Optimal Pump

Management

CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
 Table of Contents
Principles of P&ID Development....................................................................................................................... 4
The tips provided here will streamline efforts to develop piping & instrumentation diagrams

Facts at Your Fingertips: Positive Displacement Pumps................................................................................. 14

Facts at Your Fingertips: Measurement guide for replacement seals........................................................... 15

Facts at Your Fingertips: Tubing for Peristaltic Dosing Pumps....................................................................... 16

Facts at Your Fingertips: Flow Profile for Reciprocating Pumps.................................................................... 17

Facts at Your Fingertips: Construction- Cost Indices....................................................................................... 18

Facts at Your Fingertips: Vacuum Pumps.......................................................................................................... 19

Optimizing Reciprocating Compressors for CPI Plants.................................................................................. 20

Follow this guidance to improve the design, performance and reliability of these widely used machines

Gear Units in CPI Plants...................................................................................................................................... 25

Follow this guidance to improve the selection and operation of gear units in CPI plants

Fire-Water Pumps for CPI Facilities................................................................................................................... 29

Follow this guidance to improve the selection, design and operation of pumps handling water for firefighting and
related systems

Chemical Process Plants: Plan for Revamps.................................................................................................... 33

Follow this guidance to make the most of engineering upgrades that are designed to improve plant operations or
boost throughput capacity

Variable frequency drives: An Algorithm for Selecting Vfds for Centrifugal Pumps.................................. 39
Using this simple algorithm on a personal computer, engineers can evaluate competing scenarios to identify the
most cost-effective and energy-efficient pump system design

Sizing, Specifying and Selecting Centrifugal Pumps...................................................................................... 45

Follow these tips to determine preliminary pump sizing, to support cost-estimation efforts

Lubricating Rotating Machinery........................................................................................................................ 50

Follow this guidance to improve lubricant selection, process operation and asset reliability

Use Simplified Lifecycle-Cost Computations to Justify Upgrades............................................................... 55

The methodologies presented here can be used to set goals, and will enable performance comparisons among
different plants or industry segments

Remote Thermal Sensing.................................................................................................................................... 59

By making it easy to detect heat anomalies, thermal cameras and infrared thermometers support preventive and
predictive maintenance

Pressurized Piping: Sampling Steam and Water............................................................................................. 64

Without proper systems, analysis of steam and water chemistry can provide erroneous results — with costly
implications

Plot Plan Design: Process Requirements.......................................................................................................... 70

It is important to conceptualize plant layout in terms of both ideal location and optimal geographical positioning of
equipment components
Facts at Your Fingertips: The Impact of Off-BEP Pump Operation................................................................. 76

Lifecycle Costs for Capital Equipment In the CPI............................................................................................ 77

Long-term equipment costs need to be fully considered in capital-cost assessments

A Primer on Reverse Osmosis Technology....................................................................................................... 85

Desalination by reverse osmosis is a key technology for a water-constrained world. Discussed here is its use in
industrial water treatment and drinking-water production

Materials Selection In The CPI............................................................................................................................ 92

An overview of the many factors to be considered when selecting materials of construction

Rotating Machinery: What You Should Know About Operational Problems............................................... 98

Follow this guidance to improve the operation, safety and reliability of rotating machinery in chemical process plants

Condition Monitoring for Rotating Machinery................................................................................................ 103

This valuable insight into the performance of pumps and compressors will help improve operation

Inline Viscosity Measurements.......................................................................................................................... 109

Process viscometers can help keep process control and product quality in check

Piping-System Leak Detection and Monitoring for the CPI........................................................................... 114

Eliminating the potential for leaks is an integral part of the design process that takes place at the very onset of
facility design

Oil-Mist Systems.................................................................................................................................................. 121

This primer discusses the pros and cons of open- versus closed-loop designs for lubricating pump and motor
bearings

Making Pump Maintenance Mandatory........................................................................................................... 123

Transfer pumps must be kept in optimum shape to handle harsh chemical processing operations

Improving the Operability of Process Plants.................................................................................................... 129

Turndown and rangeability have a big impact on the flexibility and efficiency of chemical process operations

Facts at Your Fingertips: Variable Frequency Drives........................................................................................ 136

Calculate NPSH with Confidence...................................................................................................................... 138

Determining net positive suction head (NPSH) can be confusing, but with these guidelines, engineers can avoid the
pitfalls of incorrect calculations

The Benefits of Seal-less Pumps for Full Product Containment.................................................................... 144

In cases where full containment of dangerous and hazardous chemicals is necessary, seal-less pumps can provide
many safety and operational benefits

Condition Monitoring Methods for Pumps...................................................................................................... 148

Applying condition monitoring tests to pumps can save costs by optimizing overhaul scheduling

Magnetically Driven Pumps: An overview....................................................................................................... 154

Understanding sealless pump technologies and their potential applications

Mechanical Seals Update: Pharmaceutical and Food Applications.............................................................. 159

