Entropy 18 00444 PDF

entropy
Article
Determining the Optimum Inner Diameter of
Condenser Tubes Based on Thermodynamic
Objective Functions and an Economic Analysis
Rafał Laskowski *, Adam Smyk, Artur Rusowicz and Andrzej Grzebielec
Institute of Heat Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 21/25 Nowowiejska Str., 00-665 Warsaw,
Poland; smyk@itc.pw.edu.pl (A.S.); artur.rusowicz@itc.pw.edu.pl (A.R.); andrzej.grzebielec@itc.pw.edu.pl (A.G.)
* Correspondence: rlask@itc.pw.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-22-234-5297
Academic Editor: Yan Jin

Received: 1 October 2016; Accepted: 6 December 2016; Published: 10 December 2016
Abstract: The diameter and configuration of tubes are important design parameters of power
condensers. If a proper tube diameter is applied during the design of a power unit, a high energy
efficiency of the condenser itself can be achieved and the performance of the whole power generation
unit can be improved. If a tube assembly is to be replaced, one should verify whether the chosen
condenser tube diameter is correct. Using a diameter that is too large increases the heat transfer area,
leading to over-dimensioning and higher costs of building the condenser. On the other hand, if the
diameter is too small, water flows faster through the tubes, which results in larger flow resistance
and larger pumping power of the cooling-water pump. Both simple and complex methods can be
applied to determine the condenser tube diameter. The paper proposes a method of technical and
economic optimisation taking into account the performance of a condenser, the low-pressure (LP)
part of a turbine, and a cooling-water pump as well as the profit from electric power generation and
costs of building the condenser and pumping cooling water. The results obtained by this method
were compared with those provided by the following simpler methods: minimization of the entropy
generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube (considering entropy generation due to heat
transfer and resistance of cooling-water flow), minimization of the total entropy generation rate
(considering entropy generation for the system comprising the LP part of the turbine, the condenser,
and the cooling-water pump), and maximization of the power unit’s output. The proposed methods
were used to verify diameters of tubes in power condensers in a200-MW and a 500-MW power units.
Keywords: power plant condenser; minimization of entropy generation rate; technical and economic
optimisation of condenser tube diameter
1. Introduction
Condensers are used in steam power plants to close the thermal cycle and transfer the heat of
condensation to the environment. Condensers are normally shell-and-tube heat exchangers where
steam fed from the low-pressure (LP) part of the turbine condenses. For steam condensation, water is
used and it can be drawn from a large water reservoir or a watercourse, such as a river, sea or lake
(an open cooling cycle) or from a basin located under a cooling tower (a closed cooling cycle) [1].
Parameters (temperature and the mass flow rate) of cooling water at the condenser inlet affect the
pressure of condensing steam, which in turn impacts on the power generated in the LP part of the
turbine. The higher the temperature of cooling water at the condenser inlet is, the higher the pressure
of the condensing steam becomes [2–5]. As the cooling-water mass flow rate rises, steam pressure in
the condenser decreases [6,7], while the resistance to flow and power supplied to the cooling-water
pump increase. Thus, choosing appropriate parameters of the condenser’s operation and geometry
Entropy 2016, 18, 444; doi:10.3390/e18120444 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy

Entropy 2016, 18, 444 2 of 20
(tube diameter, heat transfer area, condenser length, and the number of tube) for a given power unit
is an issue involving multiple criteria. The condenser is located under the LP part of the turbine;
therefore the condenser length is determined by the length of the LP part. When steam power units are
retrofitted, the condenser may be subject to an upgrade; during such an upgrade it is possible to install
tubes of a corrected diameter that provides better condenser performance. Choosing condenser tubes
of a diameter that is too large (over-dimensioning) increases the heat transfer area and costs of building
the condenser. Furthermore, if, for a constant cooling-water mass flow rate, the tube diameter is too
large, water flows through the tubes at a lower speed and heat transfer conditions deteriorate, e.g.,
the heat transfer coefficient on the water side is lower. On the other hand, if the diameter is too small,
water flows faster through the tubes, which improves heat transfer conditions, but also results in larger
flow resistance and larger pumping power (more electric power is used by the cooling-water pump).
When determining the appropriate diameter of condenser tubes, one should consider multiple issues,
and this paper focuses on the issue of choosing the right diameter. The tube diameter was examined
for a condenser in a 200-MW and a 500-MW power units, since units of this capacity are currently in
the process of modernization in Poland. In addition, the units differ in capacity and efficiency, and
their condensers have tubes of different inner diameters. To this end, an economic method was applied,
taking into account the profit from electric power generation and costs of pumping cooling-water and
building the condenser. The results obtained by this method were compared with those provided
by the following simpler methods: minimization of the entropy generation rate per unit length of a
condenser tube (considering entropy generation due to heat transfer and resistance of cooling-water
flow), minimization of the total entropy generation rate (considering entropy generation in the LP part
of the turbine and the cooling-water pump), and maximization of the power unit’s output.
Two fundamental physical phenomena occur in heat exchangers: transfer of heat from the hot
medium to the cold one, and resistance of the media to flow. These two processes can be compared
and their combined effect can be calculated based on entropy generation. According to the second law
of thermodynamics, the heat flow and flow resistance, being irreversible processes, are accompanied
by entropy generation. The entropy generation represents irreversible processes, involving losses,
which is why designers of heat exchangers should bear in mind that the irreversible processes should
be kept as minimum as possible. In a per-unit model of the entropy generation rate for a condenser,
the entropy generation resulting from the heat flow and the resistance to flow on the cooling-water
side per unit length of a condenser tube are taken into account [8–10]. The cooling-water mass flow
rate affects the condenser performance and parameters, and the power required by the cooling-water
pump. A change in steam pressure in the condenser is followed by a change in the power of the LP
part of the turbine. Hence, in addition to entropy generation in the condenser due to heat flow and
cooling-water flow resistance, the model of the total entropy generation rate also considers entropy
generation in the LP part of the turbine and in the cooling-water pump. Since the main purpose of
a steam power unit is generating electric power, the model involving the unit’s maximum output
serves to examine the difference between the power generated by the turbine and the power required
to drive the cooling-water pump. Assuming a constant rate of heat flow provided in fuel fed to a
boiler, the maximum output of the power unit matches the output at the unit’s maximum efficiency.
Papers analysing the efficiency and output of power units include [11–15]. The economic approach
to choosing the shell-and-tube heat exchanger geometry commonly uses a cost-based method taking
into account costs of building the heat exchanger and forcing out media with pumps on an annual
basis [16–21]. Algorithms used to determine optimum heat exchanger geometry with the cost-based
objective function include genetic algorithms and particle swarm algorithms [22–25], the Artificial Bee
Colony (ABC) algorithm [26], the imperialist competitive algorithm (ICA) [27], the biogeography-based
(BBO) algorithm [28], the gravitational search algorithm [29], and the electromagnetism-like algorithm
(EM) [30]. Optimization functions involving the total cost of condenser construction and exergy losses
can also be found in the literature [31–33]. The parameters of a condenser in a steam power unit affect
the power generated by the LP part of the turbine. Therefore, in this paper, to analyze the choice of
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 3 of 21
losses can also be found in the literature [31–33]. The parameters of a condenser in a steam power
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 3 of 20
unit affect the power generated by the LP part of the turbine. Therefore, in this paper, to analyze the
choice of the optimum inner diameter of condenser tubes from the economic point of view, a
the optimum
formula was used inner diameter
taking into of condenser
account tubes from
the profit fromthe economic
electric power point of view, by
generation a formula
the LP waspartusedof
taking
the turbineintoless
account the of
the cost profit from electric
pumping coolingpower
water generation by thethe
and of building LP condenser
part of the on turbine less the
a one-year
cost of
basis. Thepumping
methodcooling
of the water
minimum and of building
entropy thegeneration
rate condenser on wasa one-year basis. The method
used as complementary to ofthethe
minimum
economic entropysince
method, rate the
generation
former was used
reflects theascontribution
complementary to the economic
of design parametersmethod, since the
of equipment,
former reflects
including the contribution
the steam condenser, oftodesignlossesparameters
occurring ofduring
equipment, including
operation of thethe equipment.
steam condenser, To
to losses the
determine occurring
optimum during operation
condenser tubeofdiameter,
the equipment. To determine
in addition the optimum
to the appropriate condenser
objective function, tube
diameter,
one in addition
should also considertoconstraints,
the appropriate
such as objective
minimum function, one should
and maximum flowalso considerofconstraints,
velocities water in
such
the as minimum
tubes, maximumand maximum
pressure dropflow
and velocities
geometrical of water in the [34–37].
constraints tubes, maximum
The issuepressure
of choosingdropthe and
geometrical
right constraints
inner diameter [34–37].
relates notThe issue
only to of choosing
heat the right
exchangers butinner
also diameter
to districtrelates not only
heating to heat
pipelines
exchangers but also to district heating pipelines [38–41].
[38–41].
Mathematicalmodelling
Mathematical modellingand and heat
heat transfer
transfer numerical
numericalsimulations
simulationsofof power
power condensers
condensers have been
have
carried
been out forout
carried manyforyears
many by a years
numberbyof scientists.
a numberZero-dimensional
of scientists. [42–50], one-dimensional
Zero-dimensional [42–50], [49],
two-dimensional [50–57], quasi-three-dimensional [58–61], and
one-dimensional [49], two-dimensional [50–57], quasi-three-dimensional [58–61], and even even three-dimensional [62,63]
models have been
three-dimensional developed.
[62,63] models have Duebeento considerable
developed. Due dimensions of power
to considerable condensers
dimensions (as the
of power
condensers (as the largest
largest shell-and-tube shell-and-tube
heat exchangers),heat exchangers), two-dimensional
two-dimensional models are most modelsoften usedare from
most among
often
used from among multi-dimensional
multi-dimensional ones. In the paper, ones. In the paper, a zero-dimensional
a zero-dimensional model (an
model of the condenser of the condenser
initial analysis)
(an initial
was analysis)
chosen was chosen
to determine to determine
the optimal the optimal
condenser condenserIf,tube
tube diameter. diameter.
in the processIf,ofin the process
retrofitting the
ofunits
retrofitting the units
considered, furtherconsidered,
analysis offurther analysis
this issue of thistube
is required, issue is required,
diameters tube diameters
are planned are
to be verified
planned
using ato be verified usingmodel
two-dimensional a two-dimensional
of the condenser. model of the condenser.
2. 2. Description
Description ofof Condensers
Condensers under
under Consideration
Consideration
Figure1 1shows
Figure showsthethepart
partofofthe
thethermal
thermalsystem
systemincluding
includingthe
thesubsystem
subsystemconsidered
consideredofofthe
the
500-MWpower
500-MW powerunit:
unit:the
theLPLPpart
partof of the
the turbine,
turbine, the
the condenser,
condenser,and
andthe
thecooling-water
cooling-waterpump,
pump,with
withthe
notation used.
the notation used.
The subsystem
Figure1.1. The
Figure subsystemunder
underconsideration, being
consideration, a parta ofpart
being the 500-MW power unit:
of the 500-MW the low-pressure
power unit: the
part of the turbine (LP) with extractions ext to
low-pressure part of the turbine (LP) with extractions
1 ext ; the condenser (C); and the
3 ext1 to ext3; the condenser (C);cooling-water
and the
pump (CWP).
cooling-water pump (CWP).
TheTheconnections
connectionsbetween
between the partofofthe
the LP part theturbine,
turbine,
thethe condenser,
condenser, andand the cooling-water
the cooling-water pump
pump are similar
are similar in the
in the case case200-MW
of the of the unit,
200-MW unit, the being
the difference difference being
that the thatinthe
LP part the LP part in
200-MW unitthe
has
200-MW unit has only one
only one extraction (ext1 ). extraction (ext 1 ).
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2016, 18,18,
444444 4 of
4 of 2121
A diagram of a typical two-pass condenser in a steam power unit is shown in Figure 2. The
AAdiagram
diagram
condensers ofoftwo
of the a atypical
typical
power two-pass
two-pass condenser
units arecondenser
also inina designs,
two-pass asteam
steampower
power
but unit
unit
their isisshown
tube showninin
bundles Figure
Figure
are 2.2.The
The
significantly
condensers
condensers
different ofof the
(Figure the twopower
3). two power units
units are
are also
also two-pass
two-pass designs,
designs, but
but their
their tube
tube bundles
bundles are
are
significantly different (Figure
significantly different (Figure 3). 3).
Figure2.2.AAdiagram
diagramofofa atypical
typicaltwo-pass condenser in a steam power unit.
two-passcondenser
Figure in a steam power unit.
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure3.3.Tube
Figure Tubebundle
bundlelayout
layoutinina acondenser
condenserofofthe
the500-MW
500-MW(a)(a)and
andthe
the200-MW
200-MW(b)
(b)units.
units.
Figure 3. Tube bundle layout in a condenser of the 500-MW (a) and the 200-MW (b) units.
Basicspecifications
Basic specificationsofofcondensers
condensersininthe
the200-MW
200-MWand
andthe
the500-MW
500-MWpower
powerunits
unitsare
arelisted
listedinin
Basic
Tables 1 specifications
and 2, of
respectively.
Tables 1 and 2, respectively. condensers in the 200-MW and the 500-MW power units are listed in
Tables 1 and 2, respectively.
Table1.1.Basic
Table Basicspecifications
specificationsofofthe
thecondenser
condenserininthe
the200-MW
200-MWpower powerunit
unit[42,43].
[42,43].
Table 1. Basic specifications of the condenser in the 200-MW power unit [42,43].
Item
Item Symbol Unit
Symbol Unit Value
Value
Heat
Heat transfer
transfer areaarea A m 2 2 × 5710 =11,420
11,420
Item Symbol A Unitm2 2 × 5710 =Value
Number of tubes n - 2 × 6878 = 13,756
HeatNumber of tubes
transfer area A n m2 - 2 × 6878 = 13,756
2 × 5710 = 11,420
Cooling-water massflow
flowrate
rate m 2 kg/s
Number of tubes
Cooling-water mass n
.
m 2
- kg/s 2 2× 2×4000
×4000= =8000
6878 =8000
13,756
Cooling-water
Inlet/outlet mass
cooling flowtemperature,
water rate norm.m2 t2i/t2o kg/s °C 2× 4000 = 8000
17/25.7
Inlet/outlet
Inlet/outlet cooling
cooling water
water temperature,
temperature, t2i /t2o t2i/t2o
norm. norm. ◦ C °C 17/25.7
17/25.7
Rated condensed-steam mass flow rate . m
 1 1 kg/s kg/s 129
Rated condensed-steam
Rated condensed-steam mass mass flow rate m1 m
flow rate kg/s 129 129
TubeTube
outer diameter
outer diameter d2o d 2o mm mm 3030
Tube
Tube outer
inner diameter
diameter d2i d2o mm mm 30 28
Tube innerdiameter
Tube diameter d2id2i mm 2828
Tube inner
length L mm mm 9000
Mean waterTube length
pressure
Tube length p 2 L L bar mm
(abs)
mm 90003
9000
Mean
Number water
of passes pressure
Mean water pressure - p2 p 2 -Bar (abs)
Bar (abs) 33 2
Numberofofpasses
Number passes -- -- 22
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Table 2. Basic specifications of the condenser in the 500-MW power unit.
Item Symbol Unit Value

Heat transfer area A m2 2 × 9500 = 19,000
Number of tubes n - 2 × 16,000 = 32,000
.
Cooling-water mass flow rate m2 kg/s 2 × 6700 = 13,400
Inlet/outlet cooling water temperature, norm. t2i /t2o oC 24/32
.
Rated condensed-steam mass flow rate m1 kg/s 207.5
Tube outer diameter d2o mm 24
Tube inner diameter d2i mm 22.6
Tube length L mm 8000
Mean water pressure p2 bar (abs) 3
Number of passes - - 2
3. Mathematical Models for Determining the Optimum Condenser Tube Diameter

To find the correct condenser tube diameter, one should consider quantities reflecting heat transfer
and hydraulic resistance. The flow rate of heat in a condenser is described by the Péclet equation [44,45]:
.
Q = U · A · ∆tln (1)
The logarithmic mean temperature difference has the form:
(ts − t2o ) − (ts − t2i )

