what are some of
the most important aspects of this period?
2. What was the Economic and Social condition during Delhi Sultanate?

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Chapter: 22
Mughal Empire Part 1:
Foundation, Expansion, Imperial Mughals | Sher
Shah Sur

o The Mughal Empire was an empire that at its greatest

territorial extent ruled parts of Afghanistan,
Balochistan and most of the Indian Subcontinent
between 1526 and 1857.
o Centralized, imperialistic government which brought
together many smaller kingdoms
o Persian art and culture amalgamated with Indian art
and culture.
o New trade routes to Arab and Turkic lands.
o The development of Mughlai cuisine.
o Mughal Architecture found its way into local Indian architecture, most conspicuously in
the palaces built by Rajputs and Sikh rulers.
o Landscape and Mughal gardening.

 Origin of Mughal:
o The Mughals were descendants of two great lineages of rulers.
o From their mother’s side they were descendants of Genghis Khan (died 1227), ruler of
the Mongol tribes, China and Central Asia.
o From their father’s side they were the successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of Iran,
Iraq and modern-day Turkey.
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 Mughal conquest of India:

o The Mughal conquest in India was divided into three
parts.
 First phase (1526-1530):
o The first phase was occupied with the subjugation of
the Afghans and Rajputs under Rana Sanga.
 Second Phase (1530-1540):
o The Second phase commenced with the reign of
Humayun, who made unsuccessful attempts to
subjugate Malwa, Gujrat, and Bengal, but expelled by
Sher Shah Suri.
 Third Phase (1545-1540):
o The third phase was marked by the restoration of
Mughal dominion and its consolidation by Akbar.

 Babur:
o Then, he first established himself at Kabul and then in 1526 pushed further into the
Indian subcontinent in search of territories and resources to satisfy the needs of the
members of his clan.
o The unstable political situation in India after Sikandar Lodi’s death convinced him of
political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire
o Zahiruddin Babur was driven from his Central Asian homeland, Farghana, by the
warring Uzbeks.
o Babur was Chagatai Turks from Farghana.
o He also lost Sumarkand to Uzbek chief Shaibani Khan.
o Babur was successful in capturing Bhira (1519–1520), Sialkot (1520) and Lahore (1524)
in Punjab.
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 Battle of Panipat:
o In April 1526, Babur, defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters at Panipat.
o The battle of Panipat is regarded as one of the decisive battle of India history.

 Battle of Khanua:
o In March 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga, who was certainly more formidable adversary
than Ibrahim.
o Sanga was assisted by Sultan Mahmud Lodi and the rulers of Marwar Amber, and
Ajmer.
o He made himself master of Punjab, Delhi and Ganga plains as far as North Bihar.
o He wrote his memoirs Tuzuk I Babri, which was translated unto Persia as Baburnam by
Abdul Rahim Khan I Khan, the court poet of akbar.

 Humayun:
o Humayun was in control of Delhi, Agra and Central India, while his brother Kamran had
Afghanistan and Punjab under him. Askari was given Sambhal while Hindal was given
Alwar.
o His brothers were each given a province.
o In Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah.
o The newly founded kingdom of was attacked by the Afghan nobles, who still wanted
the Mughals to Leave India.
o He recaptured Delhi in 1555 but died the next year after an accident in this building.
o Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa (1539) and Kannauj (1540), forcing him to flee
to Iran.
o Humayun divided his kingdom.

 Sher Shah Suri:

o The founder of this Afghan rule Sher Khan was a great
tactician and able military commander.
o After defeating Humayun he became sovereign ruler in the
year 1540 and assumed the title of Sher Shah.
o Sher Shah followed Humayun on his flight till Sindh in the
North West. After expelling Humayun he started consolidating
his position in Northern and Eastern India.

o His original name was Farid and his father was Jagirdar of Jaunpur.
o Sher Shah As already discussed the first Afghan kingdom under the Lodis was replaced
by the Mughals under Babur in 1526.
o He defeated and conquered Malwa in 1542 which was followed by Chanderi. In
Rajasthan he led campaigns against Marwar, Ranthambhore, Nagor, Ajmer, Merta
Jodhpur and Bikaner.

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o He defeated rebellious Afghans in Bengal.
o By 1545 he had established himself as the supreme ruler from Sindh and Punjab to
whole of Rajputana in the West and Bengal in the East. Now he turned towards
BundelKhand.
o After a gap of 14 years Sher Shah succeeded in establishing the Afghan rule again in
India in 1540. Sher Shah and his successors ruled for 15 years. This period is known as
the period of second Afghan Empire.
o Sher Shah was succeeded by his son Islam Shah. Islam Shah had to face a number of
conflicts with his brother Adil Khan and many Afghan nobles. He died in 1553. The
Afghan empire was substantially weakened.
o In 1555 Humayun conquered Agra and Delhi and established himself as the emperor of
India.
o During his brief rule Sher Shah introduced very important changes in administration and
revenue system.
o Here while besieging the fort of Kalinjar he died in 1545 in an accidental blast of gun
powder.
o Humayun saw an opportunity and moved towards India. He again captured his lost
kingdom by 1555 and ended the second Afghan Empire.

 Contribution of Sher Shah:

o He restored Grand Trunk road, from the
Indus in the west to Sonargaon, Bengal in
East. He also built from Agra to Gujarat
Seaport. He built third road from Multan
to Lahore.
o He struck fine coins of Gold, Silver, and
copper of uniform standard.
o Sher Shah paid special attention to the
land revenue and justice.
o Sher Sha built new city on the river bank
of Yamuna.
o He also revived Patliputra as modern Patna.
o Malik Muhammad Jaysi composed Padmavat in his reign.
o The State under Surs remained an Afghan institution.
 Hemu and BairamKhan

 Bairam Khan:
o Bairam Khan served as the regent of the Mughal emperor from 1556 to 1560.
o He became the wakil of the kingdom with the title of Khan-i-Khanan.

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 Hemu:
o He was general and prime minister of Adil Shah Sur.
o He defeated Mughal governor of Delhi, Tardi Beg and occupied Delhi and Agra.
o He assumed the title Vikramaditya or Raja Vikramjit.

 Second Battle of Panipat:

o The Second Battle of Panipat was fought in November 1556, between the forces
of Hemu.
o In this battle Hemu was defeated by Akbar’s army and killed by Bairam Khan.
o Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar:
o Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and few other kingdoms in South India and
Deccan were quite powerful.
o Kabul and Qandhar, though ruled by Mughal factions, were hostile towards Akbar
o Akbar was 13 year
o The major political powers spread in different parts of the countries old when he became
emperor.
o The Rajputs who were spread throughout the country as independent chiefs and kings,
and were concentrated mainly in Rajasthan.
o The Afghans held political control mainly in Gujarat, Bihar and Bengal.
o 1556-1570 – Akbar became independent of the regent Bairam Khan and other members
of his domestic staff. Military campaigns were launched against the Suris and other
Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms of Malwa and Gondwana, and to suppress
the revolt of his half-brother Mirza Hakim and the Uzbegs.
o In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in 1569 Ranthambhor.
o The Battle of Haldighati was a battle fought between the ruler of Mewar Maharana
Pratap and the Mughal Emperor Akbar under the command of Man Singh I.
o The battle took place in Haldighati, Rajasthan, in the year 1576.
o The outcome of the battle is mired in debate. The Mughals earned a temporary
victory. However, Pratap was not captured and continued to challenge Mughal
expansionism in the region. Later, apart from Chittor, Mewar was again won by
Maharana Pratap.
o 1570-1585 – military campaigns in Gujarat were followed by campaigns in the east in
Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
o 1585-1605 – expansion of Akbar’s empire.
o Campaigns were launched in the north-west. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids,
Kashmir was annexed, as also Kabul, after the death of Mirza Hakim.
o Campaigns in the Deccan started and Berar, Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were
annexed. In the last years of his reign Akbar was distracted by the rebellion of Prince
Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.

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 Rajput Policy:
o Akbar realised the value of Rajput alliance in his task of empire building India.
o Akbar was keen to have friendly relations with the Rajputs.
o He established strong relation with Rajputs through matrimonial alliance with some
Rajput kingdoms.
o He married Harka Bai, princes of Amber, daughter of Raja Bharmal.
o He gave high official rank in his administration.
o Akbar gave high mansabs to Raja Bharmal, his son, Bhagwan Das and his grandson,
Man Singh.
o Many kingdoms accept Akbar’s friendship and Mughal’s suzerainty.
o All Rajput states, except Mewar, accepted the sovereignty of Akbar.
o The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughal authority for a long time.

 Jahangir 1605-1627:
o Military campaigns started by Akbar continued.
o The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, accepted Mughal service.
o Less successful campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar followed.
o Malik Ambar was the main ruler who managed to defeat Mughal forces and captured
Berar, Balaghat and parts of Ahmednagar.
o During the reign of Jahangir there was no addition to the Mughal territory in Deccan.
o Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years of his reign.
o The efforts of Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s wife, to marginalize him were unsuccessful.

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 Shah Jahan 1627-1658:
o In 1632 Ahmednagar was finally annexed and the
Bijapur forces sued for peace.
o In 1657-1658, there was conflict over succession
amongst Shah Jahan’s sons.
o Shah Jahan 1627-1658
o Mughal campaigns continued in the Deccan under
Shah Jahan.
o The Afghan noble Khan Jahan Lodi rebelled and
was defeated.
o Aurangzeb was victorious and his three brothers,
including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan
was imprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.
o In the north-west, the campaign to seize Balkh from
the Uzbegs was unsuccessful and Qandahar was lost to the Safavids.
o Campaigns were launched against Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated and Orchha
seized.

 Aurangzeb 1658-1707 :
o In the north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again in the 1680s.
o Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and the Sikhs were temporarily
successful.
o Mughal intervention in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of
Marwar led to their rebellion.
o Campaigns against the Maratha chieftain Shivaji were initially successful.
o Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb and received support from the Marathas and
the Deccan Sultanate.
o After Akbar’s rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates. Bijapur
was annexed in 1685 and Golconda in 1687.
o From 1698 Aurangzeb personally managed campaigns in the Deccan against the
Marathas who started guerrilla warfare.
o Aurangzeb also had to face the rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis,
in the north-east of the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas.
o His death was followed by a succession conflict amongst his sons.

 Decline of Mughal Empire:

o The policy of Aurangzeb:
o Religious Policy
o Popular revolts and Movements for regional independence:
o Jats and Satnamis
o Afghans
o Breach with Rajput of Mewar and Marwar
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o Maratha
o Decline of Mughal Economy, Military and administration due to continuous conflict
with regional chiefs.
o The death of Aurangzeb on the 3rd march 1707 was the signal for the disintegration of
the mighty Mughal Empire.
o The Mughal court became the scene for faction fighting among the nobles, and soon
ambitious provincial governors began to behave in an independent manner.
o Changed character of the Later Mughal Nobility, and Party Factions.

 Invasion of Nadir Shah:

o Nadir commenced his march towards India in 1738.
o He entered the city on 20 March 1739 and occupied Shah Jehan’s imperial suite in
the Red Fort.
o He ordered a general massacre of Delhi.
o The destroyer set fire to many houses and burnt Hindu and Muslims together.
o He looted Delhi with Mayurasana of Shah Jahan and Koh-i-noor.

 Invasion of Ahmad Shah Abdali:

o He invaded India in 1748, but defeated by Mughal heir apparent Ahmad Shah
o In again invade India in 1750, and 1751 and defeats Mir Manu and captured Punjab and
Kashmir respectively.
o Bahadur Shah Zafar was last Mughal ruler, who was exiled by British

 Questionary:

1. Write a short note on Akbar’s Rajput policy.

2. What is the Mughal Empire?

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Chapter: 23
Mughal Empire Part 2:
Administration, Trade and Economy, Religion
and Society

 Mughal Administration:
o Under Sher Shah Suri the experiment in the formation of a bureaucracy under a
centralised despotism had taken place. Akbar gave it a definite shape.
o Mughal administrative structure was highly centralised. This centralization is manifested
in the efficient working of land revenue system, Mansabs and jagir, uniform coinage, etc

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 Central Administration:
 The Emperor:
o The Emperor was the supreme head of th administration and controlled all military and
judicial powers.
o All officers in Mughal administration owed their power and position to the Emperor.
o The Emperor had authority to appoint, promote, and remove officials at his pleasure.
o Jarokha Darshan was famous.

 The Ministers:
o Vakil: Bairam Khan was Vakil of minor Akbar and after him it was an honorary office.
o Vazir:
o The institution of Wizarat was present in some form during the Delhi Abbasid Caliphate
and Delhi Sultanate also.
o The position of Wazir had lost its preeminent position during the period of Afghan rulers
in the Delhi Sultanate.
o The position of the wazir was revived under the Mughals. Babur’s and Humayun’s wazir
enjoyed great powers.

 Diwani Kul:
o The chief diwan (diwani kul) was made responsible for revenue and finances. His
primary duty was to supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts.
o He assisted by Diwani Khalisa, Diwani Tan (for cash salary), diwani jagir, diwani
buyutat (royal household, Mustafi (Auditor), Mushrif (Chief Accountant) and
Khazandar.

 Mir Bakhshi:
o All orders of appointments of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and
passed by him. He personally supervised the branding of the horses (dagh) and checked
the muster-roll (chehra) of the soldiers.

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 Mir Saman:
o He was accountable of stores, supplies, public works, royal industries and commerce.
He was the chief executive officer responsible for the purchase of all kinds of articles
and their storage for the royal household.

 The Sadr:
o The office of the Sadr, the chief Qazi and the chief Mufti are often separately mentioned,
but in practice, the Sadr combined in his person the office of the chief Qazi.

 Provincial Administration:
o The Mughal Empire was divided into Subas, headed by Subedar, which were further
subdivided into Sarkar, Pargana, and Mahal or Gram.
o There were 15 Subas (provinces) during Akbar's reigns, which later increased to 20
under the Auranzeb's reign.
o Kabul, Multan, Agra, Prayag (Allahabad),Bengal, Gujarat, Punjab, Delhi, Oudh, Bihar,
Malwa and Ajmer.

 High ranking officers of provinces:

o Suba: He was directly appointed by emperor, he was responsible for law and order in
Suba.
o Diwan: The provincial diwan was appointed by the Emperor. He wam an independent
off answerable to the Centre. He was the head of the revenue department in the Suba.
o Bakshi: The Bakhshi was appointed by the imperial court at the recommendation of the
mir Bakhshi. He was responsible for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers
maintained by the Mansabdari in the suba.
o Darogha-i Dak: His duty was to pass on letters through the postal runners (Mewras) to
the court. For this purpose, a number of dak chowkis were maintained throughout the
Empire where runners were stationed who carried he post to the next chowki Horses and
boats were also used to help in speedy delivery.

 Jewels of Akbar:
Name Work

Todar Mal Raja Todar Mal, a Hindu Khatri was Akbar’s finance
minister, who from 1560 onwards overhauled the revenue
system in the kingdom.

Abdul Rahim Khan-i- Son of Bairam Khan and known for Translation of
Khanan Babarnama into Persian

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Birbal (Mahesh Dass) Witty advisor, Poet and General

Raja Man Singh Most Trusted General, Viceroy of Afghan Suba and ablest
military commanders

Tansen Born as Tanna Mishra; disciple of Swami Haridas and later

became disciple of Hazrat Muhammad Ghaus (Gwalior ).
He was a court musician of prince of Mewar and later was
recruited by Akbar as his court musician.

Faizi The poet leurate; known for translation of Leelawati into

Persian

Abul Fazl Abul Fazl was the chronicler of Akbarnama in three

volumes over seven years, the third volume is known as the
Ain-i-Akbari.

Mulla Do Piyaza Orthodox Muslim scholar and rival of Birbal

Fakir Aziao-Din Fakir Aziao-Din was a mystic and chief advisor

 Mansabdari:
o The term Mansabdari refers to an individual who holds a mansabs, meaning a position or
rank.
o It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix (1) rank, (2) salary and (3) military
responsibilities.
o Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called zat.
o The Zat denoted personal rank of an official and the Sawar indicated the size of
contingents maintained by the Mansabdari
o The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and the larger
his salary.

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o The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of
sawar or cavalrymen.
o The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got they registered, their horses
branded and then received money to pay them as salary.
o Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called jagirs which were
somewhat like iqtas. But unlike muqtis, most Mansabdari did not actually reside in or
administer their jagirs.
o They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them
by their servants while the Mansabdari themselves served in some other part of the
country.
o Du-aspa Sih-aspa was used as a device to encourage the competent Mansabdari.

 Jagir:
o The Jagirdari system was an integral part of the Mansabdari system which developed
under Akbar and underwent certain changes during the reign of his successors.

 Revenue:
o The land was classified according to its productivity as Polaj (land under continous
cultivation), Parauti (very infrequently left fallow), Chachar (land frequently left fallow),
Banjar (barren land on the basis of fertility)
o The chief revenue officers in the Sarkar and Pargana were the Amil Munshif or Amin,
Bitikchi, the Khazanchi, Qanungo, and the patwaari.
o Akbar’s revenue system was Ryotwari in which the actual cultivator of the soil being
responsible for the payment of the revenue of the Jagir land was done by the government
officials.
o The administrative organisation of the land revenue was placed under the Vazir. He was
also called as Diwan-i-Ala or Diwan-i-kul.

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 Society:
o The Mughal nobles lived a life of extravagance. The Mughal nobles monopolised most
of the jobs in the country. They enjoyed the good will and patronage of the king. They
demanded and commanded great honors and dignity in the society.
o The lower classes comprised ofthe cultivators, artisians small traders’ shopkeepers,
household servants, slaves while middle class was heterogeneous in composition.
o Society looked like a feudal organisation with the monarch at it apex.
o Next in rank was high ranking officials.
o Society looked like a feudal organisation with the monarch at it apex.
o Next in rank was high ranking officials.
o Mughal period suffered from two serious evils- untouchability and slavery. While
untouchability was mainly conflated to the Hindus, the slavery was more popular with
the Muslims.
o The game of cards which was introduced in India by babar and improved by Akbar the
great was very popular between rich and poor.
o Art of administration, arithmetic, Algebra, geometry accounts, agriculture, economics,
history, ethics, astronomy, physics, philosophy, law and rituals were taught in Mughal
era.
o Urbanization and urban growth was key feature of Mughal period.
o The diet of Hindu & Muslim was common except Muslims were very fond of meat.

 Condition of Hindus:
o Hindus adopted pardah as a protective measure to save the honour of their womenfolk
and to maintain the purity of their social order.
o In Akbar’s reign social harmony and complete toleration was practiced.
o During Mughal era, peopels were fond of hunting and hawking.
o The Sikhs at that time were regarded merely as a sect of Hindus.
o Hindus were divided into their traditional four classes.

 Social Practice:
o Sati, Child Marriage, Kulinism and dowry system was practiced.

 Religious Policy:
 Babur:
o Babur was not liberal in his religious outlook.
o He declared battle against Rana Sabga and Medini Rai of Chanderi as Jihad and assumed
title of Ghazi.
o Babri Masjid controversy is the outcome of Babur’s legacy.

 Humayun’s:
o He was liberal compare to his father.

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 Akbar:
o Akbar is known for his liberal ideas and liberal religious policy. He adopted a policy of
mutual understanding and reconciliation among followers of different faiths and equality
of all religions. He tried to harmonize the relations. He founded a new religion known as
‘Din-i-Ilahi’ based on the common points of all religions.
o Steps taken by Akbar:
o Equal treatment with subjects of all faiths.
o Abolition of ‘Jazia’ and other taxes imposed on the Hindus.
o Matrimonial alliances with Hindu families.
o Employment of Hindus at higher posts.
o Freedom of worship to all.
o Founding a new religion based on the common points of all religions
o Impact:
o Empire became strong.
o An environment of good will was developed.
o Social reforms took place.
o Cultural unity emerged.
o Akbar got the credit of being a national king.

 Jahangir:
o He followed his father’s religious policy.
o He opened higher services for Non-Muslims.
o He made practically no difference between the Hindus and the Mohammadans or the
Christian subjects

 Shah Jahan:
o As compared to his father, Jahangir, Shah Jahan certainly favoured Islam.
o Shah Jahan encouraged conversion to Islam throughout his reign.
o Some Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian under the patronage of prince Dara
Shukoh.

 Aurungzeb:
o Aurangzeb completely reversed the religious policy of Akbar.
o The jizyah was banned by Akbar in 1564 and later it was re-instated in 1575. Jizyah was
promoted by Aurangzeb which was discontinued by Faruksiyar.
o He stopped engraving Kalma on the coins, celebration of festival of Naurauj, practices of
Jharokha Darshan and Tula Dan and turned out astrologers, musicians and dancers from
the court.
o The Hindus were disallowed to repair their temples.

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 Economic Condition:
 Mint and Currency:
o Akbar, like Sher Shaah, tried to regulate the currency of state.
o He appointed Khwaja Abdu Samal of Shiraz as imperial mint officer.
o In Akbar’s time, the silver rupee known as Jalali and Copper coins were known as Dam
or Paisa.
o Mercantile affairs of the empire were transacted in gold Mohurs, rupees and Dams.

 Agriculture:
o Agra, Lahore and Fatehpur were most famous centre of trade and economy.
o Agriculture crops of the time were much the same as those today.
o Sugar was cultivated in many parts of Bengal and Bihar; and Indigo was cultivated in
Jamuna Valley and Central India.
o Cotton and Silk were cultivated extensively in certain parts of India.
o A terrible famine broke out in 1556-57 in Agra and Biyana.
o Empire was greatly affected by famine lasting from 1594-1598.

 Industry and Craft:

o Punjab and Gujarat were renowned for the production of good quality arms like swords,
javelins and other traditional arms.
o Delhi and Banaras were famous for brass industry. Diamonds were extracted from the
mines of Golkunda and Chotta-Nagpur. India produced the world-famous Koh-i-Nur
diamond from a mine at Golkunda.
o Glass industry flourished at Fatehpur Sikri, Berar and Prihar.
o Cotton, silk and fabric manufacture centre were distributed throughout the country and
especially Odisha to East Bengal looked like a big cotton factory.
o The dying industry was in a flourishing condition.
o Cannons and rifles of good quality were not produced in India. Comparatively Persia,
Turkey and several European countries were far ahead of India.
o Leather industry was not a well-developed industry. Similarly wine of good quality was
not manufactured in India.
o Jaunpur and Gujarat were known for a large variety of perfumes.
o Pearls were taken out of sea and it was a well-developed industry near the seacoast of
South India.
o Delhi, Banaras and Chunar were particularly famous for clay industry and clay toys.
o Kashmir and Karnataka produced artistic pieces of wood.

 Trade:
o Great Mughals paid specific attention to the construction of roads and highways in their
kingdom.

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o There were two main land routes for export trade on the North-West from Lahore to
Kabul and from Multan to Qandhar.
o The sea and river were more advantageous for commercial purpose.
 Ports:
 Lahori – Sind
 Surat, Bharuch and Khambhat – Gujarat
 Goa and Bhatkal – Maharashtra
 Masulipattnam – east coast(AP)
o Custom duties on this port were fixed by state.
o India had an active and considerable foreign trade, during the greater part of Mughal
empire.
o Indian textile played a key role in trade of India with West and East Asia.
o One Englishman observed, “From Achin to Aden, from head to foot, everyone was
clothed in Indian textiles.”
o The chief imports of the country were bullion, raw silk, horses, metals, ivory, coral,
amber, precious stone, velvets, perfumes and drugs.
o Bernier says that “gold and silver, after circulating over every part of the world, is finally
buried in India which is the sink of gold and silver”.
o Many traders came to India from Europe.
o After Aurangzeb, the trade and economic prosperity disappeared due to political
instability.

 Questionary:

1. Describe the administration of Mughal?

2. What was the economy of the Mughal Empire?

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Chapter: 24
Vijayanagar Empire Part 1:
Foundation, Expansion, Ruling Dynasty, Sri
Krishnadevaraya

o The Vijayanagara Empire was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was
established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty

 Source of History:
 Literary Sources:
o Krishnadevaraya – Amulktamalyada
o Ganga devi – Maduravijayam
o Allasani Peddana – Manucharitram
o Gangadhara – Gangadasa Pralappa Vilasam
Foreign accounts:
o Account of Moroccan traveler Ibn Batuta
o Account of Persian Travelar Abdur Razzak
o Account of Venetian Travelar Marco Polo
o Account of Portuguese travelar Domingo Paes

 Archeological sources:
o Baggapelsi copper plate: Achievements of Harihara I
o Bitraghunta grant of Sangama II: Genealogy of 5 Sangama brothers who laid the
foundation of Vijayanagar empire.
o Channarayapateena of Harihara II: Conquests of Bukka I
o Srirangam copper plate: Achievements of Deva Raya II
o Devulapalli copper plate: Genealogy of Saluva dynasty)
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 Introduction:
o Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by Sangama, Salva,
Tuluva and Aravidu dynasty.
o The Vijayanagara Empire served a high historical
purpose by acting as a champion of Hindu religion and
culture against the aggressions of the Muslims in
Southern India.
o Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both
a city and an empire. The empire was founded in the
fourteenth century.
o It stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.
o On account of its efficient administration, prosperous economy, diplomatic polity, liberal
religious policy, the Vijayanagara Empire occupied a remarkable and glorious place in
Indian history for more than two hundred years from 1336 A.D. to 1565 A.D.
o According to numerous inscriptions, writings of foreign and indigenous authors, the
Vijayanagar Empire were established to protect Hindu Dharma in the peninsula from
inroads of Islam.

 Foundation:
o Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara I and Bukka I, who belonged to a family
of five brothers of the Sangama dynasty.
o Harihar and Bukka were at first in the service of Prataprudra II, but after Muslim
conquest of Hoyasala kingdom in 1323 they went to Kampili.
o The two brothers were imprisoned, converted to Islam and were appointed to deal the
rebellions in Kampili.
o However, they returned to the Hindu fold by inspiration of a saint Vidyaranya.
o They declared their independence and founded the state of Vijaynagar on bank of
Tungabhadra River with Harihara as its king in 1336.
o Initially, they had to contend with the Hoysala ruler of Mysore and Sultan of Madurai.
o By 1346, the territories of Hoyasals came into the hands of Vijaynagar Kingdom. In
1377, the Sultanate of Madurai was also wiped off.

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 Harihar I:
o He organised administrative system on the base of Kaktiya model.
o He divided his kingdom into Sthalas and Nadus.

 Bukka I:
o He sent his ambassador to China in 1374 to Ming dynasty.
o Madurai Sultanate was overthrown by his son Kumara Kampana in his reign.
o Sayanacharya brother of Madhvacharya was Chief Minister of Bukka I.

 Harihar II:
 Devraya I:
o In his early rule, he was defeated by Bahmani Sultane Firoz Shah, who was assisted by
Reddis of Kondavidu and Anadeva.
o He captured Panugal and Kondavidu territories.

 Devraya II:
o He invaded orissa of Gajapati, Zamorin of Calicut and some parts of Kerala.
o According to Abdur razak, his kingdom extended to from Ceylon to Gulbarga and from
Orissa to Malabar.
o Deva Raya II’s death led to confusion in the Vijayanagar empire. Many civil wars were
fought for the throne.
 Mallikarjuna Raya:

 Virupaksha Raya II:

o After the weak ruler at Vijayanagar, the Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva
Narsimha raya in 1486.
o He re established power of Vijaynagar. Saluva Narasimha restored internal law and
order in the empire.
o His kingdom was known as ‘Kingdom of Narsinga’ by Europeans.
o After his weak successor dynasty was replaced by Tuluva Narsa Nayaka, son of Tuluva
Isvara.

 Tuluva:
o Narsa Nayaka continued the work of his master Saluva Narsimha Raya and laid the
foundation of the great age of that followed by his son Krishnadevraya.
o Narsa Nayaka invaded Raichur Doab, which was part of Vijayanagar empire.
o He led expedition to South up to Cape Camourin.
o He also conquered Srirangpattnam and Gokarna.
o Saluva Narsimha

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 Sri Krishnadevraya(1509-1530):
o The reign of Krishnadevraya was the period of Vijayanagar’s greatest success, when its
armies were everywhere victorious, and the city was most prosperous.
o He was the most powerful emperor of Vijayanagar empire.
o Babur regarded him as most powerful king of India in his Tuzuk-i-Babri.

 Achievements:
o Krishnadeva Raya also recovered Udayagiri, Kondavidu
(south of fiver Krishna), Nalgonda (in Andhra Pradesh)
Telingana and Warangal were taken ,from the Gajapatis.
o He was kind and courteous to foreign merchants and
travelers who greatly appreciated his discriminated
policy.
o Krishna Deva Raya’s first task was to repulse the
Bahmani forces which invaded his territory on their
annual raid into the Raya kingdom.
o He extended the empire up to Kanyakumari including certain parts of Sri Lanka.
o Sri Krishnadevraya was not only a distinguished warrior, but a great statesman and
administrator.
o The Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani.
o Krishna Deva Raya invaded the Raichur doab and took the Raichur fort.
o Krishnadeva Raya nmaintained friendly relations with the Portuguese.
o Alfonso De Albuquerque offer aid to Raya against Bijapur.
o On Albuquerque's request, Krishnadeva Raya permitted the construction of a fort at
Bhatkal.

 Patronage of Literature:
o Krishna Deva Raya was also a great patron of art and literature, and was known as
Andhra Bhoja.
o He was the author of the Telugu work Amuktamalyada and one Sanskrit work Jambavati
Kalyanam.
o His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (the eight celebrated poets), of whom,
Allasani Peddana was the greatest.

 Allasani Peddana – Andhrakavita Pitamaha:

o Manucharitam and Harikatha-saramsamu.
o Mukku Thimmana – Parijatapaharanamu
o Madayyagari Mallana – Rajasekara Charitram
o Pedda Dhurjati – Sri Kalahasteeshwara Mahatyam
o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadr – Ramabhudayamu
o Pingali Surana – Kalapurnodayamu

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o Ramaraja Bhushan – Vasucharitra, Harischandra Nalopakhyanamu
o Tenali Rama Krishn – The famous Panduranga Mahatmyam
o He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy Vitthalaswamy at
the capital.
o The enormous monolithic Narsimha statue was erected by him.
o He also built a new city, called Nagalapura, in memory of his mother, Nagamba.
o He built a large number of Raya Gopurams (towers).
o He was succeeded by his brother Achyutdevaraya.
o Krishndevaraya’s death was the signal for all enemies of Vijayanagar to renew their
attacks on kingdom.

 Achyutdevaraya:
o Fernao Nuniz was a Portuguese traveler, chronicler and horse trader who visited India
during reign of Achyutaraya and who spent three years in Vijayanagara.
o Ismail Adil khan seized Raichur and Mudgal.
o He repelled an invasion of Gajapati and Kuli Qutub Shah and Vir Narsimha Pandya.
o After death of Ismail Adil Khan, Achyut recovered Raichur Doab.

 Sadashiv Raya:
o Sadasiva Raya (1543–1567) was a ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire,a powerful South
Indian empire based in the Deccan in 16th century India.

 Aliya Rama Raya:

o He was the last capable ruler of Vijayanagara empire.

 Battle of Talikota:
o The battle of Talkota or battle of Rakshsha Tangadi was fought between Vijayanagar
and the combined force of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, and Bidar in 1565.
o In this battle Rama Raya was defeated by Muslim invaders and executed.
o It is said that 1,00,000 Hindus were slain during or after battle.
o Vijayanagar was thoroughly looted and left in ruins.

 Destruction and Disintegration:

o Vijayanagar never recovered from blow.
o Tirumala attempted to revive the city but failed.
o After the defeat of Rama raya, victorious army entered in city.
o They looted and destroyed the whole city.
o He maintained internal order and brought economic revival.
o He extended his frontier to the Krishna River after successful war against Golkonda.
o Sriranga III was last ruler.
o After enemy army, hordes of robbers and jungle-folk who fell upon the helpless people

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and looted their houses and shops.
o Venkata II was remarkable ruler, in his reign Vijayanagar recovered strength and
prosperity.