For applications that require cleanliness, be sure your centrifugal pumps have the proper seals
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Principles of
P&ID Development
The tips provided here will streamline efforts to
develop piping & instrumentation diagrams
Mohammad Toghraei
Consultant
T
he piping and instrumentation
diagram (P&ID) is often consid-
ered to be the gold standard for
the proper design, operation and
maintenance of plants in the chemi-
cal process industries (CPI), includ-
ing chemical, oil-and-gas facilities,
mining operations, food-processing
plants, and water- and wastewater-
treatment plants. The P&ID provides
important information for manufac-
turing and installing equipment and
machinery, piping, instrumention,
and safe and appropriate startup
and correct operation of the plant.
The P&ID is frequently refer-
enced by various engineering dis-
ciplines — during both the design
stages and the operating phase. It
is also referenced in technical meet-
ings with equipment vendors and
manufacturers, in hazard and op-
erability (HAZOP) studies, in man-
agement meetings, and during proj-
ect scheduling and planning.
The P&ID is one of the few plant
documents that is created by multi-
ple engineering disciplines working
in concert. These disciplines include
process engineering, instrumenta-
tion and control (I&C), plot plant
and piping (PL&P), mechanical,
heat ventilation and air condition-
ing (HVAC), and to a lesser extent
civil, structural and architecture
(CSA), and the environmental and
regulatory group.
Similarly, the information pro-
vided by the P&ID allows for the
generation of various other impor-
tant documents, including isomet-
ric drawings and models for piping,
62 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
instrument lists, cause-and-effect
diagrams, control philosophy, de-
scription, alarm-setpoint tables,
line-designation tables (LDT), plot
plans, loop diagrams, tie-in lists,
and many more (Figure 1). With
such universal applicability, P&IDs
are often affectionately referred
to as “primary interdisciplinary
documents.”
Role of the process engineer
The duties of the process or chemi-
cal engineer in a CPI project can be
broadly split into two categories —
equipment sizing and P&ID devel-
opment. Therefore, most engineers
need to have skills in both areas.
The former skill calls for knowl-
edge related to hydraulic calcula-
tions, pump and compressor siz-
ing, vessel and tank sizing, process
safety-valve (PSV) sizing, and heat-
exchanger sizing. Equipment sizing
requires different skill sets, which
may vary by level of seniority and
by industry segment.
Chemical engineers should have
the knowledge that is needed to size
specific equipment components re-
lated to their industry segment (for
instance, distillation towers for pe-
troleum refineries and clarifiers for
water treatment). While equipment-
sizing skills are routinely taught
during the acquisition of an engi-
neering degree, the skills needed
to develop meaningful P&IDs are
often not formally taught in school,
but rather are acquired through “on
the job” training.
The absence of P&ID-develop-
Loop
INS ND CO
Piping model
diagram
A
TRU
ING
ME TROL
NTA
PIP
N
T IO
Isometrics
N
Alarm
table
P&ID
Mechanical
Calculations
data sheets
ME
ESS
CH
OC
AN
PR
ICA
L
Process
data sheets
Figure 1. P&IDs are technically pip-
ing and instrumentation diagrams but
they provide a central repository of es-
sential engineering information that is
relevant to numerous other functions
throughout the planning and operation
of most process plants
ment training in academia may re-
sult in part from the fact that inher-
ently, P&ID development involves
more art than science. Plus, the
content and structure of individual
P&IDs tends to vary from company
to company, and there is a constant
stream of new technologies being
introduced as older ones are retired.
While volumes could be written on
the development of P&IDs, this ar-
ticle provides a framework of recom-
mendations for P&ID development.
P&ID development activities
The block flow diagram (BFD) is the
preliminary document in the devel-
opment of any CPI project. It out-
lines the most basic, general infor-
mation related to the project. Then,
it is the job of the process flow dia-
gram (PFD) to add further details
to the design before the final docu-
ment — the P&ID — is developed
(Figure 2). In general, the BFD cap-
tures the theoretical process steps
that are needed to convert a feed
stream to finished products while
the PFD goes inside of each of the
BFD “blocks” and shows the major
types of equipment that are needed
to meet the goal of each block. The
BFD and PFD only show the main
elements of the plant, while the
 Block flow diagram Process flow diagram Piping & instrumentation
(BFD) (PFD) diagram (P&ID)
Figure 2. Before a detailed P&ID can be developed, a BFD and PFD must be devel-
oped to identify the major aspects of the process. The BFD identifies primary streams
and unit operations. The PFD expands each BFD block, adding tanks, pumps and
some instrumentation. The P&ID pulls it together with fuller details
A plant with: (to ensure ease of op-
• Low capital and eration and flexibility),
operating expenses
• Quick construction
while meeting all local
• Proper operation environmental and safety
Environmental Owner
health and regulatory requirements
safety (EHS) (Figure 3).
codes
Plant Essential elements
Ideally, the specific ele-
Designer Operator ments captured in any
P&ID should account for
A plant with comercially A plant with: full functionality of the
established design • Ease of operation
procedures • Safe operation
plant in all stages of the
plant lifecycle, as outlined
below:
Figure 3. CPI facilities require cooperation 1. All given elements —
among three parties. Each has its own responsibili- including equipment
ties but EHS requirements are common to all and piping items —
must operate well and
P&ID provides more detailed ele- reliably during normal opera-
ments, capturing the real plant on tion, within the window of oper-
paper while ignoring the scale. ating conditions that is expected
Despite the simplified drawing at the plant. A basic process con-
shown in Figure 2, P&ID develop- trol system (BPCS) should be
ment goes beyond just expanding implemented to bring parameters
the PFD. There are some small items within normal conditions. The
that are not shown but that need to five key parameters of chemical
be developed by the designer for the process operations (temperature,
P&ID. Still, the development of the pressure, flowrate, level and com-
BFD and PFD requires exhaustive position) may need to be “adjusted”
studies and rigorous calculations continuously by the actions of the
and simulations. Going through BPCS to ensure that they meet
these “preliminary” efforts and not the requirements at the inlet and
bypassing BFD and PFD develop- outlet of each component.
ment is essential, because every 2. The element operates well dur-
single decision for main items on ing non-normal conditions, such
the PFD could have a big impact on as under reduced-capacity condi-
the project. tions, and during process upsets,
startup and shutdown. Engineer-
The main goal of a facility ing provisions for working reliably
The main goal of a process plant during low-capacity operating
is to produce desired quantities conditions, the use of safety-in-
of various products while meet- strumented systems (SIS) to shut
ing stated quality goals. A sound down the system, and safety-relief
plant design will take into consid- valves are examples of the types of
eration the owner’s wishes for the items that can address this stage
plant (for instance, low capital and of plant lifecycle in P&ID develop-
operating expenses, the ability to ment activities.
build it quickly and so forth), the 3. There are enough provisions to
designer’s requirements (that the ensure ease of inspection and
design procedures can be trustwor- maintenance; these include in-
thy and commercially established) situ inspection, ex-situ inspection,
and the operator’s requirements workshop maintenance and more.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
Reversible system
Figure 4. The startup of a reversible
system often requires a recirculation
loop; it should be sized appropriately to
minimize costs
All given elements must be de-
signed to allow them to be appro-
priately isolated, drained, vented,
cleaned and flushed (via purging,
steaming, or water flushing).
4. Provisions must be made to mini-
mize the impact on the rest of
plant when an item, equipment or
unit is out of operation.
The following points should be con-
sidered when adding different items
to address any of the above four re-
quirements:
1. Make sure that no added element
within one stage of the plant’s
lifecycle will jeopardize another
item’s function. For example, add-
ing bypass capabilities with a
manual block valve for a safety-
related switching valve (for the
purpose of making the plant op-
erational when the switching
valve is out for maintenance, per
Item 4 from the list above) could
jeopardize the operation of the
switching valve in an SIS; that is,
the bypass could be left open and
therefore create a safety flaw).
2. Decide if added items can be
“merged” with each other or not.
This basically involves check-
ing if a single shared item can
address multiple requirements
within the plant lifecycle or not.
Whenever possible, items should
be “merged” or “shared” to make
the most of capital and opera-
tional costs. In certain cases, this
can be justified, especially when
an item needs to be added for the
purpose of satisfying Item 3 or 4
above. As these specific compo-
nents are not in use all the time,
a good process engineer will at-
tempt to “merge” them with other
items so they can carry out mul-
tiple functions.
However, this last practice
cannot be carried out in all situ-
ations. From a redundancy point
of view, it is not always good to
expect one item to carry out mul-
tiple duties. Technically, one item
63
 Engineering Practice
could be time-shared when it is
meant to carry out different du-
ties at different times (that is,
with no overlap in duty duration).
When designing for shared duty,
keep in mind that this setup may
end up creating confusion among
operators, may be more prone to
cross-contamination, and may
enable a small failure to lead to
a big shutdown. Meanwhile, de-
signing components to be dedi-
cated (not shared) will drive up
costs (if items are expensive),
but they will be easier to trouble-
shoot, should a failure occur. One
common example is the use of a
manway pressure-relief valve
(PRV) on one shared nozzle on
tanks.
Typically, the ability to install
shared items is most practical
in batch systems and in systems
with only intermittent operation.
In such operations, a given item
can be used for different duties
during different time spans.
The following discussion explains
the activities that are reqruied for
P&ID development for each stage of
a plant lifecycle.
1. Normal operation. For normal
operation, each item on the P&ID
needs to be able to carry out the
duty it has been assigned. Since,
in the majority of cases, this is not
achievable through equipment de-
sign alone, a control system should
be implemented on the equipment.
The BPCS must ensure that the
design of the equipment will force
the equipment to operate within a
“window” of expected results, typi-
cally at its best operating point.
In a broad sense, a control system
is supposed to bring the five main
process parameters — flowrate,
pressure, temperature, level and
composition — into the required
range. “Composition” encompasses
many relevant parameters, ranging
from viscosity, density and conduc-
tivity to octane number and Brix
number. All utility distribution and
collection networks, and heat-con-
servation insulation, must also be
decided at this stage.
2. Non-normal operation. Non-
normal operations occur under the
64 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
Table 1. Options for equipment maintenance
In-line Off-line
In-place By operators doing rounds
By the mechanical group
In workshop Not applicable
Quick hardware
Accident
loss
Mechanical protection
Long-term
Major upset
hardware loss
High high
Alarm Mild upset
Does not meet
process goal
High
Interlock
Control
Meets
system process
(SIS)
system Normal
goal
(specific
(range)
points) Low
Alarm Mild upset Does not meet
process goal
Low low
Long-term
Major upset hardware loss
Mechanical protection
Quick hardware
Accident
loss
figure 5. A diagram depicting upset conditions, such as this, can be defined for
temperature, pressure, level, flowrate or composition of each component
following conditions (Each is dis- plant items (such as tanks) have an
cussed below): inherently high TDR, while others
a. During reduced-capacity opera- (such as equipment with internal
tion weirs or vessels with internal feed
b. During startup distributors) have a lower TDR. The
c. During upset conditions duty of the process engineer is to
Reduced-capacity operation. Oc- provide the required TDR (defined
casionally, actual plant capacity by the client) for each equipment
should be reduced from the design component and for the entire plant.
capacity for a variety of reasons. One method of providing TDR is
Such conditions may result from a to install multiple smaller compo-
shortage of raw materials or an ex- nents in parallel, instead of one big
cess of production, or from downtime piece of equipment. Another solu-
of a critical equipment component tion is to implement a recirculation
or unit. The process engineer usu- loop around the equipment to com-
ally provides some turndown ratio pensate for the low flowrate.
(TDR) for the plant. TDR is a ratio Startup operations. Startup opera-
between the normal capacity of the tion could be assumed to be a severe
plant and the minimum running ca- capacity-reduction case. Be cause
pacity that is possible without los- process parameters during startup
ing the quality of the product. TDR are not necessarily within their
can be defined for the equipment, range, equipment and instrumenta-
for a unit, or for the whole plant. tion are not expected to be working
Some owners or operators ex- according to full operating expecta-
pect the engineer to provide a TDR tions. However, startup specialists
of around two for their plants (this are often onsite in this stage and
means they want to be able to oper- can help to compensate for the tem-
ate the plant at half capacity without porary lack of operability of equip-
losing any product quality). Some ment and instruments.
 TIPS FOR VENTS AND DRAIN VALVES
• Each drain can cover a portion of a system; Vents can cover
a bigger portion
• Drain or vent size should be manageable (Minimum size
should be ¾ in.; limit to 2 in., unless inside of dike)
• Multiple drains and vents should be implemented in a cov-
ered area to ensure draining or venting within a reasonable tp = 2 years tm = 1 year tp = 2 years Pi

time
tm = time between
• When the system is small: drain = vent (usually for pipes <2 each maintenance, inspection or cleaning event
in.), and there is no need for dedicated vents or drains
tp = time between
• The drain or vent should be routed to a safe location (hard each plant overhaul or turnaround
piped, if required)
• For volume < 0.5 m3 (such as pump casings), use ¾-in. tp = 2 years tm = 3 years tp = 2 years
drains
• Vents can be one size smaller than the drain
• Drains for liquids with viscosity higher than 50 cP could be
one size bigger than guidelines stated above Figure 6. When planning for isolation valves, the engineering
team should evaluate data related to the anticipated time for sched-
uled maintenance and anticipated turnaround schedules