∆tln = (2)
ln ttss− t2o
−t2i
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) was taken as for a cylindrical wall according to
the equation:
1
U= δ (3)
d2o d2o d2o f 1
α ·d + 2· λ m
2
· ln d + λ + α 1
2i 2i f
The coefficient of heat transfer (α2 ) from cooling water to tube walls was determined from the
Dittus–Boelter equation [44,45]:

λ2
α2 = 0.023 · Re0.8 0.4
2 · Pr2 · (4)
d2i
The equation for heat transfer on the side of condensing steam α1 was evaluated from the equation
proposed by Szkłowier [47,48]:
−0.5
z 0.33 .0.15
α1 = Cm · Π0.1
s · Nu n · 1 + sf · ε o −0.04 · α p (5)
2
The Nusselt number (Nun ), the heat transfer coefficient for steam condensation (α p ) on a single
clean horizontal tube, and the geometric parameter of steam inflow per bank (s f ) are determined from
the following equations, respectively:
α p · d2o
Nun = (6)
λ1
!0.25
ρk · λ3k · r · g
α p = 0.728 · (7)
νk · ∆t p · d2o
f S·L
sf = = (8)
A πd2o nL
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Szkłowier determined the similarity number Πs for a bank of tubes in a condenser as:
w12 · ρ1
Πs = (9)
ρk · d2o · g
The velocity of steam at the bank inlet, essential for heat transfer conditions in the steam condenser,
can be determined from the equation:
. .
m1 m1
w1 = = (10)
ρ1 · f ρ1 · s f · A
The heat transfer area is:

A = π · d2o · L · n (11)
On considering Equations (3) and (4), the heat flow rate can be given including thermal resistance
per unit length as:
. 1
Q = · L · n · ∆tln (12)
rl
The thermal resistance per unit length is:

1 1 1 d 1
rl = + · ln 2o + (13)
π α2 · d2i 2 · λm d2i α1 · d2o
The minimum of the thermal resistance per unit length is where heat transfer conditions are the
most favourable. To determine the condenser tube diameter, one should also take the resistance to
flow into account. Hydraulic losses due to water flow through condenser tubes were obtained from
the equation:
ρ2 w22 L
∆p = λ f r (14)
2 d2i
where the flow resistance coefficient is a function of the Reynolds number and roughness according to
the equation:
0.25
λfr = h i2 (15)
k
log 3.7d + 5.740.9 Re2
2i
The simultaneous effect of heat transfer and flow resistance can be considered according to the
second law of thermodynamics, since these phenomena are accompanied by entropy generation
resulting from irreversible processes.
3.1. Minimization of the Entropy Generation Rate per Unit Length of a Condenser Tube: SL = f(d2i ) → min
Entropy generation in the condenser results from heat flow and resistance to flow. The entropy
generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube, including the entropy generation due to heat flow
. .
(S Lq ) and flow resistance of cooling water (S Lp ) can be expressed as [8–10]:
2 . 3 .
q 8m λfr . .
SL = + = S Lq + S Lp (16)
πλ2 T2 2 Nu2 π 2 ρ2 2 T2 d52i
The optimum inner diameter of condenser tubes is obtained by minimization of the entropy
generation rate per unit length (Equation (16)). Entropy generation resulting from heat flow and
resistance to flow is specified in the proposed equation per unit length of a condenser tube. In the
above equation, entropy generation on the condensing steam side is not taken into consideration. In
order to include entropy generation on the condensing steam side, entropy balance for the whole
condenser is required, which is described by equations in Section 3.2.
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 7 of 20
.
3.2. Minimization of the Total Entropy Generation Rate: S = f(d2i ) → min
A change in the inner diameter of condenser tubes affects the performance of the condenser itself,
the LP part of the turbine, and the cooling-water pump. Hence, it is reasonable to analyze the subsystem
comprising these components. For the subsystem under consideration (the LP part of the turbine,
the condenser, and the cooling-water pump), the model of minimization of the entropy generation
rate takes into account five entropy generation components: due to heat flow from condensing steam,
heat flow to cooling water, and the resistance of cooling water flow through the condenser tubes, in the
cooling-water pump, and in the LP part of the turbine.
The entropy generation rate due to heat transfer on the steam side is:
.
. Q
S1 = − (17)
Ts
The entropy generation rate due to heat transfer to cooling water is:
. . T2o
S2,Q. = m2 c2 ln (18)
T2i
The entropy generation rate due to the resistance of cooling water to flow through condenser
tubes [7] is:
. 3
. λ f r m2 L
S2,p = (19)
2T2 ρ22 F2 2 d2i
The entropy generation rate for the pump equals:
. .
S p = m2 s po − s pi (20)
The entropy generation rate for the LP part of the 500-MW turbine can be given as (Figure 1):
. . . . . . . .
(21)

St = mt (sext1 − sti ) + mt − mext1 (sext2 − sext1 ) + mt − mext1 − mext2 (sext3 − sext2 ) + m1 (sto − sext3 )
The entropy generation rate for the LP part of the 200-MW turbine can be written as:
. . .
St = mt (sext1 − sti ) + m1 (sto − sext1 ) (22)
The total entropy generation rate for the system under consideration is the sum of the
five components:
. . . . . .
S = S1 + S2,Q. + S2,p + S p + St (23)
The optimum inner diameter of condenser tubes is obtained by minimization of the total entropy
generation rate (23). The smallest increase in entropy due to irreversible processes matches the largest
power output of the system.
3.3. Maximization of the Power Unit’s Output: P = f(p1 (d2i )) → max

A change in the inner diameter of condenser tubes affects the power generated by the LP part of
the turbine and the power supplied to the cooling-water pump.
The power generated by the LP part of the 500-MW turbine is (Figure 1):
. . . . . . .
Pt = mt (hti − hext1 ) + mt − mext1 (hext1 − hext2 ) + mt − mext1 − mext2 (hext2 − hext3 ) + m1 (hext3 − hto ) (24)
The power generated by the LP part of the 200-MW turbine is:

. .
Pt = mt (hti − hext1 ) + m1 (hext1 − hto ) (25)
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 8 of 20
The power supplied to the cooling-water pump equals:

.
m2 ∆p p .
Pp = = m2 h po − h pi (26)
ρ2 η p
The optimum inner diameter of condenser tubes is obtained by maximization of the power
generated by the LP part of the turbine less the power used to drive the cooling-water pump:
P = Pt − Pp (27)
With this criterion the highest power output of the unit can be determined. In order to consider
the income from electricity generation and costs of cooling-water pumping and condenser construction,
an economic criterion was used; see Section 3.4.
3.4. The Economic Method—Profit Maximization: Z = f(d2i ) → max

The economic analysis was based on the unit’s ratings prior to the upgrade of its thermal system,
including the condenser.
A surplus profit/loss over N years of planned power plant lifetime was defined as the income
from selling surplus electricity less the cost of building the condenser:
N
∑

ZN = Pt − Pp − Ptr − Ppr · ce · τ · at − c A · ( A − Ar ) (28)
t =1
If, for the sake of simplicity, a constant annual electricity generation (the same in each year of
operation) is assumed, Equation (28) can be transformed into:
N
∑ a t − c A · ( A − Ar )

ZN = Pt − Pp − Ptr − Ppr · ce · τ · (29)
t =1
Equation (29) can be rewritten with regard to annual effects Za :
1
Za = Pt − Pp − Ptr − Ppr · ce · τ − c A · ( A − Ar ) (30)
N
∑ at
t =1
where fixed cost ratio is equal to:
1 d (1 + d ) N
fc = = (31)
N
(1 + d ) N − 1
∑ · at
t =1
Finally, the economic criterion for choosing the condenser tube diameter can be written as follows:

Za = Pt − Pp − Ptr − Ppr · ce · τ − f c · c A · ( A − Ar ) (32)
The optimum inner diameter of condenser tubes is obtained by maximization of profit according
to Equation (32). A change in the condenser tube diameter affects power of the turbine and the
cooling-water pump, as well as heat transfer surface in the condenser. Equation (32) considers changes
both in the net income from electricity sales and the cost of constructing the condenser.
4. Calculation Results
Condenser parameters, including steam condensation pressure, were calculated using a condenser
simulator for steady states. The mathematical model of the condenser used balance and heat flow
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equations. For the given condenser geometry, the simulator's input variables were: temperature (t2i ),
pressure (p2i ), and the mass flow rate of cooling water at the condenser inlet, and the mass flow rate of
.
condensing steam (m1 ); the output variables were: cooling-water temperature at the condenser outlet
(t2o ), and pressure of steam condensing in the condenser (ps ). A detailed description of the condenser
model can be found in [7,47,48]. The model takes into account the effects of inert gases and deposits
and the fact that a change in the inner diameter of condenser tubes is followed by a change in their
thickness. Calculations were performed for a constant heat flow rate equal to the heat flow rate at
rated operating conditions. The rated heat flow rate for the condenser of the 200-MW (500-MW) unit is
. .
Q = 293 MW (Q = 453 MW, respectively). The number of tubes (n) and their length (L) are constant
and equal to design data (Tables 1 and 2). The heat transfer area is given by Equation (11). A constant
length of the condenser was assumed, since it is defined by the length of the LP part of the turbine.
A constant number of condenser tubes was taken, since for slight alteration of the condenser tube
diameter tube sheets can be used. If the alteration of the diameter is considerable, the tube sheets
should be replaced.
To evaluate the power output of the LP part of the turbine in the 200-MW unit, the following
parameters at the inlet of the LP part of the turbine were used: steam pressure pti = 0.124 MPa,
steam temperature tti = 178 ◦ C, and steam enthalpy hti = 2831 kJ/kg. Steam parameters at
the extraction (ext1 ) are the following: pressure pext1 = 0.0299 MPa, temperature text1 = 69 ◦ C,
.
enthalpy hext1 = 2615.7 kJ/kg, and the steam mass flow rate from the extraction mext1 = 6.795 kg/s.
The efficiency of the group of stages between the inlet of the LP part and the extraction was 0.86.
For the LP part of the turbine in the 500-MW unit, the following parameters at the turbine inlet
were taken: steam pressure pti = 0.554 MPa, steam temperature tti = 266 ◦ C, and steam enthalpy
at the inlet hti = 2994 kJ/kg. Steam parameters at the first extraction were the following: pressure
pext1 = 0.2283 MPa, temperature text1 = 177 ◦ C, enthalpy hext1 = 2824 kJ/kg, and the steam mass
.
flow rate from the extraction mext1 = 16.156 kg/s. Steam parameters at the second extraction were
the following: pressure pext2 = 0.0717 MPa, temperature text2 = 90 ◦ C, enthalpy hext2 = 2635 kJ/kg,
.
and the steam mass flow rate from the extraction mext2 = 9.368 kg/s. Steam parameters at the third
extraction were the following: pressure pext3 = 0.0275 MPa, temperature text3 = 67 ◦ C, enthalpy
.
hext3 = 2525 kJ/kg, and the steam mass flow rate from the extraction mext3 = 12.1 kg/s. The efficiency
of the group of stages between the inlet of the LP part and the first extraction was 0.867, between the
first and second extractions 0.90, and between the second and third extractions 0.735.
For both the turbines, a constant efficiency of the group of stages between the last extraction and
the outlet of the LP part of the turbine, equal to 0.8, was used. A change in the power of the LP part
of the turbine resulted from a change in steam pressure in the condenser; the steam pressure in the
condenser changes if the condenser tube diameter, and therefore the heat transfer area, is modified.
Since pressure in the condenser varied relatively slightly, the parameters at the inlet of the LP part of the
turbine and at the extractions were assumed to be constant. A constant efficiency of the cooling-water
pump, equal to η p = 0.72, was taken [42] for a 200-MW unit’s pump; for a cooling-water pump of a
500-MW unit, a constant efficiency was taken, equal to η p = 0.86.
The following values were used in the economic analysis: the electricity price ce = 180 zł/MWh
(1zł = 4.4 euro), the annual power plant operation time τ = 7000 h, the price of one square metre of the
heat transfer area c A = 700 zł/m2 , and the fixed cost ratio f c = 0.12.
4.1. Calculation Results for the Condenser in the 200-MW Power Unit
Based on data obtained from the condenser model, Figure 4 shows velocity of cooling water in
tubes and pressure drop on the cooling-water side.
(1zł = 4.4 euro), the annual power plant operation time τ = 7000 h , the price of one square metre of
the heat transfer area c = 700 zł/m 2 , and the fixed cost ratio f = 0.12 .
the heat transfer area c AA = 700 zł/m 2 , and the fixed cost ratio fcc = 0.12 .
Based
Entropy on444
2016, 18, data obtained from the condenser model, Figure 4 shows velocity of cooling water
10 of in
20
Based on data obtained from the condenser model, Figure 4 shows velocity of cooling water in
4 4.0
4 4.0
3.5 3.3
3.5 3.3
3 2.7
3 2.7
, bar
, m/s
2, 2bar
w2w, 2m/s
2.5 2.0
2.5 2.0
dpdp
2 1.3
2 1.3
1.5 0.7
1.5 0.7
1 0.0
1 0.0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
the tube inner diameter d2i, mm
w2 - velocity of cooling water dp2 - pressure drop
Figure
Figure 4. Velocity of
4. Velocity of cooling
cooling water
water in
in tubes
tubes and
and pressure
pressure drop
drop on
on the
the cooling-water
cooling-water side
side in
in the
the
Figure 4. Velocity of cooling water in tubes and pressure drop on the cooling-water side in the
condenser
condenser as
as functions
functions of
of the
the tube
tube inner
inner diameter.
diameter.
condenser as functions of the tube inner diameter.
For aa constant
For constant cooling-water
cooling-water mass flow
mass flow rate,
flow rate, the
rate, the larger
the larger the condenser
larger the
the condenser tube diameter,
tube diameter,
diameter, thethe lower
the lower
For a constant cooling-water mass condenser tube lower
velocity
velocity inin tubes,
in tubes, which
tubes, which follows
which follows from
follows from
from thethe continuity
the continuity equation.
continuity equation.
equation. ForFor a lower
For aa lower velocity
lower velocity
velocity of of cooling
of cooling water
cooling water
water
velocity
in tubes,
in tubes, pressure
pressure drop
drop on on the
the cooling-water
cooling-water side side is
is smaller—Equation
smaller—Equation (14). (14). If
If velocity of
velocity of water
water in
in
in tubes, pressure drop on the cooling-water side is smaller—Equation (14). If velocity of water in
condenser tubes
condenser is
tubes is lower,
is lower,
lower, the the heat transfer
the heat
heat coefficient
transfer coefficient
coefficient on on the
on the water
the water and
water and steam
and steam sides
steam sides is
sides is smaller,
is smaller, and,
smaller, and,
and,
condenser tubes transfer
consequently,
consequently, the the overall
the overall heat transfer coefficient becomes smaller (Figure 5). With a constant heat
consequently, overall heat heat transfer coefficient becomes
transfer coefficient smaller (Figure
becomes smaller (Figure 5).
5). With
With aa constant
constant heatheat
flow rate,
flow rate, decreasing
decreasingthe theoverall
overallheatheat transfer
coefficient despite
despite the the increase
increase in thein heat
the heat transfer
transfer area
flow rate, decreasing the overall heat transfer coefficient despite the increase in the heat transfer
area results
results in in deterioration
deterioration of heatoftransfer
heat transfer conditions,
conditions, and, asand,
a as a consequence,
consequence, to a droptoina drop
the UA inproduct
the UA
area results in deterioration of heat transfer conditions, and, as a consequence, to a drop in the UA
product6).
(Figure (Figure 6).theHence,
Hence,6). the
rise inthe rise in condensing
condensing steam pressure steam pressure
occurs, whichoccurs, which
can bewhich
seen in can be seen
Figure in
5. The
product (Figure Hence, rise in condensing steam pressure occurs, can be seen in
Figure
drop 5.
in5. The drop in condensing
condensing steam pressureheat with increasing heat transfer area, which was
Figure The drop steam pressure with
in condensing steamincreasing
pressure withtransfer
increasingarea,heat
which was reported
transfer area, whichin [64,65],
was
reported
relates to inin [64,65],
a constant relates to
tube diameter a constant tube
and variable diameter and
length orand variable
number length
of tubes. or number of tubes. In
reported [64,65], relates to a constant tube diameter variable lengthInorthe case considered
number of tubes. In in
the
the case
paper, considered
the number in the
and paper,
length the
of number
tubes are and length
constant, of
while tubes
the are
tube constant,
inner while
diameter the
varies,tube inner
which is
the case considered in the paper, the number and length of tubes are constant, while the tube inner
diameter
why a varies,
slight whichincrease
pressure is why cana slight
be pressure increase can be observed.
observed.
diameter varies, which is why a slight pressure increase can be observed.
5 0.0449
5 0.0449
4.5 0.0443
4.5 0.0443
4 0.0437
K)
4 0.0437
kW/(mK)
2 2
bar
bar
kW/(m
3.5 0.0431
p1,
3.5 0.0431
p1,
U,U,
3 0.0426
3 0.0426
2.5 0.0420
2.5 0.0420
2 0.0414
2 0.0414
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
U - overall heat transfer coefficient p1 - steam pressure
Figure 5. The overall heat transfer coefficient and steam pressure in the condenser as functions of
Figure 5. The overall
overall heat
heattransfer
transfercoefficient
coefficientand
andsteam pressure
steam in in
pressure thethe
condenser as functions
condenser of the
as functions of
the tube inner diameter.
tubetube
the inner diameter.
inner diameter.
Following the decrease in the product of the overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer
area, the thermal resistance per unit length (13) rises (Figure 6).
The effect of the tube inner diameter on power generated by the LP part of the turbine (25) and
on power required to drive the cooling-water pump (26) is shown in Figure 7.
Following the decrease in the product of the overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat
Entropy
transfer2016, 18, 444
area, the
thermal resistance per unit length (13) rises (Figure 6). 11 of 21
Following
Entropy 2016, 18, 444the
decrease
0.0036 in the product of the overall heat transfer 40000
coefficient and the11heat
of 20
transfer area, the thermal resistance per unit length (13) rises (Figure 6).
per unit per unit