 Cause of disintegration:
o Weak Successor of Krishnadevaraya.
o A despotic behavior of Rama Raya and his policies.
o After defeat of Rama Raya, the Nayakas of Madura, Tanjore and Jinji became
independent.
o Continuous wars with the neighbouring Bahamani Kingdom.

 Questionary:

1. How was the water requirements of Vijayanagara met?

2. Write a short note on Sri Krishnadevraya.

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Chapter: 25
Vijaynagar Empire Part 2:
Administration, Social and Economic Condition,
Architecture, Literature

o Vijayanagara or “city of victory” was the name of both a city and an empire. The empire
was founded in the fourteenth century.

o In its heyday it stretched from the river Krishna in the north to the extreme south of the
peninsula. In 1565 the city was sacked and subsequently deserted.

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 Krishnadevaraya:
o “A King should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that
horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely
imported. He should arrange that the foreign sailors who land in his country on account
of storms, illness and exhaustions are looked after in a manner suitable to their
nationalities…. Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants,
and good horses be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents
and allowing decent profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies”

 Administration:
 Kingship:
o The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well organized.
o The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He
was the highest court of appeal.
o The successful military deeds of the Vijaynagar rulers led them to assume the title of
digvijayans.
o The king was advised by a council of ministers but the supreme authority was the king
himself who was at liberty to accept or reject the advice of ministers.
o The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
o Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by
ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day
to day administration.
o The empire was divided into several Rajyas ruled over by princes of the royal family or
by highly capable general, below which were Nadus (district), Sthala (Sub-District), and
Grama.
o The royal princes were often appointed to important official positions with a view to
training them in the administration.
o Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha came to power by
ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day
to day administration.
o The empire was divided into several Rajyas ruled over by princes of the royal family or
by highly capable general, below which were Nadus (district), Sthala (Sub-District), and
Grama.
o The royal princes were often appointed to important official positions with a view to
training them in the administration.

Some Rajyas or Provinces:

 Udayagiri Rajya: Nellore and Cudapph
 Penugonda Rajya: Bellary, Anatpur and parts of Northern Mysore
 Mulavayi Rajya: Parts of Mysore, Salem
 Araga or Maleha Rajya: Banavasi, Goa and Chandragupta

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o Tulu Rajya and Rahagambhira Rajya.
o Village self-government, which was important in Chola administration, were
considerably weakened underVijaynagar.

 Nayka System:
o The nayankara system was an important characteristic of the Vijaynagar political
organisation. The military chiefs or warriors held the title of Nayaka or Amaranayaka.
o Portuguese Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz who were contemporaries of
Krishnadevarya and Achyutraya in 16th Century, gave us the reliable source of Nayak
System.
o The nayakas were a category of officers appointed by the king with rights over land.
o Nuniz, the Portuguese Chronicler had stated that there were two hundred Nayakas in the
Vijayanagara Empire.
Epigraphically records speak of different kinds of Nayakas such as:
 Dannayakas: Military official
 Durga-Dannayakas: Military official in charge of fort

o Durga Dandnaykas were Brahman commanders in charge of strategic fortresses.

o The landholding allocated to the Nayakas was called Nayakattanam.
o The king gave territory to a Nayaka who distributed it in three ways. A sub-Nayaka who
received land from the Nayaka was called Amaranayaka.
o He was responsible for maintaining troops. He had to remit a fixed amount to the
Nayaka.

 Ayangar System:
o During the Vijayanagara rule the village administration was organised in the form of the
‘Ayagar system’. According to this system every village was a separate unit.
o Twelve functionaries, collectively known as ‘ayagars’ were appointed by the
government in each village and once allotted, the office became hereditary.
o These were headmen (Reddy or Gauda, Maniyam), accountant (Karnam Senabhova),
and watchmen (Talaiyari).
o The other village servants potter, blacksmith, carpenter etc. who did not perform
administrative functions but performed essential services for the village were also given
income shares. These Income shares were called umbali, kodage and srotriya.
o These income shares from agricultural production were not taxed but served as payments
for other services performed.
o Payments in kind were referred to as danyadaya and those in money were called
suvarndaya, kasu kadamai.

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 Society and Economy:
o Golden Days Empire in the 15th and early 16th century was marked by their control
directly or indirectly over the economic activities of the region.
o Flourishing trade and expanding agriculture was the marked features of this time.
o Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.
o The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further growth by providing irrigation
facilities.
o New tanks were built and dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra.
Nuniz refers to the excavation of canals.
o Black and white variety of rice was produced from Coromandel to Puliyt. Besides,
cereals like gram and pulses were also cultivated. Spices (especially black pepper)
coconut and betel-nuts were other important items of – production.

 Foreign trade:
o Amuktamalyada of Sri Krishnadevraya and the accounts of Domingo Paes and Nuniz
gave vivid description of foreign trade.
o Land-revenue was the major source of state's income. Rate of revenue demand varied in
different parts of the empire and in the same locality itself according to the fertility and
regional location of the land.
o Besides land-tax, many professional taxes also were imposed.
o Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia, South Africa and Portugal on the west and
with Burma, Malay Peninsula and China on the east flourished.
o The chief items of exports were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and
sugar.
o It was generally 1/6th of the produce, but in some cases it was even more ranging up to
1/4th. But on Brahmans and temples it was 1 / 20th to 1/ 30th respectively.
o Horses were brought from Horses were Brought from Arabia, Syria and Turkey to the
west-coast ports.
o Besides horses, ivory, pearls, spices, precious stones, coconuts, palm-sugar, salt, etc.
were also imported
o Pearls were brought from the Persian Gulf and Ceylon and precious stones from Pegu
(Myanmar).
o The art of shipbuilding had developed.
o It was generally 1/6th of the produce, but in some cases it was even more ranging up to
1/4th. But on Brahmans and temples it was 1 / 20th to 1/ 30th respectively.
o During the Vijaynagar period, temples emerged as important landholders.
o Devadana villages were given to temple for maintenance of temple.

 Internal Trade:
o The contemporary foreign accounts show that local and long distance trade increased
under the Vijaynagar.

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o The merchants and artisan organizations in Andhra got identified with certain cities.
o The literary and inscriptional evidences of the 14th to 16th centuries reveal the existence
of 80 major trade centers.
o The temple-records refer to the prosperity and prestige of merchants and artisans.

 Urban life:
o The Vijaynagar state possessed an urban quality which is not witnessed in any other
South Indian state of the time. The capital city integrated within its precincts markets,
palaces, temples, mosques, etc. This urban quality was, however, completely destroyed
by the middle-16th century by Deccan Sultanate.

 Society:
o Allasani Peddanna – Varna System and Social life
o Domingo Paes – Beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household
servants.
o Nicolo Conti – Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the
amusements.
o Other Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendor of buildings and luxurious
social life in the city of Vijayanagar.
o Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments
were used by the people.

 Status of Women:
o The position of women had not improved.
o Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana who compiled Maduravijayam, Hannamma and
Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period.
o Nuniz stated that, the large number of women was employed in royal palaces as dancers,
domestic servants and palanquin bearers.
o He also mentioned Sati practice in kingdom.
o The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice.
o Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi system.
o Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families.

 Religious condition:
o Krishnadeva Raya (the Tuluva‘ruler) constructed the Krishna swami temple (Vaishnava
shrine)and also gave grants to Siva temples.
o According to Duarte Borbosa, Muslims were employed in the administration and they
were freely allowed to build mosques and worship.
o The rulers of the early Sangama dynasty were Saivas who made additions to the
SriVirupaksha temple of Vijaynagar.
o Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular.

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o The Epics and the Puranas were popular among the masses.
o The Saluvas were basically Vaishnavas who gave patronage to both the Siva and Vishnu
temples.
o The Aravidu kings also gave gifts to Vaishnava temples.
o All kings were tolerant towards other religions.

 Art and architecture:

o During this period representations in narrative forms of the Ramayana and Krishna Bal
Lila became favourite themes.
o The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
o The Vijayanagara emperors caused excellent portraits to be carved by the sculptors to
immortalise them in the vicinity of their favourite deities.
o The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall
Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamantapa with carved pillars in the temple
premises.

 Temple:
o Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant
combination of the chalukya, Hoysala,
Pandya and Chola styles idioms thet
prospered in previous centuries.
o Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage
hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls)
and the Rayagopura (tower).
o In the 14th century the kings continued to
build Vesara or Deccan style monuments but
later incorporated Dravida-style gopurams to
meet their ritualistic needs. E.g. The Prasanna
Virupaksha temple.
o Vijaynagar style was a combination of the
styles developed in South India in the previous
centuries. In addition, the Yali columns (pillar
with charging horse), balustrades (parapets)
and ornate pillared manatapa are their unique
contribution.
o While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of
Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open-air theatre of monuments at its capital
at Vijayanagara a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.
o The Vijaya Vittala Temple in Hampi has 56 Musical Pillars also known as the Sari
Gama Pillars. Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, are the four of the seven musical notes. The pillars

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produce musical tones when struck with a thumb. It sounds like bells ringing.
o Music and dancing were also patronized by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
o Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples Vijayanagar
style.
o The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the
magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
o The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and Chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of
Vijayanagar.
o The metal images of Sri Krishnadevaraya and his queens Chinammadevi and
Tirumaladevi, at Tirupati are examples for casting of metal images.

 Literature in Vijaynagar:
o Among them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. He was
known as Andhra kavitapitamaha.
o Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam.
o Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed two poetical works of great merit known as
Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and Kalahasteeswara Satakam.
o Madayagari Mallana’s work Rajashekharacharitra is a prabandha dealing with the wars
and loves of Rajashekhara, king of Avanti.
o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam and
Sakalakathasara Sangraham.
o The Vijayanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somanatha, a
court poet of Bukka I, produced a poetical work titled Uttaraharivamsam.
o Nannaya (A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet. In ancient times, Tamil and Telugu
spread to distant places.
o Tenali Ramakrishna, the court jester, was an interesting figure of the Krishnadevaraya’s
court. His practical jokes on high-placed men of the time are recounted with pleasure
even today.
o Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam which was considered one of
the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.
o Ramarajabhushana was the author of Vasucharitram. He was also known as Bhattumurti.
His other works include Narasabhupaliyam and Harishchandra Nalopakhyanam. It is a
poetical work on the model of Raghavapandaviyam. One can read in it stories of Nala as
well as Harishchandra.
o Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the greatest of the Vijayanagara emperors, was a poet of
great merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandha in Telugu
literature.
o Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court.
o Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra was the author of two works Ramabhyudayam and
Sakalakathasara Sangraham.

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 Questionary:

1. What is the importance of religion in the Vijayanagara Empire?

2. What was the contribution of the Vijayanagar Empire to India?

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Chapter: 26
Bhaktism, Sufism, and Sikhism

 Introduction:
o Brahminism based on caste-system was prominent during the Medieval period. But there
was opposition to the same as well.
o India is known to the world as a birth as well as meeting place of various religions,
creeds and faiths.
o In the medieval period, religion provided the frame work of society at the community
and state levels.
o Sufi and Bhakti represented people's revolt against the ossified practices, in search of,
and as an endeavor to bring harmony in life.
o Bhakti movement constitutes a very important chapter in the socio-cultural history of
India.

 Bhakti and Sufi Movement and Sikhism:

o The Sufis were mystics who called for liberalism in Islam. They emphasised on an
egalitarian society based on universal love.
o The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an important role in bringing the Muslims and Hindus
together.
o The early medieval period is marked by a revival and expansion of Hinduism, and
a continued decline of Buddhism and Jainism. Not only were the tenets of Buddhism and
Jainism challenged at the intellectual level, there was on occasions, outbreak of
violence and forcible occupation of Buddhist and Jain temples.
o Medieval period in India saw the rise and growth of the Sufi movement and the Bhakti
movement.
o The two movements brought a new form of religious expression amongst Muslims and
Hindus.

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o By using the local language of the people, they made religion accessible and meaningful
to the common people.
o The Bhakti saints transformed Hinduism by introducing devotion or bhakti as the means
to attain God. For them caste had no meaning and all human being’s were equal.

 Sufis:
o Oways-Qarni, Hasan Basari, Abu Hashin Kufi are some of the important names in the
early phase of Sufism. Besides, Rabia Basari was the first woman Sufi who enjoyed
great respect and veneration in her fellow Sufis.
o The Sufis turned to meditation in order to achieve religious satisfaction. Like the Bhakti
saints, the Sufis too interpreted religion as ‘love of god’ and service of humanity.
o The Sufis originated in Persia were mystics.
o The origin of Sufism lay in mysticism (Tassawuf) and one could discern from the very
beginning two trends - natural mysticism and the esoteric.
o Many began to lead a retired ascetic life, having nothing to do with the state.
o The Sufis laid emphasis upon free thought and liberal ideas.
o They were against formal worship, rigidity and fanaticism in religion.
o They opposed the vulgar display of wealth in public life and the readiness of the Ulema
to serve “ungodly” rulers.
o The Sufis organised Samas (a recital of holy songs) to arouse mystical ecstasy. Basra in
Iraq became the centre of Sufi activities.
o In course of time, the Sufis were divided into different Silsilahs (orders) with each
Silsilah having its own Pir (guide) called Khwaja or Sheikh.
o The Pir and his disciples lived in a khanqah (hospice).
o A Pir nominated a successor or Wali from his disciples to carry on his work.
o They owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the Ulema did.
o The Sufi saints were not setting up a new religion, but were preparing a more liberal
movement within the framework of Islam.

 Sufism in India:
o The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the 11th and 12th centuries.
o In the beginning, the main centres of the Sufis were Multan and Punjab. By the 13th and
14th centuries, the Sufis had spread to Kashmir, Bihar, Bengal and the Deccan.
o Their emphasis upon a pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them
popular and earned them a place of honour in Indian society.
o One of the early Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was Al Hujwari who died in
1089, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh (Distributor of Unlimited Treasure).
o The Sufism had already taken on a definite form before coming to India. Its fundamental
and moral principles, teachings and orders, system of fasting, prayers and practice of
living in khanqahs had already been fixed.
o The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will.

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o One of the greatest Sufi mystics Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273) was very
influenced by Indian folklore and even wrote a poem dedicated to the flute of Krishna.
o The major silsilahs in India were the Chisti, Qadri, Naqshbandi and Suharwardy. Abul
Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari gave a list of all that existed during his time, with some details
leading Sufi.
o The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will.

These silsilahs were divided into two types:

 Ba-shara and Be-shara:

o Ba-shara was those orders that followed the Islamic Law (Sharia) and its directives such
as namaz and roza. Chief amongst these were the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi, Qadiri
and Naqshbandi silsilahs.
o The besharasilsilahs were not bound by the Sharia. The Qalandars belonged to this
group.
o Sufism can be explained through three basic religious attitudes of:
o Islam is the attitude of submission to the will of Allah.
o Iman designates a firm faith in the teachings of the Islam.
o Ihsan is to adore Allah though one may not see him.
o Sufism is the spirituil progress of a devotee from the initial stage of Islam to the ultimate
stage of Ihsan.

 Silsilah:
o Sufi silsilahs began to crystallise in different parts of the Islamic world around the 12th
century. The word silsilah literally means a chain, signifying a continuous link between
master and disciple.
 The Chishti Silsilah:
o The Chishti order was founded in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). In India,
the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja Muinudin Chishti who came to India around
1192.
o He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching.
o Sheikh Hamiduddin of Nagaur and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki were his disciples.
o He died in Ajmer in 1236.
o During Mughal times, Ajmer became a leading pilgrim centre because the emperors
regularly visited the Sheikh’s tomb.
o Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan) popularised the Chishti silsilah in
modern Haryana and Punjab.
o Baba Farid, as he was called, was respected by both Hindus and Muslims. His verses,
written in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
o Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325):
o He was disciple of Baba Farid.

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o He was responsible for making Delhi an important centre of the Chishti silsilah.
o Amongst his followers was the noted writer Amir Khusrau.
o Another famous Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi).
Chisti Devetionalism:
o Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world.
o Qawwali is a combination of music and dance including mystical chants.

 The Suhrawardi Silsilah:

o The Suhrawardi order entered India at about the same time, as the Chistis.
o This silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. It was established in India
by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262).
o He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which was visited by rulers, high government
officials and rich merchants.
o There were others such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Shattari Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah,
Naqshbandi Silsilah, Not very popular in India.
o The Suhrawardi order entered India at about the same time, as the Chistis.
o The Suhrawardi silsilah was firmly established in Punjab and Sind.
o Unlike the Chisht saints, the Suhrawardi maintained close contacts with the state. They
accepted gifts, and even government posts.

 Bhakti Movement:
o The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil
Nadu between the 7th and 12th centuries.
o It was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars
(devotees of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu).
o Jayadeva writing in Marathi, Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas in
Hindi, Shankaradeva popularising Assamese, Chaitanya
and Chandidas spreading their message in Bengali,
Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.
o They wrote in local languages, Tamil and Telugu and were
therefore able to reach out to many people.
o Bhakti is the divine-human relationship as experienced from the human side.
o They also translated Sanskrit works to make them understandable to a wider audience.
o The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the 7th and
12th centuries.

 Bhakti Saints:
 Ramanuja:
o It was in the eleventh or twelfth century that Ramanuja preached unity of God under the
name of Vishnu in Southern India. He proclaimed the love of God as the way to

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salvation. It is said that Ramanuja had to fly from the kingdom of the Chola king into
Mysore, that he received converts from all classes of the people in that land. Ramanuja
established hundreds of Vaishnava monasteries before he died.

 Ramananda:
o Fifth in the apostolic succession from Ramanuja was the great Ramananda, who
preached the same ennobling doctrine and faith in Northern India. He traveled far and
wide from Varanasi, and preached and wrote in Hindi that was a local language of the
people of Northern India. Religious reforms have often led to the improvement and
culture of the spoken tongue in India and the Hindi language was greatly strengthened
by Ramayana’s life work.

 Chaitanya Maha Prabhu:

o Almost contemporaneous with the reformer of the Punjab, Chaitanya was born in Nadiya
in 1486. Chaitanya preached in Bengal the religion of One God under the name of
Vishnu. He too invited Muslims to join his sect, but his following was almost entirely
Hindu. Nearly the entire population of Bengal, except the higher castes, are virtually
Vaishnavas at the present day

 Kabir:
o Kabir emphasised simplicity in religion and said that bhakti
was the easiest way to attain God. He refused to accept any
prevalent religious belief without prior reasoning.
o He believed that the Creator is One.
o Kabir was a disciple of Ramananda. He followed in the same
path.
o Kabir conceived the lofty ideal of uniting Hindus and
Muslims in the worship of one God.
o No wonder then that the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the
Hindus call him Rama-Bhakta and the Sikhs incorporate his
songs in th Adi Granth.Kabir’s teachings known as Kabir Chaura are preserved in
Varanasi, and his followers are still numerous in the Deccan, Central India, and Gujarat.
o His God was called by many names - Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc.

 Nanak:
o From an early age, he showed leanings towards a
spiritual life. He was helpful to the poor and needy. His
disciples called themselves Sikhs (derived from Sanskrit
sisya).
o Baba Guru Nanak organised his followers into a
community and set up rules for Sangat.

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o Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in a village called
Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi in the predominantly Muslim Punjab.
o He rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both
Hindus and Muslims.
o Nanak was as much a social reformer as he was a religious teacher.
o He called for an improvement in the status of women.
o His vani (words) along with those of other Sikh Gurus have been brought together in the
Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
o He advocates Nirguna Bhakti.
o His objective was to remove the existing corruption and degrading practices in society.

 Dadu Dayal (1554—1603 A D.):

o Dadu Dayal was a weaver from Ahmedabad, who made
significant contributions to the Bhakti movement.
o He said “The Illusion of Allah and Rama hath been
dispelled from my mind; since I see Thee in all; I see no
difference between Hindu and Turk.”
o Dadu laid stress upon the promotion of love, union,
sentiments of brotherhood and toleration among people of
various faiths in his teachings.
o Dadu was opposed to idol-worship, caste distinctions, the
theory of avatars (reincarnation of God), external formalities of religion and the practice
of worship at the shrines of the departed saints.
o He dwelt upon the greatness of Guru even over the sacred books—the Vedas and the
Quran.

 Vaishnavit Movement:
o This movement, called the Vaishnavite movement, centered around the worship of Rama
and Krishna, who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu.
o The childhood Leela (escapades) of the Krishna and his dalliance of milk maids of
Gokul.
o The love between Radha and Krishna became the themes of remarkable series of saint
poets.
o The most famous of the Rama bhaktas was Tulsidas (l 532-1623) who wrote the
Ramacharitmanas.
o Its main exponents were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya.
o Their path to salvation was expressed through the medium of poetry, song, dance and
kirtans.
o The saints such as Kabir, Namdev and Guru Nanak had preached devotion toward a
nirankar form of God.
o During this period, another movement based upon devotion towards a sakar form of God

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had also developed.
o The worship of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470).
o He considered Rama as the supreme God. Women and outcastes were welcomed.

 Mirabai:
o Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries) is perhaps the best-known woman poet within
the bhakti tradition.
o She believed in a spiritual marriage with Lord Krishna. Her poems have a quality of
their own and are popular even today.
 Surdas:
o Surdas (1483-1563) was a disciple of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara.
o He was a blind poet, whose songs are centered around Krishna.
o His Sursagar recounts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and youth with gentle
affection and delightfulness.
o The Vaishnavite movement spread in the east through the efforts of Chaitanya Prabhu.

 Tulsidas:
o He makes an exposition of religious devotion of the highest order. Tulsi Das was a
humanist and Universalist and laid stress upon knowledge, devotion, worship and
mediation He has blended in his work the philosophical monist of the past with stress on
Bhakti, the poetry and dignity of Valmiki’s Ramayana with the devotional fervour and
humanism of Bhagvata.
o To Tulsidas, Rama was a personal and supreme God, which had feeling of compassion
for the humanity which suffered.

 Chaitanya (1485-1533):
o In Bengal Chaitanya (1485-1533) started a Bhakti movement in the form of Krishna
work ship.
o He believed firmly in devotion to God, Krishna in his case, and rejected the ritual and
caste system of Hinduism.
o The main purpose of religious life was the attainment of an ecstatic feeling in the love of
God, which was helped by music, this feeling could be any men whatever his creed or
caste, provided he devoted himself to the love of God.

 Vallabhacharya:
o Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava saint from the South. He hailed from
a Telugu Brahman family, and gained great popularity for his talents, scholarship and
deep knowledge of philosophy. He had intense love for the divine incarnation of God—
Shri Krishna. He wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutra, the Jaimini Sutra and
Brahma Sutra and Anubhshya and Tattvarthadipa. In addition he wrote numerous other
small works.

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o Vallabhacharya advocated a system of pure non-dualism devoid of the concept of Maya.
Vallabha glorified the intense love of Radha and Krishna. He advocated a universal
religion which did not believe in distinctions of sex, caste, creed or nationality.

 Nimbarka:
o Nimbarka was a younger contemporary of Ramanuja, who also rendered great service to
the spread of Bhakti movement. He wrote Vedanta-Parijatasourabha, a commentary on
the Brahma Sutra, in simple language.
o Nimbarka also wrote Dasa Sloki, which deals with three realities (tri-tattava) —Brahma
(Krishna), soul (Chit) and matter (Achit).
o Nimbarka declared that the individual soul is a part of Brahma, both in the state of igno-
rance and in that of knowledge or emancipation Nimbarka attached great importance to
attainment of knowledge and devotion. He propounded the Radha Krishna cult, one of
the most popular and influential cults of India.

 Madhav:
o Madhva was another devotee of Vishnu from the South. He took to monastic life when
he was 25 years old. He wrote four bhasyas on Brahma Sutra; on the opening passages
of the Rig-Veda; on the ten philosophical Upanishads; and on the Bhagavad-Gita. He
also wrote expositions of Mahabharata and Bhagavata. It is said that Madhva in all wrote
thistly-seven works.
o In these works he revealed his scholarly ability and logical penetration. Madhava did not
believe in the qualified monism of Ramanuja and emphasised the doctrine of duality,
based mainly upon the Bhagavata Purana. He held that the greatest obstacle in the path
of salvation was the belief in the identity of Brahma and Jiva.

 Sikhism:
o The Sikhs, who mostly belong to Punjab, form a sizable group of their population.
o The orthodox Sikhs believe that their religion was revealed by God to Guru Nanak,
whose spirit entered the second and the subsequent gurus till the tenth Guru.
o The Sikhs basically believe in a formless God, equality of all mankind, need of a guru
and the pahul tradition.
o The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things.
o The first was in the shape of the Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus
and other allied saints.
o The second was the standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first
written.
o The third was a site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple
and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire
Sikh community are issued.

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o The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in
1699. He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair
and a beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an
underwear extending to a little above the knees).
o Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing marks of a Sikh.
o He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs. Music
has always been an important feature of Sikhism and they believed that through music
one can attain ecstasy or samadhi.

 Sikh Gurus:
 On the death of Nanak, he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession.
 Guru Angad Dev Ji (1539-1552): He created a new script Gurmukhi and gave the
Sikhs a written language.

 Amar Das Ji (1479-1574): He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral
part of Sikhism.

 Guru Ram Das Ji: He took over as the fourth Guru; he composed hymns, which were
later incorporated in the sacred writings.
 Guru Arjan Dev Ji: He built the world famous Harmandar Sahib, popularly known as
the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred
religious book of the Sikhs. He was martyred in 1606.

 Guru Sri Hargobind Sahib: He who maintained a standing army and symbolically
wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power.

 Guru Siri Har Rai Ji: He spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching
the teachings of Guru Nanak.

 Guru Siri Har Krishan Ji: He gave his life while serving and healing the epidemic-
stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breathes his last is the one where, the
renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi.

 Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji: When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible

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conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out.

 Guru Gobind Singh: At the time of his death invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the
supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to a
grinding halt.

 Significance:
o The interaction between the Bhakti and Sufi saints had an impact upon Indian society.
The Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was remarkably similar to that in
the Hindu Upanishads. Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than
Persian verses to explain concepts. Malik Muhamniad Jaisi composing works in Hindi.
o At a time when society had become stagnant, the Bhakti saints infused new life and
strength. They awakened a new sense of confidence and attempted to redefine social and
religious values. Their call to social equality attracted many a downtrodden.
o The popular verses and songs of the Bhakti saints also served as forerunners of a musical
renaissance. New musical compositions were written for the purpose of group singing at
kirtans.
o Bhakti movement was a socio-religious movement that opposed religious bigotry and
social rigidities. It emphasised good character and pure thinking.
o The importance of the Bhakti and Sufi saints lies in the new atmosphere created by
them,
o This continued to affect the social, religious and political life of India even in later
centuries.
o The use of terms such as Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc. became so common
in such literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hïndi
to explain their Islamic equivalents.

 Questionary:

1. What were the similarities between Guru Nanak and Kabir?

2. The Bhakti Saints and the Sufi Saints were the two faces of a coin.
Elaborate.

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Chapter: 27
Deccan Sultanate

 Deccan Sultanate
o The Deccan Sultanates refer to five different Muslim dynasties that ruled late medieval
kingdoms in Golconda, Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmednagar and Berar in southwestern India.
o In 1490, Ahmednagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same
year. Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.
o The five Sultanates were mostly rivals but they did unite against the mighty
Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, lastingly weakening the latter at the Battle of Talikota.
o In 1574, Berar was annexed by Ahmednagar. Bijapur seized Bidar in 1619.
o These kingdoms were situated in the Deccan Plateau between the Vindhya Ranges and
the Krishna River.
o These kingdoms became independent during the break-up of the Bahmani Sultanate.
o Later, the Mughal Empire conquered the Deccan Sultanates.
o Ahmednagar lost Berar in 1569 and was itself annexed entirely between the years 1616
and 1636 by the Mughals.
o Aurangzeb conquered Bijapur and Golconda during his campaign in 1686-87.

 Bahmani Kingdom:
o The Bahmani kingdom was ruled by fourteen Sultans from 1347 to 1482.

 Hasan Ganagu:
o According to record of Ferishta, he called himself Gangu Bahmani in honour of
Brahmin Gangu whose slave he had formerly been.
o He established his capital at Gulbarga which remained till 1424, after which the capital
was shifted to Bidar by Ahmad Shah.

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o The Bahmani Kingdom stretched roughly from Berar in the north to Krishna River in the
south.
o He divided his country into provinces called Tarfas, i.e. Daulgltabad, Berar, Bidar and
Gulbarga each ruled by a tarafdar.
o He was succeeded by Muhammad Shah I (1358-1373) whose reign was chiefly occupied
in waging savage wars against Vijayanagar and Warangal.
o Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah, who was migrated from Ghaznah, was the founder of
Bahmani Kingdom.
o He claimed to be descendent half mythical hero of Persia, Bahman, and the son of
Isfandiyar.

 Taj-ud-din Firuz Shah:

o Firoz Shah was a cultured, pious and generous ruler. He took interest in literature,
language, Science and Arts. He was an enlightened ruler and gathered around him
philosophers, poets and historians.
o He twice defeated Vijayanagar but was ultimately defeated at Pangul.
o He constructed the new city of Firozabad on the Bhima River and occasionally used it as
his capital.
o He was succeeded by Ahmad Shah, the saint (Wali), who shifted his capital Gulbarga to
Bidar.
o He was the greatest among the Bahmani Sultans.

 Mahmud Gawan:
o He was prime minister of three Bahmani
Sultans.
o The Prime Minister ship of Mahmud Gawan
saw the Bahmani State attaining high
unequalled in the whole of its history.
o He was granted title Malik-ul-tajjur and
appointed governor of Bijapur.
o He defeated the forces of Odisha, Khandesh
and Teliangana.
o He captured Goa of Vijaynagar.
o However, Gawan was a Persian by birth and
hence disliked by the 'Deccani' chiefs who
were native. The Deccani party conspired
against him and got him executed in 1481.
o He built a college in Bidar, known as
Gawan Madarsa.

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o He was also a poet and a good prose writer
and the collection of his letters is known as
Riaz-ul-Insha.
o The Deccan Sultanates were established
following the breakup of the Bahmani
Sultanate in 1527.
o The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates
were
o Ahmednagar (1490-1636)
o Bijapur (1490-1686)
o Berar (1490-1572)
o Golkonda (1518-1687)
o Bidar (1528-1619)

 Ahmednagar:
o The Ahmednagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat
and Bijapur sultanate
o The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi
dynasty
o The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to
Ahmednagar
o Berar was annexed during the reign of Murtaza Shah.
o Khanzada Humayun Sultana better known as Chand Bibi fought with powerful army of
Akbar.
o She acted as the Regent of Bijapur (1580–90) and Regent of Ahmednagar (1596–99).
o She was wife of Adil Shah I of Bijapur and daughter of Sultan of Ahmednagar.
o The Ahmednagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during
the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636.

 Berar:
o Berar was northern-most province of Bahmani kingdom and also the earliest to secede
from Bahmani.
o The Berar Sultanate was established by Hindu convert Fataullah, the governor of
Gawilharh, adopted title of Imad-ul Mulk in 1490.
o It lasted for four rulers and later was annexed by the Ahmednagar Sultanate in 1572.

 Bijapur:
o Bijapur had been a province of the Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1518), before its political
decline in the last quarter of the 15th century and eventual break-up in 1518 A.D.
o Bijapur eventually conquered the neighbouring Sultanate of Bidar in 1619.
o Ismail Shah annexed Raichur Doab but lost to Krishndeva Raya of Vijaynagar.

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o The Adil Shahi Sultanate was founded by Yusuf Adil Shah that ruled the Sultanate of
Bijapur from 1489 to 1686.
o He was a Georgian slave purchased by Gavan, but Ferishta records that he was a son of
Sultan Mahmud II of Ottoman.
o The Bijapur sultanate was located in southwestern India, straddling the Western
Ghats range of southern Maharashtra and northern Karnataka.
o Bijapur was recognized by Shah of Persia as independent state because the ruling
dynasty was a Shia.
o Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani Urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This
work contains a number of songs set to different ragas.
o During the 17th century, the Marathas rebelled against the Bijapur Sultanate, under the
leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji.
o Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and
culture in India
o The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in
memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from
the tank to the city residents
o The Bijapur Sultanate was absorbed into the Mughal Empire on September 1686 A.D,
after its conquest by the Emperor Aurangzeb.