Table 2. options for isolating a portion of the process for normal operation for the pur-
from the plant pose of startup recirculation is so
Type Symbol Credibility strong that some process engineers
1 Block valve Not forget to think about the startup op-
(with or without lock) Process acceptable eration during the development of
2 Block valve the P&ID; they simply assume they
(with lock) and blind Process will find a way to accommodate

Safer isolation
3 Double block valve startup somehow without actually
(with lock) and bleed Process planning for it.
Upset conditions. Upset conditions
4 Block valve
can be defined as operation of the
(with lock) and blind Process plant when some of the process pa-
and removable spool rameters are beyond the normal
band. In Figure 5, this situation
is arbitrarily split into two differ-
Table 3. Different methods of removing material ent cases — mild upset and severe
from equipment for inspection or maintenance
upset — for any of the five key pa-
Type of Removal method P&ID rameters (flowrate, pressure, tem-
“dirt” perature, level, and composition). In
1 Solid/ • Manual • Nothing is needed on P&ID both cases, during upset conditions,
semi-solid: •M achine-as- • Do we need “clean-out” doors? the process goals have already been
removal sisted
lost so the immediate goal is to
2 Liquids: • F lushing: By For all the cases , three options are protect the equipment (hardware
Washing water available to show on the P&ID:
conservation) and the health and
•S  teaming out: 1. Only washing valves
By utility steam 2. Washing valves that are hard piped safety of the personnel and neigh-
•C  hemical 3. Hard piped washing system with boring communities.
cleaning: By switching valves for automatic To address point upset conditions,
chemical solu- washing the facility should be equipped with
tion or solvents
an alarm system and a SIS. The
3 Gases: •N eutral gas • If it is by inert gas, the same options alarm setpoints are usually on the
Purging purging for “washing” (above options) are
maximum (or minimum, in some
• Ventilation available here
• For ventilation (by natural draft of cases) value of a parameter, and the
air), imake sure there are at least 2 SIS action will be set to the high-
nozzles are available high (or low-low) level. However,
some additional alarm setpoints
For reversible systems (such as sively large circulation loops, so as or additional SIS setpoints can be
reactors that carry out equilibrium not to waste money for piping that added, too.
reactions), startup operation can be is supposed to be used only during The purpose of this SIS action is
supported by recirculation. If the startup. As much as possible, the to shut down a plant and bring it in
system is not reversible, the startup design should try to use the existing the lowest energy state (in terms of
operations can be more complicated pipe arrangement for the purpose lowest pressure, lowest temperature
and case-specific. Figure 4 shows of startup recirculation, especially and so on) Other than “event-based
the basics of this procedure. when high-bore pipe is needed to SIS” explained above, SIS action(s)
If recirculation is to be used dur- support startup efforts. can also be activated by the opera-
ing the startup procedure, efforts The tendency to use the piping ar- tor. This shutdown is named “opera-
should be made to avoid exces- rangement that was implemented tor activated SIS.”
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014 65
 Table 4. Examples of removable spools (RS)
Item Potential P&ID example
Engineering Practice location of RS
Centrifugal Suction and PG
PG
pump discharge side

The duty of the alarm is to warn

the operator that something has RS RS
gone wrong. If for whatever reason Progressive- Discharge side
the operator fails to respond in a cavity pump
timely manner, the SIS system will RS
initiate the action that the operator
has failed to, or tried without suc- Shell-and- Tube side
RS
tube
cess. This allocation of responsibili-
heat
ties between alarm system and SIS exchanger
is shown in Figure 5.
If, for whatever reason, the SIS Vessels and Lines out of
tanks flanged head RS
cannot mitigate the parameter that or blinded
has deviated from the normal point nozzles
and it has gone beyond high-high
(or low-low) level, then finally a me- Table 5. Options to deal with lost items in a plant
chanical item needs to be triggered
to “tame” the system and regain Option Schematic P&ID example
control. Even though a mechanical The exact
system (as the last line of defense) replica in
parallel
can be considered for each of the
five parameters mentioned earlier,
pressure safety valves (PSV) are a A similar item in
parallel
popular type of mechanical defense
against a wild parameter. Installing
PSVs, and routing their release to an
Bypassing the absent
appropriate destination, is an essen- item
tial task during P&ID development. Bypass
Winterization is another issue
that is resolved in this stage. Win- Redirecting the in-flow
terization involves implementing to a “reservoir” for later
specific features in a plant design to use
Reservoir
prevent any impact of cold weather Pond
during a plant shutdown. For in-
stance, winterization efforts typi- Upstream tank stores
cally start with provisions to enable this inlet flow and the
downstream tank pro-
“natural internal drainage” of the vides outlet flow for a Furnace
equipment and pipes more tolerant short period of time
items, such as tanks. Other activi-
The inlet flow is sent To flare
ties include heat tracing and insu-
permanently for ulti-
lation of pipes to prevent freezing mate disposal and the
or settling of non-drained (trapped) stream will be wasted Ultimate disposal
fluids, and installing fluid mov-
ers on emergency power sources The absence of an
to provide recirculation to prevent item doesn’t generate
freezing/setting in the case of power any upset in the rest of Steam
plant or whole plant generator
loss.
3. Inspection and maintenance. should be shut down
Equipment care can be categorized
into “in-workshop” and “in-place” pair or maintenance. Each requires • Sound: To sense vibration, cavita-
care, and the latter can be catego- different types of provisions for the tion, hammering, PSV release, ex-
rized further into “in-line” or “off- equipment on the P&ID. plosion and more by listening
line” operation. In-place care is Operators making rounds could • Touch: To detect vibration
usually done by operators making be equipped with portable sensors; • Smell: To detect fire, leakage, PSV
rounds, while in-workshop care is if not, then he or she must rely on release to atmosphere, and more
typically carried out in a workshop the use of the senses: To support the work of the operator
by a mechanical group (Table 1). • Sight: To observe, for instance, making rounds, specific items can
Inline care can be considered the leakage, vibration, overflow of be put on the P&ID. These may in-
inspection of operation equipment, tanks, fluid levels, flame color and clude sight glasses to check liquid
while off-line care is equipment re- shape levels, catalyst levels or filtering-
66 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
 Table 6. An Example of P&ID development for a pump (four phases of operation)
Case P&ID
Normal operation
Putting the pump call-out with the required informa- Call-out should be put on P&ID
tion on top of P&ID sheet
Placing a reducer/expander to match suction and
discharge side of the pump, if needed (may need
a top-flat eccentric reducer at connection)

Adding a permanent strainer to prevent damage to

the pump

Making sure the suction pressure (and tempera- It needs some calculations. The impact on P&ID could be seen
ture) is enough. This reflects the sensitivity of on suitable in upstream container of pump
centrifugal pumps towards NPSH
Showing the pump’s BPCS for capacity control of FT FC

pump FE FV

FO

Adding pump driver control PM

S/S COMMAND
RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FC

FE FV
M

FO

Non-normal condition

Considering a temporary strainer (commissioning) A permanent strainer is already placed

Adding a non-returning valve in the case of reverse PM

S/S COMMAND
RUN STATUS
flow 115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FC

FE FV
M

FO

Using the minimum flow line on the discharge line FC

with a control valve to protect the pump from flows FV

that are lower than the minimum flow of the pump
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
MCC HS FT FT FC