0.0034 38750
0.0036 40000
0.0032 37500
length, mK/W
thermal resistance
UA, kW/K UA, kW/K

0.0034 38750
0.003 36250
0.0032 37500
length, mK/W
0.0028 35000
thermal resistance
0.003 36250
0.0026 33750
0.0028 35000
0.0024 32500
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
0.0026 33750
0.0024 32500
thermal resistance per unit length UA
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Figure 6. The thermal resistance per unit length and the product of the overall heat transfer
coefficient and the heat transfer area as functions of the tube inner diameter.
Figure 6.6.The
Figure thermal resistance per per
unitunit
length and the product of the overall heat transfer coefficient
The effectThe thermal
of the resistance
tube inner diameter length
on power and the product
generated by the ofLPthe
partoverall
of theheat transfer
turbine (25) and
and the heat
coefficient transfer
and the area
heat as functions
transfer area of
as the tube
functions inner
of the diameter.
tube inner diameter.
The effect of 58000

the tube inner diameter on power generated by the LP part of5000
the turbine (25) and
57900 4550
57800 4100
58000
57700 5000
3650
57900
57600 4550
3200
Pp, kW Pp, kW
Pt, kW
57800
57500 4100
2750
57700
57400 3650
2300
57600
57300 3200
1850
Pt, kW
57500
57200 2750
1400
57400
57100 2300
950
57300
57000 1850
500
57200 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 1400
57100 the tube inner diameter d2i, mm 950
57000 500
Pt - power of LP part of the turbine Pp - pump power
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
2i the tube inner diameter d , mm

Figure 7.7.Power
Power generated
generated by LP
by the thepart
LPofpart of the and
the turbine turbine
powerand powerto required
required to drive the
drive the cooling-water
cooling-water
pump pump
as functions of as Pt - power
thefunctions of LP part
of diameter.
tube inner of the turbine
the tube inner diameter. Pp - pump power
Figure 7. Power
An increase
increase generated
in the
the by diameter
tube inner
inner the LP part of the turbine
is followed
followed and increase
by aa slight
slight power required
steamtopressure,
in steam drive the
pressure, which
An in tube diameter is by increase in which
cooling-water pump as functions of the tube inner diameter.
results in the drop in power of the LP part of the turbine, since steam expands to a higher pressure.
results in the drop in power of the LP part of the turbine, since steam expands to a higher pressure.
The lower
The lower pumping
pumping power
power isis aa consequence
consequence of aa lowerlower velocity
velocity of
of cooling
cooling water in in condenser tubes
tubes
due Antheir
to increase ininner
larger the tube inner diameter isoffollowed
diameter. by a slight increase water
in steam condenser
pressure, which
due to their
results thelarger
inpower drop inner diameter.
in power of thei.e.,
LP thepartdifference
of the turbine, since steam expands to a by
higher pressure.
The
The power unit’s
unit’s net
net output,
output, i.e., the difference between
between the
the power
power generated
generated by the LP
the LP part of
part of
The lower
the turbine pumping
turbineandandthat power
thatused
used is a consequence of a lower velocity of cooling water in condenser tubes
the
due to their larger inner bybythethe
diameter.
cooling-water
cooling-water pump,pump,
and and the entropy
the entropy generation
generation rate
rate per per
unit unit
length
length of a
of a condensercondenser tube (16 with its two components are plotted in Figure 8).
The powertube (16net
unit’s with its two
output, components
i.e., are plotted
the difference betweeninthe
Figure
power 8). generated by the LP part of
The minimum
the turbine and thatentropy
used bygeneration rate perpump,
the cooling-water unit length
and theofentropy
a condenser tube rate
generation according to
per unit
Equation (16) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 27 mm.
length of a condenser tube (16 with its two components are plotted in Figure 8). The larger the condenser tube
diameter, the lower the speed of cooling-water in tubes, which results in a drop in entropy generation
per unit length of a condenser tube due to resistance to flow. As the speed of cooling-water in tubes
becomes lower, the Nusselt number on the water side is smaller, and entropy generation increases due
to heat flow per unit length of a condenser tube according to Equation (16). The maximum difference
between the power generated by the LP part of the turbine and that required to drive the cooling-water
pump (27) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 31 mm.
0.14 56000
S/L, SLq, SLp, W/(mK

0.12 55600
Pt-Pp, kW
0.1 55200
0.08 54800
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 12 of 21
12 20
0.06 54400
0.04 54000
0.18 56800
0.02 53600
0.16 56400
0 53200
S/L, SLq, SLp, W/(mK)

0.14 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 56000
0.12 the tube inner diameter d2i, mm 55600
Pt-Pp, kW
0.1 S/L - the entropy generation rate per unit length SLq SLp 55200
Pt-Pp
0.08 54800
0.06
Figure 8. The entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube with54400
its two components,
and the difference
0.04between the power generated by the LP part of the turbine 54000
and that used by the
cooling-water pump
0.02
as functions of the tube inner diameter. 53600
0 53200
The minimum entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube according to
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Equation (16) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 27 mm. The larger the condenser tube
diameter, the lower the speed of cooling-water in tubes, which results in a drop in entropy
S/L - the entropy generation rate
generation per unit length of a condenser tube due to resistance per unit length SLq SLp
to flow. Pt-Pp As the speed of
cooling-water in tubes becomes lower, the Nusselt number on the water side is smaller, and
Figure
Figure
entropy 8. The entropy
8. The
generation entropy generation
generation
increases due to rate
rate per unit
per
heat unit length
flowlength
per unit of aa condenser
of condenser
length oftubetube with its
with
a condenser its two
two components,
components,
tube according to
and
and the
the difference
difference between
between the
the power
power generated
generated by
by the
the LP
LP part
part
Equation (16). The maximum difference between the power generated by the LP part of the of
of the
the turbine
turbine and
and that
that used
used by the
by the
turbine
cooling-water
and that required pump as functions
to drive of the tube pump
the cooling-water inner diameter.
(27) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of
31 mm.
The
Figure
Figureminimum
99 displays
displaysentropy
the total
the generation
total rate
entropy generation
entropy per unit
generation ratelength
rate for the
for the ofsystem
a condenser
system tube
under consideration
under according
consideration to
(23),
(23),
Equation (16)
comprising the
comprising was
the LP obtained
LP part
part ofof the for the
the turbine, tube
turbine, the inner diameter
the condenser,
condenser, and of
and the 27 mm. The
the cooling-water larger
cooling-water pump, the
pump, and condenser
and the tube
the annual
annual
diameter, the
surplusprofit lower
according theto speed
Equation
surplusprofit according to Equation (32). of cooling-water
(32). in tubes, which results in a drop in entropy
generation per unit length of a condenser tube due to resistance to flow. As the speed of
cooling-water in tubes 82 becomes lower, the Nusselt number on the water 0.5 side is smaller, and
entropy generation increases