 Golkonda:
o Golkonda is one among the three major states formed out of the fragments of Bahmani
kingdoms.
o The dynasty's founder was Sultan Quli Qutub-ul-Mulk, migrated to Delhi with his uncle,
Ala-Quli, in the beginning of the 16th century.
o The Qutub Shahi architecture was Indo-Persian, a culmination of Hindu, Moorish,
Mughal and Persian architectural styles.
o The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518),
Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617).
o He conquered Golconda, after the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate into the five
Deccan Sultanates.
o Soon after, he declared independence from the Bahmani Sultanate, took the title Qutub
Shah, and established the Qutub Shahi dynasty of Golconda.
o The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh, with the capital
Hyderabad.
o Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda
o The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani Urdu.
o Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in
Dakhani Urdu.
o The dynasty ruled Golconda for 171 years, until the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb
conquered the Deccan in 1687.

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o He was murdered by his son Jamshid.

 Bidar:
o Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates.
o The sultanate was founded in 1492 by Qasim Barid, who was a sar-naubat but later
became the mir-jumla (prime minister) of the Bahmani sultanate.
o Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619.
o An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were
carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper

 Contribution:
o Dakhani, which started growing under the Bahmani rulers, developed into an
independent spoken and literary language during this period by continuously drawing
resources from Arabic-Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu. This language later
became known as Dakhani Urdu to distinguish it from the North Indian Urdu.
o The Gol Gumbaz (the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah) which was built in 1656
has the largest single dome ever constructed. The architect of Gol Gumbaz was Yaqut of
Dabul.
o The contributions of Deccan Sultanate to the arts and architecture of India is impressive
with iconic Indo Islamic monuments constructed in Gulbarga, Bidar, Bijapur and
Hyderabad.
o The Deccani miniature painting, which flourished in the courts of Ahmednagar, Bijapur
and Golkonda, is another major cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates.
o The Gol Gumbaz (the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah) which was built in 1656
has the largest single dome ever constructed. The architect of Gol Gumbaz was Yaqut of
Dabul.
o In 1591-92, Quli Qutb Shah founded the city Hyderabad, he also constructed many
buildings, the most famous of which is the Char Minar.
o An important cultural contribution of the Deccan sultanates is the development of
Dakhani language.

 Questionary:

1. Who was Mahmud Gawan? Briefly discuss his achievements as Successful

military general capable administrator.
2. Who founded the Bahmani kingdom? In which year was it founded? What
was the extent of the Bahmani kingdom?

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Chapter: 28
Maratha Empire: Shivaji, Peshwa, Governance

 Maratha Empire:
o Maratha rose to power under Shivaji.
o The character and achievements of Shivaji and the Peshwas have left a permanent mark
on the history of India.
o For over half a century the politics of India were directed from Satara or Poona.
o Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable kingdom with the support of powerful warrior
families (Deshmukh).
o After the death Chatrapati Shivaji, Maratha power waned till its revival in the 18th
century under successive Peshwas seated at Pune.
o It soon grew into the Maratha Confederacy with seats at Nagpur, Indore, Gwalior and
Baroda controlled from Pune.
o The Maratha confederacy lost their power after 3rd Anglo-Maratha war of 1818.

 Timeline:
o Chatrapati Period: 1664 to 1700
o The Peshwa Period: 1710 to 1761
o Confederacy Period: 1761 to 1818

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 Family Background:
o Shivaji Maharaj, the illustrious founder of the Maratha, Power, derived his descent from
the renowned Bhonsle family.
o This noble Maratha house claimed an ancient Kshatriya origin.
o Shivaji ancestor Babaji was a Patel (headman) in the village of Hingani Beradi and
Deval gaon in Puna.
o His sons Maloji and Vittoji were petty horsemen in Daultabad.

 Source:
o The most important Marathi work is Shivaji's biography written by Sabhasad in 1694.
o Sambhaji's Adnapatra or Marathshahitil Rajniti of Ramchandra Panta Amatya (1716) is
another Marathi work of importance which traces the events from Shivaji to Sambhaji.
o Jayarama Pindye's Radhamadhav Vilas Champu (in Sanskrit) is another work that
primarily deals with the life of Shivaji.
o Bhimsen's Nuskha-i Dilkusha (Persian) also throws important light on Mughal-Maratha
relations.

 Rise of Maratha: Polity

o The Marathas in the Deccan began emerging since the early 17th century under the
Bijapur, Ahmednagar and Golkonda states.
o They served in the army of Bijapur and Ahmednagar rulers, but some served the
Golkonda state as well. The hill-forts in the Deccani states were controlled by the
Marathas though the forts of more importance were manned by Muslim qiladar.
o They were often honored by the titles of raja, naik and rao.
o The Bijapur ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah employed the natives of Maharashtra as bargirs and
frequently used them against the Nizam Shahi rule of Ahmednagar.

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 Shahaji Bhonsale:
o Maratha had an important position in Ahmadnagar and
Bijapur.
o Mores, Ghatges and Nimbalkars exercised local authority in
some areas of Deccan states.
o Marathas did not have any large and well established state.
o The credit for setting up such a large state goes to Shahaji
Bhonsle and Shivaji.
o Shahji was son of Maloji Bhonsle, who rose in service
during Malik Amber.
o Earlier, he was a Jagirdar of Pune and Supa under Ahmadnagar and Shahjahan
respectively.
o In 1630, he was a Mansabdar under Mughal.
o In 1632, he moved to service of Bijapur.
o Neither the Mughals nor the Bijapur state was interested in Poona Jagir after the treaty of
1636.
o In 1638 Shahaji became a Jagirdar of Banglore after defeating Kempegowda III and
annexed his territories.

 Shivaji Maharaj:
o Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of strong Maratha empire.
o He was well known for his forts and Naval Force. Chhatrapati Shivaji was born in the
fort of Shivneri, near from city Junnar (Pune District), in the year 1630 (19th February’
1630).
o His mother Jijabai Bhonsale named him Shivaji in the honor of goddess Shivai Devi.
o His father had laid the foundation of the Maratha Empire but he is considered the real
founder of the Maratha Kingdom whose capital was Raigarh.
o He was brought up under the care and influence of his mother a pious lady, his guardian
Dadaji Konddeva and religious and social reformers like Guru Ram Das.
o After Dadaji Konddev's death (1647), Shivaji became the sole incharge of his Poona
jagir as Shahji's agemt.
o Shivaji at first befriended the Maval chiefs on the west of Poona district and it were they
who formed the backbone'of Shivaji's army in the years to come.
o In 1646, Shivaji captured Torna from Bijapur.

 Military conquest:
o Shivaji began his career with the seize of Javli in 1656 from Chandra Rao More.
o Conquest of Javli made him undisputed master of Mavla, Satar and Konkan coast.
o He attacked Bijapur Kingdom in 1657 and in Konkan region he seized many hill forts.
o In 1659, Shivaji killed Afzal Khan and defeats his army near Pratapgadh, who sent by
Adil Shah of Bijapur.

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o In 1660, Adil Shah sent his general Sidi Johar, who besieged Panhala.
o In 1663, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s military camp located at Lal Mahal, Poona and
killed Khan’s son and injured Shaista Khan himself.
o In 1664, he sacked Surat, wealthy city of Mughal. Surat was the financial capital of
mughal& trading centre.

 Treaty of Purandar:
o After the failure of Shahista Khan, Aurangzeb sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh of Amber.
o In 1665, Shivaji negotiated with the Rajput Jai Singh I and signed the Treaty of
Purandar.
o Shivaji had to give up 23 forts to the Mughals out of the 35 that were held by him.
o The rest of the 12 forts were to be retained with Shivaji on the condition that he offer his
services and loyalty to the Mughal Empire.
o The Mughals accepted Shivaji’s right to have certain parts of the Bijapur sultanate.

 Visit to Court of Aurungzeb – 1666:

o Aurangzeb invited Chhatrapati Shivaji to
Agra on occasion of his 50th birth
anniversary.
o However, in the court, Aurangzeb insulted
Shivaji.
o Shivaji got angry and he refused gift which
offered by Aurangzeb and stormed out of the
court.
o He was house arrested by Aurangzeb, but he
escaped from prison and carried out military
preparations for four more years.
o After the escape from Agra Chhatrapati Shivaji used strong policy against Mughal and
other sultanates.
o Chhatrapati Shivaji gained lot of province till jinji in Karnataka after coronation in the
period of 1677-1678.
o The Karnataka expedition was last major expedition of Shivaji.
o Shivaji died in 1680, shortly after his return from Karnataka expedition.
o At the time of Shivaji’s death his kingdom stretching from Surat in the north to Karawar,
Karnataka in the south.
o He captured his forts again which lost by him in the treaty of Purandar.
o On 6th June 1674 Shivaji was declared Chhatrapati by Ganga Bhatta of Banaras, with the
coronation at Raigad Fort.
o He issued gold hoans with his name and new title, Chhatrapati on the reverse side of the
gold hoan.
o From petty Jagirdar at Poona he traversed all the way to become an independent ruler.

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o He stood against of British, Portuguese& Siddhi.
o At the time of Shivaji death his kingdom stretching from Surat in the north to Karawar,
Karnataka in the south.
o Nasik, Puna and Stara also part of Shivaji’s territories.
o This kingdom was known as ‘Swarajya’.

 Administration:
o Shivaji laid the foundation of a sound administrative system.
o The system of administration was very close to what was there in practice in the Deccan
Sultanates.
o His earliest administrative council, in the days of Dadaji Konddev, was composed of
four officers only.
o This council of eight ministers called Ashtpradhan, was in no sense a Cabinet.
o The eight Pradhans merely acted as his secretories.

Ashtpradhan:
o Ashtapradhan – council of ministers who assisted Shivaji.
o Peshwa – General and Finance administration. Later assumed the role of the prime
minister.
o Sar-i-Naubat/Senapati – Military commander (honorary post)
o Majumdar (Amatya) – Revenue and Accountant General
o Waqenavis(Mantri) – Intelligence, posts and household affairs
o Surnavis(Sachiv) – Correspondence
o Sumanta(Dabir) – Master of ceremonies
o Nyayadish – Justice
o Panditarao – religious administration and charities in charge

 Military organisation:
 Fort System:
o Shivaji buil such a long chain of forts that not a single taluka or pargana left without a
fort.
o During his life, Shivaji constructed around 250 forts. No single officer was entrusted
sole charge of a fort.

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o Instead, in every fort there were a havaldar, a sabnis and a sarnobat.
o Big forts had five to ten sarnobats. All these officers were of equal status and rank and
were frequently transferred.
o This system acted as check and balance on each others' authority. The havaldar was the
in charge of the keys of the fort.
o Guerilla Warfare:
o He trained his soldiers in the guerilla warfare. The guerilla warfare was very suitable in
the geographical location of most territories in Maharashtra.
o Army had six divisions namely, cavalry, infantry, camel battalions, elephant battalions,
artillery and navy.

 Guerilla Warfare:
o He trained his soldiers in the guerilla warfare. The guerilla warfare was very suitable in
the geographical location of most territories in Maharashtra.
o Army had six divisions namely, cavalry, infantry, camel battalions, elephant battalions,
artillery and navy.

 Army:
o Shivaji maintained well organised army.
o The regular army (paga) consisting 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers.
o Shivaji maintained light cavalry and light infantry trained in guerilla and hilly warfare.
o The Mevalis and the Hetkaris were his most excellent troopers.
o The smallest unit in Shivaji's infantry consisted of 9 men headed by a naik.
o Five such units were under one havaldar.
o Over two or three havaldars was a jumledar.
o Ten jumledars were put under a hazari and seven such hazaris were under a sarnobat.
o Shivaji's cavalry consisted of bargirs and the siledars.
o The bargir troopers were supplied horses and arms by the state while the siledars had to
bring their oh horses and arms.
o Over each group of 25 bargirs was a Maratha havaldar; five such havaldars formed a
jumla and 10 jumlas a hazari and five such hazari were placed under panch hazari. They
were, in turn, under the command of sarnobat.
o The siledars were also placed under sarnobat. For every group of 25 horses there was a
water carrier and a farrier.
o Later, under the peshwas, the pindharis who were robbers and plunderers were also
allowed to accompany the army.
o Shivaji also maintained body-guards, organised in regiments of 20,30,40,60 and 100.
o Shivaji paid his soldiers in cash. Wounded soldiers used to get special allowance while
the widows got state pensions.The peshwas established separate artillery department.
Even they had their own factories for manufacturing cannon and cannon balls.They
maintained their own troops- khasgi paga.

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 History
 Navy:
o Marathi chronical speak of Shivajis’ fleet as consisting at its best of 700 vessels of
various sizes and classes, such as Ghurabs (gunboats), tarandis, tarambes, gallivats,
shibars and macchuas.
o Shivaji was the first to realise the importance of having a naval force, and therefore he
strategically established a navy and forts at the coastline to defend the Konkan side of
Maharashtra.
o Shivaji’s trading and transport vessels included the types known as Machhua, Shibar,
Tarand and Pagar.
o Shivaji built ships in towns such as Kalyan, Bhivandi, and Goa for building fighting
navy as well as trade.
o Shivaji built a strong naval presence across long coast of Konkan and Goa to protect sea
trade, to protect the lands from sack of prosperity of subjects from coastal raids, plunder
and destruction by Arabs, Portuguese, British, Abyssinians and pirates.
o Nothing proves Shivaji’s genius as a born statesman more clearly than his creation of
navy and naval bases.
o Maratha Navy was commanded by Sarkhel(equivalent to present day Admiral of the
fleet)
o Kanhoji Angre was the most famous commander of Maratha Navy. He fought against
British, Dutch and Portuguese naval interests.
• Naval establishment of Shivaji:
o Jaigadh
o Vijaydurg
o Sindhudurg
o Swarndurg
o Rantnagiri
• Characteristics:
o His life was marked by a high standard of morality.
o His religious policy was very liberal.
o When he chose to declare his independence the Mughal empire seemed to be at the
height of its glory.
o Every local chief revolted against Mughal it had been crushed.
o Before his rise, Marathas were scattered in many Deccan kingdoms.

 Land Revenue:
o The revenue system under Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar.
o The land assessment was completed through Kathi.
o Three types of land was classified- Paddy fields, Hilly tracks and garden lands.
o Shivaji appointed his own revenue officers called as Karkuns, while reducing the powers
of existing deshmukhs and kulkarnies.
o Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were collected in neighboring territories of Mughal empire,

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not in Maratha empire.
o Chauth was 1/4th of land revenue paid to Marathas in order to avoid Maratha raids.
o Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of 10% on such lands which were considered
hereditary rights.
o He prohibited the illegal extraction of the mirasdars. Ijara or revenue farming was also
stopped.
o He fixed the income of the Zamindars in cash or kind.

o After Shivaji’s death, a war of succession ensued between his sons Shambaji and
Rajaram. Sambhaji was his eldest son. Both the sons were from different mothers.
o A civil war broke out between Shahu at Satara and his aunt Tara Bai at Kolhapur who
had carried out an anti-Mughal struggle since 1700 in the name of her son Shivaji II after
the death of her husband Raja Ram.
o Shambaji succeeded but was later captured, tortured and executed on Aurangzeb’s
orders at Tulapur. His 7 year-old son Shahu was taken captive by the Mughals and
remained so for 18 years.
o He was succeeded by his half-brother Rajaram on the throne.
o Arising out of the conflict between Shahu and his rival at Kolhapur, a new system of
Maratha government was evolved under the leadership of Balaji Vishwanath, the
Peshwa of King Shahu.
o The Maratha kingdom was greatly strengthened by Shahu and after his death, the
Peshwas came to prominence.
o Rajaram was succeeded by his son Shivaji II. This was challenged by Shahu who was
then released by the Mughals.
o With a new generation of Maratha Sardars like Shinde and Holkar in Peshwas army,
Maratha power expanded beyond the Narmada River as the Mughals were getting
weaker in the regions outside Delhi.
o Among the successor states of 18th Century India, the Marathas under the Peshwas were
one of the most powerful and widespread.
o Marathas under Peshwa Baji Rao I and Chhatrapati Shahu conquered Khandesh, Malwa
and Bundelkhand from the Mughals through a series of campaigns by late 1730s.

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o Rise of the Peshwa in Maratha politics marginalized the role of older sardars and the
Senapati - the Maratha military commander.

 Balaji Vishvanath:
o He was the first Peshwa. He made the post of Peshwa hereditary. Balaji vishwanath
gained certain rights from then Mughal emperor Farukh Siyar.
o Firstly the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu as the Maratha king. Secondly, he allowed
Shahu to collect chauth and Sardeshmukhi from 6 Mughal provinces in Deccan.
o In 1719, Balaji Vishwanath, at the head of a Maratha force, accompanied Saiyid Hussain
Ali Khan to Delhi and helped the Saiyid brothers in overthrowing Farrukh Siyar.

 Bajirao I:
o Baji Rao has been described as “the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji”.
o He conquered Central India (Malwa) and Rajputana and extended his dominions
into Gujarat in the northwest and Deccan in the south.
o He started the Confederacy among Maratha chiefs. Under the system of confederacy,
each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which was administered autonomously.
Hence, many Maratha families gained prominence.
o Baji Rao engaged the Nizam in several minor skirmishes between 1727-28 A.D. and,
finally, in 1728 A.D. besieged him at Palkhed. The Nizam became so desperate that he
agreed for peace without fighting and the treaty of Mungeshigaon was signed.
o In 1737, He besieged Nizam near Bhopal and forced him to sign the treaty of Durai-
Sarai without fighting.
o He raided Mughal Delhi in 1738.
o In 1740 A.D., Baji Rao died. But before his death, he had made the Marathas the
foremost power in India and added extensive territory of the North to their Empire.
o He was the most powerful Peshwa.
o Baji Rao I was a bold and brilliant commander and an ambitious and clever statesman.
o Baji Rao has been described as “the greatest exponent of guerrilla tactics after Shivaji”.

 Balaji Baji Rao:

o Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa Baji Rai I.
o Balaji Baji Rao became the sole controller of Maratha kingdom.
o He entered into an agreement with the Mughal emperor Ahmed Shah in 1752, according
to which, the Peshwas would protect the Mughal Empire from external and internal
threats. For this, the Marathas would collect Chauth from northwest provinces along
with the total revenue coming from Ajmer and Agra.
o Therefore, when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, Marathas fought Third Battle of
Panipat in January 1761.
o Though Marathas fought bravely, they were defeated. This marks the decline of Maratha
Power in India.

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 Madhavrao:
o He was the eldest surviving member of the Peshwas family who became defacto ruler of
the state but after his death, the Peshwaship lost its essence.
o Within the short period of 11 years, Madhav Rao restored the lost fortunes of the
Maratha Empire.
o He defeated the Nizam, compelled Haidar Ali of Mysore to pay tribute, and reasserted
control over North India by defeating the Rohelas and subjugating the Rajput states and
Jat.
o In 1771, the Marathas brought back to Delhi Emperor Shah Alam who now became their
pensioner.
o Once again, however, a blow fell on the Marathas for Madhav Rao died of consumption
in 1772.

 Anglo Maratha Wars:

 First Anglo -Maratha War (1775-1782)
o The British fought in favour of Peshwaship to Raghunath Rao. The English (under
Hastings) were defeated by the Marathas.
o They had to sign the Convention of Wadgaon in 1779, which was humiliating for the
British.
o The English later signed the Treaty of Salbai in 1782 where they renounced their cause
of Peshwaship for raghoba.

 Second Anglo – Maratha War (1803- 1806)

o The Maratha Peshwa Baji rao II signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of Bassein in
1802. Other Maratha chief, who were part of Maratha confederacy, were not happy due
to this arrangement. The Scindias of Gwalior began the war against the British but they
were defeated by the British.

 Third Anglo – Maratha War (1817-1818)

o It is also known as Pindari war. Lord Hastings was determined to proclaim British
paramount in India. Hastings moved against Pindaris which transgressed the sovereignty
of the Maratha chiefs and the war began. The Marathas were defeated.

 Raghunath Rao:
o Responsible for extending empire till Peshawar in North-West and also saw the decline
of Maratha power in North India. Deposed by Nana Phadnis and 11 other administrators
in what is now called "The Baarbhai Conspiracy“
 Madhav Rao II:

 Baji Rao II:

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o Nana Sahib:
o He was the last peshwa, who led the rebellion against British in 1857 war of
independence.

 Questionary:

1. What are the names of the council of ministers (Ashta Pradhan) of Shivaji
Maharaj? Explain in detail.
2. Describe the role of Marathas in the growth and the dominance of peshwas.

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Chapter: 29
Advent of Europeans in India

 Introduction:
o The advent of European in the trade and commerce of Indian ocean brought about a
change in the traditional patterns that exists.
o The landing of Vasco De Gama at Calicut in 1498 with three ships is generally regarded
as the beginning of new era in world history, especially in the relation between Asia and
Europe.

 Background:
o India’s trade relation with Europe go back to ancient days of Greek
o Trade between Europe and India carried on along several routes
o Major trade routes were:
o Through sea - along the Persian Gulf;
o Through land- through Iraq and Turkey, and then again by sea to Venice and Genoa;
o Third was via the Red Sea and then overland to Alexandria in Egypt and from there
again by sea to Venice and Genoa.
o The fourth one was less used i.e. overland route through the passes of the North-West
frontier of India, across Central Asia, and Russia to the Baltic.
o The most important feature of the overseas and over land trade was that the Asian part of
the trade was carried on mostly by the Arab traders and sailors.
o The occupation of Constantinople in 1453 by Ottoman Turks was brought certain
starting changes.
o Old trade routes between East and West came under the ottoman rules.
o The Europeans needed spices because they lived on salted and peppered meat during the
winter months, when there was little grass to feed the cattle, and only a liberal use of
spices could make this meat palatable. Consequently, European food was as highly
spiced as Indian food till the 17th century.
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 History
o Goods from Asia to Europe passed through many states and many hands. Every state
levied tolls and duties while every merchant made a substantial profit.
o There were many other obstacles, such as pirates and natural calamities on the way. Yet
the trade remained highly profitable. This was mostly due to the pressing demand of the
European people for Eastern spices.
o The merchants of Venice and Genoa monopolized the trade between Europe and Asia
and refused to let the new nation states of Western Europe, particularly Spain, and
Portugal, have any share in the trade through these old routes.
o The demand for spices was pressing and the profits to be made in their trade inviting.
o The reputedly fabulous wealth of India was an additional attraction as there was an acute
shortage of gold all over Europe, and gold was essential as a medium of exchange if the
trade was to grow unhampered.
o The West European states and merchants therefore began to search for new and safer sea
routes to India and the Spice Islands of Indonesia, (at that time popular as the East
Indies).
o The West Europeans wanted to break the Arab and Venetian trade monopolies, to bypass
Turkish hostility, and to open direct trade relations with the East.

 Sea Route to India:

o From 1418, Dom Henrique, the ruler of Portugal, called Henry the Navigator, sent two
to three ships every year for the exploration of West Coast of Africa.
o The occupation of Africa up to the mouth of the river Congo between 1443 and 1482
gained Portugal trade in ivory, slaves and gold dust, and whetted their appetite.
o A search for a sea route to India had been attempted in post-Roman times by Genoa.
o In 1291, a Genoese, Ugolino di Vivaldo, had set out with two galleys to find his way to
India by the ocean route, but was never heard of.
o The rounding of the southern tip of Africa in 1487 by Megallan opened the sea-route to
India. But it was another ten years before it was taken up by Vasco da Gama.
o Subsequently, the lead in this search was taken by Portugal.

Company Head Quarter Year of

Origin
Portuguese East India Portuguese East India Company 1498
Company
st
English East India 1600
Surat(1 ), later BombayMasulipattnam, later
Company
Madras and finally Calcutta
Dutch East India Pulicat, later NagapattinamHugli 1602
Company

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 History
Danish East India Tranquebar, later Serampore in Bengal 1616
Company
French East India Surat, later Pondicherry 1664
Company

 Portuguese:
o Portuguese intervened in the conflict between the rulers of Calicut and Cochin to
establish their trading centers and forts on the Malabar Coast. Likewise, they attacked
and destroyed Arab shipping, brutally killing hundreds of Arab merchants and seamen.
By threatening Mughal shipping, they also succeeded in securing many trading
concessions from the Mughal Emperors.
o His successor established Portuguese settlements in Diu, Daman, Salsatte, Basin (later
captured by Maratha), Hugli (Later captured by Qasim Khan Mughal) and Goa.
o The earliest “intruder into the East”, lost their influence in the sphere of Indian trade by
18th century.
o In 1498, Vasco da Gama of Portugal discovered a new and all-sea route from Europe to
India.
o He sailed around Africa via the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) and reached Calicut.
o Vasco da Gama returned with a cargo, which sold for 60 times the cost of his voyage.
o He first came to India in 1503 as a commander of armada, was appointed as Governor of
Portuguese affairs in India.
o In November 1503 he captured the rich port of Goa, then rich port of Bijapur Sultanate.
o He fortified captured land and increased commercial activities.
o The earliest “intruder into the East”, lost their influence in the sphere of Indian trade by
18th century.
o Alfonso De Albuquerque was the founder of Portuguese power in India.

 Dutch:
o The Dutch also established trading depots in India at Surat, Broach, Cambay,
Nagapatnam, Machilipatnam, Chinsura, Patna, and Agra.
o In the 17th century, they defeated Portuguese and replaced Portuguese as the most
dominant power in European trade in the East, including India.
o Anglo-Dutch rivalry lasted for 7 decades and led to defeat of Dutch in 1759 in the Battle
of Bedara.
o Dutch exported indigo, raw silk, cotton textiles, saltpeter, and opium from India.
o Like the Portuguese, Dutch treated the people of India with cruelty and exploited them
ruthlessly.
o The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602, but the main interest of the Dutch
lay not in India, but in the Indonesian islands, where spices were produced.
o Pulicat was their main centre, later it was replaced by Nagapattinam.
o After middle of 17th century, English began to emerge as colonial power.

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 History
 English:
o The completion of Dreko’s voyage round the world in 1580, and the victory of the
English over the Spanish Armada, inspired the people of England with a spirit of daring
and enterprise in different sphere of activity and encouraged some English sea captains
to undertake voyages to the eastern waters.
o The early voyage of voyages of the East India Company was directed to Sumatra, Java
and the Moluccas in order to get a share of the spice trade.
o In 1608, Capt Hawkins, the English commander went to Jahangir’s court to seek
permission to trade in Surat.
o In spite of fierce opposition from the Portuguese, the British East India Company
decided to trade with India.
o In 1615 Sir Thomas Roe was sent to the court of Jahangir as ambassador of King James-
I.
o Roe Succeeded in getting many privileges for the British East India Company.
o Between 1591 and 1593 a fleet of vessels under Benjamin Wood sailed eastwards; and
in 1599 John Mildenhall came to India by the overland route and spent seven years in
the East.
o It was on the 31st December, 1600, the East India Company received a charter from
Elizabeth granting it the monopoly of eastern trade for fifteen years.
o Roe Succeeded in getting many privileges for the British East India Company.
o The Company was allowed to set up factories in areas of the Mughal Empire.
o Before Roe left India, in February 1619, the English had established factories at Surat,
Agra, Ahmadabad, and Bharuch.

 Growth:
o From 1613, Surat was the headquarters for the English East India Company on the west
coast, but on 1668, Bombay was transferred to the East India Company by Charles II,
who had got it from the Portuguese as a part of the dowry of his wife Catherine of
Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal.
o Bombay superseded Surat as headquarters of the west coast.
o The English built a small fort around their factory called Fort St. George in Madras.
o By the end of the 17th century, the English Company was claiming full sovereignty over
Madras and was ready to fight in, defence of the claim. Interestingly enough, from the
very beginning, English Company of profit seeking merchants was also determined to
make Indians pay for the conquest of their own country.
o On the south-eastern coast the English East India Company established their factories as
Masulipattnam (1611) and Armagaon (1626), a few miles north of the Dutch Settlement
of Pulicat.
o In 1633, EIC established first factories at Orissa and in 1651 permission to established
factories at Hugli in Bengal by Mughals.
o English now wants free hands from Mughal to compete his European rivals.

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 History
o But in 1686, English sacked Hugli and declared war on emperor, but Aurungzeb
defeated disastrasouly. They were driven out of their factories and compelled to seek
refuge in small islands.
o Job Charnock founded Calcutta in 1696 on the marshy village called Sutanati. Four
years later it became the citadel of a presidency under the name of Fort William.
o In 1715, EIC sent its envoys to Mughal court and secure some privileges.

 In Bengal:
o In 1698, the Company acquired the zamindari of the three villages Sutanati, Kalikata,
and Govindpur where the English built Fort William around its factory. These villages
soon grew into a city, which came to be known as Calcutta.
o During the first half of the 18th century, Bengal was ruled by strong Nawabs namely
Murshid Quli Khan and Alivardi Khan.
o Nawabs of Bengal exercised strict control over the English traders and prevented them
from misusing their privileges. Nor did they allow them to strengthen fortifications at
Calcutta or to rule the city independently.

 French:
o The first French factory in India was established by Francois Caron at Surat in 1668, and
Marcara succeeded in establishing another French factory at Masulipattnam in 1669 by
obtaining a patent from Sultan of Golkonda.
o In Bengal, Nawab Shahista Khan granted a site to the French in 1674, on which they
built Chandernagore.
o French were the last of the European powers to compete for commercial gains in the
East with other European companies.
o French East India Company, “Compagnie des Indes Orientales”, was formed 1664 by
Colbert.
o Pondicherry was captured by Dutch but it was handed back to French by the treaty of
Ryswick.
o By the beginning of 18th century French lost their settlements of Surat, Bantam, and
Masulipattnam.
o The French occupied Mahe on the Malabat coast in 1725, and Karaikal in 1739.

 Danish:
o With the coming of Europeans in India, the Netherlands also took part in trading
activities.
o In 1616 AD, the Danish East India company established their first factory at Tranquebar
in Tamilnadu (1620) and Serampore in Bengal (1676).
o In India, Serampore was their headquarters.
o Though, they failed to strengthen themselves in India and finally in the beginning of
19th century, they sold all their settlements to the British and went back to their country.

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 History

 Questionary:

1. Europeans felt the need to discover a new sea route to India. Explain

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 History

Chapter: 30
British Consolidation in India

 Consolidation of British in India:

o The British East India Company slowly and gradually expanded its trading activities in
India by getting permission from the then ruling powers, the Mughals and the local
rulers.
o By the time the Mughal Empire’s decline started and it fragmented into successor states,
the British East India Company developed designs of becoming a political power by the
middle of the 18th century.
o The British East India Company in its desire to become a political power realized that it
had to eliminate the other European companies from trading activity and so obtained
permission to build forts and to improve its military strength.
o The British who came to India as traders, in course of time realized that in order to
obtain the optimum profits from Indian trade, they have to secure political power,
backed by force.
o Since conquest of Bengal, the British East India Company adopted a threefold strategy
of ideological, military and colonial administrative apparatus to expand and consolidate
the British Indian Empire.
o They used ideological bases to brainwash the natives of India and the world that what
they did in India was in the interest of the progress and development of India and it was
their ‘white man’s burden’ to ‘civilize India’ from a historical barbarian rule of the
earlier centuries of Indian polity and culture.

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 History
 British Occupation of Bengal:
o The first major conflict of the British against an Indian power was in Bengal. The history
of Bengal from 1757 to 1765 is the history of gradual transfer of the power from the
Nawabs to the British.