FE FE FV
M

FO

Showing the pump SIS and/or alarming system FC

to protect the pump from an abnormal condition FV

(one example is a monitoring system for seal leak- S/S COMMAND

age) FO PM RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
FE FE FV
M

FO

Continues on pg. 69

media levels, or peep holes to check
the color and shape of flames in a
furnace or boiler.
In terms of the use of small, por-
table measuring devices that can be
used by operators making rounds,
these may include portable pres- may include, for example, a pres-
sure gages, temperature sensors sure tapping (PT) point, or temper-
and so on. The P&ID designer may ature point (TP), to be shown on the
decide to provide some “test points” P&ID. An example of PT location
instead of fixed gages, to save some could be the suction side of centrifu-
money in non-critical points. This gal pumps. The decision must be
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014 67
 Engineering Practice
made to either use test points and
fixed gages that transmit informa-
tion to the control room, or to imple-
ment a control loop that depends on
some parameters based on the criti-
cality of the parameter.
Meanwhile, in-place, off-line care
may include chemical or solvent
cleaning, steaming-out, pigging op-
erations and so on. Depending on
the operation-specific requirements,
different items should be imple-
mented (such as chemical cleaning
of valves).
For all off-line care a specific ar-
rangement must be made to ensure
positive isolation of the system from
the rest of the plant. This arrange-
ment typically comprises isolation
valves, drains, vent valves and so on.
The isolation system is discussed in
greater detail below.
For in-workshop care, the provi-
sions defined by in the P&ID are
items that will allow the equipment
to be removed from their founda-
tion easily and safely. However,
the characteristics to satisfy this
requirement are not always shown
on P&IDs (mainly to avoid clutter-
ing of the P&ID). For example, if
equipment needs to be hoisted for
removal, this engineering detail is
often not shown in the P&ID. Items
that must be shown on the P&ID in-
clude the following:
• Isolation valves that allow the
equipment components to be de-
tached from the rest of the plant
• Drains and vents
• Removable spools (RS) that would
be used around the equipment to
allow it to be “untangled” from the
system by removing the piping sys-
tem interference; this allows for
easy equipment transfer to
the workshop
When it comes to preparing for
off-line care, with regard to de-
signing isolation systems, the fol-
lowing three questions should be
answered:
1. To which equipment should the
isolation elements be added?
2. Where do they need to be placed
“around” the equipment?
3. Which types of isolation systems
or elements should be used?
To answer the first question, pro-
68 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
viding isolation valves is not nec-
essary for all the equipment in a
plant. Isolation valves are required
to isolate the equipment from the
rest of the plant if the equipment
is expected to need “off-line care”
at frequent intervals, in time du-
rations that are shorter than the
scheduled plant turnaround times).
For instance, if (based on histori-
cal data), the unit expects to need
off-line care every three years but
the entire facility for which you
are developing the P&ID will need
planned turnaround work every
two years, there is no need (at
least theoretically) to put isolation
valves upstream and downstream
of the unit. This concept is shown
in Figure 6.
In some cases, companies don’t
provide isolation systems for es-
sential equipment, such as heat
exchangers. The logic is that they
essentially cannot afford to put the
heat exchanger out of service, so
adding isolation valves would be ir-
relevant.
The answer to the second question
is that the isolation system should
be added on all downstream or up-
stream connecting pipes, as close as
possible to the equipment. However,
some companies challenge this and
question if there is real needed to
put isolation valves on, for example,
a vent pipe to atmosphere or not.
To answer the third question,
it should be stated that there are
different type of isolation systems.
Table 3 summarizes these methods.
Decision needs to be made about
the type of isolation method. The
isolation method depends on fac-
tors, such as the equipment envi-
ronment (for instance, for confined
spaces or non-confined spaces),
the fluid type (aggressive or toxic
or not), and the pressure and tem-
perature of the system. Usually the
first type of isolation (Table 2) does
not provide enough “positiveness.”
Possibly the only application of this
isolation method is for instruments.
In such an application, the isolation
valve is called a root valve.
The next step for making equip-
ment ready for periodic removal is
to bring it to “non-harmful condi-
tions.” This means having provi-
sions that will allow all five key
process parameters to be brought
into a safe range:
• Ensuring safe temperatures:
Options include allowing time
lapses, or options for cooling down
(or warming up, in the case of
cryogenic services) streams. For
some systems (for instance some
batch operations) that require a
more rapid cooling (or warming)
by cooling streams
• Making pressure safe: Venting is
widely used
• Ensuring appropriate flowrates:
As long as equipment is isolated
from the rest of the plant, there is
no flow going into it, and it is not
a point of concern
• Making levels safe: Drainage op-
tions are needed for tanks, vessels,
pump casing and more. Some gen-
eral rules for sizing and installing
drain and vents are in the Box (p.
65)
• To ensure safe compositions, the
body of the equipment (external
and/or internal) must be safe in
terms of exposure. These provi-
sions involve proper cleaning of
the equipment.
Table 5 shows options for mak-
ing the composition safe for dif-
ferent types of materials inside
of the equipment. Washing and
purging (through ventilation) are
especially important for walk-in
equipment.
The last step as mentioned above
is to provide removable spools (RS).
Sometimes required RS are already
present due to previous activities
on the P&ID. Table 4 provides some
examples.
Allocating a utility station in dif-
ferent locations of the plant, and de-
ciding about the required utilities
for each utility station, is another
activity to address this stage of the
plant lifecycle.
4. Operability of the plant in the
absence of one item. The designer
needs to decide the impact of equip-
ment loss on the rest of plant opera-
tions and take engineering steps to
minimize its impact. The wide range
of answers and decisions should in-
clude the following:
 Table 6. An Example of P&ID development for a pump (four phases of operation) (continued)
Case P&ID
Maintenance / Inspection
Adding a pressure gage on discharge and/or
FC
suction side
FV

FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M

FO

Adding block valves in the suction and discharge FC

line (such as a gate valve) in order to isolate the FV
pump during maintenance
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M

FO

Consider vent and drain valves in the pump FC

suction and discharge sides and in the pump cas- FV
ing
FO S/S COMMAND
PM RUN STATUS
115 COMMON TROUBLE ALARM
L/R STATUS STOP
SHUT DOWN COMMAND
S/S
HS
H/O/A
I MCC HS FT FT FC
436
PG FE FE FV
PG M

FO

Consider the use of a piping spool piece to facili-
tate dismantling
Installing pump insulation for personal protection
Production interruption
Define the pump sparing philosophy
It is already created and exists
Service temperature is 40°C and there is no need for personnel
protection insulation
Based on RAM analysis, a second pump with the same arrange-
ment is added (to provide 2 x 100% capacity)