80 due to heat flow per unit length of a condenser 0.0 tube according to
Equation (16). The maximum78 difference between the power generated by the
-0.5LP part of the turbine Za, mln zł/year
and that required to drive76

the cooling-water pump (27) was obtained for the tube
-1.0
inner diameter of
S, W/K
31 mm.
74 -1.5
Figure 9 displays the total entropy generation rate for the system under consideration (23),
72
comprising the LP part of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water-2.0 pump, and the annual
surplusprofit according 70 to Equation (32). -2.5
68 -3.0
82 0.5
66 -3.5
80 0.0
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
78 the tube inner diameter d2i, mm -0.5
Za, mln zł/year
76 S - the total entropy generation rate Za - the annual profit -1.0

S, W/K
74 -1.5
9. The total
Figure 9.
Figure entropy
total72entropygeneration
generationrate
rateforfor
thethe
system under
system consideration,
under comprising
consideration, the LP part
-2.0comprising the LP
of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water pump, and the annual surplusprofit
part of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water pump, and the annual surplusprofit as functions
as
70 -2.5
of the tube inner diameter.
functions of the tube inner diameter.
68 -3.0
The
The minimum
minimum total 66 entropy
total entropy generation
generation rate rate for
for the
the system
system underunder consideration
-3.5
consideration occurs
occurs for
for the
the
diameter of 31 mm, i.e.,20
the21one22 for
23 which
24 25 the
26 maximum
27 28 29 30 31 32
power is 33 34 35 (Figure 8). The highest
generated
diameter of 31 mm, i.e., the one for which the maximum power is generated (Figure 8). The highest
annual surplus profit, being the essential criterion for choosing the condenser tube diameter, was
S - the total entropy generation rate
achieved at the diameter of 29 mm. For condenser tube diameters between Za - the annual profit 27 mm and 33 mm, the
graph of the annual surplus profit is rather flat but has a maximum. In this case, a possibly small
Figure
change 9. The
in the total entropy
diameter generation rate
is recommended, for the
for the system under
condenser consideration,
in question comprising
to a diameter of 29the LP mm.
or 30
part of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water pump, and the annual surplusprofit as
functions of the tube inner diameter.
The minimum total entropy generation rate for the system under consideration occurs for the
diameter of 31 mm, i.e., the one for which the maximum power is generated (Figure 8). The highest
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 13 of 21
annual surplus profit, being the essential criterion for choosing the condenser tube diameter, was
annual surplus
achieved profit, being
at the diameter of 29the essential
mm. criterion tube
For condenser for choosing
diametersthe condenser
between 27 mm tubeand diameter,
33 mm,was the
achieved
graph at the
of the diameter
annual surplusof 29 mm.isFor
profit condenser
rather flat buttube has diameters
a maximum. between
In this27case,
mm aand 33 mm,
possibly the
small
graph of
change in the
the annual
diameter surplus
is profit is rather
recommended, for flatcondenser
the but has ainmaximum.
question toIn
a this case,ofa 29
diameter possibly
or 30 small
mm.
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 13 of 20
change in the diameter is recommended, for the condenser in question to a diameter of 29 or 30 mm.
Similarly to the 200-MW unit condenser above, Figures 10–13 depict changes in heat flow
Similarly
Similarly
parameters to the
of the 200-MW
condenser unit500-MW
in the condenser unit.above,
FigureFigures
Figures
10 shows 10–13
10–13 depict
depict
velocity changes
changeswater
of cooling in
in heat
heat flow
in tubes
parameters
and pressureofdropthe condenser in the 500-MW
on the cooling-water side.unit.
FigureFigure 10 shows
11 displays velocity
the overallofheat
cooling water
transfer in tubes
coefficient
and steam
pressure drop on
pressure in the cooling-water side. Figure
condenser as functions 11 displays
of the tube inner thediameter.
overall heat
The transfer
thermal coefficient
resistance
andunit
per steam pressure
length in the
(13) and thecondenser
product ofasthe functions
overall of thetransfer
heat tube inner diameter.
coefficient andThethethermal resistance
heat transfer area
per unit length
length (13)
(13) and
and the
the product
product of
of the
the overall
overall heat
heat transfer
coefficient
as functions of the tube inner diameter are plotted in Figure 12. The effect of the tube inner and
and thethe heat
heat transfer
transfer area
area as
as functions
functionson
diameter of
of the
power the tube
tubegenerated inner
inner diameter diameter
by theare are
LPplotted
part of inplotted
theFigure
turbinein Figure
12.(24)
Theand 12.
effect The
onof effect
the tube
power of the tube
inner diameter
required inner
to drive the on
diameter on power
power generated
cooling-water pump bygenerated
the
(26)LP part
is shownbyofthe LP part13.
theFigure
in turbine of theand
(24) turbine (24) and
on power on power
required required
to drive to drive the
the cooling-water
cooling-water
pump (26) is shown pumpin (26) is shown
Figure 13. in Figure 13.
3 1.6
3 1.6
2.5 1.3
2.5 1.3
2 1.1
2
2, bar
1.1
2, m/s
1.5 0.8
, bar
w2,wm/s
dp2dp
1.5 0.8
1 0.5
1 0.5
0.5 0.3
0.5 0.3
0 0.0
0 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 0.0
20 21 22 23 the
24 tube
25 26 27diameter
inner 28 29 d30 31 32 33 34 35
2i, mm
Figure 10. as
condenser Velocity of of
functions cooling water
the tube in diameter.
inner tubes and pressure drop on the cooling-water side in the
4 0.0624
4 0.0624
3.5 0.0616
3.5 0.0616
K) K)
3 0.0608
2
barbar
U, kW/(m
3 0.0608
2
U, kW/(m
p1,p1,
2.5 0.0600
2.5 0.0600
2 0.0592
2 0.0592
1.5 0.0584
1.5 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 0.0584
20 21 22 23 the
24 tube
25 inner
26 27diameter
28 29 d30 31 32 33 34 35
2i, mm
the tube inner diameter d , mm
U - overall heat transfer coefficient 2i p1 - steam pressure
Figure
Figure 11. The overall
overall heat
heat transfer
transfercoefficient
coefficientand
andsteam
steampressure
pressure
in in
thethe condenser
condenser as functions
as functions of
of the
Figure
the
tubetube11. Thediameter.
inner
inner overall heat transfer coefficient and steam pressure in the condenser as functions of
diameter.
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 14 of 21
Entropy
Entropy 2016,
2016, 18,18,
444444 14 of
14 21
of 20
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 14 of 21
0.0044 65000
0.0044 65000
0.0043
0.0044 63889
65000
unit
0.0043 63889
perunit
0.0042
0.0043 62778
63889
unit
0.0042 62778
perper
mK/W
0.0041
0.0042 61667
62778
resistance
mK/W
0.0041 61667
kW/K
resistance
kW/K
0.004 60556
mK/W
0.0041 61667
0.004 60556
resistance
kW/K
length,
0.0039 59444
UA,
0.004 60556
length,
0.0039 59444
UA,
length,
0.0038
0.0039 58333
59444
UA,
thermal
0.0038 58333
thermal
thermal 0.0037
0.0038
0.0037
57222
58333
57222
0.0036
0.0037 56111
57222
0.0036 56111
0.0035
0.0036 55000
56111
0.0035 55000
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
0.0035 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 55000
the tube inner diameter d , mm
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 302i 31 32 33 34 35
the tube
thermal inner diameter
resistance per unit d 2i, mm UA
length
Figure12.12.
TheThe thermal
thermal resistance
resistance per per
unit unit length andproduct
the product of the overall heat transfer
Figure
Figure 12. The thermal resistance per length and the
unit length of the overall
and the product of the heat transfer
overall heat coefficient
transfer
coefficient
Figure
and the 12. and
heat Thethe
transferheat
thermal
areatransfer
as area per
resistance
functions asoffunctions
unittube
the of
lengththe tube
and
inner theinner diameter.
product
diameter. of the overall heat transfer
149000 3296
149000 3296
149000
148800 3296
2868
148800 2868
148800
148600 2868
2440
148600 2440
148600
148400 2440
kW
2012
kW
148400
Pp,kW
2012
Pt,kW
148400
kW
2012
kW
148200 1584
Pp,Pp,
Pt,Pt,
148200 1584
148200
148000 1584
1156
148000 1156
148000
147800 1156
728
147800 728
147800
147600 728
300
147600 300
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
147600 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 300
20 21 22 23 the
24 tube
25 inner
26 27diameter
28 29 d30 , mm
2i 31 32 33 34 35
Pt - power ofthe
LPtube
partinner
of thediameter
turbine d2i,Pp
mm- pump power
Figure13.13. Power
Power generated
generated by LP
by the thepart
LPofpart of the and
the turbine turbine andrequired
power power required tocooling-water
drive the
Figure
Figure 13. Power generated by the LP part of the turbine and power torequired
drive theto drive the
cooling-water
Figure
pump 13. pump
Power
as functions as
of the functions
generated by of the
the tube
LP
tube innerofdiameter. inner
part of diameter.
the turbine and power required to drive the
cooling-water pump as functions the tube inner diameter.
The entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube according to Equation (16)
The
The entropy generation rate per unit length aofcondenser
a condenser tube according to Equation (16)
with itsentropy
The entropy
two generation
generation
components rate
and theper
rate unit
per length
unit
difference of of
length
between a condenser
power tube according
tube
generated the LPto
byaccording Equation
to of
part Equation(16)(16)
the turbinewith
with
itsand its
twopower two components
components and and
the the difference
difference between
between power power generated by the LP part of the turbine
with its tworequired
components and
to drive thecooling-water
the difference between
pump (27)generated
power shownby
aregeneratedinthe
by LP LP
the
Figure part of the
14. part turbine
of the turbine and
and power required to drive the cooling-water pump (27) are shown in Figure 14.
power required to drive the cooling-water pump (27) are shown in Figure
and power required to drive the cooling-water pump (27) are shown in Figure 14. 14.
0.1 147800
0.1 147800
0.09
0.1 147660
147800
0.09 147660
0.08
0.09 147520
147660
W/(mK)
0.08 147520
W/(mK)
0.07
0.08 147380
147520
W/(mK)
0.07 147380
kW
0.06
0.07 147240
147380
kWkW
0.06 147240
SLp,
SLp,
Pt-Pp,
0.05
0.06 147100
147240
Pt-Pp,
0.05 147100
SLp,
SLq,
0.04 146960
Pt-Pp,
0.05 147100
SLq,
0.04 146960
SLq,
0.03
0.04 146820
146960
S/L,
0.03 146820
S/L,
0.02
0.03 146680
146820
0.02 146680
S/L,
0.01
0.02 146540
146680
0.01 146540
0
0.01 146400
146540
0 146400
0 20 21 22 23 24 25
20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29
26 27 28 29
30 31 32 33 34 35 146400
30 31 32 33 34 35
20 21 22 23 the
24 tube
25 inner
26 27diameter
28 29 d30
2i, mm
31 32 33 34 35
thegeneration
S/L - the entropy tube inner
rate diameter d2i, mm
per unit length SLq SLp Pt-Pp
S/L - the entropy generation rate per unit length SLq SLp Pt-Pp
S/L - the entropy generation rate per unit length SLq SLp Pt-Pp
Figure 14. The entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube with its two components
Figure 14. The entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube with its two components
Figure
and the
Figure The
14.14. Theentropy
difference generation
between
entropy rate
the power
generation per
per unit
rate generatedlength ofLP
by theof
unit length aacondenser
condenser tubewith
part of thetube with
turbine itsits
and two
that
two components
used by the
components
and the difference between the power generated by the LP part of the turbine and that used by the
and the difference
cooling-water between
pump
and the difference the power
as functions
between generated
of thegenerated
the power by
tube innerby the LP
diameter. part of the turbine and that
the LP part of the turbine and that used used
byby
thethe
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 15 of 20
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 15 of 21
The minimum
The minimumentropy entropygeneration
generation raterate
per per
unit unit
length of a condenser
length tube according
of a condenser to Equation
tube according to
(16) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 24 mm. The maximum difference
Equation (16) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 24 mm. The maximum difference between the power
generatedthe
between by the LP part
power of the turbine
generated by theandLP that
partrequired
of the to drive the
turbine andcooling-water
that requiredpump (27) was
to drive the
obtained for the tube inner diameter of 28 mm.
cooling-water pump (27) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 28 mm.
Figure 15
Figure 15displays
displays thethe
totaltotal
entropy generation
entropy rate forrate
generation the system
for theunder consideration,
system comprising
under consideration,
the LP part of
comprising thethe
LPturbine,
part of the
the condenser,
turbine, theand the cooling-water
condenser, pump, and thepump,
and the cooling-water annual surplus
and profit
the annual
according to Equation (32).
surplus profit according to Equation (32).
126.5 0.3
126 0.2
125.5 0.0
Za, mln zł/year