 Background:
o Bengal was the most fertile and the richest Indian provinces.
o In Bengal, the Europeans had been living peacefully together for many years due to
Mughal power.
o After the fall of Mughal, Bengal was ruled by powerful ruler – Murshid Quli Khan
followed by Aliwardi Khan and Sirajuddaulah.
o They refused to grant the Company concessions, demanded large tributes for the
Company’s right to trade, denied it any right to mint coins, and stopped it from
extending its fortifications.
o On other hand, the East India Company had secured valuable privileges in 1717 under
the royal Farman by the Farukh Siyar.
o Farman had granted the company freedom to export and import their goods in Bengal
without paying taxes and Dastak for the movement of such goods.
o The Farman was a primary reason of conflict between the company and the Nawab of
Bengal.
o Misused of Dastak was the another reason of conflict.
o The conflicts led to confrontations and finally culminated in the famous Battle of
Plassey.

 Battle of Plessey:
o The Company was worried about his power and keen on a puppet ruler who would
willingly give trade concessions and other privileges.
o But the Siraj-ud-daula was a young and quick-tempered, who demanded that the trade
should carried put on same basis as in times of his grandfather.
o The English refused to comply as they felt strong after their victory over the French in
south India.
o On 23rd June 1757, Nawab along with Mir Jafar(defector), Mir Bakshi, and Khadim
Khan fought battle with against British force led by Colonel Robert Clive.
o Nawab was defeated by British because the major part of thr Nawab’s army, led by Mir
Jafar and Rao Durlabh took no part in fighting.
o The fortification of Calcutta without the permission of Nawab was breaking point to the
war.
o Nawab marched with 30,000 soldiers to the English factory at Kassimbazar, captured the
Company officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all Englishmen, and blockaded
English ships. Then he marched to Calcutta to establish control over the Company’s fort
there.

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 History
o After the battle, the Company proclaimed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and in
return the company was granted undisputed rights to free trade in the Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa.
o It also received the Zamindari of 24 Paragana near Calcutta.
o Jafar paid a sum of 17, 700,00 as compensation for the attack on Calcutta.
o Company officials in Madras sent forces under the command of Robert Clive.
o After the battle, the Company proclaimed Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal and in
return the company was granted undisputed rights to free trade in the Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa.

 Battle of Buxar:
o Mir Qasim was defeated in 1763 and fled to Avadh where he formed alliance with Shuja
Ud Daula and Mughal monarch Shah Alam II.
o The battle of Buxar proved itself to be a turning point of Indian History.
o In 1765, Shuja Ud Daula and Shah Alam II signed a treaties at Allahabad with Clive.
o Mir Qasim was a puppet of East India Company and his rule was known as “the period
of open and unashamed plunder”.
o Under these treaties, the EIC secured Diwani rights of Bihar, Bengal and Orissa, which
gave company rights to collect revenue from these territories.
o The confederates advanced to Patna, and a battle was fought at Buxar on October 22,
1764.

 Dual Government of Bengal:

o The Mughal provincial administration had two main heads - nizamat and diwani.
o Nizamat meant administration of law and order and criminal justice
o Diwani was the revenue administration and civil justice.

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 History
o The provincial Subadar was in charge of nizamat (he was also called nazim) and the
diwan was in charge of revenue administration.
o According to the treaty of Allahabad the English East India Company was made the
Diwan of Bengal but Clive choose not to take over the administration of Bengal directly;
this responsibility was left to the Nawab’s Naib Diwan and Naib Nazim Muhammad
Raza Khan.
o Naib Nazim was representative of the Nawab and Naib Diwan was representative of the
Company.
o Clive had also the right to appoint deputy Subedar and through this right company
control police and judicial power.
o This system was known as dual or double government.
o It held great advantages for the British; they had power without responsibility.
o The company’s authority on their part set out to gather the rich harvest and drain Bengal
and its wealth.
o In the year of 1766, 1767 and 1768 alone, nearly 5.7 million pound was drained from
Bengal.
o In 1770 Bengal suffered from a terrible famine in human history.

 Subsidiary alliances or Sanad:

o The British East India Company started an outright war of non-intervention policy and
the assumption of the territories of previously subordinated rulers to achieve political
aspiration.
o The Subsidiary Alliances system was also introduced by Lord Wellesley in and after
1798.
o The British, under the subsidiary alliance system, agreed to protect the Indian rulers
against external threats and internal disorder but, in return, the Indian rulers who
accepted the Subsidiary Alliance system were to agree to the stationing of British
contingent for whose maintenance they would pay a subsidy to the British.
o The policy of Subsidiary alliance was in reality, a document of losing sovereignty which
meant the state did not had the right of self defence, of maintaining diplomatic relations
and settling disputes with its neighbours.
o The ruler under the system of alliance could neither enter into alliance with any other
power nor fight a war without prior permission from the British. A British resident was
stationed at these ruling states that had the authority to interfere in state politics.

 List of State comes under policy:

o Nizam of Hyderabad in 1798: He replace French with English in his court
o Mysore in 1799
o Peshwa Baji Rao II in 1802
o Scindia and Bhonsle in 1803
o Holkars

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 History
 Doctrine of Lapse:
o The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was
the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856.
o It was an idea to annex those states that have no heirs.
o As per this, any adopted son of the Indian ruler could not be proclaimed as heir to the
kingdom.
o The adopted son would only inherit his foster father’s personal property and estates.
o The adopted son would also not be entitled to any pension that his father had been
receiving or to any of his father’s titles.
o This made the British very unpopular and this doctrine became one of the reasons of
1857 revolts.
o The Company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur
(Odisha) (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854), Tanjore and Arcot (1855), Udaipur
(Chhattisgarh) and Avadh (1856).
o There was a widespread custom of adoption among the Indian kings to secure an heir in
the absence of a natural successor i.e. son.

 Conquest of Avadh:
o Anglo-Avadh Treaty of 1765 , maintained friendly relations with Avadh.
o Avadh was a subsidiary alliance of Company.’
o The Kingdom of Oudh was the only princly state whose ruler Nawab Wajid Ali
Shah was dispossessed on the ground of “intolerable misgovernment”.
o Awadh was annexed finally in February 1856 via a proclamation and before the end of
this month, the tenure of Lord Dalhousie ended and he was replaced with the Governor
Generalship of Lord Canning.
 Anglo – Mysore War:
o Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar coast where the Company
purchased pepper and cardamom.
o He was made the Dalavayi (commander-in-chief), and later the Chief Minister of the
Mysore state under Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, ruler of Mysore.
o Hyder Ali built a strong army and annexed many regions in the South including Bidnur,
Canara, Sera, Malabar and Sunda.
o But after the decline of Vijaynagar Empire, Mysore under Wadiyar declared
independence and became Independent rulers of Mysore.
o Mysore controlled the profitable trade of the Malabar Coast where the Company
purchased pepper and cardamom.
o Haidar Ali was a horseman in Mysore army.

 First Anglo – Mysore War:

o He allied with the French and the Nizam and gave crushing defeat to the English in

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 History
the First Anglo-Mysore War in AD 1767-69, and forced them to accept the terms in the
form of treaty i.e. Treaty of Madras in April 1769.

 Second Anglo-Mysore War:

o The second Anglo Mysore War began in July 1780, when Haider attacked the Carnatic
and captured Arcot by defeating an English army under Colonel Baillie.
o Ali was defeated by British and Nizam at Porto Novo in 1781 and the war was ended by
Treaty of Maglore.

 Tipu:
o He fought the third Anglo-Mysore War (AD 1790-92) against British with allied forces
of the Maratha and Nizam.
o He led war with British after the death of his father.
o He died during the course of fighting at the fourth Anglo – Mysore war.
o In 1799, Seringapatam was taken and Tipu Sultan died fighting.
o He imposed with the treaty of Srirangapatnam, and according to which he have to
surrender half of the Mysore an territory to the victories allies.
o Afterwards, Arthur Wellesley restored the Mysore kingdom to the old Wodeyar dynasty,
after appropriating large portions of it for distribution among its allies Marathas, Nizam
and the Company.

o The British completed the task of conquering the whole India from 1818 to 1857.
o Sindh and Punjab were conquered and Avadh, the Central Provinces and a large number
of other petty were annexed.
o Jammu and Kashmir was given Dogra Gulab Singh.

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 History
 Conquest of Sindh:
o The conquest of Sindh occurred as a result of the growing Anglo – Russian rivalry in
Europe and Asia.
o The roads and rivers of Sindh were brought under British control by a treaty in 1832.
o In 1839, Amirs of Sindh were made to sign a Subsidiary Alliance.
o Finally, Sindh was annexed by Charles Napier in 1843.

 Questionary:

1. What reforms did British introduce in the Indian society?

2. What is a Subsidiary alliance give answer in brief?

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 History

Chapter: 31
British Raj: Administration, Drain of Wealth,
Economy, Famine

 Introduction:
o British territories were broadly divided into administrative
units called Presidencies.
o There were three Presidencies: Bengal, Madras and
Bombay. Each was ruled by a Governor.
o The supreme head of the administration was the Governor
General.
o Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General, introduced
several administrative reforms, notably in the sphere of
justice.
o The principal figure in an Indian district was the Collector.
o As the title suggests, his main job was to collect revenue and taxes and maintain law and
order in his district with the help of judges, police officers and darogas.
o His office – the Collector ate – became the new centre of power and patronage that
steadily replaced previous holders of authority.

 East India Company:

o The history of British rule in India can be traced
back to 31 December, 1600, when British Crown
granted a group of merchants a monopoly over
trade in the Eastern waters.
o East India Company comprises of merchants
adventurers.

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 History
 The Board of Control:
o The board of control was the superior body, as it was appointed by the British
Parliament

 The Court of Directors:

o The court of directors consisted of members who were nominated by the proprietors of
the company.

 Civil service:
o Covenanted civil services:
o Only Britishers recruited
o Mercantile
o Political
o Judicial
o Revenue

 Uncovenanted civil servants:

o Indians, Portuguese recruited

 Structure of Government:
o Earlier, the dual system of administration was carried out by British in Bengal
throughout 1765 to 1772, because they had little intention of making any innovation in
its administration.
o The rich resources of Bengal had fallen into hands of East India Company, which was
beneficial to servants of company.
o The company’s high dividends and the wealth brought home by its officials excited the
jealousy to some sections of British Society.
o Many ministers and members of British parliament were keen to benefit from the
acquisition of Bengal.
o The first important parliamentary changes of the company affairs in India were Charter
Act of 1773.

 Regulating Act 1773:

o The government of Bengal was vested in a Governor-General and four members.
o The first Governor-General, Warren Hastings and the councilors, Clavering, Monsonm
Barawell and Philip Francis, were appointed for five years.
o The regulating act was in force from 1773 to 1784.
o The act soon broke down in practice.
o This act changes the constitution of Court of Directors of the company and subjected
their civil and military affairs in India to the supervision of the British parliament.
o The act provides specific measures to set up a new administrative framework.
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o Act authorized company to establish a supreme court at Calcutta (1774) with one Chief
Justice and three other judges.
o The government of Bengal was vested in a Governor-General and a four members.

 The Pitt’s India Act 1784:

o This act established six commissioners for the Indian affairs, viz. a secretary of India, the
chancellor of Exchequer and four Privy councilors, known as Board of Control.
o It was named after William Pitt , then Prime Minister of Britain.
o This act set up a board of control in Britain to conduct company's civil and military
affairs in India.
o The principles laid down by the act of 1784 formed base of British administration in
India.

 Charter Act 1793:

o The realm of governance of Governor-General increased over the Governors of Bombay
and Madras.
o Jurisdiction of Supreme Court increased.

 Charter Act 1813:

o The Charter act of 1813 abolished monopoly of the company’s Indian trade.
o The Government and revenue of India continued to be in the hands of the company.

 Charter Act 1833:

o It was outcome of Industrial Revolution in England.
o It was instututionalised on the basis of ‘Laissez Faire’.
o It ended the activities of EIC as a commercial body and became a purely administrative
body.
o The office of Governor-General of Bengal replaced with the Governor-General of India.
o Thus, William Bentinck became first Governor-General of India.

 Charter Act 1853:

o Charter Act of 1853 was the last charter act passed for East India Company. It
was passed on expiry of charter act of 1833.
o It reduced the number of board of directors from 24 to 18 and 6 nominated.
o The act, for the first, introduced local representation in the central legislative council.

 Army:
o An Army was built up from the people of India themselves, which in the end brought its
own country under the sway of its foreign masters’.
o Colonial rule in India brought in some new ideas of administration and reform but its
power rested on its military strength.
o By the mid 18th century, the East India Company had regular troops of infantry and

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artillery in all the three Presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal.
o The constant wars with the French and Hyder Ali led to rapid expansion of the
Presidency Armies.
o The East India Company adopted the same method of Mughal army, when it began
recruitment for its own army, which came to be known as the sepoy army.
o As warfare technology changed from the 1820s, the cavalry requirements of the
Company’s army declined. This is because the British empire was fighting in Burma,
Afghanistan and Egypt where soldiers were armed with muskets and matchlocks.
o The soldiers of the Company’s army had to keep pace with changing military
requirements and its infantry regiments now became more important.
o In the early nineteenth century the British began to develop a uniform military culture.
o Soldiers were increasingly subjected to European-style training, drill and discipline that
regulated their life far more than before. Often this created problems since caste and
community feelings were ignored in building a force of professional soldiers.

 Pre-Colonial Economy:
o India in the pre-colonial period had a stable economy. Self-sufficient agriculture,
flourishing trade and rich handicraft industries.

 Agriculture:
o The farmer usually raised enough produce to feed himself and the non-agricultural
members of the village community.
o If his crop yielded more than the consumption needs, due to favourable climatic
conditions, he stored that surplus for use in the lean years.
o Agriculture operations were carried on in India by subsistence farmers, organized in
small village communities. village was more or less a self-sufficient economic unit and
its business contacts with the outside world were limited to payment of land revenue.
o This pattern of agriculture continued throughout the medieval times. However, towards
the end of the 18th century the village communities began to break up, under pressure
from new forces which imparted dynamism to the Indian rural economy.
o The farmer raised only those crops which he needed for his own use and shared the same
with the village artisan who supplied him with simple manufacture that he needed for his
domestic consumption.
o Storage of food grains was a common practice among the pre-colonial agriculturists and
constituted, under these conditions, the only remedy against famines.
This happened mainly because of two factors:

o The changes in the property relations brought by the introduction of new forms of land
tenure
o The development of an active export trade in agricultural produce of India.
o The contact with the West through the establishment of the British rule was responsible
for both these developments.
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 Trade:
o The items imported into India were pearls, , wool, dates, dried fruits and rosewater from
the Persian gulf; coffee, gold, drugs i and honey from Arabia; tea, sugar and silk from
China; gold, musk and woolen cloth; metals like copper, iron and lead, and paper from
Europe.
o The main items exported from India were cotton textiles. Besides cotton textiles which
were famous the world over, India also exported raw silk, indigo, opium, rice, wheat,
sugar, pepper and other spices, precious stones and drugs.
o The major features of Indian trade in pre-colonial times were (i) a favourable balance of
trade and (ii) a foreign trade most suitable to the level of manufacturing in India.
o India enjoyed extensive trade both within the country and with other countries of Asia
and Europe. A balance of the imports and exports was maintained.
o In other words, the commodity pattern, so important to any country's foreign trade, was
in India's favour. India exported the items it specialized in; and imported the ones it
needed.
o Favorable balances of trade meant an excess of exports over imports i.e. India exported
more than it needed to import.
o Since the economy was on the whole self-sufficient in handicrafts and agricultural
products, India did not need foreign imports on a large scale and continued to enjoy a
healthy Wade. Secondly, India's foreign trade suited its requirements very well.
o One major change that occurred in India's foreign trade from pre-colonial to colonial
times was in its commodity pattern. Although India continued to have an export surplus,
the pattern of foreign trade turned upside down. For instance, from the exporter of cotton
textiles India was converted into an importer of cotton textiles, thereby ruining India's
rich traditional handicrafts.

 Handicraft Industries:
o India indulged in a large scale manufacture of cotton and silk fabrics, sugar, jute,
dyestuffs, mineral and metallic products like arms, metalwares and oil.
o Kashmir specialized in woollen manufactures.
o Maharashtra, Andhra and Bengal were prominent centres of ship building industry.
o Towns like Dacca and Murshidabad in Bengal; Patna in Bihar; Surat and Ahmedabad in
Gujarat; Jaunpur, Varanasi, Lucknow and Agra in U.P.; Multan and Lahore in the
Punjab; Masulipatnam and Visakhapatnam in Andhra; Bangalore in Mysore and
Coimbatore and Madurai in Madras were flourishing centres of textile industry.
o This status of India was completely destroyed under colonial times.
o Its beginnings can be traced to the after-math of the industrial Revolution in England.
o Indian artisans were famous for their skills the world over. In fact the reason for India's
favorable foreign trade was its excellence in indigenous production.
o India's ships were bought by many European companies for India towards the end of the
18th century was. Undoubtedly one of the main centres of world trade and industry.

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o It was this pressure from the British goods which led to the decline of India's traditional
centres of economic activity listed above. The number of weavers also declined.
o India's artisans were forced out of production.
o This status of India was completely destroyed under colonial times.

 British Economic Policies in India (1757-1857):

o Company eliminated its native and foreign rivals and prevented them from offering
higher wages to Bengal craftsmen.
o From beginning East India Company’s role in India was that of a trading corporation
which brought goods or precious metals into India and exchanged them for Indian goods
like textiles, indigo, spices etc.
o With Industrial Revolution, a new phase in Britain’s economic relations with India
began.
o Agricultural India was to be made an economic colony of Industrial England.
o With this, Government in India now followed a policy of free trade or unrestricted entry
of British goods.
o It creates new market for Indian foods in Europe and Britain.
o This is the reason why the Indian rulers tolerated and encouraged the establishment of
East India Company.
o But after the battle of Plessey, company use its political control over Bengal to push its
Indian trade.
o In other hand, Indian hand-made goods were unable to compete against the much
cheaper products of British mills which had been rapidly improving their productive
capacity by using new inventions and a wide use of steam power.
o Indian handicrafts products continued to pay heavy duties on entry into Britain.
o Some Indians goods like – calicos, Sugar, Muslins etc. have to pay duty for three times
of its cost price.
o From 1600 to Plessey British trade has been rapidly flourished and Africa, China, the
West Indies, Latin America and Australia provided unlimited opportunities for export.
o Indian handicrafts products continued to pay heavy duties on entry into Britain.
o Some Indians goods like calicos, Sugar, Muslins etc. have to pay duty for three times of
its cost price.

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 Drain of Wealth:
o The drain theory, as formulated by the nationalists, referred to the process by which, a
significant part of India's national wealth, was being exported to England for which India
got no economic returns.
o In other words, India was made to pay an indirect, tribute to the English nation.
o This drain of India's wealth to England, in the form of salaries to British officers posted
in India, home charges and the profits made on the British capital invested in India,
benefited England and diminished the sources for investment in India.

 Dadabhai Naoroji theory of Drain of Wealth:

o Dadabhai Naoroji was the first man to say that internal factors were not the reasons of
poverty in India but was caused by colonial rule that was draining wealth and prosperity
of India.
o The drain of wealth was the portion of wealth and economy of India, that was not
available to Indians.
o The theory was initiated in 1867 and further analysed by scholars like R C Dutt, M G
Ranade etc.
o In his book Poverty and Un-British rule in India, he stated that the Britain was
completely draining India.

 Facts:
o Home charges refers to the interest on public debt raised in England at comparatively
higher rates; expenditure incurred in England by the Secretary of India on behalf of
India.
o Interest charges on public debt held in Britain.
o Remittance to England by Europeans to their families
o Remittance for purchase of British Goods for consumption of British servants in India.
o Annuities on accounts of infrastructure.

 Drain of wealth mainly consisted of the following:

 Home Charges:
o It was refers to the expenditure incurred in Britain by the Secretary of State on behalf of
India.
o The main constituents of home charges were civil and military Charges, dividend to
shareholders of East India Company and logistic purchases in England.
 Council Bills:
o These bills were the actual means through money was transferred.
 Interest on Foreign Capital Investments:
Foreign Banking:

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 De – Industrialization:
o Besides the external drain theory, the nationalists argued that British rule led to the de-
industrialization of India.
o India was an exporter of cotton manufacture and this was how the Company started its
trade but gradually India became an importer of cotton manufacture and thus Indian
artisans, craftsmen and important trading centres collapsed and whatever manufacturing
activity existed was destroyed under the impact of imports of cotton manufacture almost
exclusively from Britain.
o Thus the industrialization of England was accompanied by the decline and destruction of
Indian cotton manufacturer. As a result, India witnessed, from the early 19th century
onwards, a steady decline in population dependent on indigenous industries and a
consequent over burdening of agriculture. This proved injurious to both.
o The decay of Dacca, Surat, Murshidabad and many other flourishing towns bears
testimony to de-industrialization of India.

 Mobilization of Resources:
o The mobilization of resources was influenced by various interests.
o The Industrial Revolution in England was primary reason of resource of mobilization.
o Newly emerged revolution need raw material to survive
o Therefore, the British started sending Indian natural resources such as coal, lac, rubber,
and cotton and fiber crops to Britain.

 Regeneration of Indian Industries:

o The regeneration of native industries, formed part of the resource mobilisation
programme of the colonial regime.
o Britishers regenerated Indian industries on their economic interests.
o They regenerate – Self Sufficient Agriculture into Commercial Agriculture, Metal work
etc.

 Famine in India:
o Indian economy was given sub-ordinated position in overall colonial economic frame
work.
o Exports from India increased constantly over a period of time and were always exceeded
imports.
o Food grains were one of the major constituent of theses exports.
o India became an exporter of raw materials, food grains and a place to invest capital; and
became a good market for the machinery made goods from England.
o The relationship between colonialism and famines explains why there were frequent
occurrences of famines in the latter half of the 19th century India, in spite of
development of means of communications such as Railways and roads, colonial
exploitation transformed according to the changing needs of the British economy.

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o They never stop the export of food grains during the famines distress, the attitude
towards trade was worsened the famine conditions.

 Questionary:

1. What are the characteristics and impact of Pre-Colonial economy of India?

2. What is the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt’s India Act of 1784?

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Chapter: 32
Sikh Empire, Maharaja Ranjit Singh

 Historical Background of Punjab:

o The word 'Punjab' is combined with the two words 'Panj' meaning five and 'Aab'
meaning water that used to refer the land of five rivers.
o In these five rivers, major were namely Sutlej, Bias, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum.
o As the Politically turmoil's, religious practices affected the common peoples of Punjab
due to these circumstances many centuries ahead Hindu and Muslims made conflicts
with each other.
o In the field of religion, the arrival of Guru Nanak Dev Ji heralded a new order and
provided independent ideology to Punjab Society.
o Later on around 1000 B.C. Islam religion also established its dominance when Turks,
Persians and Afghans settled.
o Guru Nanak Dev Ji's teaching were spreaded by his nine followers far and near places,
which were called Sikhs and their religion was called Sikhism.

 Sikh Empire:
o Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against Mughal rulers, after the
institution of the Khalsa in 1699.
o The creation of Khalsa took a new turn in History of Punjab, because it created the great
warriors who fought bravely against tyrannical authorities of that period.
o After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under
Banda Bahadur’s leadership, declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name

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of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their own administration
between the Sutlej and the Jamuna.
o Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
o Under a number of able leaders in the 18 th, the Sikhs organized themselves into a
number of bands called jathas, and later on misls.
o Their combined forces were known as the grand army (dal khalsa).
o The Khalsa declared their sovereign rule by striking their own coin again in 1765.
o Significantly, this coin bore the same inscription as the one on the orders issued by the
Khalsa in the time of Banda Bahadur.
o The Sikh territories in the late 18th century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but
they were divided under different rulers.
o One of them, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at
Lahore in 1799.
o The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take
collective decisions known as “resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas)”.
o A system called rakhi was introduced, offering protection to cultivators on the payment
of a tax of 20 per cent of the produce.

 Maharaja Ranjit Singh:

o At the end of the 18th century, Ranjit Singh, chief of the
Sukerchakia Misls rose into prominence.
o He was born on 13th November 1780 in Gujranwala, in
present-day Pakistan. He was also known as ‘Sher-i-Punjab’
or ‘Lion of Punjab’.
o During the contemporary period of Ranjit Singh, the area of
Punjab was under the twelve misls.
o Ranjit Singh was known for his valiant resistance towards
Muslim invaders who came from the west. He gained fame
and recognition when he defeated the army of Afghan ruler Shah Zaman who attempted
to annex Punjab.
o He conquered Multan from Nawab Muzaffar Khan in 1818.
o In 1819, Maharaja Ranjit Singh conquered Kashmir with Ladakh and Naushera.
o A strong and courageous soldier, an efficient administrator, and a skillful diplomat.
o Ranjit Singh’s birth name was Budh Singh. He was not educated but was trained in
martial arts, horse riding and firearms.
o He soon brought all Sikh chiefs west of the Sutlej River under his control and
established his own kingdom in the Punjab.
o His rule was called 'Sarka-i-Khalsa’.

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Military Conquest of Maharaja Ranjit Singh:
o Ranjit Singh captured Lahore in 1799 and Amritsar in 1802. Rise of Ranjit Singh was
not tolerated by Afghans, so they mustered a huge army to oppose the advance of
Ranjit’s forces.
o In 1801 'Maharaja' title was given to him, going through Hindu equivalent of a
coronation ceremony, he announced that he was now to be styled Sarkar with authority,
then he recognised the importance of mint and issued in token of Sovereighty a Coin in
the name of Guru Nanak Dev Ji and Guru Gobind Singh Ji.
o A bloody battle was fought near Naushehra in 1823 in which Afghans were defeated and
their leader Azim Khan died. This was a decisive victory against the Afghans.
o After this victory the Maharaja conquered trans-Indus territories like Tonk, Bannu,
Mankera and Dera Ismail Khan.
o Peshawar was conquered and ultimately annexed in 1834.

 Relation with Britishers:

o Maharaja Ranjit Singh was the very contemporary of Britishers, from the very beginning
cold war was started between them from 1801A.D. which lasted upto the death of
Maharaja Ranjit Singh.
o The ability and generosity of Maharaja was fully known to British officers that's why
British Governor General Warren Hastings mentioned about the popularity of Maharaja
in his files.
o Britisher maintains diplomatic relations due to French menace.

 Treaty of Amritsar 1809:

• Both the British and the Maharaja agreed to maintain friendly relations with each other.
British would have no concern with territories and subjects of Ranjit Singh. North West
of the river Sutlej.
• Ranjit Singh agreed not to keep on the left bank of the Sutlej more troops than were
necessary.
• In event of violation of any one of the articles, this treaty would be null and void.

o It gave him free hand on the western side. After this treaty of friendship he did not
consider it necessary to keep a large portion of his army on the Sutlej frontier and
consequently it became easy for him to conquer Multan, Kashmir and Peshawar.
o But sometimes later, British encircled the Lahore kingdom.
o Then he was not allowed to expand towards south viz Sindh territory and by the
Tripartite Treaty of 1838 Ranjit Singh’s ambition was checked on the western side. By
this treaty it was agreed that Shah Shujah would be installed as king of Kabul with the
help of British and Sikh forces.

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 CIS-Sutlej:
o The Cis-Sutlej states, including Kaithal, Patiala, Jind, Thanesar, Maler Kotla, and
Faridkot, were under the suzerainty of the Scindhia dynasty of the Maratha Empire,
following the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803-1805, when Marathas lost this
territory to the British.
o During the war, some of the states in the region gave their allegiance to British General
Gerard Lake.
o At the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Maratha War, an 1809 agreement with Ranjit
Singh, ruler of the Sikh Empire west of the Sutlej, brought these states under formal
British protection.

 Government of Ranjit Singh:

o Administration was not organised in his early reign.
o Diwan Bhiwani Das created different offices, departments, affairs of state, he keep the
accounts of state, farming of districts and gave importance to each and every preserved
record. In this way Twelve officers came into existence.
o He used to select them on the basis of merit instead of any religion, caste, creed.
o Different Governors and Sardars used to be appointed in each district for the well
conducting of the country's affairs.

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 Military organisation:
o He studied the drill and tactics of English troops over Afghans, during Ahmed Shah
Abdali's time period that how they were fairly disciplined and formidable opponents
even in the hilly areas they were almost invincible.
o Cavalry ceased to be most important army and infantry became the favourite service.
o The actual change occurred by providing the employment to European officers, who
introduced a unique system of Military which had became general in Europe due to
those efforts the value was provided to infantry instead of cavalry.
o Maharaja recruited youth only in the infantry who were the, while Cavalry were
irregular troops the contingent of his different Sardars not appointed for any
consideration of bravery and strength.
o He was also known for his renovation of the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He was also a
keen admirer of Guru Gobind Singh.
o He died on 27 June 1839 aged 58 in Lahore. His Samadhi is in Lahore, Pakistan.
o Ranjit Singh’s army was known as the Khalsa army and he modernised it and improved
its training. He recruited people from different backgrounds and ethnicities in his army.
He strengthened both infantry and artillery. He brought new equipment of warfare.
o He also established cannon foundries, gunpowder and arms factories.
o The Sikhs emerged as a strong and cohesive political unit under Ranjit Singh.
o There was increased prosperity in his regions owing to better security and curbed
violence and improved facilities for trade.
o After the two Sikh wars with Britishers in 1849 A.D. the empire of Maharaja Ranjit
Singh was merged with British Empire.

 Anglo-Sikh War:
o Sikh Wars, (1845–46; 1848–49), two campaigns fought between the Sikhs and the
British.
o They resulted in the conquest and annexation by the British of the Punjab in
northwestern India.

 Background:
o After the death of Ranjit Singh there was anarchy in Punjab.
o The Sikh Kingdom saw beginning of process of disintegration when Kharak Singh, the
eldest son and successor of Ranjit Singh and his only son Naunihal Singh were killed in
1840.
o Thereafter Sher Singh, another son of Ranjit Singh was successful with help of the Sikh
army in proclaiming himself the Maharaja in January 1841 but he too was assassinated
in 1843.
o In September 1843 Duleep Singh, youngest son of Maharaja Ranjit Singh was
proclaimed the Maharaja of Sikh Kingdom with Rani Jindan as regent and Hira Singh
Dogra as Wazir.

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 History
 First War:
o In 1943, company sent his agent major broad to Ludhiana to interfere Sikh state affairs.
o The British moves and preparations alarmed the Sikh troops which crossed the Sutlej in
December, 1845 and took offensive position against the English troops.
o The battles were fought at Mudki, Ferozeshah and Aliwal. To settle the issue the final
battle of Sobraon (10 Feb, 1848) proved decisive in first Anglo Sikh War.

 Second War:
o In the second Anglo Sikh War a large army under command of Lord Gough fought an
indecisive battle at Ramnagar in November 1848. Next, at battle of Chilianwala in
January, 1849 the Sikh soldiers won with glory. The final and decisive battle at Gujarat
near Chenab was won by the English in 1849. This war resulted in the annexation of
Punjab.

 Aftermath:
o Dalhousie annexed Punjab, in March 1849, under the Treaty of Lahore and pensioned
off Dalip Singh to England along with his mother Rani Jindan.
o John Lawrence became the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab to look after
administration of Punjab.
o Therefore, Punjab became a British province.
o Although Patiala and some other small states retained their rulers after recognizing
sovereignty of the British.
o The second Anglo Sikh War ended with British conquest of Punjab.

 Questionary:

1. Describe! The territorial boundary of Ranjit Singh's kingdom.

2. What happened to the Sikh state after Ranjit Singh's death?

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Chapter: 33
1857 Revolt: cause and consequences

 Introduction:
o Late in the afternoon of 10 May 1857, the sepoys in the cantonment of Meerut broke out
in mutiny. It began in the lines of the native infantry, spread very swiftly to the cavalry
and then to the city.
o East India Company's official buildings – the record office, jail, court, post office,
treasury, etc. – were destroyed. The telegraph line to Delhi was cut.
o The sepoys arrived at the gates of the Red Fort early in the morning on 11 May.
o The ordinary people of the town and surrounding villages joined the sepoys.
o The sepoys captured the bell of arms where the arms and ammunition were kept and
proceeded to attack white people, and to ransack and burn their bungalows and property.
o Another group of sepoys also entered Delhi, and the ordinary people of the city joined
them.
o Europeans were killed in large numbers; the rich of Delhi were attacked and looted. It
was clear that Delhi had gone out of British control.
o Some sepoys rode into the Red Fort, and they demanded that the emperor give them his
blessings.
o The revolt thus acquired a kind of legitimacy because it could now be carried on in the
name of the Mughal emperor.
The early popular resistance against British colonial rule prior great rebellion:

• Cause:
o Social cause
o Financial cause
o Religion cause
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 History
 Peasant movements and tribal revolts:
o From 1763 to 1856 there were more than 40 major rebellions apart from hundreds of
minor ones. These rebellions were, however, local in character and effects. They were
isolated from each other because each rebellion had a different motive.