1. A parallel, exactly similar spare
system can take care of flow that
would result from the loss of a given
component. Examples include spare
pumps or spare heat exchangers
(in highly fouling services). The
installation of spare equipment
is popular for fluid-moving equip-
ment, since interruption of service
in pumps and compressors cannot
be handled through other below
options. One important example is
having two fire pumps installed in
parallel, with two different types
of drives (for instance one with an
electromotor and the other using a
diesel drive pump).
2. A parallel component can be used
and the flow can be redirected
to the alternate component in-
stead. Examples include having a
manual throttling valve (such as
a globe valve) in the bypass line
of a control valve, or placing a by-
pass line for a PSV together with
a pressure gage (or pressure tap-
ping) and a globe valve.
3. The feed to the equipment can be
simply bypassed temporarily with
marginal impact on the operation
of the system.
4. The feed to the equipment can
be redirected temporarily to an
“emergency reservoir” (such as a
tank or pond), and processed later
by returning it back to the system.
Usually this option is available for
liquid streams.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
5. The storage tanks upstream and
downstream of the component
should have enough residence
time to continue operations. This
way, if the component goes out
of service, the upstream string
of equipment can still feed the
upstream tank and downstream
components can still be fed by
the downstream tank. This ar-
rangement will prevent a surge
that could impact connected plant
components.
6. The feed to the equipment is re-
directed temporarily to a waste-
receiving system or flare.
7. Whole plant or unit should shut
down: This option should be
avoided, if possible. However,
69
 Engineering Practice
sometimes this is inevitable when
the equipment of interest is a key
asset in the facility.
Table 5 summarizes these options
for a P&ID.
Spare pump options
While the discussion below focuses
on pumps, the guidelines apply to
any other types of spare equipment
as well. A spare pump, depend-
ing on the criticality of the service,
could be “an installed spare” or “a
workshop spare.” A workshop spare
pump is not installed but can be
moved from the workshop and de-
ployed within a short period of time
(say, 24 hours).
Decisions related to any of the
above two options (in terms of in-
stalled spares or workshop spares)
can be based on different param-
eters, including the following:
• Mean time between failure
(MTBF) of the equipment
• Mean time to repair (MTTR) of
the equipment
• Cost of maintenance
• Value of the “lost production”
For installed spares, if the ambient
temperature of the space around
the a pump is far from the operat-
ing temperature of the pump (for
instance, differs by 100 to 150°C),
the pump should be “a hot standby
pump” (or “a cold standby pump” for
cryogenic service) to make sure it
will not experience thermal shock
during the startup. Otherwise the
pump could be installed with no
specific “stand-by provisions.”
If a spare pump is supposed to
“sit” beside more than one operat-
ing pump, another feature that
should be decided is whether the
spare pump is a common spare
(to be available for several operat-
ing pumps), or is intended for use
with just one dedicated pum; thus
a spare should be installed for each
operation pump.
For spare pumps, the user might
expect that all pumps should be
able to act as both an operating
pump and a spare pump for any
of other pumps that may be out
of service (where no specific spare
pump has been designated). When
providing common (shared) spare
70 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
Too few tools Too many tools
pumps (that may need to
periodically function as
spare pumps for all other
pumps), the specific pip- Flexibility
ing arrangements around Badly operating in operation
Confusion
the pumps will need to be plant
elaborated on the P&ID.
Table 6 shows an exam-
Figure 7. A balance must be sought between
ple of P&ID development “too much” and “too little” when developing the
for a pump in one case. This engineering details for a P&ID
table only provides the re-
quired thought process for
the development of a pump P&ID as CPI facilities should be brought
an example. closer to the desired operating
point through the use of a control
Additional important items system. Key parameters that must
In addition to the last four stages be controlled include flowrate and
of the lifecycle of a plant (discussed head for pumps, and heat duty for
above), a few other items must be heat exchangers.
considered: 2. Check the required temperature
Future plans. If there is any plan and, pressure for each item (inlet
for expansion, or any prediction for and outlet) and make sure these
implementing new, under-review are matched with process needs.
innovations in future, this needs to If they are not matched, take ac-
be addressed in the P&ID to facili- tion to address them.
tate the implementation of the fu- 3. Check the required flowrate for
ture changes with minimum impact each item. What is the minimum
on the operating plant. flowrate that can be handled
Insulation to safeguard personnel. without negative impact on the
Equipment and pipes with skin process, and what is the mini-
temperatures that are greater than mum flow that can be accommo-
60–75°C (especially for metallic dated before there is potential
items), and those that are located harm to the equipment? If there
in crowded areas within reach of is a chance of harm from low flow,
workers, must be insulated. This in- then plan accordingly to protect
sulation is called personnel protec- the equipment from it.
tion (PP) insulation on the P&ID. 4. Check the required composition of
the streams going into the equip-
Useful rules-of-thumb ment and note the special care
Whether the design engineer (in that should be taken. For exam-
the role of P&ID developer) is ple, a positive-displacement pump
capturing general items (such as is prone to plugging if the liquid
containers, fluid movers, heat ex- contains large suspended solids.
changers and so on) or more spe- In this case, a strainer should be
cialized items (such as liquid-ex- installed.
traction towers, filter press and so 5. Be sure to account for the required
on), these general rules-of-thumb utilities and their temperatures
can help: and pressures.
1. Much of the equipment that we 6. What are the weak points of the
buy for any given plant is not item and what requirements
“custom built equipment,” so we should be taken when designing a
cannot expect the components to proper SIS system for the item?
operate exactly according to the 7. Which parameters must be moni-
desired operating points. Even for tored by the operator making
the case of custom made items, we rounds? Think about the five key
usually expect that the equipment parameters: Temperature, pres-
will operate in a pre-determined sure, level, flowrate and composi-
“window” of operation. The result tion.
is that almost all equipment in 8. Be sure to acknowledge which as-
 pects of each component need in-
spection or monitoring.
9. Review any history of item fail-
ures (in terms of frequency and
time for maintenance) and act ac-
cordingly to address them.
10. Consider the impact of an item
going out of service. What steps
can be taken to minimize the
impact of this on the rest of the
plant? Is it possible to have a sim-
ilar system as a spare?
Common challenges
During the development of a
P&ID, the need to choose between
competing options is a common
challenge. Here are several common
scenarios:
“Should I show a given detail on the
main body of P&ID by a schematic,
or can I capture it in the note area?”
The P&ID is a pictorial diagram. As
much as possible, the P&ID should
capture relevant schematic shapes.
“Should I add the item or not?” Items
should be added to give required
flexibly to the operator. A plant with
insufficient “facility resources” is dif-
ficult to operate.However, from the
other side, this is also the case for a
plant with more than enough pipe
circuits, control valves, alarms and
SIS actions. For example, a plant
with too many alarms can “overload”
the operator and result in a loss of
urgency from the operator when an
alarm does activate (Figure 7).
“Adding more doesn’t hurt.” This is
a popular statement when P&ID
developers try to “bypass” conduct-
ing a rigorous evaluation for the
necessity of an item on the system,
and thus place it with no real ne-
cessity. However, designers should
remember that in some cases, add-
ing an item might not necessar-
ily increase the capital cost of the
project — if the item is small and
relatively inexpensive — but may
still increase the operating cost be-
cause of required inspection, main-
tenance, related utility and chemi-
cal usage and more. In addition
to that, any new item added to the
system provides a new opportunity
for mistakes, cross -contamination,
leaks and other problems.
“Should I add it here on the P&ID
or will it be captured in other docu-
ments?” The P&ID is supposed to
be a common document that can be
used by quite a few different disci-
plines. Incompleteness is an inher-
ent feature of it. Furthermore, the
P&ID is supposed to be kept in the
plant, for easy use by operators. If
it is too cluttered, its usefulness is
diminished.
Generally speaking, all process
equipment should be shown in
P&IDs. Sometimes, non-process
related P&IDs (such as gearboxes
and lubrication systems) should
also be shown on the main P&ID or
on auxiliary P&IDs. Meanwhile, if
they are not shown on P&IDs, their
details can be found in vendor doc-
uments.
All pipes and pipe appurtenances
except bends and elbows are shown
on P&IDs. Flanges should be de-
picted, if there is a specific reason
for them. Specific piping items that
are not shown on the P&ID can be
found on piping models.
When it comes to instrumenta-
tion and control system, things
become more debatable. The three
main items of integrated control
and safety system (ICSS) elements
are: Regulatory control system
(BPCS), the alarm system and the
SIS. Almost everyone agrees about
www.rembe.com
basic process control items should
be shown on the P&IDs. They are
mainly the elements of the control
loops. For alarming systems, the
same clarity exists. The main de-
bate is usually on SIS systems, in
terms of the question of “down to
which level of detail the safety in-
terlock loops should be shown on
the P&IDs?”
Different companies follow differ-
ent directions.
“Based on my past experience...” The
inherent creativity required in cre-
ating P&IDs may become hindered,
if for every single case one refers
to “past experience.” As unlikely as
it may seem, the “this is what has
been done before” mentality is not
the most efficient way of developing
this document. That being said, the
technological innovations, availabil-
ity of materials, quality of raw ma-
terials, required quality of products,
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2014
capacity of the system, and ambi-
ent temperatures and pressures
will most likely differ for each new
project. When developing P&IDs, a
previously effective method may be
entirely ineffective in the current
project, while a method that has
proven useless in the past may work
perfectly well this time around. ■
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Mohammad Toghraei is
currently an independent
consultant and is the instruc-
tor of several P&ID-related
courses offered through
Progress Seminars Inc. (Web-
site www.engedu.ca; Email:
moe.toghraei@engedu.ca).
Toghraei has more than 20
years of experience in pro-
cess engineering. For the
past seven years, he has
held different technical and leadership roles
related to oil removal and water treatment for
steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) proj-
ects. Toghraei holds a B.Sc. in chemical engi-
neering from Isfahan University of Technology,
and an M.Sc. in environmental engineering from
the University of Tehran, and is a member of
APEGA. He is a certified professional engineer
in Alberta, Canada.
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71
 Positive
Displacement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins Pumps

P umps are essential equipment in the chemical process industries (CPI).

Given the imperatives to reduce production costs and maximize energy
efficiency, pump selection is crucial. Knowledge of pumping basics,
along with the fluid characteristics for a particular application can help
engineers make the best choice.
PD PUMP operating principles
• PD pumps displace the same volume of liquid with each rotation of the
shaft, so flow is proportional to pump speed
• PD pumps are self-priming
• PD-pump mechanics require close-fitting internal parts with some running
While the majority of pumps in use in CPI plants are kinetic energy pumps clearance
(the largest category being centrifugal pumps), positive displacement (PD) • PD pumps require a pressure-relief mechanism (either relief valves or rup-
pumps are an important class of industrial equipment. The following is a ture discs) in case of discharge blockage
collection of information on several types of PD pumps and an outline of the
differences between positive displacement pumps and centrifugal pumps. Types of PD Pumps
Internal gear pumps
Selection Starting Point Internal gear pumps have an outer gear Rotor
Idler
Crescent
called the rotor that is used to drive a
In pump selection, first consider what the expectations of the pump will
smaller inner gear called the idler. The
be. The following parameters must be determined before a pump can be
idler gear rotates on a stationary pin
selected:
and operates inside the rotor gear. As
Inlet conditions — To avoid suction problems, the pump should be located the two gears come out of mesh, they
as close as possible to the liquid supply create voids into which the liquid flows.
Flowrate — The flowrate requirements for the pump should be considered When the gears come back into mesh,
Differential pressure — Smaller pipe size and longer pipe runs reduce volumes are reduced and liquid is forced
initial system cost, but the higher pressure differential raises energy consump- out of the discharge port. A “crescent”
tion and reduces pump lifetime is formed between the two gears that
Liquid characteristics — The properties of the fluid to be pumped — includ- functions as a seal between the suction
ing material compatibility, viscosity, sensitivity to shear stress and presence of and discharge by trapping the volume
particulates or solids — are important factors of liquid carried between the teeth of the
rotor and idler.
Internal gear pumps are effective with
PD versus centrifugal Pumps viscous liquids, but do not perform well
for liquids containing solid particles.
PD and centrifugal pumps behave differently. As a means to move liquids,
centrifugal pumps rely on kinetic energy, forcing liquid out of the pump with
External gear pumps
energy imparted to the liquid as it moves toward the outer diameter of a
External gear pumps have a similar
rotating impeller (pressure is created and flow results). PD pumps work by
pumping action to internal gear pumps in
capturing confined amounts of liquid and transferring them from the suction to
that two gears come into and out of mesh
the discharge port (flow is created and pressure results).
to produce flow. The difference is that
The following plots represent examples of the performance behavior differ-
external gear pumps have two identical
ences for centrifugal and PD pump types:
gears rotating against each other. Each
A. Flowrate versus pressure — Centrifugal pumps exhibit variable flow gear is supported by a shaft with bear-
depending on pressure, whereas the flow in PD pumps is largely indepen- ings on both sides of each gear.
dent of pressure External gear pumps work well in high-
pressure applications, such as hydraulics,
B. Efficiency versus viscosity — For centrifugal pumps, efficiency but are not effective in applications
decreases at greater viscosities. Positive displacement pumps are actually requiring critical suction conditions.
more efficient at higher viscosities
C. Flowrate versus viscosity — Centrifugal pumps lose flow as viscosity Lobe pumps
increases, while the flow of a PD pump can actually increase at higher Lobe pumps resemble external gear
viscosities pumps in operation, except that the
pumping elements do not make contact.
D. Efficiency versus pressure — Changes in pressure have minimal effect
Lobe contact is prevented by external
on PD pumps, but have a dramatic effect on centrifugal pumps.
timing gears.
Lobe pumps perform well with liquids
A. Performance B. Viscosity
250 100 that contain solid materials, but do not
perform well with low-viscosity liquids.
200 80
Efficiency, %