125 -0.2
S, W/K
124.5 -0.3
124 -0.5
123.5 -0.6
123 -0.8
122.5 -0.9
122 -1.1
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
S - the total entropy generation rate Za - the annual profit
15. The
Figure 15.
Figure The total
totalentropy
entropygeneration
generationrate forfor
rate thethe
system under
system underconsideration, comprising
consideration, the LP
comprising thepart
LP
of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water pump, and the annual surplus profit
part of the turbine, the condenser, and the cooling-water pump, and the annual surplus profit as as functions
of the tubeofinner
functions diameter.
The minimum
minimum total entropy generation
generation rate
rate for the system under consideration
consideration occurs
occurs for the
diameter of
of 28
28mm,
mm,i.e.,
i.e.,
thethe
oneone
for for which
which the maximum
the maximum powerpower is generated
is generated (Figure(Figure
14). The14). The
highest
highest annual surplus profit was achieved at the diameter
annual surplus profit was achieved at the diameter of 25 mm. of 25 mm.
5. Conclusions
Conclusions
presents a methodology
The paper presents methodology for for choosing
choosing the the diameter
diameter of of tubes
tubes inin aa power
power condenser,
condenser,
involving thermodynamic
involving thermodynamic methods methods andand an
an economic
economic one. one. This
This issue
issue isis relevant
relevant to to both
both the design
of new condensers and the replacement of used used tube
tube assemblies
assemblies in in upgraded
upgraded condensers.
condensers. Four
methods were werepresented:
presented:minimization
minimization of the
of entropy
the entropygeneration rate per
generation unitper
rate lengthunitoflength
a condenser
of a
tube (considering
condenser entropy generation
tube (considering due to heat
entropy generation duetransfer and resistance
to heat transfer of cooling-water
and resistance flow);
of cooling-water
minimization
flow); of the total
minimization of theentropy generation
total entropy rate forrate
generation the system comprising
for the system the LP part
comprising of the
the LP partturbine,
of the
the condenser,
turbine, and theand
the condenser, cooling-water pump;pump;
the cooling-water maximization of theofpower
maximization unit’sunit’s
the power output; and and
output; the
economic
the economic method (where
method the criterion
(where of selection
the criterion is theisannual
of selection profitprofit
the annual calculated as theasincome
calculated from
the income
electricelectric
from power generation less the costs
power generation less ofthe
pumping
costs of cooling water cooling
pumping and buildingwatertheand condenser).
building the
The methodology was applied to assess the appropriateness of tube diameters for a condenser
condenser).
in a 200-MW and a 500-MW
The methodology power units.
was applied Thethe
to assess choice of the diameter
appropriateness was diameters
of tube made for equal for a number
condenser of
tubes and their lengths (per unit length).
in a 200-MW and a 500-MW power units. The choice of the diameter was made for equal number of
tubesFor
andthe 200-MW
their lengthsunit
(per condenser,
unit length).the minimum entropy generation rate per unit length of a
condenser
For thetube according
200-MW to Equationthe
unit condenser, (16) was obtained
minimum entropy forgeneration
the tube inner rate perdiameter of 27 of
unit length mm. a
The maximum
condenser tube net power to
according output of the
Equation unit
(16) waswas obtained
obtained for for
the the
tubetubeinner inner diameter
diameter of 27ofmm.
31 mm.
The
The minimum
maximum total entropy
net power outputgeneration
of the unitrate
wasfor the system
obtained comprising
for the tube innerthe LP partof
diameter of31
themm.
turbine,
The
the condenser,
minimum total and the generation
entropy pump occurred rate forforthe
thesystem
same comprising
diameter. the TheLP optimum
part of the inner diameter
turbine, the
corresponding
condenser, andto the
the pump
maximum annualfor
occurred profit
the(Zsame
a ) is 29 mm. With
diameter. Themost condensers
optimum innerof diameter
200-MW
power units, the
corresponding totube inner diameter
the maximum is 28
annual mm, (while
profit Za) is the outerWith
29 mm. one ismost30 mm. For condenser
condensers of 200-MW tube
power units, the tube inner diameter is 28 mm, while the outer one is 30 mm. For condenser tube
diameters between 27 mm and 33 mm, the graph of the annual surplus profit is rather flat, but has a
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 16 of 20
diameters between 27 mm and 33 mm, the graph of the annual surplus profit is rather flat, but has a
maximum. In this case, a possibly small change in the diameter is recommended, for the condenser in
question to a diameter of 29 or 30 mm.
For the 500-MW unit condenser, the minimum entropy generation rate per unit length of a
condenser tube according to Equation (16) was obtained for the tube inner diameter of 24 mm.
The tube inner diameter for which the minimum total entropy generation rate for the system
comprising the LP part of the turbine, the condenser, and the pump was achieved matches the one for
which the maximum power generation was obtained, and equals 28 mm. The highest annual profit
was achieved at the optimum inner diameter of 25 mm. With most condensers of a 500-MW power
unit, the tube inner diameter is 22.6 mm, while the outer one 24 mm.
The methods of entropy generation minimization (considering both heat transfer and flow
resistance) and the method of the unit’s power output maximization are approximate methods for
determining the optimum condenser tube diameter. The results shown indicate that the diameter
for which the minimum total entropy generation occurs matches the one for which the maximum
power is achieved. The diameter obtained with both these methods is slightly larger than the one
calculated with the economic (profit-based) method which comprehensively takes into account the
power generated by the LP part of the turbine, the power required to drive the pump, the cost of
building the condenser, and, indirectly, the entropy generation in the system under consideration.
In this paper, the optimum diameter of condenser tubes was found for constant number and
length of the tubes. However, this is not the only approach that can be taken; a constant heat transfer
area or a constant pressure in the condenser can also be assumed (while changing the number of
condenser tubes accordingly).
Author Contributions: Rafał Laskowski, Adam Smyk, Artur Rusowicz and Andrzej Grzebielec performed the
calculations analyzed the data and wrote the paper. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
A heat transfer area, m2
at discount factor, -
c2 specific heat of water, J/(kg·K)
ce electricity price, zł/MWh
cA price of one square meter of the heat transfer area, zł/m2
Cm coefficient of heat transfer intensity for steam and water mixture in a bank of tubes
d discount rate, -
d2i tube inner diameter, m
d2o tube outer diameter, m
surface area of steam flow across the section between tubes of a bank in the condenser
f
within its outer circumference, m2
fc fixed cost ratio, 1/year
F2 cross-section of the cooling water flow, m2
g gravitational acceleration, m/s2
h specific enthalpy, J/kg
k roughness, mm
L tube length, m
n number of tubes, -
N years of power plant operation, year
Nu Nusselt number, -
Nun Nusselt number for steam condensing on a single tube, -
.
m rate of mass flow through one tube, kg/s
.
m1 steam mass flow rate to the condenser, kg/s
.
m2 mass flow rate of cooling water, kg/s
.
mt steam mass flow rate at the inlet of the low-pressure part of the turbine, kg/s
p pressure, Pa (abs)
∆p p pressure rise across the pump, Pa
Pp pump power, W
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 17 of 20
Pt power generated in the low-pressure part, W