 Peasant revolts (1770 – 1820):The Fakirs and Sanyasin Rebellion

o The Bengal famine of 1770 led peasants, whose lands were confiscated, displaced
zamindars, disbanded soldiers and poor to come together in a rebellion. They were
joined by the Sanyasin and Fakirs.

 Indigo rebellion (1859 – 1862):

o The peasants of Bengal launched a movement against British in Bengal, because
Britishers forced Raiyats to cultivate Indigo.

 Farazi Movement (1838-1848):

 This was the first ever no-tax campaign against the British Government led by
Shariatullah Khan and Dadu Mian.

 Wahabi Movement (1830’s-1860’s):

o The leader of the movement was Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly who was greatly
influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah Waliullah, a Delhi
saint. The movement was primarily religious in its origin.

 Tribal Movement:
o Another group of people who revolted against the British rule were the tribals. The tribal
groups were an important and integral part of Indian life.
o They revolted due to British interfere in Social customs of tribes.
o Britishers destroyed their self sufficient economy and communities and isolate them.

 The Santhal Rebellion (1855-57):

o The area of concentration of the Santhals was called Daman-i-Koh or Santhal Pargana. It
extended from Bhagalpur in Bihar in the north to Orissa in the south stretching from
Hazaribagh to the borders of Bengal. The Santhals like other tribes worked hard to
maintain their lives in the forests and wild jungles, but the British officials forced them
to buy goods on credit and forced to pay back with a heavy interest during harvest time.
As a result they became bonded labourers and could serve only their creditors. Sidhu and
Kanu were leading Santhal rebel leaders.

 Munda Rebellion (1899-1900):

o One of the most important and prominent rebellion which took place after 1857 was the
Munda Rebellion. The Mundas traditionally enjoyed certain rights as the original clearer

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of the forest which was not given to the other tribes. But this land system was getting
destroyed in the hands of the merchants and moneylenders long before the coming of the
British.
o The most prominent leader of this rebellion was Birsa Mu.

 Jaintia and Garo Rebellion (1860-1870s):

o Opposed road connectivity of Brahmaputra Valley (present day Assam) with Sylhet
(present day Bangladesh).

 The Uprising of the Bhils (1818-1831):

o The Bhils were largely concentrated in Khandesh (present day Maharashtra & Gujarat).
Khandesh came under British occupation in 1818. The Bhils considered them as
outsiders. On the instigation of Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II they revolted
against the Britishers.

 The Kol Uprising (1831-1832):

o The Kols of Singhbhum in the Chhotanagpur area enjoyed autonomy under their chiefs
but the entry of the British threatened their independence. Later the transfer of tribal
lands and the coming of moneylenders, merchants and British laws created a lot of
tension. This prompted the Kol tribe to organize themselves and rebel.

 The Mappilas Uprisings (1836-1854):

o The Mappilas were the Muslim cultivating tenants, landless labourers and fishermen of
Malabar region.

 Early Sepoy Mutiny:

 1806: The Sepoys at Vellore Mutinied but crushed with terrible violence.
 1824: The Sepoys of 47th regiment at Barracpore refused to go to Burma by crossing the
Sea. They were killed brutally using Artillery.
 1838 and 1844: Mutinied for oversees and allowance and Non-Payment of Full Bhatta.
 1849-50: After the annexation of Punjab, the 22nd, 66th, and 38th Native Infantry of
Govindgadh garrison revolted

 1857 Great Revolt:

o In 1857, for the first time, peasant discontent along with protest of some other sections
of society against the British conquest brought together various sections of the society in
a unified movement.
o The events of 1857 are regarded by many historians as early manifestation of
nationalism.
o War of Independence – Veer Saavarkar
o Sepoy Mutiny – John Lawrence

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o Partially National War – R C Majumdar
o T R Holmes – Conflict between Civilisation and Barbarism
o Marxist Historians – The struggle of the soldier – peasant against foreign as well as
feudal bondage

 Reason:
 Political Causes:
o The nature of colonial expansion through annexation became a major source of
discontent among the Indian rulers.
o British wanted to acquire land and collect as much wealth for England as they could.
o Their policy of annexation called Doctrine of Lapse and Subsidiary Alliance led to a
number of independent kingdoms being annexed to the British Empire.
o In this way Lord Dalhousie annexed the Maratha States of Satara, Nagpur , Jhansi and
several other minor kingdoms. On the death of Baji Rao II, the pension granted to him
was abolished and the claim of his adopted son, Nana Saheb, to receive this pension was
denied to him.
o This interference by the East India Company was disliked by many Indian rulers.

 Economic Causes:
o Another important cause of the Revolt was the disruption of the traditional Indian
economy and its subordination to the British economy.
o The British had come to trade with India but soon decided to exploit and impoverish the
country.
o Indian handicrafts completely collapsed. The craftsmen who received royal patronage
were impoverished when the states were annexed. They could not compete with the
British factory made products where machines were used. It made India into an excellent
consumer of British goods and a rich supplier of raw materials for the industries in
England.
o Through the Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems, large number of peasants losing their
land to revenue farmers, traders and moneylenders.
o The new class of zamindars that were created by the British became their political allies.
o All means were used to drain the wealth of India.
o Mobilisation of resources was also one of the reasons for uprising. The British sent raw
materials to England for the factories there. This left little for the Indian weavers.
o The British sold cheap, machine made clothes in India which destroyed the Indian
cottage industry. It also left millions of craftsmen unemployed.
o They imposed heavy duties on Indian made goods.

 Social and Religious Causes:

o Social reforms against sati, female infanticide, widow re-marriage and education of
woman, made many people unhappy.

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o With an objective to convert people the Christian missionaries opened schools and
college.
o The loyalty of the sepoys was further undermined by certain military reforms which
required them to serve overseas.
o The British were not very sensitive to the feelings of the vast mass of Indian people.
o With an objective to convert people the Christian missionaries opened schools and
college.
o The passing of Act XXI of 1850 enabled converts to Christianity inherit ancestral
property.
o They had an aversion to overseas services, as travel across oceans meant loss of caste for
them.
o The Hindus were asked to remove their caste marks from their foreheads and the
Muslims were asked to trim their beards.

 Humiliation of Indian Soldiers:

o Indian soldiers were not given posts above that of subedars.
o They were paid salaries less than their English counterparts.
o When the soldiers denied crossing the oceans and seas because their religion forbade it,
the British were ruthless on them.
o Some sepoys wanted special Bhatta/allowance if sent on oversea duty. Sometimes they
were paid, but most of the time they were not.
o The soldiers in the East India Company’s army came from peasant families which were
deeply affected by the governments’ policies.
o These instances contributed in their own way to the revolt of 1857.
o As a result, the morale of the Indian sepoy was very low.

 Immediate Cause – Enfield Rifle:

o The loading process of the Enfield rifle involved bringing the cartridge to the mouth and
biting off the top.
o There was a rumour among the Sepoys in January 1857 that the greased cartridge
contained the fat of cow and pig.
o Strong resentment was rising among the Indians and they were waiting only for an
occasion to revolt. The stage was all set. Only a spark was needed to set it on fire.
Introduction of greased cartridge in 1856 provided that fire.
o The cow is sacred to the Hindus and the pig is forbidden to the Muslims.
o This sparked off the revolt of sepoys on 29th March 1857.
o The government decided to replace the old-fashioned musket, ‘Brown Bags’ by the
‘Enfield rifle’.

 How mutinies begins:

o A sepoy called Mangal Pandey was the first soldier who openly disobeyed orders.

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o He killed two English officers at Barrackpore near Calcutta on 29 March 1857.He was
arrested, tried and executed. The regiments of Barrackpore were disbanded.
o The news of Mangal Pandey very soon reached other parts of the country and resulted in
open revolts.

 Large scale Mutiny:

o In Kanpur, Nana Sahib was declared the Peshwa. His troops were commanded by Tanya
Tope and Azimullah. At Lucknow, Begum Hazrat Mahal was assisted by Maulvi
Ahmadullah.
o The storm centre of the revolt of 1857 was at Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bareilly, Jhansi
and Arrah of Bihar.
o In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmi Bai and in Arrah, Kunwar Singh led the revolt.
o Khan Bahadur Khan was the leader in Bareilly.
o The Revolt began at Meerut on 10th May 1857 and then spread across northern India.

 Bahadur Shah:
o He was symbolic monarch of Delhi, but the real command lay with court soldiers headed
by Bakht Khan who had led the revolt of the Bareilly troops and brought them to Delhi.
o The loss of Delhi greatly lowered the prestige of the British. To recover their lost
prestige they took help of the loyal forces from Punjab.
o The siege lasted four months and Delhi was finally recaptured on 10th September 1857.
o The old Emperor Bahadur Shah along with his two sons was taken prisoner. After a trail
he was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862, at the age of 87. His sons were shot
dead at Delhi without a trial.

 Nana Sahib:
o At Kanpur, Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II expelled English and
declared himself Peshwa.
o Tantya Tope and Azimullah were generals of Nana Sahib of Kanpur.
o Tantya Tope was captured while he was asleep. He was hanged after a trial.

 Lucknow:
o Led by Begum of Avadh who had proclaimed his son Birjis Khan as Nawab of Avadh.

 Rani Lakshmibai:
o Hugh Rose, British commander of British force who sieged Jhansi, commented that Rani
Lakshmibai is "personable, and clever and" she is "the most dangerous of all Indian
leaders“.
o She captured Gwalior with the help of Tantya Tope.
o She died fighting on 17th June 1858, clad in the battle dress of a soldier and mounted on
a charger.

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o Wife of Gangadhar Rao and One of the greatest leaders of Revolt.
o She declared adopted son Damodar Rao as Maharaj of Jhansi but Dalhousie applied the
Doctrine of Lapse, rejecting Damodar Rao’s claim and annexed the state of Jhansi.
o Her tomb is in the Phool Bagh area of Gwalior.
o Young Rani joined the rebels and fought like true heroine.

 Kunwar Singh:
o He was Zamindar of Jagdishpur near Arrah and also a chief organisor of revolt in Bihar.
o He fought along with Nana Sahib and campaigned in Avadh and Central India.
o He defeated British Forces near Arrah and liberates his Jagdishpur.
o But this battle was his last battle prior to fatal wound in battle.
o He died on 27th April 1858.
o It took another ten months of fighting before the Governor-general, Canning, could
proclaim the end of the Mutiny on 8th July 1858.
o The end of the heroic trio and the rebellion was finally suppressed by the British.

 British Officials associated with Revolt:

o General John Nicolson: Captured Delhi
o Major Hudson: Killed Bahadur’s Shah’s sons
o Colin Campbell: Recovery of Kanpur
o Major General Havelock: Defeted Nana Sahib’s Forces
o William Tylor: Suppressed the revolt at Arrah
o Hugh Rose: Suppressed the Revolt at Jhaisi and recaptured Gwalior. And also Central
India and Bundelkhand was captured by him.

 Cause of Failure:
o It was suppressed within a year of its outbreak. Various causes led to the failure of the
Revolt of 1857.
 Political Agenda:
o There was no unity of purpose among the rebels.
o The sepoys of Bengal wanted to revive the ancient glories of the Mughals while Nana
Saheb and Tantya Tope tried to reestablish the Maratha power.
o Rani Lakshmi Bai fought to regain Jhansi, which she had lost as a result of British policy
of Doctrine of lapse.

 Limitation:
o This rising was not widespread it remained confined to North and Central India. Even in
the north, Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and Rajputana kept away from the rebels.

 Unity:

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o The British managed to get the loyalty of the Madras and Bombay regiments and the
Sikh states. Afghans and Gurkhas also supported the British. Many Indian rulers refused
to help the rebels. Some were openly hostile to them and helped the British in
suppressing the revolt. The middle and upper classes and the modern educated Indians
also did not support the revolt.

 Leadership:
o The leadership of the movement was weak.
o Indian leaders lacked organisation and planning. The rebel leaders were no match to the
British soldiers. Most of its leaders thought only of their own interest. They were
motivated by narrow personal gains. They fought to liberate only their own territories.
No national leader emerged to coordinate the movement and give it purpose and
direction.
o Lakshmi Bai, Tantya Tope and Nana Saheb were courageous but were not good military
generals.
o The rebels were short of weapons and finances. Whatever few weapons existed were old
and outdated. They were no match to the sophisticated and modern weapons of the
British. The rebels were also poorly organised.
o The uprisings in different parts of the country were uncoordinated. Often the sepoys
behaved in an uncontrolled manner. On the other hand the telegraphic system and postal
communication helped the British to speed up their operation. The English mastery of
the sea enabled them to get timely help from England and crush the revolt ruthlessly

 Outcomes:
o However, it was the beginning of distrust between Hindus and Muslims which the
British later exploited to continue their rule in India.
o The Revolt of 1857 was the first sign that the Indians wanted to end British rule and
were ready to stand united for this cause.
o Indian people became more aware of the heroes, who sacrificed themselves in the
Revolt.
o The English took recourse to the policy of ‘divide and rule’ by tactfully utilizing caste,
religious and regional identities of Indian people.
o Freedom of Press was restricted by passing Vernacular Act of 1878.
o The events of 1857 compelled the British to re–examine their policy towards India, after
the revolt; therefore, they adopted a strategy to check the future incidents of such a
revolt.
o In the recruitment of army, community, caste, tribal and regional loyalties were
encouraged in order to check the solidarity among soldiers.
o Earlier, press was freed by Charles Metcafe in 1835.In order to win back the confidence
of local princes, the British made a declaration that they would no longer expand their
existing territorial possessions. Special awards were given to the loyal princes.

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 Aftermath:
o The Revolt of 1857 is unique in a sense that cut across caste, community and class
barriers. Indian people for the first time put up a unified challenge to the British rule.
o And the office of the Secretary of State for India was created with an Indian Council of
15 members to assist the Viceroy of India, designation earlier known as Governor
General in India.
o This brought to an end the rule of East India Company. In the proclamation of 1st
November 1858 the Queen announced a continuation of the Company’s policies.
o India became a colony of the British Empire.
o The British government was pressurized to change their policy towards India.
o The Indian rulers were assured of their rights to succession after adoption.
o But, no Indian had a voice in the India Council or British Cabinet or Parliament.
o They centralized provincial administration and exercised strict control over the
executive.
o In August 1858, by the Act for the Better Government of India, both the Board of
Control and the Board of Directors were abolished.
o In August 1858 the British crown assumed control of India from the East India Company
and in 1877 Queen Victoria was crowned empress of India.

 Bureaucracy:
o They kept a tight control over key positions both in the civil and military administration.
To give expression to this pledge the Indian Civil Service Act of 1861 was passed,
which provided for an annual competitive examination to be held in London for
recruitment to the coveted Civil Service.
o They were not permitted to play any part of policy making in Administration.
o Styendranath Tagore, brother of Rabindranath Tagore, was the first Indian to join Crown
civil services.
o The Army had been mainly responsible for the crisis of 1857. Hence, radical changes
were introduced in the army. The strength of European troops in India was increased and
the number of Indian troops reduced from the pre- 1857 figure.
o The examination was based on Classical Greek and Latin studies.
o In the departments of administration – Police, PWD, Railway revenue, highly paid posts
were reserved for English.
o All Indian artillery units with the exception of a few mountain batteries were disbanded,
even the artillery was kept with the British soldiers.
o The British became cautious and defensive about their empire, while many Indians
remained bitter and would never trust their rulers again.
o It was not until the emergence of Indian National Congress in 1885 and Mahatma
Gandhi that Indians re-gathered their momentum for home rule.
o In 1870 a submarine cable had been laid through the Red Sea between India and
England.

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o On the other hand, there were attempts to play native against natives on the basis of
caste, religion and region.
o All the big posts in the army and the artillery departments were reserved for the
Europeans.

 Racial Antagonism:
o The British in India had always aloof from Indians and felt themselves to be racially
superior.
o After the revolt, Britishers openly assert doctrine of racial supremacy and racial
arrogance.
o Railway compartments, waiting rooms, at railway stations, parks, hotels, swimming
pools, clubs etc. reserved for “Europeans only”.

 Questionary:

1. Explain three common features of the Peasant and Tribal Revolts.

2. How did the political and socio-religious factors led to the Revolt of 1857?

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Chapter: 35
Indian National Movement Part 1:
Rise of Nationalism, Indian National Congress,
Moderate Nationalism

 The Rise of Nationalism:

o The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of Renaissance in Europe when freedom
from religious restrictions led to the enhancement of national identity.
o The Nationalism was furthered by the French Revolution.
o The Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - inspired the whole world.
o Many other revolutions like the American Revolution, the Russian Revolution, etc. also
strengthened the idea of Nationalism.
o The rise of Nationalism in India was emerged after the revolt of 1857.

 Nationalism in India:
o For the first time India, the concept of a national identity and national consciousness was
emerged in the 19th century.
o This growth was intimately connected to the anti – colonial movement.
o The social, economic and political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve
their national identity.
o People began discovering their unity in the process of their struggle against colonialism.
o Basically, modern Indian nationalism arose to meet the challenge of foreign domination.

 Factors:
o Nationalist sentiments grew easily among the people because India was unified and
welded into a nation during the 19th and century.

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 Political:
o British Conquest, Revolt of 1857, Divide and Rule Policy.

 Social Reforms:
o The social and religious reform movements of the 19th century also contributed to the
feeling of Nationalism.
o Swami Vivekananda, Annie Besant, Henry Derozio and many others, revived the glory
of ancient India, created faith among the people in their religion and culture and thus
gave the message of love for their motherland.
o The intellectual and spiritual side of Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim
Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Aurobindo Ghosh.
o Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying cry of
patriotic nationalists.

 Western thought and Education:

o Large number of Indians began to study and emulate contemporary nationalist –
Garibaldi, Rousseau, Stuart Mill, Mazini and Irish nationalist.
o These educated Indians were the first to feel the humiliation of foreign subjection.

 Economical:
o The origins of economic nationalism can be traced back to the second half of the 19th
century when Indian leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Mahadev Govind Ranade and
Romesh Chandra Dutt among others began realizing that the British rule was
economically exploiting India and that it was largely responsible for keeping India under
extreme poverty.
o From this a whole generation of Indian leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhle, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak, G.V. Joshi and many others developed a systematic and
comprehensive economic critique of the British rule.
o The early nationalist leaders thus argued that the British colonial rule, in a variety of
ways, completely subordinated Indian economy to the economy of Great Britain.

 Cultural:
o It was occurs due to British encroachment in the Indian Culture.
o Spread of colonial language, culture and ideology was another reason for nationalism.
o E.g. eminent reformers Keshab Chandra sen, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Dayanand
Sarasvati etc. opposed English dress.
o The idea of cultural nationalism, as it developed in the 19th century was based on a firm
rejection of some of the negative features of the traditional Indian culture by, or its
integration into, the culture of the colonial rulers.

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o In other words the 19th century social reformers wanted the Indian culture to become
truly modern; but they did not want it to become totally was opposed to both the
traditional culture but also to the modern colonial culture.

 Immediate Factors:
o Ilbert Bill of 1884
o Arms Act of 1878
o Vernacular Press Act 1878
o Delhi Durbar of 1877, when nations suffered from severe famine
o Universal Salt Act
o All these factors helped in the spread of Nationalism among the people of India.

 Pre-Congress Organisation:
o These two organisations merged in 1851 to from British Indian Association.
o In 1852, Bombay and Madras Native Association were founded.
o All these associations were controlled by aristocrat elements.
o In 1866, Dadabhai Naoroji organised East India Association in London to promote
Indian interests.
o In 1837, the Landholders Society was founded by landholders of Bengal, Orissa and
Bihar to fulfill their class intrests.
o In 1843, the Bengal British Indian Society was organised to protect and promote general
public interests.
o Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was founded by Justice M G Ranade in 1870’s.
o Most important association of pre-congress period was Indian Association of Calcutta in
July 1876 by Surendranath Benrjee and Andmohan.
o The agenda of these associations was limited and far from the ideal of complete
independence. These associations were raising their voice against policies of the colonial
regime that might be inimical to the interests of Indians.

 Indian National Congress:

o The Indian National Congress was formed in December 1885 by a group of 72
politically conscious educated Indians.
o Mr. A.O. Hume a retired English Indian Civil Service officer played a significant role in
its formation.
o One of the main aims of Hume in helping to found the Indian National Congress was to
provide a ‘safety valve’ to the increasing popular aginst British rule.
o Among its members were Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, WC Bonnerji,
Surendranath Banerji, Anandamohan Bose and Romesh Chandra Dutt.
o The Indian National Congress was the first organised expression of the Indian National
Movement on all India scale.
o First session was attended by 72 delegates from across the country.

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o Viceroy of India at the time was Lord Dufferin who gave his permission to Hume for the
first session.
o Second session of the Congress was held in Calcutta in 1886 followed by the third in
Madras in 1887.

 Objectives:
 Moderate Phase:
o The Indian Nationalists movement up to 1905 was dominated by moderate leaders.
o Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and looked to England for
inspiration and guidance (Loyal to British)
o Moderates used petitions, resolutions, meetings, leaflets and pamphlets, memorandum
and delegations to present their demands.
o Confined their political activities to the educated classes only.

 Constitutional Reforms:
o Early Nationalists wants larger share in the government. They demanded expansion of
reforms of Legislative Councils.
o Economic Reforms:
o They demanded elimination of poverty and economic backwardness.
o They wanted the government to promote modern industries and economic development.
o Administrative Reforms:
o They want Indianisation of higher grades of administrative services.
o The nationalists want separation of judicial from executive powers.
o Defence of Civil Rights:
o The early nationalists fully recognized the value of the freedom of speech and the press
and opposed all attempts to curtail them.

 Leaders:
o The leading figures during the first phase of National Movement were A O Hume, W C
Banerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Anandamohan
Bose and Romesh Chandra Dutt.

 Demands:
o Expansion and reform of legislative councils.
o Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding the ICS examination
simultaneously in England and in India.
o Abolition of Arms Act
o Separation of the judiciary from the executive.
o More powers for the local bodies.
o Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from unjust landlords.
o Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty

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o Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form associations
o Reduction of spending on army.

 Achievement:
o Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first achievement of the INC. This Act increased
the size of the legislative councils and also increased the proportion of non-officials in
them.
o They were able to sow the seeds of nationalism in the people.
o They spread the ideals like democracy, liberty and equality.

 Questionary:

1. In the initial years of its existence, what types of demands were put by the
Indian National Congress before the British government?

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Chapter: 36
Indian National Movement Part 2:
Partition of Bengal, Home Rule, Extremists,
Muslim League

 Indian National Movement(1905-1915):

 Rise of Garam Dal:
o The political orientation of Extremist originated within the Congress from the anti-
partition of Bengal agitation.
o The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai(Lalaji), Bal Gangadhar, Bipin
Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.
o They were called Garam-Dal (Extremist) because they believed that success could be
achieved only through bold means.
o The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress led to the rise of passionate, radical
nationalists, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’.
o The period after 1905 till 1918 can be referred to as the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists
or Garam Dal’.
o When the Moderates were in the forefront of the action, they had maintained a low
profile but now they swung into action. Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend
and a new face in India’s struggle for freedom.
o The Moderates remained confined to the upper, landed class and failed to enlist mass
support as a basis for negotiating with the British.
o The extremist leaders of INC like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat
Rai and Aurobindo Ghose articulated radical political ideas against colonial rule. The
first three of them became famous as the trio of extremist leadership: Lal-Bal-Pal. They
became prominent after the Partition of Bengal in 1905.

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o Their radical ideology and programme became popular during the movement against
Partition of Bengal, also known as the ‘Swadeshi Movement

 Surat Split:
o The Indian National Movement was divided into two groups Extremist and Moderates
(Naram Dal and Garam Dal) at the Surat session in 1907 held on the banks of river Tapi.
The extremist were led by Lal-Ba-Pal and the moderates were led by Gopal Krishna
Gokhale.

 Ideology and Methods:

o They were aware that the British were driven by selfishness and had come to India to
exploit her resources. Since exploitation of India was the chief motive of the British, the
extremists did not expect them to take a sympathetic view of the popular demands of the
Indian people.
o The extremists aimed at preparing the masses for the struggle to gain ‘Swaraj’ by
educating them, uniting them and instilling in them a sense of self-respect, self-reliance,
and pride in their ancient heritage.
o Unlike moderates, the extremist leaders neither believed in the goodness of the British
rule nor in their sense of justice and fair play.
o The Extremist leaders disfavoured the use of violence against British rule and did not
approve the methods of political murder and assassination used by the Indian
revolutionaries. However, they did take a sympathetic view of the activities of the
revolutionaries.
o For the Extremist leaders like Lokmanya Tilak, ‘Swaraj’ was a ‘birth right’ and was not
at all dependent on British assurances.

 Actions:
o Aurobindo Ghose reinterpreted Vedanta philosophy, which advocated unity of man and
God and based his concept of nationalism on it. To him national work was the work of
God, which should be done in the spirit of Karma Yoga because the true nationalist was
an ideal Karma Yogi, who performed his functions in the spirit of disinterestedness.
o Aurobindo published 'New Lamps for Old' in the Indu Prakash between 1893 and 1894.
o The extremists emphasised the mobilisation of people against foreign rule by launching
political movements. If the nation was not ready to undertake political movement, then it
was the duty of the leaders to prepare the people for it.
o The extremists were ready to suffer imprisonment, deportation and other physical
suffering for the sake of mobilising the masses for struggle against foreign rule.
o Tilak reinterpreted the message of the Gita in his famous book Gita Rahasya.
o The new nationalism of the extremists was an “attempt to create a nation in India by
reviving the spirit and action of the ancient Indian character.”

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o There was a fundamental change in the nature of Indian nationalism under extremist
leadership due to their forceful articulation of the demand for ‘Swaraj’ and use of more
radical methods than those of the moderates.
o The extremists were ready to suffer imprisonment, deportation and other physical
suffering for the sake of mobilising the masses for struggle against foreign rule.
o The demonstrations, processions undertaken by the extremists brought about an
involvement of the common people in agitations against British rule.
o They also made use of popular symbols like Shivaji, and religious symbols like God
Ganapati and Goddess Kali for mobilising the people.
o Thus, under the Extremist leadership, the Indian National Movement gradually began to
acquire a mass character.
o They were successful in arousing the urban middle and lower classes, apart from
mobilising the peasants and workers. The Extremist leaders used religious symbols in
arousing the masses; however, they did not mix religion and politics. Their concept of
nationhood encompassed all religions in India.

 Reasons:
o The phase between 1885–1905 is known as the period of the moderates.
o Moderates were loyal to British.
o British Government does not accepted any recommendation of Moderates.
o There was a strong demand for more vigorous political action and methods than those of
meetings, petitions, memorials and speeches in legislative council.
o The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon was a staunch imperialist and believed in the
superiority of the English people.
o He passed an Act in 1898, making it an offence to provoke people against the British
rulers.
o He passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904, imposing stiff control over Indian
Universities.
o Curzon was out to suppress the rising Nationalism in India.

 External reason:
• International events:
o The rise of Japan after 1868 showed that a backward Asian nation could develop itself
without Western Control.
o The defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopian in 1896 and of Russia by Japan in 1905
exploded the myth of European superiority and military might.
o Small Asian nation defeated biggest military power of Europe.
o Revolutionary movements in Russia, Ireland, China, Turkey and Egypt and the Boer war
in South Africa convinced Indian that a united people could challenge the most powerful
and despotic governments.

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 Partition of Bengal:
o The province of Bengal at that time comprised of the present states of West Bengal,
Bihar and Jharkhand, Orissa and Assam with a 31 million population.
o It was announced by Viceroy Curzon on 20th July 1905.

 Reasons:
o Breaking the growing strength of Bengali Nationalism.
o Divide Hindu-Muslim
o Where the areas where Hindus were in a majority, were separated from Muslim majority
area.
o Separation of intelligentsia and working class.

 Anti-Partition Movement:
o The anti-partition movement was initiated on 7th august 1905 by prominent moderate of
Bengal, such as Surendra Nath Banerjee and Krishna Kumar Mitra.
o The leaders of the protest movement declared it to be a day of national mourning
throughout Bengal.
o The streets of Calcutta were full of cries of ‘Vande Mataram’ which overnight become
national song.
o There was a Hartal in Calcutta.
o Protest meetings were held all over Bengal and most significantly not only in Calcutta
but also in the smaller towns in the interiors of Bengal e.g. Dinajpur, Pabna, Faridpur,
Dacca, Barisal etc.
o People fasted and no fire was lit in the cooking hearth. People paraded the streets singing
Bande Mataram. The people of Bengal tied rakhis on each others’ wrist as a symbol of
solidarity.

 Swadeshi and Boycott:

o Formal proclamation of the Swadeshi movement was made on 7th August 1905 with the
passing of the ‘Boycott’ resolution in a meeting at the Calcutta town hall which brought
about the unification of the hitherto dispersed leadership.
o The cry of Swadeshi and Swaraj was soon taken up by other provinces of India.
o Movement of support for Bengal’s unity and boycott of foreign goods were organised in
Bombay, Madras and northern India.
o The decision to ‘boycott’ British goods was taken up for the first time in movements.
o On 15th August 1906, a national council of education was set and National College was
started in Calcutta with Ghose as principle.
o The Swadeshi movement gave a great deal of encouragement to Indian industries.
o Nationalist poetry, prose and journalism plays significant role in this movement.
o Constructive activities in National Education undertaken by Nationalists.A remarkable
aspect of the Swadeshi agitation was the active participation of women and students.

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o Lokmanya Tilak took the message of Swadeshi and the boycott of foreign goods to
Bombay and Pune; Ajit Singh and Lajpat Rai to Punjab and other parts of Northan India:
Syed Haider Raza to Delhi and Chidambaram Pillai to Madras presidency which was
also motivated by Bipin Chandra Pal’s extensive lecture tours.

 Muslim League:
o In December, 1906, during the Muhammadan Educational conference in Dacca, Nawab
Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea of establishing a Central Muhammadan Association to
take care of Muslim interests.
o Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India Muslim League was founded.
Another prominent person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president.
o The main objective of the league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in
India and represent their needs to the government.
o By encouraging the issue of separate electorates, the government sowed the seed of
communalism and separatism among Indians.
o The formation of the Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of the British
master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined the League

 Marley – Minto Reforms:

o Though the members of the Legislative Council were increased, they had no real powers.
They remained mainly advisory in character. They could not stop any bills from being
passed. Nor did they have any power over the budget.
o The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of the 1892 reforms, also known as the
Morley-Minto Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of State (Lord Morley) and
the then Viceroy (Lord Minto).
o It increased the members of the Legislative Assembly from sixteen to sixty. A few non-
elected members were also added.
o The British made another calculated move to sow the seed of communalism in Indian
politics by introducing separate electorates for the Muslims.
o This meant that from the constituencies dominated by Muslims only Muslim candidates
could be elected.
o Hindus could only vote for Hindus and Muslims could only vote for Muslims. Many
leaders protested against this communal electorate policy of the British to ‘Divide and
Rule’

 Nationalists during first world war:

o During war time, the British Government made an appeal to the Indian leaders to join
hands with them in their time of crisis.
o Indian leaders agreed but they put their own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was
over, the British government would give Constitutional (legislative and administrative)
powers to the Indian People.