Positive
Head feet

Positive
Vane Pumps Rotor
150 60 Sliding vane pumps have a rotor with
100 40 radial slots, and it is positioned off-center
Centrifugal in a housing bore. Vanes that fit closely
Centrifugal into rotor slots slide in and out as the ro-
50 20
tor turns. Pumping action is caused by the
0 0 expanding and contracting volumes con-
0 50 100 150 0 250 500 750 1,000 tained by the rotor, vanes and housing.
Capacity, gal/min Viscosity, cSt Vane pumps are effective for low-
viscosity liquids, and when dry-priming is
required. They are not ideal for abrasive
C. Flowrate D. Head liquids. Vane Push rod
110 80
Positive
100 Positive
Efficiency, %

70 References
Flowrate, %

90
1. Petersen, J. and Jacoby R., Selecting a Positive Displacement Pump, Chem.
80 Eng., August 2007, pp. 42–46.
60
70 Centrifugal 2. Viking Pump Inc., When to use a Positive Displacement Pump, The Pump
60 Centrifugal 50 School Website, Viking Pump Inc., www.pumpschool.com, 2007.
50 3. Soares, C., “Process Engineering Equipment Handbook,” McGraw Hill,
40 40 New York, 2002.
0 100 200 300 400 500 55 80 105 4. “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook,” 8th ed. McGraw Hill, New
Viscosity, cSt Feet of head York, 2008.
 Measurement guide
for replacement
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins seals

M
echanical seals play a pivotal role in the chemical Radial space available Shaft Tap depth
process industries (CPI). As the sealing interface around shaft center line or stud
Bolt/stud to top of length
between rotating process equipment and the Bearing bearing
circle
materials contained inside, these devices prevent diameter Sleeve length
product leakage and fugitive emissions, while per- from mounting
mitting process machines, pumps and compressors surface
to operate at ever-increasing pressures, vacuums,
temperatures and speeds. Even the most basic Shaft/sleeve dia.
Recess
mechanical seal is a complex assembly. diameter Shaft length Vessel
Correct measurement of the machinery for (if any) from mounting I.D.
replacement seals can be an underappreciated Bearing surface
aspect of maintenance planning. shelf
to shaft Distance to Recess
The following steps outline basic procedures and Bolt/stud bearing from
Bearing center depth
considerations involved in measuring machinery for pattern height line
mounting surface (if any)
replacement seals.

Measuring For shaft seal replacement

Step 1. Shaft diameter MBC MBC
Measure the shaft diameter (ø) where the replacement seal will
be installed. It’s important to actually take a measurement of
the shaft and sleeve, rather than relying on dimensions from the
machinery’s blueprints.
Z
The shaft diameter can vary slightly at different points along
its length, so take the measurement where the seal will be
Z
positioned. This may mean removing the existing seal, or at least
sliding it out of the way.
The shaft may be worn or fretted, so obtain an average
measurement of the shaft. This can be accomplished by taking X
X
several measurements with a micrometer or caliper, then averag- MBC = X / cos 30 deg
MBC = X
ing them. An alternate way to get an average measurement of Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z ) Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z )
the shaft is to use a diameter-reading tape measure. These are
precision tapes with a vernier scale, which allows you to mea-
MBC
sure shaft diameters to within 0.001 in. MBC
After taking the most precise measurement possible of the Z3 Z2
shaft and the sleeve, if any, it may be useful to take a photo-
graph of the shaft if it is fretted or worn. Your seal supplier can
be a resource for more information. Y X

Step 2. Radial clearance Z

Using a rule or tape measure, measure the radial clearance around Z4 Z1
the shaft and identify the nearest radial obstruction. If more than
one obstruction exists, measure and mark all on a sketch.
X
Step 3. Axial clearance
MBC = √X 2 + Y 2 MBC = 2(X)
Measure the axial clearance to the first obstruction. This is usu- Verify MBC: if Z 1 = Z 2 = Z 3 = Z 4 Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z )
ally the distance from the seal mounting point to the bearing or then MBC = Ø + 2(Z)
drive assembly. There may, however, be other closer obstruc-
tions, such as shaft couplings. A sketch can be helpful in com- MBC
municating your needs.
Step 5. Mounting surface
Step 4. Seal mounting Check the surface on which the seal
Determine how the existing seal is mounted. For example, are will be mounted. Is it flat or perpendic-
X
there bolts or studs fastening it in place? If so, how many are ular to the shaft? Use a straightedge
there, what size are they, and how are they distributed around and a machinist’s square to verify this
the diameter of the shaft? information, which will be important
Start by measuring the distance between the centers of each when mounting a new seal. Z
pair of adjacent bolts (X). Take this measurement for every pair Note that some equipment has a
of bolts — bolt spacings may not be equal around the circle. machined recess around the shaft
See the accompanying illustrations for how to convert com- cutout, where a boss on the seal is ⎛ ⎛
MBC = 2(X ) ⎜ sin 67.5 deg ⎜
mon bolt patterns to a mounting bolt circle (MBC). You can intended to fit for centering purposes. ⎝ sin 45 deg ⎝
check your work by measuring from the shaft outer diameter to If there is such a recess, measure Verify MBC = Ø + 2(Z )
each bolt center. Twice this distance, plus the shaft diameter, both the diameter and the depth.
should also equal the MBC dimension. Careful attention is
important here because the shaft may not be centered exactly Acknowledgements
within the bolt circle.
If studs are used for fastening, determine their lengths. Measure Material for this month’s Facts at Your Fingertips was provided by Woodex Bear-
lengths and provide details of thread length, as well as whether or ing Co. (Georgetown, Maine; www.mecoseal.com) general manager Starkey
not the studs are welded onto or threaded into the machine. Steuernagle, and seal designer Matt King.

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
P
eristaltic pumps work by compress-
ing a tube against a circular pump
housing with rollers on a rotating
arm. The fluid that is ahead of the roller
gets pushed forward, while new fluid is
drawn into the tube by the vacuum gener-
ated as the tube returns to its relaxed
state. Peristaltic pumps are a type of
positive displacement pump that can be
used in industrial chemical dosing ap-
plications and others, including medical
applications. The tubing used to convey
the material into and out of the pump
mechanism is a critical aspect of pump
performance. The following are consid-
erations for selecting tubing materials for
use with a peristaltic pump.
Advantages and disadvantages
As dosing pumps, peristaltic-based sys-
tems have a number of advantages, along
with some limitations (Table). Reducing the
risk of contamination by pump compo-
nents is a distinct advantage of peristaltic
pumps, but the flow is non-uniform, which
can present problems in certain applica-
tions requiring continuous flow.
Tubing materials
Peristaltic pump tubing is a key compo-
nent, and needs to be selected thought-
fully. Major considerations for tubing
are chemical compatibility, elastomeric
performance and tube life.
Tubing for peristaltic pumps needs to
be constructed of an elastomeric material
in order to maintain the circular cross-
sectional shape, even after millions of
squeeze-cycles inside the pump. Because
of this requirement, many non-elastomeric
polymer materials that are effective
at resisting chemical attack must be
eliminated from consideration in these
applications. Materials such as PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene), polyolefins,
PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride) and so on
should not be considered as material for
pump tubing unless they are used as a
lining of another tubing material.
Popular elastomers for pump tubing
are silicone, PVC (polyvinyl chloride),
EPDM (ethylene propylene diene
monomer)+polypropylene (as in Santo-
prene), polyurethane and Neoprene. Of
these materials, the EPDM+polypropylene
(“-prenes”) have the best fatigue resis-
tance and a wide range of chemical
compatibility. Silicone is popular with
water-based fluids, such as in the biop-
harma industry, but have limited range of
chemical compatibility in other industries.
To help select tubing materials, many
tubing suppliers provide chemical com-
patibility charts, but it is important for
engineers to use a chart designed specifi-
Advantages and disadvantages of peristaltic pumps
Advantages
• Dosing accuracy is high, and is
not affected by line pressure and
fluid viscosity
• Maintenance can be minimal
due to the absence of valves,
seals, pipework, strainers and
so on
• Contamination is virtually elimi-
nated because the only part of
the pump in contact with the
fluid being pumped is the interior
of the tube
• Handling slurries, highly viscous,
shear-sensitive and aggressive
fluids is possible
• Pump design prevents backflow
and syphoning without valves
cally for pump tubing rather than for gen-
eral use. Tubing that gets an acceptable
rating for general contact with a given
chemical might not withstand exposure to
the same chemical when subjected to the
physical stresses of peristaltic pumping.
When using compatibility charts, end-
users should check the compatibility of
each component of the solution, rather
than just the main ingredient. Even trace
levels of some acids or solvents can be
enough to destroy pumps with exposure
over longer periods of time.
Chemical resistance decreases as
temperature increases. Chemicals that
have no effect on the tubing material at
room temperature could attack the tubing
at elevated temperatures.
Immersion test
If information on chemical compatibility
cannot be found, or if a plant’s operating
conditions are significantly different from
those used to determine the chemical-re-
sistance ratings, an immersion test can be
performed. In an immersion test, a small
length of tubing is weighed accurately,
and its diameter and length measured.
The tubing is then immersed in a closed
vessel containing the chemical in question
for 48 h. The test piece is then rinsed,
dried, weighed and measured again,
and changes are recorded. The tubing
should also be examined for signs of
softening or embrittlement, which would
indicate chemical attack on the tubing.
Tube squeezing
The amount of squeeze applied to the tub-
ing affects pumping performance and the
tube life — more squeezing decreases the
tubing life dramatically, while less squeez-
ing decreases the pumping efficiency,
especially in high-pressure pumping.
Tubing for
Peristaltic Dosing
Pumps
Disadvantages
• F lexible tubing tends to de-
grade with time and requires
periodic replacement
• T he flow is pulsed, particularly
at low rotational speeds, so
peristaltic pumps are less
suitable where a smooth, con-
sistent flow is required
• N
 ot as effective for con-
tinuous process duties, as op-
posed to intermittent duties,
because hose and coolant
replacements are needed
• L argest sizes are limited to
10–15 gal/min
Thicker-walled tubes generate greater
suction when they return to their original
shape after being squeezed, so they are
generally better for pumping more viscous
fluids. For longer tube life, larger-bore tubes
at lower pumping speeds should be used.
Pressure capabilities
Peristaltic pump applications are typically
limited by the pressure capabilities of the
tubing. Typical pump tubing materials
have working pressure ratings from 10
to 40 psi, with softer materials such as
silicone at the low end and firmer materi-
als at the higher end. Recent material
advances are expanding the pressure
ranges for peristaltic pump applications.
Pressure sources in a fluid-handling
system can vary. Backpressure can be
generated by the fluid passing through a
filter or by the fluid pushing through the
flowmeters or the valves. Backpressure
can also come from the fluid pumping
into a pressurized reaction vessel.
Peristaltic pumps deliver fixed amounts
of fluid with each pass of a roller over
the tube, so the size of the tube has a
direct effect on the amount of fluid deliv-
ered. Variations in tubing dimensions can
mean compromised consistency and re-
peatability, so a tighter tubing-dimension
tolerance is better.
References
1. Hall, J. Process Pump Control. Chem. Eng.,
November 2010, p. 30–33.
2. Ebelhack, A. Peristaltic Pumps: Matching the
Tubing to the Fluid. Cole-Parmer Technical Re-
source Library, article 576. September 2009.
Accessed from www.coleparmer.com, March
2012.
3. Cole-Parmer Metering Pump Selection Guide.
Cole-Parmer Technical Resource Library, article
681. April 2008. Accessed from www.colepar-
mer.com, March 2012.