P difference in power between the low-pressure part and the pump, W
Pr Prandtl number, -
.
Q flow rate of the heat transferred, kW
.
q heat flow rate per unit tube length, W/m
r phase transition heat of condensing steam, r = h”( ps ) − h0 ( ps ), kJ/kg
rl thermal resistance per unit length, mK/W
Re Reynolds number, -
s specific entropy, J/(kg·K)
S circumference of steam inflow, measured across a section between tubes outside the bank, m
.
S sum of entropy rates, W/K
sf ratio of steam inflow in the area between tubes on the outer circumference of a bank, -
SL entropy generation rate per unit length of a condenser tube, W/(mK)
.
S2,p entropy generation rate due to the resistance of cooling-water flow, W/K
.
S . entropy generation rate due to heat transfer to water, W/K
. 2,Q
S1 entropy generation rate on the steam side, W/K
.
St entropy generation rate in the low-pressure part, W/K
.
Sp entropy generation rate in the pump, W/K
.
S Lp entropy generation due to flow resistance of cooling water, W/(mK)
.
S Lq entropy generation due to heat flow, W/(mK)
T2i cooling water temperature at the condenser inlet, K
T2o cooling water temperature at the condenser outlet, K
T2 average cooling water temperature, ( T2o + T2i )/2, K
Ts steam saturation temperature, K
∆tln logarithmic temperature difference across the steam condenser, ◦ C
∆t p mean temperature difference between steam and the external surface of tubes, ◦ C
U overall heat transfer coefficient, kW/(m2 ·K)
w velocity, m/s
z number of tube runs in a condenser, -
Za annual surplusprofit, zł/year
Zn profit over N years of operation, zł
α coefficient of heat transfer, kW/(m2 ·K)
αp heat transfer coefficient for steam condensation on a single horizontal tube, kW/(m2 ·K)
δf thickness of the fouling layer, m
εo ratio of air content in the condenser to steam flow, -
ηp pump efficiency, -
λ1 thermal conductivity of steam, kW/(mK)
λ2 thermal conductivity of cooling water, kW/(mK)
λf thermal conductivity of the fouling layer, kW/(mK)
λfr flow resistance coefficient, -
λk thermal conductivity of condensate, kW/(mK)
λm thermal conductivity of tube material, kW/(mK)
νk kinematic viscosity of condensate, m2 /s
Πs similarity number for a bank of tubes, -
ρ density, kg/m3
ρk density of condensate, kg/m3
τ annual power plant operation time, h
Subscripts
1 relates to steam
2 relates to cooling water
ext relates to parameters at the extraction in steam turbine
f fouling
m tube material
ti relates to parameters at the inlet of the low-pressure part
to relates to parameters at the outlet of the low-pressure part
pi relates to parameters upstream the pump
po relates to parameters downstream the pump
r relates to reference (nominal) parameters
Entropy 2016, 18, 444 18 of 20
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Table 2. Basic specifications of the condenser in the 500-MW power unit.

Item Symbol Unit Value

3. Mathematical Models for Determining the Optimum Condenser Tube Diameter

The logarithmic mean temperature difference has the form:

(ts − t2o ) − (ts − t2i )

The heat transfer area is:

3.3. Maximization of the Power Unit’s Output: P = f(p1 (d2i )) → max

The power generated by the LP part of the 200-MW turbine is:

The power supplied to the cooling-water pump equals:

3.4. The Economic Method—Profit Maximization: Z = f(d2i ) → max

Equation (29) can be rewritten with regard to annual effects Za :

where fixed cost ratio is equal to:

per unit per unit

UA, kW/K UA, kW/K

The effect of 58000

2i the tube inner diameter d , mm

S/L, SLq, SLp, W/(mK

S/L, SLq, SLp, W/(mK)

entropy generation increases

and that required to drive76

76 S - the total entropy generation rate Za - the annual profit -1.0

Za, mln zł/year

S - the total entropy generation rate Za - the annual profit

Pt power generated in the low-pressure part, W

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