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o In June 1914, the First World War broke out between Britain, France, US, Russia on one
side and Ottoman Turkey, Austro-Hungarian Empire and Germany on the other.
o In India the Great War marked the maturing of nationalism.
o Unfortunately, the steps taken by the British government during the World War I created
unrest among the Indian people.
o They increased rent from the land, i.e. lagan.
o They forcefully recruited Indians in the British Army.
o They increased the price of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal and
professional income.
o In response, the Farmers and workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and Ahmedabad
actively protested against the exploitative policies of British government.

 Home Rule Movement:

o By 1914-15 the Swadeshi movement, the efforts at council entry and influencing the
administration from within and the revolutionary movement had all spent themselves.
o It was a time for a new thrust to the national movement that was to come from the Home
Rule Movement of Annie Besant and Tilak.
o Tilak’s League was active in Maharashtra and Karnataka. Besant’s League, with its
headquarters in Adyar, Madras had more of an all India following. The activities of the
Home Rule Leagues were to organize discussions and reading rooms in cities, to
circulate pamphlets and conduct lecture tours to sway public opinion.
o Balgangadhar Tilak who served a jail sentence from 1908-1914, returned to the
Congress which had now become more open to him after the disappointment of the
Council elections under the Morley Minto reforms.
o It was introduced by Shyamji Krishna Varma, but the credit goes to Lokmanya Tilak and
Annie Besant for its influence.
o Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.
o It was a time for a new thrust to the national movement that was to come from the Home
Rule Movement of Annie Besant and Tilak.
o The term ‘Home Rule’ was borrowed from a similar movement in Ireland.
o Tilak launched the Indian Home Rule League in April 1916 at Belgaum.

 Objective:
o To achieve self-government in India.
o To promote political education and discussion to set up an agitation for self-government.
o To build confidence among Indians to speak against the government’s suppression.
o To demand for a larger political representation for Indians from the British government.
o To revive political activity in India while maintaining the principles of the Congress
Party.

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 Lucknow Session:
o During the war time, The Naram Dal and Garam Dal came together in 1916 at Lucknow
Congress session.
o The Muslim League and the Congress agreed to separate electorates.
o They agreed on a system of weightage to minority political representation.
o It brought Tilak into prominence and he remained an active member in the Movement
till his death in 1920.
o The Lucknow pact was signed by Cogress and Musilm League.
o Both Congress and Muslim League jointly demanded self-government.

 Government of India Act, 1919:

o The reforms were in shape of a report which was called Montagu-Chelmsford Report.
This report was presented in 1918 and formed the basis of the Government of India Act
1919.
o The Indian nationalists were not satisfied with the Act because the thought that much
more reforms were required for better Governance.
o The Montague–Chelmsford Reforms which is also known as Mont-Ford Reforms were
introduced by the British colonial government in India to introduce self-governance to
India.
o Under this system some subjects, such as finance, law and order, judiciary, were
reserved for English and remained under the direct control of the governor; other such as
education, Public health and local government, were called transferred subject and were
to be controlled by responsible ministers of legislative.
o These reforms were named after Edwin Samuel Montagu and Lord Chelmsford.
o The former was the Secretary for the State of India while the latter was the Viceroy of
India between 1916 and 1921.
o Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms or Govt. of India Act 1919 introduced more changes in
the administration of India.
o Diarchy system was introduced at provincial level.
o The Indian nationalists were not satisfied with the Act because the thought that much
more reforms were required for better Governance.
o The provincial legislative council were enlarged and the majority of their members were
to be elected.

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 Comparison between Moderates and Extremist:

 Questionary:

1. Why did the Indian leaders support the British during the First World War?
Briefly define.
2. Why was Bengal of British India partitioned in 1905?

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Chapter: 37
Revolutionary Movement in Indian Freedom
Struggle

 Militant Thought in Nationalism:

o The emergence of revolutionary ideology in India during the late 19th and early 20th
century was the result of several internal and external influences working on the minds
of the youth.
o Early phase of revolutionary movement in India was mainly from 1900-1920 in which
Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, U.P., Orissa, Bihar and Madras provinces participated, but
it predominantly operated in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab as these regions were
more political active than other parts of the country.
o From the beginning of the national movement a school of militant nationalism had
existed in the country.
o They believed that India could achieve independence only by an organized revolutionary
movement. As a result, they organized secret groups to launch revolutionary activities
against the British.
o In Bengal, a number of societies like ‘Anushilan Samiti’ and ‘Yugantar’ came into
existence and planned assassinations of unpopular British officials.
o The second wave of revolutionary activities commenced in the early 1920s. The
withdrawal of Non-Cooperation in 1922 made the youth more radical. In North India,
revolutionaries organised themselves under Hindustan Republican Association (HRA),
and later, under the leadership of Bhagat Singh and Chandrasekhar Azad. In Bengal too
revolutionary activities were revived under the leadership of Surya Sen.
o Youths were trained in aggressive methods of violence as a means of strength against the
British.
o These ‘dare devils’ have been styled as ‘terrorists’ and ‘anarchists’ by the imperial
officials.
o The revolutionary goal was the end of British rule through extreme self sacrifice.

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 Methods:
o The killings of unpopular British officials were done by the revolutionaries to achieve
three things: (a) to strike fear in the officials (b) to remove the fear of the Indian people
and (c) ignite a feeling of national consciousness.
o The second wave of revolutionary activities in the 1920s had a different character.
o The revolutionaries believed in adopting violent methods and aspired to organize an
armed mass revolution to drive away the British from the country.
o They adopted the path of the Irish nationalists and Russian Nihilists in the short term-
the path of heroic action or revolutionary activities.
o Their methods were to assassinate unpopular colonial officials who were responsible for
giving shape to the repressive acts of the Government.
o The revolutionaries gradually moved away from individual heroic action and were
attracted by the possibility of armed mass struggle. A number of them also came under
the influence of Socialism.
o The movement found something of a mass base in the USA specially in the states of
British Columbia and those along the Pacific coast. These states had a population of
15000 Indians mainly of the Sikh community who were facing considerable amount of
racial discrimination in spite of being successful traders and workers.
o Shyamji Krishnaverma had started in 1905 a centre for Indian students in London called
India House.
o In 1907 this organization was taken over by a revolutionary group under VD Saavarkar.
Madanlal Dhingra of this organization assassinated the India Office bureaucrat Curzon-
Wyllie in London in 1909.
o In Berlin, Virendranath Chattopadhay and others operated since 1909. In Britain and
Europe the revolutionary groups were fairly isolated.
o The Revolutionary movement had started slowly spreading beyond the shores of India.
o In Europe (Paris and Geneva) Madame Cama a Parsi revolutionary established contacts
with French socialists and brought out the revolutionary journal Bande Mataram.
o Amongst this population began the Ghadr Movement in 1913 in the city of San
Francisco. The movement was founded by Sohan Singh Bhakna and Har Dayal was one
of its most prominent leaders.

 First Phase of Revolutionary activities:

 Vasudev Balwant Phake:
o He was the first Indian to tour for political propaganda.
o In 1875, he formed a revolutionary group, called Ramoshi with the help of Kolis, Bhils
and Dhangars communities in Maharashtra to overthrow the British.
o Phake was captured in 1879 and transported to a jail in Aden, Yemen, because the
British feared the Indian public's reaction to his arrest.
o His rebellion arguably had indirectly affected the plot of Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay’s novel Anandamath (1882).

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 Chapekar Brothers – 1897:
o Brothers Damodar, Balakrishna and Vasudeo Chapekar shot at WC Rand, ICS, and
Chairman of the Special Plague Committee in 1897.
o Rand’s military escort Lieutenant Ayerst died on the spot whereas Rand died a few days
later due to wounds.
o The brothers were against the atrocities committed by the British authorities under Rand
during the plague epidemic in Pune.
o Damodar was arrested immediately after and was sentence to death.
o Bal Krishna was later arrested in Hyderabad and sentenced to death.

 Alipore Case:
o Unfortunately, the carriage at which the bomb was targeted contained two English ladies
and not Kingsford.
o Chaki committed suicide while Bose, then only 18 years of age, was caught and
sentenced to death by hanging.
o Douglas Kingsford was an unpopular British Chief Magistrate who was the target of the
bomb thrown at Muzaffarpur.
o The other people who were tried in the case were Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother
Barin Ghosh, Kanailal Dutt, Satyendranath Bose and more than 30 others.
o They were all members of the Anushilan Samiti in Calcutta.
o Known as Muraripukur conspiracy or Manicktolla bomb conspiracy.

 Madanlal Dhingra:
o Madan lal Dhingra killed was member of India House and he assassinates William
Wylie in 1909.

 Delhi – Lahore Conspiracy Case:

o This incident was also called as Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy. It was organised by the Indian
revolutionary underground in Bengal and Punjab and headed by Rashbehari Bose to
assassinate the then Viceroy of India, Lord Hardinge.

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 Second Phase of Indian Revolutionaries – Reorganization and Reorientation:
o The youth of the country had responded eagerly to the call of Gandhi and had
participated in the non-cooperation movement. The sudden withdrawal of the movement
was a blow to their aspirations. The secret samitis of the first phase of the revolutionary
movement began to be revived in Punjab and in Bengal.

 HRA:
o It was founded in 1924 by Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen and Pratul
Ganguly as an offshoot of Anushilan Samiti.
o Ramprasad Bismil was important figure of HRA.
o Its objective was to establish a “Federated Republic of the United States of India”
through an organized and armed revolution.

 Naujavan Bharat Sabha and HSRA:

o Naujawan Bharat Sabha was formulated on the socialist principles which were the call of
the times. It was founded by Bhagat Singh in March 1926 with the support of his
associates Sukhdev, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Yasahpala and others in Lahore.
o In June 1928, Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev formed Lahore Student Union which was to
serve as an auxiliary to Naujawan Bharat Sabha and as a recruiting ground for the
Hindustan Socialist Republican Army

 HSRA:
o After the Kakori Conspiracy Case, Bhagat Singh and Chander Shekhar Azad took entire
responsibility of Hindustan Republican Association to rebuild the organization.
o HSRA established in 1928 at Firoz Shah Kotla, Delhi.
o HSRA was rejuvenated by the ideologies of the Bolsheviks involvement in the Russian
Revolution of 1917.

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o The HSRA's manifesto titled Philosophy of the Bomb was written by Bhagawati Charan
Vohra.
o The newly formed Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was divided into
two departments - the military and the organizational wings.
o Chander Shekhar Azad was appointed the Commander-in-Chief of the military wing
known as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army.

 Ideology:
o Disavowal of Complete Reliance on Armed Struggle and Favoured Militant Mass
Movement.
o Establishment of New Socialist Order after Independence.
o Secular Character
o Discarded Untouchability and Caste System
o Political Dacoity a part of their Programme
o Youths as the Real Revolutionary Force
o Complete Independence

 J P Sounders Case and Lahore Conspiracy:

o HSRA in non-violent protest advancement against the Simon Commission at Lahore
decided to support Lala Lajpat Rai.
o To avenge the death of Lajpat Rai; Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chander Shekhar Azad, and
Jai Gopal were given the charge to assassinate J.A. Scott, who had ordered the unlawful
lathi-charge but unfortunately a British official J. P. Saunders, got killed in confusion.
o But in the protest procession, the police plunged into a mass lathi charge and the wounds
imposed on Lalaji proved life-threatening to him.

 Assembly Bombing:
o On 8 April 1929, when the Public Safety Bill as under discussion in the assembly and
tense battle was raging between government benches and elected members and the
speaker was about to give his ruling on Trade Disputes Bill that two bombs were hurled
from the visitor gallery.
o Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar was Dutt threw two bombs in the Legislative Assembly
as protest against the repressive bills.
o In this action, six persons were slightly injured including Sir Bomanji Dalal, Sir George
Schuster, S.N. Ray, R.R. Rau, and Rai Bahadur A.P Dube. As the bombs were made of
low intensity of explosive, therefore no one serious injured.
o They did not attempt to escape and were arrested and jailed for the act.
o On the 15 of April 1929 the police raided a house at Lahore and arrested Sukhdev, Jai
Gopal and Kishorilal. On 27 May 1929, the police also searched a house in Saharanpur
resulting in the arrest of Shiv Verma and Jaidev.
o While in prison, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev along with other political prisoners
went on a hunger strike to demand better conditions of prisoners in the jails.
o Jatindas died on 13 September 1929 on the 63rd day of his fasting.
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o The news of Jatin Das's martyrdom spread like wild fire. There were mourning
processions and hartals in many cities of the country.188 Jawaharlal Nehru, Madan
Mohan Malviya, all political leaders except Mahatma Gandhi criticised the government
attitude and appreciated the spirit of sacrifice of live of Jatin Das's martyrdom.

 Judgment:
o This judgment came on 7 October 1930. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were
sentenced to death. They were sentenced under sections 302, 121, 106, 120(B) and 4(B).
o On 20 March 1931 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev petitioned to the Governor of
Punjab that they should be treated as 'War Prisoners' and claim to be shot dead instead of
to be hanged
o All three were sentenced and executed by hanging in March 1931.
o Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were executed in central jail at 7 p.m. on 23 March
1931 against all ethics, established conventions and rules.
o C-I-C of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association, Chandrasekhar Azad was
martyred on 27th February 1931 in a gunfight with the British police.

 Aftermath:
o Bhagat Singh and Chander Shekhar Azad were two main leaders of HSRA and after
their death; the party became so weak and failed to maintain the discipline within the
group.

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 Chittagong Armoury Raid (1930):

o This was an attempt by revolutionaries to raid the police armoury and the auxiliary
forces armoury from Chittagong.
o Raid was led by ‘Masterda’ Surya Sen.
o After the raid, Sen hoisted the Indian flag at the police armoury.
o Many of the revolutionaries involved escaped but some were caught and tried.
o Surya Sen was brutally tortured by the police before he was hanged.
o British executers broke all his teeth, and pulled out all his nails, broke all his joints.
o He martyred on January 1934.
o It was also known as Chittagong Uprising.
o Others involved were Ganesh Ghosh, Lokenath Bal, Pritilata Waddedar, Kalpana Dutta,
Ambika Chakraborty, Subodh Roy, etc.
o The raiders were not able to locate any arms but were able to cut telephone and telegraph
wires.
o The government came down heavily on the revolutionaries. Many were sentenced to
imprisonment, deported to the Andaman, and Surya Sen was sentenced to death by
hanging.

 Questionary:

1. Briefly discuss the various strengths of Revolutionary movement in India.

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Chapter: 38
Indian National Movement Part 3:
Rise of Gandhi, Swarajists, Civil Disobedience
Movement, Dandi March

 Indian National Movement:

o The Nationalist Movements in India were organized as mass movements emphasizing
and raising questions concerning the interests of the people of India. In most of these
movements, people were themselves encouraged to take action.
o Due to several factors, these movements failed to win independence for India. However,
they did promote a sense of nationalism among the people of the country.

 Emergence of Gandhi:
o Mohan Das Karamchand Gandhi was a lawyer, trained in Britain.
o He decided to fight against the policy of racial discrimination of the South African
Government. During the course of his struggle against the government he evolved the
technique of Satyagraha (non-violent insistence for truth and justice). Gandhi succeeded
in this struggle in South Africa.
o He went to South Africa in 1893 and resided there for twenty one years.
o The treatment of the Indians in South Africa by the British provoked his conscience.
o His first major public appearance was at the opening of the Banaras Hindu University
(BHU) in February 1916.
o His first experiment in Satyagraha began at Champaran in Bihar in 1917 when he
inspired the peasants to struggle against the oppressive plantation system.
o These peasants were not able to pay their revenue because of crop failure and epidemics.
o He returned to India in 1915.

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o In Ahmedabad, he organized a movement amongst cotton mill workers.
o The treatment of the Indians in South Africa by the British provoked his conscience.
o Gopal Krishna Gokhale advised him to tour the country mainly in the villages to
understand the people and their problems.
o In 1916, he founded the Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmedabad to practice the ideas of truth
and non-violence.

 Champaran:
o The peasantry at Champaran was agitating against the European planters who forced
them to cultivate indigo.
o There was a history of peasant unrest against planters in Champaran. Raj Kumar Shukla,
one of the peasant leaders, went all the way to Lucknow to invite Gandhi to see their
plight. Gandhi instituted an open enquiry into the matter in 1917.
o The Champaran movement also got wider publicity with the government trying to
restrict Gandhi’s entry into that area and later letting him go there on threat of
Satyagraha.
o The outcome of the Champaran movement was that the tinkathia system, under which
the farmers had to cultivate indigo in 3/20th of their holdings, was abolished.

 Ahmadabad Mill Strike:

o ‘Plague bonus’, was the main reasons of dispute between workers and owners.
o The owners withdrew the bonus after the epidemic had passed and the workers opposed
the withdrawal because of the rising prices after the War.
o Ambalal Sarabhai, one of the mill owners was a close friend of Gandhi and had given a
liberal donation to his ashram at Sabarmati, and his sister Anasuya Ben was one of his
greatest supporters in the Ahmedabad mill workers struggle.
o During the last stages of this struggle Gandhi for the first time used the fast as a means
of protest.
o Mill owners finally agreed to give the workers a 35 % increase in wages.

 Kheda Satyagraha:
o According to Revenue Code, if the yield was less than 1/4th of the normal produce, the
farmers were entitled to remission.
o Gandhi advised the peasants to withhold the revenue.
o The Kheda peasants were joined by Ahmadabad and Vadodara Gujaratis, but it was kept
a pure Gujarati struggle. When the tax was not paid, the government sent agents to seize
the property. The farmers did not resist but they simply donated their cash and
invaluable to the Gujarat Sabha. It was a united protest, outstandingly disciplined. The
result was that the Government reached an agreement for both the parties. Tax for the
current year and next year was suspended and all confiscated property was returned.

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o Vallabhbhai Patel and Indulal Yajnik helped Gandhi in the Kheda district by organising
his tour of the villages and urging the peasants to stand firm.
o The government said that if the taxes are not paid, the property would be seized.

 The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919:

o This act authorized the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction
in a court of law.
o It provided that persons interned under the Defence of India act may not be released.
o The Act would thus also enable the government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus.
o Known as Rowlett Act and Black Act.
o Named after Sydney Rowlett, chairman of sedition committee.
o The Act was injected in British India polity to overcome the ongoing political activities
and popular liberties.

 Anti Rowlett Satyagrah:

o Gandhi gave a call for large scale Hartal on 6th April 1919.
o Nation witnessed a remarkable political awakening in India
during March and April 1919.
o The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919.
o Punjab had faced very severe wartime oppression due to
forcible recruitment and widespread disease and other
hardships. Amritsar and Lahore were centres of this
movement. Gandhi tried to go to Punjab and get the movement back on the track of non-
violent styagraha. However Gandhi was prevented from entering the Punjab by the
British government and was deported to Bombay.
o The movement was against the exclusion of freedom of press and detention without trial.
o It was the Rowlett Satyagraha that made Gandhi a truly national leader.

 Jalianwala Bagh Massacre:

o On 13th April, a peaceful, unarmed crowd, mostly from neighbouring villages, unaware
of the prohibitory orders in the city, had gathered in Jalianwala Bagh to protest against
the arrest of their leaders.
o Official British Indian sources gave a figure of 379 identified dead, with approximately
1,100 wounded. The casualty number estimated by the Indian National Congress was
more than 1,500, with approximately 1,000 dead.
o Reginald Dyre, the military commander of Amritsar surrounded the Bagh with his army
unit, closed the exist with his troops, and then ordered his men to shoot into trapped
crowed with rifle and machine guns.
o Without even giving warning to people to disperse, he ordered his troops to fire at
unarmed crowd.
o They fired till their ammunition was exhausted.

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o In Amritsar the popular local leader Saifudin Kitchlu and Satyapal were deported on 9th
April.
o Reginald Dyer, the military commander of Amritsar surrounded the Bagh with his army
unit, closed the exist with his troops, and then ordered his men to shoot into trapped
crowed with rifle and machine guns.
o Without even giving warning to people to disperse, he ordered his troops to fire at
unarmed crowd.
o They fired till their ammunition was exhausted.
o After this massacre, martial law was proclaimed throughout the Punjab.
o The Jalianwala Bagh exposed the inhuman and uncivilized approach of Britishers.
o When he returned to Britain, some Englishmen collected money to honour him.
o He was celebrated hero in Britain amongst imperialists and House of Lords.
o Michal O'Dwyer, Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, endorsed General Reginald Dyer's
action regarding the Amritsar massacre and termed it a "correct action".

 Khilafat Movement 1919:

 Background:
o Ottoman Turkey defeated by allied powers in First World War and forced to sign treaty
of Serves.
o ‘Young Turks’ leader Mustafa Kemal Ataturk Pasha abolished Turkish monarchy and
last (36th) Ottoman Sultan and Caliph (28th) was expelled from Turkey.
o In 1919, a movement was organised under the leadership of Ali brothers (Shaukat Ali
and Mohammad Ali), Abul Kalam Azad, Hasrat Mohani and Hakim Ajmal Khan.
o It was a protest against the humiliating sanctions placed on the Caliph and Ottoman
Empire.
o All India Khilafat conference held at Delhi in November
1919.
o Gandhi supports movement because he looked upon the
Khilafat agitation as opportunity of uniting Hindu-Muslim.
o Khilafat committee launched a non-cooperation movement
on 31st August 1920.
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o Kemal promptly seized his chance.
o On his initiative, the National Assembly abolished the Caliphate on March 3, 1924.
o Abdülmecid was sent into exile along with the remaining members of the Ottoman
House, marking the official end of the Ottoman Caliphate.
o Under Turkey's new nationalist government, however, this was construed as foreign
intervention, and any form of foreign intervention was labelled an insult to Turkish
sovereignty, and worse, a threat to State security.
o Abdulmecid II was the last Caliph of Turkey.

 Non-Cooperation Movement(1920-1922):
o Non-Cooperation Movement was a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh
massacre and the Khilafat Movement
o Gandhiji started his non-cooperation movement in August 1920, in which he appealed to
the people not to cooperate with the British government.
o It was approved by the Indian National Congress at the Nagpur session in December,
1920.

 Features:
o Movement began with Mahatma Gandhi renouncing the titles, given by the British
o Surrender of titles and honorary positions along with resignation of membership from
the local bodies
o Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919 Act
o Legislatures were boycotted, No leader of the Congress came forward to contest the
elections for the Legislatures.
o Boycott of government functions, courts, government schools and colleges, & of foreign
goods
o Establishment of national schools, colleges and private panchayat courts
o Popularizing swadeshi goods and khadi.

 Suspension:
o The outbreak of violence cautioned Gandhi. Mob violence took place on February 9,
1922, at Chauri Chaura village, in Gorakhpur district of UP. This was followed by more
violence at Bareilly.
o The non-violent Non-Cooperation Movement, was marked by violence in August, 1921.
o The non-cooperation movement failed to achieve success, yet it succeeded to prepare a
platform for the future movements.
o After taking back the Non-Cooperation movement, Gandhiji and his followers were busy
in creative activities in village areas
o Gandhi suspended his noncooperation on February 14, 1922.
o He was arrested at Ahmadabad on March 18, 1922, and sentenced to six years simple
imprisonment.

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o A lot of leaders like Motilal Nehru and C R Das were against the suspension of the
movement only due to sporadic incidents of violence.
o The government started taking serious action. Prominent leaders were arrested. In two
months, nearly 30,000 people were imprisoned.

 Achievement:
o Swaraj was not achieved in one year as Gandhiji had told.
o However, it was a truly mass movement where lakhs of Indians participated in the open
protest against the government through peaceful means.
o It shook the British government who were stumped by the extent of the movement.
o It saw participation from both Hindus and Muslims thereby showcasing communal
harmony in the country.
o This movement established the popularity of the Congress Party among the people.
o As a result of this movement, people became conscious of their political rights. They
were not afraid of the government.
o Hordes of people thronged to jails willingly.
o The Indian merchants and mill owners enjoyed good profits during this period as a result
of the boycott of British goods. Khadi was promoted.
o The import of sugar from Britain reduced considerably during this period.
o This movement also established Gandhiji as a leader of the masses.

 Swaraj
Party:
o C. R. Das, Motilal Nehru and other like minded persons hatched out a novel plan of non-
cooperation from within the reformed councils.
o They formed the Swaraj Party on January 01, 1923. C. R. Das was the president of the
party and Motilal Nehru the Secretary.
o The party was described as ‘a party within the Congress’ and not a rival organization.
o They wanted an end to the boycott of legislative councils so that the nationalists could

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enter them to expose the basic weaknesses of these assemblies and use these councils as
an arena of political struggle.

 No Changers:
o The ‘No-changers’ opposed council entry
o They advocated concentration on constructive work, and continuation of boycott and
noncooperation
o They also advocated quiet preparation for resumption of the suspended civil
disobedience programme
o This school of thought led by Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari &
M.A. Ansari came to be known as the ‘No-changers’.

 Objective:
o Attaining dominion status.
o Obtaining the right to frame a constitution.
o Having an agency for propaganda outside the country.
o Establishing a federation of Asian countries to promote trade and commerce.
o Engaging in the constructive programmes of the Congress.
o Attaining Swarajya (self-rule).
o Establishing control over the bureaucracy.
o Obtaining full provincial autonomy.
o Getting people the right to control government machinery.
o Organising industrial and agricultural labour.
o Controlling the local and municipal bodies.
o Muddiman Committee under the leadership of Alexander Muddiman was set up to meet
demands of the Indian Leaders and in view of the resolution adopted by Swaraj Party.

 Achievements:
o A noteworthy achievement was the defeat of the Public Safety Bill in 1928 which was
aimed at empowering the Government to deport undesirable and subversive foreigners.
o Swarajist Vitthalbhai Bhai Patel become speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in
1925.
o They exposed the weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms.
 Drawbacks:
o Internal divisions
o The death of C R Das in 1925 further weakened the party
o They failed to resist the perks and privileges of power and office.
o The party merged with the Congress in 1930

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 Boycott of Simon Commission:

o The British action was seen as a violation of the principles of self-determination and a
deliberate insult to self-respect to Indians.
o Congress, at its Madras session of 1927, presided by Dr Ansari, decided to boycott the
commission.
o In November 1927, London appointed the ‘all white’ Indian Statutory Commission,
popularly known as Simon Commission.
o The commission arrived in India on 3rd February 1928.
o On that day, the nation observed a Hartal and ‘Simon Go Back’ cry raised.
o In order to overcome the protest, Irwin announce an offer of ‘dominion status’ for India
in October 1929.
o Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim league decided to support the congress decision.
o It was constituted to examine the functioning of constitutional system of India.

 Nehru Report:
o On 12th February 1928, all party meetings called at Delhi.
o The conference appointed a sub-committee headed by Morilal Nehru and included
among its member Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, G R Pradhan and Subhas Bose.
o The purpose was to consider and determine the principles of the Constitution for India.

 Recommendation:
o India should be given dominion status with the parliamentary for of government with bi-
cameral legislature that consists senate and House of Representatives
o The report recommend that the India should be federation built on the basis of linguistic
provinces and provincial autonomy, the executive should be fully responsible to the
legislature, election should be by joint electorates on the basis of adult suffrage and seats
in the legislature should be reserved for minorities for 10 year period.
o Report demanded that the fundamental rights for the people of India would not be
subjected to forfeiture.
o Complete association of state from religion.

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o Separation of Judiciary from executive.
o But, all party conference held at Calcutta in December 1928, failed to pass the Nehru
report.
o Hindu Mahasabha, Muslmi League and Sikh community unhappy with Nehru report and
Yonger section of Indian National Congress led by Subhash Bose and javaharlal nehru
was also unhappy with report.
o The younger section regarded the idea of dominion status in the report as a step
backward.

 Jinnah’s 14 points:
o Separate electorates.
o No bill to be passed in any legislature if 3/4th of a minority community considers it
against its interests.
o No constitutional amendment without the agreement of the states.
o All legislatures and elected bodies to have adequate Muslim representation without
reducing Muslim majority in a province to minority or equality.
o Constitutional reforms in the NWFP and Baluchistan.
o Full religion freedom for all communities.
o Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language rights of Muslims.
o Federal constitution with residual powers with the provinces.
o Provincial autonomy.
o 1/3rd representation of Muslims in the Central Legislature.
o 1/3rd Muslim members in the central and state cabinets.
o Any reorganization of territories not to affect the Muslim majority in Bengal, Punjab and
the NWFP.
o Separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency.
o Protection of the religious, cultural, educational and language rights of Muslims.

 Civil Disobedience Movement/Dandi March:

 Poorna Swaraj:
o The meeting was significant for the proclamation of commitment to “Purna Swaraj”, or
complete independence.
o On 26 January 1930, “Independence Day” was observed, with the national flag being
hoisted in different venues, and patriotic songs being sung.
o In 1928, Gandhi began to think of re-entering politics.
o Gandhi came back to active politics and attended the Calcutta session of Congress in
1928.
o That year there was an all-India campaign in opposition to the all-White Simon
Commission, sent from England to enquire into conditions in the colony.
o Civil Disobedience Movement began with the Dandi March.
o The movement of civil disobedience was launched based on the issue of salt. Salt was an

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item of basic necessity for all and any taxation on it would affect the poorest of the poor,
thus salt became the symbol of the deprivation and oppression of the Indian people.
o In the end of December 1929, the Congress held its annual session in the city of Lahore.
o Javaharlal Nehru became president of Indian National Congress at Lahore session in
1929.
o It passed a resolution declaring Poorna Swaraj to be congress objective.

 Dandi March:
o Dandi March is also known as Namak Satyagrah or Salt Satyagrah.
o On 12 March 1930, Gandhiji began walking from his ashram at Sabarmati, accompanied
by 72 of his followers, towards the Sea at Dandi.
o The dramatic Dandi march drew a great response from people. Crowds of people greeted
and followed the marchers all along the way. Villagers spun yarn on charkhas, as Gandhi
went past, to show their solidarity to him.
o On 6th April, he reached his destination, making a fistful of salt as he did and thereby
making himself a criminal in the eyes of the law.
o The defiance of the salt law was followed by the spread of civil disobedience movement
all over the country.
o In Tamilnadu, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari led a similar march from Trichinopoly (now
Tiruchirappalli) to Vedaraynam.
o In Darsana, Gujarat, Sarojini Naidu led non-violence Satyagrahis in a march to the salt
depots owned by the British Government.
o The movement reached the extreme North-Western corner of India, under the leadership
of “Frontier Gandhi”, Khan Abdul Gafar Khan.
o The Pathans organised the society of Khudai Khidmatgar, known as Red Shirts.
o In North East India, Manipur and Nagaland took part in movement.
o Rani Gaidinliu, at the age of 13, responded to the call of rebellion against foreign rule.
o She was captured in 1932 and sentenced to life imprisonment.

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o The movement now spread rapidly.

o People joined Hartal
o Boycott of British goods
o Refuse to Pay Taxes
o Passive Resistance offers
o Peasants withheld payment of land revenue and rent
o Movement witnessed large participation of women
o The socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded Gandhiji not to restrict
the protests to men alone. Kamaladevi was herself one of numerous women who courted
arrest by breaking the salt or liquor laws.
o Nationalism was beginning to penetrate the Indian army.
o In NWFP, Garhwali soldiers refuse to act against their fellow countrymen.

 Government response:
o Britishers reply to the national struggle was the
same as before an effort to crush it through
ruthless repression, lathi charges and firing on
unarmed crowds of Satyagrahis.
o Over 90,000 Satyagrahis along with Gandhi
imprisoned.
o The Nationalist press was gagged through strict
censorship of news.