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
R
eciprocating pumps are often used in
the chemical process industries (CPI)
because of their ability to generate high
pressures at low velocities. A subcategory of
positive-displacement pumps, reciprocating
pumps act through the recipricating motion
of a piston, plunger or diaphragm. Such
pumps work by way of a connecting-rod-
and-crank mechanism with a piston.
By nature, reciprocating pumps generate
pulsing flow, which, when plotted as a func-
tion of time, or of crank angle, produces a
curve that resembles a sine wave to a first
approximation. For example, manufacturers
of pulsation dampeners and surge suppres-
sors often use sinusoidal curves for piston
pumps and compressors in their product
literature and sizing formulas. However, a
closer examination of the flow profile for
a piston-and-crank pump or compressor
reveals the curve to be a significantly dis-
torted sine wave because of the interaction
between the crank and the connecting rod.
Calculating flowrate
In graphical form, the crank and crankshaft
of a reciprocating pump can be visual-
ized by placing the crankshaft center at
the 90-deg mark of a 180-deg x-axis, and
placing the crank bearing at the origin (see
figure). A connecting rod links the crank to
the piston.
Determining the position of the piston at
any crank angle can be accomplished by
measuring on a piston pump, compressor,
or piston engine, or it can be calculated
using trigonometric relationships.
The degree to which the actual flow pro-
file curve deviates from the sinusoidal curve
is determined by the ratio of the connecting
rod length to the crankshaft length. Smaller
values of the ratio translate into greater
levels of distortion. As the connecting rod
becomes very long, the flow profile would
approach the sine curve.
To calculate the flowrate at a given crank
angle, use the following procedure and
definitions:
Crank length = OC
Piston rod length = CP
For any angle a, Line AC = OC sin (a)
Line SA = OC – OC cos (a)
Line AP = (CP2 – AC2)0.5
Line SP = AP + SA
1. Calculate the piston position for two
crank angles, perhaps 2 deg apart.
2. The difference in piston positions equals
piston displacement over the time interval
between the two crank angles. The value
is an average over the span of the two
readings, not an instantaneous read-
ing. As the step size approaches zero,
displacement nears the true velocity.
3. This value can be converted into flow-
rates (gal/min or other units) if the piston
diameter and speed (revolutions per
minute, rpm) are known.
Crank
C
0 deg
S 180 deg
A
O
0.7000
Piston velocity, in./deg X 10
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
0.00
Observations of the plot
In an illustrative example, plots of piston
velocity versus crank angle are shown (see
graph). The ratios of the connecting rod
length to crank shaft length are 1.05 to
1 (blue line), 2 to 1 (red line) and 5 to 1
(green line). The following observations
can be made:
1. At the beginning of the discharge stroke,
flowrate approaches zero asympotically,
rather than as a sinusoidal curve
2. Peak flowrates do not occur at the
90-deg point, but rather at 95–120 deg,
depending on the ratio of rod length to
crank length
3. Peak flowrates are higher than would be
predicted with a pure sine curve
4. From 180 to 360 deg (the suction por-
tion of the pump cycle), the curve mirrors
the 0-to-180-deg portion
5. Flowrates during the suction portion
of the curve are also higher and occur
earlier than the 270-deg point
Effects of distorted sine curve
Within the areas of fluid flow and mechani-
cal pump design, there are a number of
aspects that are affected by the deviation
of flow profile from a perfect sine curve for
pumps and compressors. The effects include
the following:
• Check valves and passages will have
higher-than-predicted peak flowrates
Flow Profile for
Reciprocating
Pumps
90 deg
Connecting rod
P Piston Cylinder
a
Piston velocity versus crank angle
Crank length = 2
Connecting
rod length =
2.05 (blue line)
4 (red line)
10 (green line)
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00 160.00 180.00 200.00
Crank angle (rotation), deg
and pressure drop will be higher, by the
square of flowrate
• The higher flowrates and pressure drops
will affect net positive suction head
(NPSH) and possibly induce vaporization
• Maximum crank revolutions per minute will
be lower than what would be allowed by
the pure (non-distorted) sinusoidal curve
• Loads experienced by bearings will
increase somewhat, especially in high-
speed compressors
• Stress analysis of the connecting rods will
be affected
• Surge dampeners must handle the sharper
peak of a bell curve, rather than a
smoother sine curve
• Multi-piston pumps and compressors
would have less “smoothing” effect than
would be predicted because the bell-
shaped curve has a sharper peak
References
1. McGuire, J.T., “Pumps for Chemical Process-
ing,” Marcel Dekkar, New York, 1990.
2. Henshaw, T.E., “Reciprocating Pumps,” Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1987.
3. Krugler, A., Piston Pumps and Compressors:
Exploring the Flow Profile, Self-published,
2010.
Note. Material for this edition of “Facts at Your
Fingertips” was contributed by Arthur Krugler,
P.E., Krugler Engineering Group Inc., Whittier,
Calif. (www.kruglerengineeringgroup.com).