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o According to official figures over 110 persons were killed and over 500 wounded in
police firings.
o It was the Salt March which forced upon the British the realisation that their Raj would
not last forever, and that they would have to devolve some power to the Indians.
o It was this event that first brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention.
o The march was widely covered by the European and American press.
o Meanwhile, the British government summoned in London in 1930 the first roundtable
conference of Indian leaders and spokesman of British Indian Government to discuss the
Simon Commission Report.
o The First Round Table Conference was held in London on Nov. 12, 1930 but the
Congress did not participate in it.
o In March 1931, Mahatma Gandhi and Lord Irwin (Viceroy of India 1926-31) entered
into a Pact, called Gandhi-Irwin Pact, by which the Congress called off the Civil
Disobedience Movement and agreed to participate in the Round Table Conference in
London.
o Immediate release of all political prisoners not convicted of violence;
o Remission of all fines not yet collected;
o Return of all lands not yet sold to third parties;
o Lenient treatment to those government servants who had resigned;
o Right to make salt in coastal villages for personal consumption;
o Right to peaceful and non-aggressive picketing;
o Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.
o Mahatma Gandhi was nominated as the sole representative of the Congress.
o Viceroy turned down demand of commutation of Bhagat Singh and his associate death
sentence to life sentence
o The Second Round Table Conference was held in London on 7th of September, 1931
but nothing was finally decided, as the various communities of India could not come to
an understanding regarding the distribution of seats on communal basis in the Provincial
and Central Legislatures.
o Mahatma Gandhi, immediately after his return from London, in the beginning revived
the Civil Disobedience Movement.
o The Government suppressed the movement, and jailed Gandhi, and many responsible
Congress leaders.
o Congress declared illegal by new viceroy Willington.
o Congress officially suspended the movement in May 1933 and withdraws in it April-
May 1934.
o Gandhi once again withdrew from active politics.
o In this conference, Gandhi and Ambedkar differed on the issue of separate electorates
for the untouchables. Gandhi was against treating untouchables as separate from the
Hindu community. This issue was resolved through the Poona Pact 1932.
o The matter was left to the final arbitration of the British Prime Minister, Ramsay

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MacDonald.
o Congress declared illegal by new viceroy Willington.
o The normal working of laws was suspended and the administration carried on through
special ordinances.
o In Third Round Table Conference, 1932, Congress did not take part in it
o 1933, British Gov. issued a White Paper, which became the basis for the enactment of
the Government of India Act, 1935
o However, Gandhi’s claims that INC represented all of India came under challenge from
three parties: from the Muslim League, which claimed to stand for the interests of the
Muslim minority; from the Princes, who claimed that the Congress had no stake in their
territories; and from the B.R. Ambedkar, who argued that Gandhiji and the Congress did
not really represent the lowest castes

 Communal Award:
o On 16th August 1932, British Prime Minister Ramsey McDonald announced the
proposal of minority representation, known as the Communal Award which
recommended communal award.
o The Communal Award of 1932 was a continuance of Divide and Rule Policy because it
allowed separate electorates and reservation of seats to the depressed classes also.
o The Communal Award distributed seats as under:-
o General 705, Depressed Class 71, Backward Areas 20, Sikhs 85, Muslims 489, Indian
Christians 21, Anglo-Indians 12, Europeans 25, Commerce and Industry 54,
Landholders 35, Universities 8 and Labour 38.

 Pune Pact:
o This was an agreement between M K Gandhi and B R Ambedakar at Yerwada Jail ,
Pune on the reservation of electoral seats for the depressed classes in the legislature of
British India government.
o The pact abandoned separate electorate but the seats reserved for the depressed classes
were increased 71 to 147 in provincial legislature and 18% of the total in the central
legislature.

 The Government of India Act, 1935:

o The Government of India Act that extended some concessions to the nationalist
movement by introducing more autonomy to the elected members in the legislatures of
the provinces.
o The members from the provinces were to be elected, while the representatives of the
States were to be nominated by the rulers.
o The powers of the Legislature were confined and restricted. It had no control over
defense and foreign relations
o This Act also extended the voting rights to a greater percentage of the Indian People.

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o Prepared as a White paper in March, 1933.
o Bill was introduced in British Parliament in December 1934.
o Passed as the Government of India Act 1935 on 2nd August 1935.
o Concept of All India Federation, comprising the Provinces of British India and the
Princely States, was the conspicuous feature of this act.
o The Act provided a new system of government for the provincial administration.
o It was compulsory for the Provinces to join the proposed federation. For the Princely
States it was voluntary.
o Congress won seven out of 11 provinces with a Congress “Prime Minister”, working
under the supervision of a British Governor.
o Later, congress formed coalition governments in two others. Only Bengal and Punjab
had Non Congress ministries.

 Questionary:

1. What was the significance of the Satyagrah of Gandhi in Africa? What was
the nature of his Satyagraha in India?
2. Why did the Dandi March lead to the arrest of Gandhi?

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Chapter: 39
Indian National Movement Part 4:
Quit India Movement, Netaji Bose and Indian
National Army, Cabinet Mission

 Introduction:
o In September 1939, two years after the Congress ministries assumed office, the Second
World War broke out.
o Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru had both been strongly critical of Fuehrer.
o Gandhi and Nehru promised that, the Congress support to the war effort if the British, in
return, promised to grant India independence once hostilities ended.
o Congress now increased its interests in world Affairs.

 Congress and World Affairs:

o Earlier, the Congress had formed its inception in 1885 opposed the use of Indian army
and India resources to serve Imperial interests in Asia and Africa.
o Congress developed its foreign policy based on anti-imperialist ideas.
o In 1927, Nehru attended the congress of oppressed nationalists at Brussels.
o He was elected to the executive council of the League against imperialism, which was
born at this congress.
o In Madras session of 1927, congress declared that India would not support Britain in any
war.

 Indian National Movement during WW2:

o When the Second World War broke out in 1939, the Government of India immediately
joined the war without consulting the National Congress.
o The Congress attitude was one of sympathy, though it refused unconditional
cooperation.

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o Viceroy Linlithgow declared war against Germany.
o As a result all the congress ministries resigned in protest in 1939.
o The Muslim League celebrated this day as the Deliverance Day
o In March 1940 the Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.

 August Offer:
o Viceroy made a set of proposals called the ‘August offer’ from the Shimla on 8th
August.
o For the first time, the right of Indians to frame their own constitution was acknowledged.
o London Assured that dominion status would be granted to India.
o Advisory war council established by government.

 Response:
o The Indian National Congress rejected this offer at its meeting at Wardha in August
1940. It demanded complete freedom from colonial rule. Jawaharlal Nehru remarked
that the dominion status concept was as dead as a doornail.

 Individual Satygrah:
o Individual Satyagrah was the resultant of August Offer.
o The first three satyagrahis were Vinoba Bhave, Nehru and Brahma Datt.
o This movement was not only for independence but also affirm the right to freedom.
o The satyagrahis also started a march towards Delhi which was called the ‘Delhi Chalo
Movement’.
o The movement failed to pick up steam and was aborted in December 1940.
o After the failure of the August Offer, the British government sent the Cripps Mission to
India in a bid to garner Indian support for the war.

 Cripps Mission:
 Background:
o Germany occupied Poland, Belgium, Netherland, Norway and France in west as well as
most of Eastern Europe, Hitler attacked Soviet Union on 22nd June 1941.
o On 7th December Japan attacked Pearl Harbour and destroyed pacific fleet.
o This brought the war to India’s door-step.
o British government now desperately wanted the active cooperation of Indians in the war
efforts.
o In Asia, Japan quickly overran the Philippines, Indo-China (Vietnam), Indonesia,
Malaya and Burma by 1942.
o Two major changes in world politics occurred during 1941 that change British mindset
towards India.
o In March 1942, a mission headed by Stafford Cripps was sent to India with
constitutional proposals to seek Indian support for the war.

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 Main Proposals:
o An Indian Union with a dominion status would be set up;
o After the end of the war, a constituent assembly would be convened to frame a new
constitution.
o Members of this assembly would be partly elected by the provincial assemblies through
proportional representation and partly nominated by the princes.
o There was no mention of a national government of the Indian people.
o The post of Governor-General would be remaining intact and defence of India would
remain in British hands.

 Objection:
o Congress denied this proposal and they decided to take active steps to compel the British
to accept the Indian demand for independence.
o The governor general’s supremacy had been retained, and the demand for governor-
general being only the constitutional head had not been accepted.
o The Muslim League, opposed to the creation of a single union, found the scheme
unacceptable, as it did not unequivocally concede Pakistan.
o The Cripps Mission failed.

 Quit India Movement:

o On 8th August, All India Congress Committee met at Bombay.
o In this meeting the ‘Quit India’ resolution passed and proposed the starting of a non-
violent mass struggle declared to achieve complete independence movement.
o On the night of 8th August Gandhi gave ‘Do or Die’ mantra.
o On 9th August Gandhi and other congress leader arrested and congress declared illegal.
o The first half of the movement was peaceful with demonstrations and processions. The
peaceful protest was carried till Mahatma Gandhi’s release in 1944.
o The second half of the movement was violent with raids and setting fire at post offices,
government buildings and railway stations.
o Viceroy Linlithgow adopted the policy of violence.
o Angered by repeated firings and repression, protester attacked British police stations,
post offices, railway stations, they cut telegraph and telephone line and burnt
government buildings.
o Madras and Bengal were the most effected in this movement.
o In many places, the protesters seized temporary control over many part towns and cities.
o In some parts revolutionaries set up ‘parallel government’.
o The Viceroy’s Council of Muslims, Communist Party and Americans supported
Britishers.

 Violent Response of Government:

o The Government used all means to crush this movement.

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o The demonstrating crowds were bombed from air and machine gunned.
o The press was completely muzzled.
o The police and secret police reigned supreme.
o Military controlled many towns and cities.
o Over 10,000 people died in police and military firings.

 Mahatma Gandhi’s instructions:

o Government servants do not resign your job but proclaim loyalty to the INC.
o Soldiers: be with the army but refrain from firing on compatriots.
o Peasants: pay the agreed upon rent if the Zamindars are anti-government; if they are pro-
government, do not pay the rent.
o Students: can leave studies if they are confident enough.
o Princes: support the people and accept sovereignty of them.
o People of the princely states: support the ruler only if he is anti-government; declare
them as part of the Indian nation.

 Effect of movement:
o Anti-British Sentimental increased
o People were continued their struggle
o Complete independence was the top agenda of movement

 Netaji and INA:

o The struggle of Independence was carried on by Netaji Bose from abroad.
o When Japan defeated the British Armies and occupied almost all the South East Asian
countries, the league formed the Indian National Army from among the Indian PoWs
with the aim of Indian independence in al means.
o Formation of Azad Hind Fauj was the most important development in the struggle for
the freedom.
o Ras Bihari Bose, an eminent revolutionary, who had escaped from India and had been
living in Japan for many years.
o The formation of I.N.A. was not just an event but a historical phenomenon.
o It was also the consequence of a long process of dissatisfaction not only with the British
rule but also with the Gandhian strategy of struggle for the independence of India.
o Before the arrival of Subhas Bose, INA was organised by General Mohan singh.
o He set up the Indian Independence league with the support of Indians living in the
Southeast Asian nations.
o Bose joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1921. He also started a newspaper
called ‘Swaraj’.
o He was the President of the All India Youth Congress and also the Secretary of the
Bengal State Congress.In 1924, he became the CEO of the Calcutta Municipal
Corporation. In 1930, he became the Mayor of Calcutta.

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o Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was born on January 23, 1897 at Oriya bazaar of Cuttack
district Orissa.
o In 1939, he again became president by defeating Gandhi’s candidate at Tripura session,
but soon resigned after ideological classes and between him and Gandhi.
o He also became a President of Indian National Congress in Haripura session.
o On 21st October 1943, Netaji formed the Indian National Army (I.N.A).
o Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose is remembered for his Salutation and slogan of 'Jai Hind'.
o The famous words of Subhash Chandra Bose "Give me blood, I will give you freedom"
encouraged the freedom fighters.
o The famous book “The Indian Struggle” was written by him.
o Unlike other prominent leaders of the Indian freedom struggle, Subhas strongly believed
that an armed rebellion was necessary to wrest independence from the British.
o Selected for the Indian Civil Services (ICS) but refused to take up service since he did
not want to serve the British government.

 Political View Of Subhas:

o He also, however, expressed admiration for the authoritarian methods (though not the
racial ideologies) which he saw in Italy and Germany during the 1930s, and thought they
could be used in building an independent India.
o However, during the war (and possibly as early as the 1930s) Bose seems to have
decided that no democratic system could be adequate to overcome India's poverty and
social inequalities, and he wrote that an authoritarian state, similar to that of Soviet
Russia (which he had also seen and admired) would be needed for the process of
nation’s re-building.
o Bose had clearly expressed his belief that democracy was the best option for India.
o The pro-Bose thinkers believe that his authoritarian control of the Azad Hind was based
on political pragmatism and a post-colonial recovery doctrine rather than any
antidemocratic belief.
o Netaji supported empowerment of women, secularism and other democratic ideas.
o Bose's earlier correspondence (prior to 1939) also reflects his deep disapproval of the
racist practices and annulment of democratic institutions in Nazi Germany.
o Bose had clearly expressed his belief that democracy was the best option for India.
o The pro-Bose thinkers believe that his authoritarian control of the Azad Hind was based
on political pragmatism and a post-colonial recovery doctrine rather than any
antidemocratic belief.
o In April 1941, India and the world were stunned when Germany’s Goebbel’s radio
service announced: India’s most popular leader had arrived in Berlin to ask for Hitler’s
help to deliver India from British rule.
o The period of his stay in Germany was from April 1941 to February 1943.
o Netaji met the higher officials of the Foreign Department on April 3, 1941, and
expressed his desire to form an 'Indian Government in Exile' and expected its immediate

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diplomatic recognition from the Axis Powers.
o He went to Rome to seek help from Duce.
o Italian Foreign Minister Ciano took Netaji to the Duce Benito Mussolini on May 5,
1941.
o Encounter with Hitler: It happened on May 29, 1942 at the Reich Chancellery.
o Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped from India in March 1941 to go to the Soviet Union.
o But Soon after, Operation Barbarossa, Soviet Union joined allies, Netaji went to
Germany.
o He boarded a German submarine Unterseeboot 180 (or U-180) on February 8, 1943 from
Kiel with another Indian colleague, Abid Hassan.
o Subhaa Chandra Bose arrived at Tokyo en 16 May 1943. But his presence in Tokyo was
kept a secret it was announced first on the Tokyo Radio on 18 June and confirmed by the
Japanese Press next day.
o Indians in every country or East Asia welcomed and celebrated his arrival.
o As requested, he submitted a draft proposal on April 9, 1941. It contained the following
(i) The Axis Powers would sign a treaty with the ‘Free Indian Government in Exile’
guaranteeing India's independence from British rule once the war was won; (ii) The
Indian Army would consist of 50,000 soldiers of Indian origin; (iii) After liberating
India, Germany would hand over responsibility to the Government in Exile headed by
Netaji himself.
o Bose attracted the attention of the Japanese high command, including Hideki Tojo,
Japan's premier.
o The Japanese agreed to cooperate in founding an Indian National Army (INA) in
Southeast Asia.
o Bose was flown to Singapore and became commander of the INA and head of the Free
India provisional government.
o The INA included both Indian prisoners of war from Singapore and Indian civilians in
Southeast Asia.
o The strength of INA grew to 50, 000 and fought Allied forces in 1944 inside the borders
of India at Imphal and in Burma.
o For Bose any means and any ally were acceptable in the struggle to liberate India.
o By the end of World War II none of Bose's Axis allies had helped, and Bose then turned
to the Soviet Union.
o On Aug. 18, 1945, it is believed that Bose was en route to the Soviet Union in a Japanese
plane when it crashed in Taiwan, burning him fatally.
o However, his death it is very controversial and disputed subject in India. Due to the lack
of evidence and records of his final days in his life.
o Bose indirectly and posthumously achieved his goal of Indian independence.
o Many enquiry committees were tasked with finding out what happened on that day.
o The Figgess Report (1946) and the Shah Nawaz Committee (1956) concluded that Bose
died in the plane crash in Taiwan.

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o The Khosla Commission (1970) also concurred with the previous reports.
o But the Mukherjee Commission (2005) said that Bose’s death could not be proved. This
report was rejected by the government.

 Post-War struggle:
 Trial of INA:
o INA had around 43000 recruits out of which many perished, many fled and mixed with
the civilians, but 16000 were captured. They were stuffed into the ships and sent to India
via Rangoon.
o Various detention camps had been organized in Jhingergacha and Nilganj near Calcutta,
Kirkee near Pune, Attock, and Multan and at Bahadurgarh near Delhi.
o The officers of the INA were taken to court martial at the Red Fort of Delhi from
November 1945 and May 1946. Around ten courts-martial were held.
o Trial of three officers of the INA, namely Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurdial Singh Dhillon and
Prem Sehgal, at the Red Fort was opposed by the entire country.
 Support of Congress:
o In Bombay session of September 1945, Congress adopted a resolution to strongly
support for the INA cause.
o Defense of INA officers in the court was organised by Bhulabha Desai, Tej Bahadur
Sapru, K N katju, Asaf Ali and Nehru.

 Change:
o The Second World War had shattered the economic and military might of the British
Empire.
o The war had changed the balance of power in the world. Not Britain, but the USA and
USSR emerged as the new big powers.
o There was a change in government in London. The Conservative were replaced by
Labour party many of whose members supported Indian demands.

 Instrumental mutiny:
o The writing on the wall was clear. The people of India would no longer tolerate the
humiliation of foreign rule. The centuries old British rule in India was about to end.
o Other important events like Cabinet Mission in 1946 and Indian Independence Act of
1947 only worked out the detailed formula for independence.
o Many parts of country witnessed strikes, hartals and numerous agitation, even in many
princely states such as Travancore, Kashmir and Jammu.
o There was also large scale labour unrest all over the country.
o There was a mutiny in the Navy against the said trial in February 1946. In addition, there
were numerous strikes, hartals and demonstrations in various parts of the country,
including several Princely States.
o Most dangerous signals to the British came from mutiny in Navy and the strikes in the

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Indian Air Force and the Corps of Signals in the Army.
o The police force of Bihar and Delhi went on strike and the bureaucracy was also
showing the signs of nationalist leanings.
o Although there was no major movement after the Second World War, the people’s
struggle against the trial of the INA prisoners filled the void.
o In November 1945, lakhs of people demonstrated in the streets in Calcutta to demand the
release of INA officers.
o Now the British focused on careful and peaceful withdrawal.

 Cabinet Mission:
o Due to mass demonstration, hartals and strikes, British Government sent a Cabinet
Mission in March 1946 to negotiate with the Indian leaders the terms for the transfer of
power to Indians.
o A high powered mission of three British Cabinet Ministers – Pethick-Lawrence, the
Secretary of State for India; Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade; and A V
Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty reached Delhi on 24th March 1946.

 Proposals:
o To obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the framing of a constitution for
India.
o To formulate a constitution-making body
o To establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.

 Recommendation:
o It provided that all the members of the Interim cabinet would be Indians and there would
be minimum interference by the Viceroy.
o It also provided for formation of the constituent assembly on democratic principle of
population.
o It recognized Indian Right to cede from the Commonwealth.
o The cabinet mission plan of 1946 proposed that there shall be a Union of India which
was to be empowered to deal with the defense, foreign affairs and communications.
o The cabinet mission recommended an undivided India and turned down the Muslim
league’s demand for a separate Pakistan. The Cabinet mission restricted the Communal
representation
o The Union Government and its legislature were to have limited powers, dealing with
Finance, Foreign Affairs and Communications. The union would have powers necessary
to raise the finances to manage the subjects. Thus, the Cabinet Mission plan proposed a
weak Centre. We can realize what would have been of the country if this plan was
approved and implemented.
o All subjects other than the Union Subjects and all the residuary powers would be vested
in the provinces.

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o The Princely states would retain all subjects and all residuary powers.
o A Constituent Assembly will be formed of the representatives of the Provincial
Assemblies and the Princely states. Each province had to be allotted a total number of
seats in proportion to the population. The Constituent assembly had to comprise 293
Members from the British Provinces and 93 members from the Princely states.
o The representation of the Provincial legislatures was to be break up into 3 sections.
• Section A: Madras, UP, Central provinces, Bombay, Bihar & Orissa
• Section B: Punjab, Sindh, NWFP, Baluchistan
• Section C: Assam and Bengal.

 Questionary:

1. How did the ‘Quit India’ Movement contributed to the independence of

India?
2. Discuss the role of Azad Hind Fauz led by Subhash Chandra Bose in the
Indian National Movement.

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Chapter: 40
Indian Independence, Partition of India,
Integration of Princely States

 Introduction:
o In September 1946, the Congress formed the government at the Centre. The League
refused to be a part to it.
o Muslim League celebrated ‘Direct Action Day’ on 16th August 1946 to attain Pakistan.
The conflict resulted in widespread communal riots in different parts of India.
o It created two independent states in the Indian sub-continent, i.e. Indian Union and
Pakistan.
o India got its independence on 15th August, 1947. At the stroke of midnight (14th – 15th
August, 1947), transfer of power took place.
o Political Differences soon arose between the Congress and the Muslim League
concerning the powers of the Constituent Assembly.
o In the mean time, Lord Mountbatten was sent as the Viceroy to India.
o He put up his plan in June 1947 which included partition of India.
o The League rejected the Cabinet Mission Plan in the middle of 1946.

 Rise of Communalism:
o Communalism is referred in the western world as a “theory or system of government in
which virtually autonomous local communities are loosely in federation”.
o Communalism as a political philosophy has its roots in the ethnic and cultural diversity
of Africa.
o Secularism and Regionalism are also the related concept of Communalism.
o Communalism or communal ideology consists of three basic elements or stages, one
following the other.

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 First: People who follow the same religion have common secular interests, that is,
common political, economic, social and cultural interests.
 Second: The secular interests of the followers of one religion are dissimilar and
divergent from the interests of the followers of another.
 Third: when the interests of the followers of different religions or of different
‘communities’ are seen to be mutually incompatible, antagonistic when the interests of
the followers of different religions or of different ‘communities’ are seen to be mutually
incompatible, antagonistic.

 Stage of Indian Communalism:

o First stage was rise of nationalist Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, etc. with only first element of
communalism.
o Hindu revivalist movement like Suddhi movement and Faraizi movement, started by
Haji Shariatullah in Bengal to bring the Bengali Muslims back on the true path of Islam,
were among of the religious reform movement which had bearing on communalism in
19th century.
o Later people like Syed Ahmed Khan, who despite of having scientific and rational
approach, projected Indian Muslims as a separate community (qaum) having interest
different from others.
o Second stage was of Liberal communalism, it believed in communal politics but liberal
in democratic, humanist and nationalist values. It was basically before 1937. For
example organizations like Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League and personalities like
M.A. Jinnah, M M Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai after 1920s
o Third stage was of Extreme Communalism, this had a fascist syndrome. It demanded
for separate nation, based on fear and hatred. There was tendency to use violence of
language, deed and behavior. For example Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha after
1937.

 Evolution of Communalism in India:

o Divide and Rule: The British divided the population into manageable chunks which
makes it impossible for the people to come together and fight against the sovereign
authority.
o Communalism in India has its roots in partition of Bengal in 1905 and feature of separate
electorate under Government of India Act, 1909(Marley – Minto reforms).
o But, Nehru report rejected the principle of separate electorates but accepted the Muslim
demand for the formation of NWFP. Also it recommended the dominion status as the
form of Government and reservation of seats for the Muslims in those states where they
were in minority. But Jinnah opposed the Nehru Report and came out with his “Fourteen
Points”.
o They made use of divisions among Indians to prop up their rule. This approach was to
categorise the people according to religion, and viewed and treated them as separate

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from each other.
o But, Nehru report rejected the principle of separate electorates but accepted the Muslim
demand for the formation of NWFP. Also it recommended the dominion status as the
form of Government and reservation of seats for the Muslims in those states where they
were in minority. But Jinnah opposed the Nehru Report and came out with his “Fourteen
Points”.
o In Allahbad adress Muhammad Iqbal outlined a vision of an independent state for in
northwestern India, thus becoming the first politician to articulate what would become
known as the ‘two nation theory’.
o Iqbal’s ideas were ignored by most Muslim politicians, but gained some momentum in
the informal arenas of politics through the medium of popular press.
o Later, British government also appeased various communities through Communal award
in 1932, which faced strong resistance from Gandhi ji and others.
o After Mohammad Iqbal, Rahmat Ali, a Cambridge University student, published a
pamphlet Now or Never in 1933 in which the idea of Pakistan was explained. In this
pamphlet, he advocated a complete breakaway of the Muslims of North-Western zone of
India from the rest of Indian Union.
o Pakistan - etymologically meant the ‘land of pure’, ‘P’ stood for Punjab, ‘A’ for Afghan
(North-West Frontier Province), ‘K’ for Kashmir, ‘S’ for Sindh and ‘tan’ for
Baluchistan.
o The All India Muslim League’s Lahore Resolution, which was later known as the
Pakistan Resolution (23 March 1940), was a turning point in the history of the
movement for Pakistan. It impressed upon the Muslims that the demand for the creation
of a separate state for Muslims was the right of every Muslim in India.

 Rajaji Formula:
o In 1944, C. Rajagopalachari came out with a formula to find a solution to the crisis.
o This, known as ‘Rajaji Formula’, had been approved by Gandhi, and to some extent
accepted the creation of a separate land and asked the Muslim League to support the
Congress for the Independence of India and in forming a provisional government.
o The basic concepts of Rajaji formula were to engulf the gap between the Muslims
League and INC arises due to the differences of opinion on Two Nation Theory and
Indian Independence.

 Desai – Liaqat Proposal:

o It was a proposal from INC to ML to settle political deadlock.
o Bhulabhai Desai and Liaquat Ali met in January 1945 and gave him proposals for the
formation of interim government at center consisting of – an equal number of persons
nominated by the Congress & League in the central legislature and 20% reserved seats
for minorities.
 Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference:

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o Lord Wavell, who became Viceroy in 1943 and continued upto 1947, played an
important role in deciding the turn of events in Indian politics.
o He made a way out from the existing stalemate the deadlock in India. He went to
England for consultations in March 1945.
o He broadcast to the people of India the proposals of the British Government to resolve
the deadlock in India on 14th June which is called Wavell Plan. It is also known as
Breakdown Plan.
o On 25th June 1945 Lord Wavell called a conference at Shimla to resolve the
complexities.

 Provisions of Wavell Plan:

o To reconstruct the Governor General’s executive council in which all the members if
executive council were to be Indians except the GovernorGeneral and Commander – in –
chief.
o All the foreign affairs were to be given to Indians.
o All portfolios except Defence were to be under the control of Indian members.
o Governor General would retain 1 veto power but would exercise his veto power on the
advice of ministers.
o Representatives of different parties had to submit a joint list to the viceroy for
nominations to the executive council.
o The new council had to decide the procedure for the making of the constitution.
o The conference was a failure because the League and the Congress could not settle their
differences.
o Jinnah insisted that only League members could be the Muslim representatives in the
Council, and opposed to the Congress nominating Muslim members. This was because
Jinnah wanted the League to be the sole representative of Muslims in India. The
Congress would never agree to this demand.

 Cabinet Mission:
o Due to mass demonstration, hartals and strikes, British Government sent a Cabinet
Mission in March 1946 to negotiate with the Indian leaders the terms for the transfer of
power to Indians.
o A high powered mission of three British Cabinet Ministers – Pethick-Lawrence, the
Secretary of State for India; Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade; and A V
Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty reached Delhi on 24th March 1946.

 Proposals:
o To obtain an agreement with the Indian leaders as to the framing of a constitution for
India.
o To formulate a constitution-making body
o To establish an Executive Council with the support of the major Indian parties.

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 Interim Government:
o According to Cabinet Mission plan, the constituent assembly was formed in August
1946 after the elections.
o In these elections, the Indian National Congress (INC) won around 69% of the seats and
had a majority. The Congress Party won 208 seats and 73 were won by the Muslim
League.
o It lasted till 15th August 1947 when India became independent and was partitioned into
India and Pakistan.
o On 2nd September 1946, the newly-elected Constituent Assembly formed interim
government of India which existed till 15th August 1947.
o The executive branch of the interim government was served by the viceroy's executive
council that was headed by the Viceroy of India.
o It was composed of 12 members including 3 Muslims nominated by the Congress.
o It was for the first time since the coming of British that the Government of India was in
Indian's hand.
o On 26th October, five nominees of the League joined the Government.

 Direct action day

o Muslim League decided to observe 16th August 1946 as Direct Action Day throughout
the country to protest against the formation of interim government.
o This resulted in the worst communal riots that British India had seen.
o The Bengal government led by Muslim League leader H S Suharwardy declared the day
as public holiday.
o Calcutta witnessed widespread riot and manslaughter between Hindus and Muslims.
o This is known as ‘Great Calcutta Killing’.
 Communal Violence (1946 – 47)

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o The freedom was marred by the large-scale communal riots during and after August
1946.
o The Hindu and Muslim communalists blamed each other for starting the heinous killings
and competed with each other in cruelty.
o Mahatma Gandhi engulfed in gloom at this total disregard of elementary humanity and
seeing truth and non-violence cast to the winds, toured East Bengal and Bihar on foot to
check the riots.
o Many other Hindus and Muslims laid down their lives in the effort to extinguish the fire
of communalism.
o But the seeds had been sown too deep by the communal elements, aided and abetted by
the alien Government.
o Gandhi and other nationalists fought vainly against communal prejudices and passions.
o On 20th February 1947, British Premier, Clemente Attlee, declared that the British would
quit India by June 1948.
o On March 22, 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten took over as the Viceroy from Lord
Wavell. His brief was to arrange the transfer of power from the British to Indian hands
as expeditiously as possible.
o On July 4th, 1947 the Independence of India Bill was introduced in the British
Parliament and was passed by a simple majority.
o The Act formulated on July 18th, made provision for the Partition of the sub-continent
into two sovereign states. Pakistan celebrated Independence on 14th August 1947, and
India on 15th August.

 Plan Balkan:
o Mountbatten prepared“Dickie Bird Plan” for India’s independence.
o This plan was prepared by a committee of General Sir Hastings Ismay, Sir George Abell
and Lord Mountbatten himself.
o The Plan Balkan was completed and presented on 15-16 April 1947 by Hastings Ismay
to assembly of provincial governors in Delhi.
o The main proposal of this plan was to that provinces should become first independent
successor states rather than an Indian Union or the two dominions of India & Pakistan.
o As per this plan all the provinces viz. Madras, Bombay, United Provinces of Bengal,
Punjab & North West Frontier etc. were proposed to be declared Independent.
o The states later would decide whether to join constituent assembly or not.
o This plan was not discussed in details with leaders of India and Mountbatten discussed
just informally.
o Nehru rejected the plan right away and told him that this plan would invite Balkanization
of India and would provoke conflict and violence.
o Consequently, Mountbatten cabled to England that this plan was cancelled. So it was
also called as Plan Balkan.

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 Mountbatten Plan:
o The actual division of British India between the two new dominions was accomplished
according to what has come to be known as the ‘3rd June Plan’ or ‘Dickie Bird Plan’. It
was announced at a press conference by Mountbatten on 3rd June 1947.
o Under this circumstance Sardar Patel agreed to the proposal of Mountbatten because he
was convinced that it was not possible to work with the Muslim League.
o The Muslim League's demands for a separate state were thus conceded.
o Time was favorable for him. India was passing through a moment of terrible crisis of
Communal War. Brutality and human sacrifice had reached beyond limit.
o The Congress' position on unity was also taken into account while making Pakistan as
small as possible.
o Mountbatten's formula was to divide India and at the same time retain maximum
possible unity.
o He held discussions with prominent leaders of congress had talks with the members of
the League.
o Patel’s argument influenced Nehru. Nehru was also own over by Mountbatten.

 Main Proposals:
o A Boundary Communism in each province shall decide the final lines of demarcation.
o If the Legislative Assemblies of Bengal and Punjab took their decisions in favour of the
division of the provinces, fresh elections would be held for the Pakistan Constituent
Assembly.
o Power was to be transferred to India by 15th of August, 1947.
o The Constitution framed by the Indian Constituent Assembly will not apply to Muslim-
majority provinces.
o The Muslim-majority provinces will decide for themselves the question of a separate
Constituent Assembly.
o The Princely States would be free to join India or Pakistan or to proclaim their
independence, and establish their new relationship with Britain.
o After the dominions were created, the British Parliament could not enact any law in the
territories of the new dominions.
o Until the time the new constitutions came into existence, the Governor-General would
assent any law passed by the constituent assemblies of the dominions in His Majesty’s
name.
o The question of the division of the Punjab and Bengal and also the Constituent
Assembly they wanted to join will be decided by their respective Legislature
Assemblies.
o The Sind Legislative Assembly will decide whether it wanted to join the present
Constituent Assembly or the new one.
o Referendum was to be held in Sylhet District (Assam) and North West Frontier
Province.

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o The Muslim League accepted the 3rd June Plan by passing a resolution on June 9, 1947.
o Six days later, the AICC accepted the partition plan as a final settlement.
o After the agreement of the different communities of India to the Plan, the British
Government passed the Indian Independence Act on 18th July 1947 to make provision
for the setting up in India of two independent dominions and 15 th August, 1947 was
fixed as the last date for setting up these dominions.
o On 15th August, 1947 India attained independence, and Pakistan was created as a new
Dominion on 14th August, 1947.

 Provisions of Indian Independence Act:

o The legislative supremacy of the British Parliament for India came to an end.
o The legislatures of the two countries were to have full powers of legislation.
o Till the framing of the new Constitutions by the Constituent Assemblies of these two
Dominions, their Governments were to be carried on in accordance with the Government
of India Act of 1935 with necessary modifications.
o The Governor-General in case of each of the two Dominions was authorized to make the
necessary changes in the Act till 31st of March 1948. After that only the Constituent
Assemblies could make the necessary changes.
o The title of Viceroy to be dropped and henceforth he was to be called only Governor-
General.

o The crown was no more to have the right to veto the laws made by a Dominion
Legislature.
o The paramountcy of the Crown over the Princely States came to an end.
o All treaties and agreements between the Crown and the Princely States were to lapse
with effect from the date of the transfer of power.

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o The office of the Secretary of State for India was to be abolished and the work was to be
taken over by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs.
o The title of Emperor of India was abolished.
o The Indian Army, Government stores, railways etc, were to be divided between India
and Pakistan.

 Boundary Commission/Radcliffe Line:

o Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who was without having any connection to India or Indian politics,
was given the crucial task of partitioning India in the Bengal and Punjab provinces.
o His only guidelines were to draw the boundary according to the religious affiliation even
though other factors could be taken into consideration.
o He divided the roughly 450000 sq. km of territory between the two dominion.
o The Radcliffe Line was published on 17th August 1947 as a boundary demarcation line
between India and Pakistan upon the Partition of India.

 Aftermath:
o The immediate and tragic result of partition was a huge two - ways exodus of minority
groups seeking to join their co-religionists on the other side of the frontier.
o Partition triggered riots, mass casualties, and a colossal wave of migration.
o Millions of people moved to what they hoped would be safer territory, with Muslims
heading towards Pakistan, and Hindus and Sikhs in the direction of India.
o By the end of 1948, Pakistan had received 6.7 million refugees and India approximately
the same number. The movement went on for a long time afterwards, since for Pakistan
as a whole the number of refugees rose from 7.2 million at the 1951 census to 8.4
million at the 1957 census while in India their number increased from 7.3 million to 8.85
million between the same dates.
o As many as 14-16m people may have been eventually displaced, travelling on foot, in
bullock carts and by train.
o Estimates of the death toll post-Partition range from 200,000 to two million.
o Many were killed by members of other communities and sometimes their own families,
as well as by the contagious diseases which swept through refugee camps.
o Women were often targeted as symbols of community honour, with up to 100,000 raped
or abducted.
o The situation was especially dangerous in Punjab, where weapons and demobilised
soldiers were abundant.
o Another unforeseen consequence of Partition was that Pakistan’s population ended up
more religiously homogeneous than originally anticipated.
o The Muslim League’s leaders had assumed that Pakistan would contain a sizeable non-
Muslim population, whose presence would safeguard the position of Muslims remaining
in India – but in West Pakistan, non-Muslim minorities comprised only 1.6% of the
population by 1951, compared with 22% in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

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o And even though Pakistan was ostensibly created as a “homeland” for India’s Muslim
minority, not all Muslims even supported its formation, never mind migrated there:
Muslims remained the largest minority group in independent India, making up around
10% of the population in 1951.
o Gandhi himself was assassinated in January 1948 by Nathuram Godse who blamed him
for being too supportive of Muslims at the time of Partition.
o Both states subsequently faced huge problems accommodating and rehabilitating post-
Partition refugees, whose numbers swelled when the two states went to war over the
disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir in 1947-8.

• Integration of Princely States:

o Princely States covered one-third of the land area of the British Indian Empire and one
out of four Indians lived under princely rule.
o The merger, and thus the extinction, of over 500 princely states, into independent India
constitute one of the signal achievements of the first government of the newly
independent country.

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o With the announcement of independence, Britishers stated that 'His Majesty's
Government does not intend to hand over their powers and obligations under
paramountcy to India.'
o Many of 565 princely states began to dream of an independent state of their own after
independence.
o With great skill and masterful diplomacy & using both persuasion & pressure, Patel
succeeded in integrating hundreds of princely states.
o Most princely states joined Constituent Assembly with wisdom but others like of
Junagarh, Kashmir, Manipur and Hyderabad publicly announced their desire to claim an
independent status.

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 Questionary:
1. What is Communalism? Describe the Stages of Communalism.
2. What was the basis of drawing the Radcliffe line?

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Chapter: 41
European feudalism

 Feudalism:
o The large empire built by Charlemagne (Charles the Great) began to disintegrate in the
ninth century A.D.
o The collapse of central authority was accompanied by external invasions and decline of
trade, commerce and the towns.
o Many of the military commanders and chiefs became independent rulers of their regions.
o During this period a new social formation was emerging in Europe which is termed as
Feudalism.
o Feudalism as a form of political, economic and social system dominated Europe from
around 9th to 14th century A.D.
o However, during this entire period the political, economic and social structures were not
static and uniform.
o Feudalism developed due to lack of a single central political authority in Western Europe
as it had disintegrated into many small and big kingdoms. In such a system the local
Lords became more powerful than the King and controlled the affairs of the society.

 Definition:
o Feudalism was a kind of socio-political organisation which arose in medieval Europe
and was based on land tenure given by the Lord to the Vassels, who served their masters
in various ways.
o In other words, feudalism was a part of the feudal society where the subordinate subjects
showed loyalty to their Lords and obtained from them a piece of land there by

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serving their master, in various ways seeking protection from them for their life and
property.

 Features:
 Castle:
o The Castle was the chief characteristic of feudalism. The feudal Lords lived in huge
castles or forts. The living house and court of the Lord existed inside the castle.
 Manor:
o The land associated with the castle was known as Manor. This was like a small estate.
The castles, cultivated land, dwelling houses of barons and Church were associated with
it.
 Demense:
o Another feature of feudalism was ‘Demense’. After distributing the land among his serfs
whatever land remained with him was known as Demense. This law entirely belonged to
the Lord which he could use according to his whims and caprices.
 Status:
o The status of any person in Feudal Europe was determined by his prestige and power.
o Social class was inherited

 Hierarchy:
o Monarch at the top
o Noblemen below the king
o Every nobleman was a vassal, of and only of his overlord.
o The Dukes and Earls got military support from the barons who were like military
generals, who were depended on the knights.
o Lower lord would only follow commands of his immediate overlord and not of lords
further higher in the hierarchy.
o And Lord himself was not the direct owner of the land under him. He held land in the
name of his overlord.
o There was no central authority in functional terms and King was a central authority only
in legal terms resulting in very little political unity.

 Structure of Feudalism:
 Kings:
o Monarchs were at the peak of the pyramid
o In the first place feudalism held that God had given
the country to the king who was its lord.
o They claimed ownership of all land in their kingdom
o The king could give this land to nobles called vassals.
o Richest on the feudal pyramid
o They wore purple robes to show their wealth.

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 Nobles and Clergy:
o These nobles were lords of their territory or fief and could hand over a part of their fiefs
to lesser lords and have vassals of their own.
o The nobles offered protection to low class citizens through knights in exchange for
peasants labor.
o Expensive attire usually worn by a noble reflected their importance in feudal society.
o Their marriage were arranged for strategic reasons

 Clergy:
o They were religious leaders in feudal Europe
o They dictated all social classes
o They enjoyed all luxuries of high society in feudal Europe
o Churches were often part of manor

 Knights:
o They were linked to the lords, just as the latter were linked to the king.
o The lord gave the knight a piece of land (called ‘fief’) and promised to protect it. The
fief could be inherited.
o It extended to anything between 1,000 and 2,000 acres or more, including a house for the
knight and his family.
o In exchange, the knight paid his lord a regular fee and promised to fight for him in war.
o A knight might serve more than one lord, but his foremost loyalty was to his own lord.
o Knights' shield represents which lord they fought for.

 Peasants:
o Peasants made up 90 % of the population in Feudal Europe.
o Cultivators were of two kinds: free peasants and serfs.
o Free peasants held their farms as tenants of the lord. They only paid a tax fixed by the
Lord. The men had to render military service (at least forty days every year).
o They spun thread, wove cloth, made candles and pressed grapes to prepare wine for the
lord’s use.
o There was one direct tax called ‘taille’ that kings sometimes imposed on peasants (the
clergy and nobles were exempted from paying this)
o Serfs cultivated plots of land, but these belonged to the lord.
o They received no wages and could not leave the estate without the lord’s permission.

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 Church and State:

o All Christians belonged to the Roman Catholic Church.
o The Church was the single most dominant institution in medieval life, its influence
pervading almost every aspect of people's lives.
o Church was organised as a hierarchy with all members of clergy having a rank
o Its religious observances gave shape to the calendar; its sacramental rituals marked
important moments in an individual's life (including baptism, confirmation, marriage,
the eucharist, penance, holy orders and the last rites); and its teachings underpinned
mainstream beliefs about ethics, the meaning of life and the afterlife.

 Structure of Roman Catholic Church:

o Over time, church leaders in western Europe developed an organization that was
modeled on the structure of the old Roman government. By the High Middle Ages, they
had created a system in which all members of the clergy had a rank.

 Pope: The Pope was the spiritual and political leader of church.
o Cardinals and Bishops: Cardinals assisted pope to run the church and the Bishops ran the
dioceses.
o Cardinals were appointed by the pope and ranked just below him in the church
hierarchy.
 Priests: Priests ran individual churches and administered the sacraments – including
communion, matrimony and baptism.
 Nuns: They copied and translated sacred religious texts.

 Power of Churches:
o The church also came to wield great political power. Latin, the language of the church ,
was the only common language in Europe.
o During the middle Ages, the church acquired great economic power. By the year 1050, it
was the largest landholder in Europe.
o Church officials were often the only people who could read. As a result, they kept
records for monarchs and became trusted advisors.

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o They owned 1/3rd land in Europe
o They collect a tithe from peasants.
o Churches had its own code of conduct.
o The Church was the only institution for education in the medieval time but becoming a
Monk was the only future prospect this education offered. They taught in Latin which
was not understood by the common man.
o Church made “once in a year” confession of sins to the Father compulsory and the
breach of this rule mandated punishment.
o Pope, nuns, bishops etc. became corrupt and lived like princes.
o Belief in witches, superstitious and magic.
o Logic and science was discouraged.
o Critics lost their life thus church became violent.
o It ordered burning of people who opposed its ideas about God, religion and even the
physical phenomena. This was done on charges of “Heresy”.
o In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church’s evils took the form of:
o Started taking money for every rituals and removing sins. For example, the Church
started selling “Letters of Indulgence” which upon their purchase removed the need for
doing pilgrimages for removal of sins.

 Conflict:
o With the recognition of Christianity as state religion and rise of papacy a unified
Christian world was established and the boundaries of the Roman Empire and the
Christian world ultimately coincided.
o The powers of the two authorities were never clearly demarcated. This resulted in the
overlapping of the powers.
o The power of the Pope to excommunicate any temporal person – particularly a person of
the royal family – provided a source of conflict between the king and the church.
o Conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV, the Holy Roman emperor was
famous example of conflict.

 Emergence of Trade, Towns and Cities:

o The towns of the Roman Empire had become deserted and ruined after its fall.
o The change started to begin in 7th century when Europe came in contact with Arabs.
o The demand of luxury goods from the east increased among the lords.
o And from the eleventh century, as agriculture increased and became able to sustain
higher levels of population, towns began to grow again.
o Gradually, peasants started to work as Artisans (i.e. Craftsmen) and the Merchants
started to settle in these new towns.
o As the number of Artisans increased in the towns, the latter expanded to become cities.
o These cities developed, all across Europe, mainly along the land-based trade routes or
around the sea ports.

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o To cope up with the demand due to increased trade and towns as well as specialization in
crafts, a change in method of production of goods was felt necessary.
o The Merchants and craftsmen in towns started to organize themselves in Guilds, which
were specific to the good being produced.
o The ‘guild-hall’ was a feature of every town; it was a building for ceremonial functions,
and where the heads of all the guilds met formally.
o As the number of towns grew and trade continued to expand, town merchants became
rich and powerful, and rivalled the power of the nobility.
o The Serfs were free in Towns and they provided the necessary workforce for the
Merchants.
o The influx of more peasants provided a domestic market for the goods produced in
towns.
o In towns, the economy was money based and land was not the main source of power.
o The Merchants started influencing not just the social and economic, but also the political
life in towns.
o The revival in trade and emergence of Towns resulted in emergence of a new class
called the Middle Class, comprising mainly of Merchants.
o The towns slowly freed themselves from Feudal control.
o They had their own government, militia and courts.
o The people were not tied to the land, had freedom of occupation and could move around
freely.
o The extent of social mobility that these towns offered attracted peasants from villages.
o The Serfs were free in Towns and they provided the necessary workforce for the
Merchants.

 Transition of Economy:
o New cash based economic system was introduced in towns and cities.
o Now the money was a symbol of wealth instead of land.
o The towns became a center of production instead of the village.

 End of feudal system:

o From 14th to 17th century some important developments like Renaissance and
Reformation took place, which resulted in an end to Feudal order.

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 Renaissance:
o The term ‘Renaissance’ means rebirth in French and has its origin in the Latin
‘renascentia’
o Renaissance laterally means degeneration, revival, rejuvenation.
o Where did it begin?

 Italy
o Italian Cities
o Urban Societies
o Major Trading Centers

 Secular
o Moved away from life in the church
o Focuses more on material objects and enjoying life
o The Renaissance was a time of renewal.
o Renaissance means rebirth and Europe was recovering from the Dark ages and the
plague.
o People had lost their faith in the church and began to put more focus on human beings.

 Cause:
o There were many causes behind ‘Renaissance’. The fall of Constantinople was its main
cause.
o In 1453 A.D., Muhammad II of Ottoman Empire occupied Constantinople and devasted

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it. Out of fear, the Greek intellectuals left Constantinople and entered into different cities
of Italy like Venetia, Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Rome etc.
o They taught mathematics, history, geography, philosophy, astronomy, medicine etc. to
the people of Italy. This gave birth to Renaissance.
o Secondly, the invention of printing machine was responsible for Renaissance. In 145
A.D. John Gutenberg of Germany invented printing machine and letters and printed
book.
o Thirdly, many kings, nobles and merchants encouraged new literature and art. Francis I,
the ruler of France, Henry VIII, the king of England, Charles V of Spain, Sigismund I,
the king of Poland invited many persons having new ideas to their courts and patronised
them.
o Loronjo-de-Medicci, the ruler of Florence invited many artists to his court and decorated
his palace with new paintings.
o The progressive idea of these rulers galvanised Renaissance.
o Renaissance began as a movement to revisit the old scriptures and learn about ancient
Greece and Rome but soon turned into a movement of new ideas in art, religion,
literature, philosophy, science and politics.
o Humanism was at the core of Renaissance.
o The term humanism was coined in the nineteenth century.
o It meant focus on Humanity, rather than Divinity.
o In this period, arts of painting, sculpture, architecture, literature, and other aspects
reached a high level that was not exceeded in any other age.
o Humanist thinkers challenged the mindset of both previously dominant school of
scholarly thought, Scholasticism, as well as the church, allowing the new mindsets
which underpinned the renaissance to develop instead.
o Renaissance came to imply a new thinking, which was humanistic and rational, rather
than superstitious.
o Renaissance resulted in ascendance of local European languages in literature, instead of
Latin.
o In the 15th century, it spread from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy then
to the rest of Europe.
o It resulted in decline of Church’s influence in the intellectual and cultural life of Europe.
o While the Church talked about peace in life after death, the Renaissance thinkers
attacked the Church and talked about happiness on this earth.
o Thus it helped in linguistic development and thus, in development of national
consciousness.
o The invention of Printing Press in first half of 15th century led to further spread of
education & new ideas.

 Reformation:
o Nationalism also played a role as the people now despised the authority of Catholic

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Church located in Rome.
o British monarch Henry VII declared himself head of church. Elizabeth I made the
Church of England, the official church by declaring its independence from the Church in
Rome and adopting some Reformation principles. Protestant churches adopted the use of
language spoken by the people, rather than the elitist Latin. The Bible was translated into
local languages.
o The Renaissance brought a new spirit of investigation into the ideal of the Church.
o Protestant reformation was a movement against the practices and authority of the radical
Catholic Church.
o Medieval Church was the main agency; not only for the worship of God, but for
scholarship, education, welfare, health care, and a great part of the legal system.
o Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters of Indulgence and other Church
evils, the first Protestant Church was setup in Germany under the King’s support.
o The use of local languages further increased national consciousness and thus
Renaissance and Reformation can said to be a precursor to nationalism in Europe.
o By 17th century, half of Europe had setup their own Protestant Churches.

 Art:
o The Renaissance produced new ideas that were reflected in the arts, philosophy, and
literature.
o Patrons, wealthy from newly expanded trade, sponsored works which glorified city-
states in northern Italy.
o Medieval art and literature focused on the Church and salvation.
o Renaissance art and literature focused on individuals and worldly matters, along with
Christianity.
o Renaissance Artists embraced some of the ideals of Greece and Rome in their art
o They wanted their subjects to be realistic and focused on humanity and emotion
o New Techniques also emerged.

 Frescos:
o Painting done on wet plaster became popular because it gave depth to the paintings
o Sculpture emphasized realism and the human form
o Architecture reached new heights of design
o Leonardo da Vinci known as the “Renaissance Man”.
o Michelangelo, who known for the painting “Last Judgment”, was both a sculptor and
painter.

 Science:
o In the 1500s and 1600s the Scientific Revolution changed the way Europeans looked at
the world.
o People began to make conclusions based on experimentation and observation, instead of

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merely accepting traditional ideas.
o Galileo Galilei
o Nicolaus Copernicus
o Johannes Kepler
o Francis Bacon

 Renaissance Literature:
o Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the father of English literature. He wrote the Canterbury
Tales in English.
o Machiavelli wrote History of Florence and The Prince.
o Cervantes authored the famous Don Quixote.
o Utopia was written by Thomas Moore in Latin.
o The Elizabethan era marked the commencement of the English Renaissance.
o The period also seen the rise of William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund
Spenser, Sydney and Ben Johnson etc.
o Montaigne against the authority and the dictatorship of the past and made the title “the
first modern man”.
o Martin Luther translated the Bible in the German language.

 Enlightenment:
o During the late 17th and 18th centuries, Western Europe saw the emergence of radically
new ways of thinking about the world.
o Referred to as ‘The Enlightenment’, these new philosophies established the human being
at the centre of the universe, and rational thought as the central feature of the human
being.
o It act as a catalyst in widening the true knowledge of general people.
o The ability to think rationally and critically transformed the individual human being into
both the producer and the user of all knowledge, the ‘knowing subject’.
o On the other hand, only persons who could think and reason could be considered as fully
human.

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o Those who could not remained deficient as human beings and were considered as not
fully evolved humans, as in the case of the natives of primitive societies or ‘savages’.
o Being the handiwork of humans, society was amenable to rational analysis and thus
comprehensible to other humans.
o For reason to become the defining feature of the human world, it was necessary to
displace nature, religion and the divine acts of gods from the central position they had in
earlier ways of understanding the world.
o This means that the Enlightenment was made possible by, and in turn helped to develop,
attitudes of mind that we refer to today as secular, scientific and humanistic.

 Enlightenment thinkers
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588 – 1679)
2. John Locke (1632 – 1704)
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 – 1778)
4. Baron de Montesquieu (1689 – 1755)
5. Voltaire (1694 – 1778)
6. Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784)
7. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 – 1797)
8. Adam Smith (1723 – 1790)

 Questionary:

1. What is feudalism? How did it start?

2. What were the causes of the fall of the feudal system?
3. What is the history of town planning in India?

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Chapter: 42
American Revolution

 Revolution:
o “Revolution” refers to a movement, often violent, to overthrow an old regime and effect
complete change in the fundamental institutions of society.
o A revolution can be the sudden overthrow of an established government or system by
force and bloodshed; it can also be a great change that comes slowly and peacefully. The
developments described in this chapter were, in some aspects, rapid and accompanied by
violence but many of the lasting changes they brought about have taken place gradually
and without bloodshed.

 Introduction:
o The American Revolution was an organized rebellion of a united people against
imperialists government.
o The American Revolution was not only a war between Americans and British.
o It also divided Americans themselves, while American patriots fought passionately for
independence, loyalists fought just as violently for their British king.

 Causes of American Revolution:

o Mercantile Capitalism
o Proclamation of 1763
o Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure
o Stamp Act in 1765 – No Representation in British Parliament
o Role of Enlightenment Thinkers
o Boston Tea Party of 1773
o Intolerable Acts of 1774 and Philadelphia Congress
o American War of Independence (1775)

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 Colonies:
o The first successful English colony was established in Virginia in 1607.
o Pennsylvania and Delaware founded in 1680s.
o By the establishment of Georgia in 1732, there were thirteen English colonies on the
East Coast of what became the United States.
o New York captured from Dutch in 1664.
o New Jersey and North-South Carolina founded in 1660s.
o They stretched 2400 km along the Atlantic seaboard from Canada to Florida.

o Most colonies settled to the east of the Appalachian Mountains.

o Second was founded in Massachusetts in 1620.
o By 1650, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Maryland had been added.
o Some 4, 00,000 people migrated from Europe and Africa to the thirteen colonies.
o The largest group of immigrants was Scots Irish Protestants from Ulster.
o Second largest group were Germans from Rhineland settled in Pennsylvania.
o First African slave landed in Virginia in 1620s.
o By 1763 there were 3, 50,000 slaves.
o Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters.
o These assemblies enacted laws concerning local matters, and levied taxes. However,
they were under the rule of the mother country.
o By the 18th century, the colonists found the laws which the English government imposed
upon them more and more objectionable.
o In the north there were fishing and ship-building.
o In the south, large plantations like feudal manors had grown up where tobacco and
cotton were grown with slave labour brought from Africa.
o The idea of being an independent nation grew and developed into the Revolutionary War
in which the colonists gained their independence.

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 British control:In the mid 1600s the American colonies saw England placing tighter
controls upon their trade, as well as governance.
o In 1650 Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, which demanded the colonies be
subordinate to, and dependent upon the English government, and subject to the laws of
Parliament.
o The following year the Navigation Acts were passed, which controlled the trade and
shipping of the colonies.
o In 1651, the British Parliament passed a trade law called the Navigation Act. This and
subsequent trade laws prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to
any country except Britain.
o In addition, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods.

 Mercantile:
o The British Government followed the policy of mercantilism.
o This policy says that the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country.
o The colonies were expected to furnish raw materials.
o They had to serve as markets for produced goods.
o The colonies were barred by British law from using the non-British ships for trade.
o The export of certain raw material goods from American colonies could only be made to
Britain.

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 British Vs. French – Indian War or Seven Year War:

o This war took place from 1756 to 1763 between the French and Native American allies
against the English and loyalists.
o War between Britain and France to control North America. (1754-1763)
o Great Britain defeated the French and their North American Indian allies, gaining control
of French Canada east of the Mississippi and Spanish Florida.
o The only reason America stayed under British rule for so long was for their protection
from the French. But once Britain and France went to war, the need for Britain's
protection became less significant for them.
o The main conflict was over the control of land around.
o The French and Indian War ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 10th
February 1763.
o The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they decided to make up
for the costs of war by taxing the people in British colonies in North America.

 Proclamation of 1763:
o King George III issued the Proclamation of 1763, banned all settlement west of the
Appalachians to avoid more conflicts with Native Americans – this angered the
colonists.

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 Series of intolerable act:

o The Sugar Act of 1764 increased the duties on the sugar which affected the interests of
the colonies.
o It was Passed by British Parliament to pay for soldiers stationed along the frontier
o Tax on imported molasses.
o British navy given right to arrest suspected smugglers and put them on trial
o The Stamp Act of 1765 insisted on the use of British stamps in commercial and legal
documents of the colonies.
o Required all legal documents to bear a tax stamp that could only be purchased from
official tax collectors. It affected lawyers, journalists and educated people the most.
o The Americans responded by boycotting the British goods and soon many uprisings in
the towns followed where the tax collectors were exterminated.
o The Quartering Act made it compulsory that colonists should provide food and shelter to
English troops.
o These Acts were opposed by the colonies.
o They were looking for an opportunity to free them from the control of Britain.
o They raised the slogan “No Taxation without Representation” thus insisting American
representation in the English Parliament.
o As violence broke out in the streets, the Stamp Act was repealed.

 Townshend Act:
o The act was prepared by Charles Townshend, chancellor of Exchequer.
o The Townshend Acts imposed fresh taxes on certain imported goods, most significant
tea, to the American colonies.
o It gave powers to British authority to search any places.
o The Sons of Liberty was a secret organization that was formed in 1785 under the
leadership of Samuel Adams.It played a major role in most colonies in battling
the Stamp Act in 1765.Their motto became "No taxation without representation."

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 Boston Massacre:
o The Townshend Acts met with a huge resistance from the colonies.
o To prevent violent protests, Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson requested
assistance from the British army, and in 1768, four thousand redcoats landed in the city
to help maintain order.
o On March 5, 1770, an angry mob clashed with several British troops.
o Five colonists died, and news of the Boston Massacre quickly spread throughout the
colonies.
o This event turned public opinion against British Crown and its policies in colonies.

 Tea Act 1773:

o British Prime Minister Fredrick North, removed
o The Tea Act, passed by Parliament on May 10, 1773, granted the British East India
Company Tea a monopoly on tea sales in the American colonies.
o The act’s main purpose was not to raise revenue from the colonies but to bail out the
floundering East India Company

 Boston Tea Party:

o In many American cities, tea agents resigned or
canceled orders, and merchants refused
consignments in response to the unpopular act.
o Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, determined
to uphold the law, ordered that three ships arriving
in Boston harbor should be allowed to deposit their
cargoes and that appropriate payments should be
made for the goods.
o On the night of December 16, 1773, while the ships
lingered in the harbor, some members of Sons of
Liberty boarded the ships, disguised as Native
Americans, and dumped the entire shipment of tea
into the water.
o That event is now famously known as the Boston Tea Party.

 Response:
o The Law closed the Port of Boston until the colonists paid for the wasted tea. For a city
that depended on trading and fishing, this was a harsh punishment.
o The Intolerable or Coercive Acts 1774 were a direct response to the Boston Tea Party.
o Parliament also passed the Quebec Act at the same time, which granted more rights to
French Canadian Catholics and extended French Canadian territory south to the western
borders of New York and Pennsylvania.

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o When Parliament and the king heard about the Boston Tea Party, they were outraged.
Parliament passed laws to punish the people of Boston and the whole Massachusetts
colony.
o Americans throughout the colonies sent food and supplies to Boston via land to prevent
death from hunger and cold in the bitter New England winter.

 The First Continental Congress and Boycott:

o To protest the Intolerable Acts, fifty-six colonial leaders gathered in Philadelphia at
the First Continental Congress in autumn of 1774.
o They decided to boycott British Goods and trade with Britain.

 Lexington, Concord, and the Second Continental Congress:

o On April 19, 1775, part of the British occupation force in Boston marched to the nearby
town of Concord, Massachusetts, to seize a colonial militia arsenal.
o Minutemen of Lexington and Concord intercepted them and attacked.
o The first shot—the so-called “shot heard round the world” made famous by poet Ralph
Waldo Emerson—was one of many that hounded the British and forced them to retreat
to Boston.
o Thousands of minutemen from nearby colonies flocked to Boston to assist.
o In the meantime, leaders convened the Second Continental Congress to discuss options.
o In one final attempt for peaceful reconciliation, the Olive Branch Petition, they professed
their love and loyalty to King George III and begged him to address their grievances.
o The king rejected the petition and formally declared that the colonies were in a state of
rebellion.
o Important results of congress was the creation of the Continental army, the election of
George Washington as the army’s commander-in-chief, authorization to print money, the
initiation of foreign diplomacy and finally, following the failure of an olive branch
petition to the king, a declaration of independence.
o George Washington was commissioned as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army
by the Second Continental Congress.

 Declaration of Independence:
o In January 1776, Thomas Paine came to America from England and issued a pamphlet
“Common Sense”.
o It attacked the idea of hereditary monarchy and advocated democratic government.
o On 4th July 1776, the American Declaration of Independence was adopted by the
Continental Congress.
o It was prepared by a committee of five led by Thomas Jefferson who included the ideals
of human freedom in it.
o The Declaration of independence laid emphasis on the unalienable rights of men namely,
“Life, Liberty and Pursuit of happiness”.

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o The Declaration listed American grievances against King George III and announced
independence from British rule.

 Wars in American Revolution:

o The war started in 1775, when the first battle was fought between the British soldiers
and the colonial militia at Lexington in Massachusetts.
o Battle of Bunker Hill
o Battle of Boston
o Battle at New York and New Jersey
o Battle of Long Island
o Battle of Saratoga
o The United States allied itself with France in 1778. Spain and the Dutch Republic also
joined the American side, both lending money to the United States and going to war with
Britain.
o The British troops under the command of General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington
at Yorktown in 1781.

 Treaty of Paris (1783):

o The British lost almost all hope of crushing the rebellion after Yorktown.
o They decided to negotiate peace with The United States, France, and also Spain.
o The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3rd, 1783, and it provided the colonists
with several things:
1. The United States was recognized as an independent nation;
2. Its boundaries stretched from the Canadian border (to the north) to the Mississippi
River (to the west) and to the northern border of Florida (to the South);
3. Britain was forced to return Florida to Spain, but still could hold Canada;
4. Congress would advise the states to restore property lost or stolen from the Loyalists.
o The American colonies became free and the Republic of the United States of America
was established.
o It also expanded its territory within the continent of North America by westward
expansion and purchase of territory like Louisiana from France in 1803 and Florida from
Spain in 1819.
o By the 1850’s, after a war with Mexico, the United States had extended its boundaries to
the Pacific Ocean.
o Alaska acquired from Russia in 1867.

 Criticism:
o The first democratic government with a written constitution in the world became a
reality.
o A constitutional convention was called in Philadelphia to frame a new constitution,
which came into effect in 1789.

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o Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, and his followers campaigned
for the addition of a Bill of Rights to the federal constitution.
o The Bill of Rights ensured fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.
o The Republic was not truly democratic as the women, the blacks and the Native Indian
Americans did not get the Right to Vote.
o Slavery was a blot on the principle of equality and it could be finally abolished, only
after the Civil War of 1861-65 between the Northern and the Southern States of USA.
o The Southern States were against Slavery abolition as their economy was farm based and
required the cheap black labour.
o They also profited from the Slave Trade and even desired that slavery be expanded to the
newly acquired territory.
o The American War of Independence was also called the American Revolution because it
inspired the French Revolution.
o It was not only a war against England but against aristocracy and reactionary elements.
o It was also a fight against colonial domination.
o It introduced new political, social and economic set up in the United States of America.
o Democracy with separation of powers on the model suggested by French thinker
Montesquieu was founded.
o Capitalism also took strong roots.
o However, the rights of the sons of the soil, the Red Indians and the Negroes were not
considered at that time.

 Questionary:

1. Describe the main causes of the American Revolution.

2. Write a short note on the Declaration of Independence.

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