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
C
ost estimation is a critical dimension
of project planning in asset-heavy in-
dustries such as the chemical process
industries (CPI). Construction cost indices
are useful tools in cost estimation and
are used to compare plant construction
costs from one time period to another.
Understanding them can improve the
accuracy of the cost estimates, as well
as the effectiveness with which they are
applied. This column discusses the use of
cost indices and historical trends.
Indices for the CPI
Cost indices are dimensionless numbers
that compare prices of a class of goods
or services to the corresponding prices
at a base period. They are widely used
in the construction industry and can be
customized to various industry segments.
Predesign estimates are usually made
for equipment and assets that will be built
in the future, but must be assembled from
prices of the past.
The mathematical relationship between
costs and indices is the following:
(Cost at Time 1) ÷ (Cost at Time 2) =
(Index at Time 2) ÷ (Index at Time 1)
A number of cost indices are relevant to the
CPI, including the Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) and the Marshall
& Swift index (www.marshallswift.com) for
the chemical industry and the Nelson-Farrar
index (www.ogj.com), which is designed
for petroleum refineries.
CEPCI
The CEPCI is a composite index, and is
built from four sub-indices: 1) Equipment;
2) Construction Labor; 3) Buildings; and 4)
Engineering & Supervision. The Equipment
subindex is further broken down into seven
component indices, as follows:
• Heat exchangers and tanks
• Process machinery
• Pipe, valves and fittings
• Process instruments
• Pumps and compressors
• Electrical equipment
• Structural supports and miscellaneous
The component indices are compiled with
weighting factors and combined to make
up the equipment index. The three other
sub-indices are compiled independently and
also weighted and normalized.
The CEPCI includes the costs to design,
purchase and install chemical plant equip-
ment, and is weighted as follows:
• 61% equipment, machinery, and supports
• 22% construction labor
• 7% buildings
• 10% engineering and supervision
Combining the four sub-indices gives rise to
Construction-
Cost Indices
CEPCI Historical Trends
800
CE INDEX Equipment Buildings
700 Construction Engineering
labor supervision
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1/1/ 75
1/1/ 76
1/1/ 77
1/1/ 78
1/1/ 79
1/1/ 80
1/1/ 81
1/1/ 82
1/1/ 83
1/1/ 84
1/1/ 85
1/1/ 86
1/1/ 87
1/1/ 88
1/1/ 89
1/1/ 90
1/1/ 91
1/1/ 92
1/1/ 93
1/1/ 94
1/1/ 95
1/1/ 96
1/1/ 97
1/1/ 98
1/1/ 99
1/1/ 00
1/1/ 01
1/1/ 02
1/1/ 03
1/1/ 04
1/1/ 05
1/1/ 06
1/1/ 07
1/1/ 08
1/1/ 09
1/1/ 10
1/1/ 11
1/1/ 12
1/1/ 13
1/1/ 14
FIGURE 1. The CEPCI, along with the four sub-indices that contribute to it, has risen unevenly
over the past three decades
the composite CEPCI index. Annual values sector. Location factors also typically do
for the overall CEPCI and for each of the not consider cost effects that are associated
sub-indices are calculated from the arithme- with site-specific conditions, such as local
tic mean of the monthly values for that year, climate, earthquake risk and other geologi-
for each subindex. cal differences. Countries may not have the
The overall CEPCI for 1959 was assigned capability to manufacture certain special-
a value of 100 as a benchmark. Figure 1 ized equipment and need to import it, so
illustrates the historical escalation of the the degree of importing required needs to
CEPCI and its sub-components for the past be part of the calculation.
37 years. The CEPCI value, along with those When used, location factors should be
for the sub-indices, has risen unevenly, but reserved for preliminary project evaluations
steadily for the past three decades. — they are not intended to be used when
preparing appropriation-quality estimates.
Location factors Resources for more information on location
Cost indices are traditionally tied to a par- factors include AACE International and
ticular geographic region. As industries and the International Cost Engineering Council
markets globalize, the ability to translate (Sydney, Australia; www.icoste.org).
costs has become increasingly important.
The cost engineering professional organiza- References
tion AACE International (formerly Assoc. 1. Ulrich, G.D. and Vasudevan, P.T., Capital
for Advancement of Cost Engineering; Mor- Costs Quickly Calculated, Chem. Eng., April 1,
gantown, W.Va.; www.aacei.org) defines 2009, pp. 46–52.
a location factor as an estimating factor 2. Humphreys, Kenneth K., and Hamilton, Allen
used to convert the cost of an identical C. Worldwide Sources of Cost and Project In-
plant from one location to another. Location formation. Conference Proceedings, Joint Cost
Management Societies, Morgantown,
factors recognize differences in labor costs,
W. Va., 2000.
engineered equipment and material freight,
3. Vatavuk, William M., Updating the CE Plant Cost
duty, taxes, engineering, design and project Index, Chem. Eng., January 2002, pp. 62–70.
administration costs. The cost of land is not
4. Pietlock, Bernard A., Developing Foreign Loca-
included in location factors.
tion Factors, Cost Engineering 34(1), January
Accurately and effectively applying
1992, pp. 7–11.
location factors can be challenging and
5. Pietlock, Bernard A., Developing Location Fac-
doing so requires an understanding of
tors by Factoring, AACE International Recom-
how each factor was derived and exactly
mended Practice No. 28R-03, October 2006.
what it represents. In most cases, location
factors are not industry-specific, but rather Editor’s note: The editor would like to acknowledge
are designed for a broader mix of facility AACE International for allowing access to its virtual
library, and EC Harris LLP (London, U.K.; www.
types, so they may not reflect the unique echarris.com; an Arcadis company), for insight
characteristics of buildings in a particular related to this column.
 Vacuum
Pumps
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski

V
acuum is any system of reduced
pressure, relative to local
(typically atmospheric) pressure.
Achieved with a pump, vacuum
systems are commonly used to:
• Remove excess air and
its constituents
• Remove excess reactants or
unwanted byproducts
• Reduce the boiling point
• Dry solute material
• Create a pressure differential for
initiating transport of material
Liquid-ring and dry pumps offer the
most advantages for the chemical
process industries (CPI). Both of
these pump types have bearings
sealed off from the pumping cham-
ber and do not require any internal
lubrication because the rotors do
not contact the housing. Both, when
employing a coolant system, prevent
the coolant from contacting the pro-
cess fluid and causing contamina-
tion, and both use mechanical shaft
seals for containment.
liquid-ring pumps
In the cylindrical body of the pump,
a sealant fluid under centrifugal
force forms a ring against the inside
of the casing (Figure 1).
The source of that force is a
multi-bladed impeller whose shaft
is mounted so as to be eccentric to
the ring of liquid. Because of this
eccentricity, the pockets bounded
by adjacent impeller blades (also
called buckets) and the ring increase
in size on the inlet side of the pump,
and the resulting suction continually
draws gas out of the vessel being
evacuated. As the blades rotate
Figure 1. Liquid-Ring Pump
Source: Medical Gas Info
toward the discharge side of the
pump, the pockets decrease in
size, and the evacuated gas is com-
pressed, enabling its discharge.
The ring of liquid not only acts as
a seal; it also absorbs the heat of
compression, friction and condensa-
tion. Popular liquid choices include
water, ethylene glycol, mineral oil
and organic solvents.
dry pumps
Rotary-claw, rotary-lobe and
rotary-screw pumps dominate as
dry pumps in the CPI, particularly in
larger-size pump applications.
Rotary Claw. The geometric shape
of this pump allows for a greater
compression ratio to be taken
across the rotors at higher pressures
(Figure 2). Two claw rotors rotate
in opposite directions of rotation
without touching, using timing gears
to synchronize the rotation.The gas
enters through an inlet port after it
has been uncovered and fills the
Figure 2. Rotary-Claw Pump
Source: Gardner Denver
Hanover, Inc.
void space between the rotors and
pump housing. On the next rotation,
that same trapped sample of gas is
compressed and discharged as the
discharge port opens.
A minimum of three stages in
series is required to achieve pres-
sures comparable to those of an
oil-sealed mechanical pump. Some
dry designs use two technologies in
combination; for example, a rotarly
lobe as a booster for a claw pump.
Rotary Lobe. The rotary-lobe pump
(Figure 3) is typically used as a me-
chanical booster operating in series
with an oil-sealed piston or vane
pump to boost pumping capacity at
low pressures.
This pump consists of two sym-
metrical two-lobe rotors mounted on
separate shafts in parallel, which
rotate in opposite directions to each
other at high speeds.Timing gears
are used to synchronize the rotation
of the lobes to provide constant
clearance between the two.
Figure 3.
Rotary-
Lobe
Pump
Source: Kurt
J. Lesker Co.
Figure 4. Rotary-Screw Pump
Source: Kurt J. Lesker Co.
Rotary Screw. Two long helical
rotors in parallel rotate in opposite
directions without touching, syn-
chronized by helical timing gears
(Figure 4). Gas flow moves axially
along the screw without any internal
compression from suction to dis-
charge. Pockets of gas are trapped
within the convolutions of the rotors
and the casing, and transported to
the discharge. Compression occurs
at the discharge port, where the
trapped gas must be discharged
against atmospheric pressure. Each
convolution of the rotor acts similarly
to a stage in series with the one be-
hind it; at least three convoluted gas
pockets in the rotor are required to
achieve acceptable vacuum levels.
References
1. Vilbert, P., Mechanical Pumps for
Vacuum Processing, Chem. Eng.
October 2004, pp. 44–51.
2. Aliasso, J., Choose the Right
Vacuum Pump, Chem. Eng. March
1999, pp. 96–100.

Advantages Disadvantages
• 
Simpler design; employs only one rotating assembly •M  ixing of the evacuated gas with
Liquid-Ring Vacuum Pumps

• Can be fabricated from any castable metal the sealing fluid

• Minimal noise and vibration •R  isk of cavitation requires a portion
• Little increase in the temperature of the discharged gas of process load to be noncondens-
• No damage from liquid or small particulates in the process fluid able under operating conditions
• Maintenance and rebuilding are simple •H  igh power requirement to form and
• Slow rotational speed (1,800 rpm or less), maximizing operating life maintain the liquid ring, resulting in
• Can use any type of liquid for the sealant fluid in situations where min- large motors
gling with the process vapor is permissible • Achievable vacuum is limited by the
• No lubricating liquid in the vacuum chamber to be contaminated vapor pressure of sealant fluid at
• Accommodation of both condensable vapors and noncondensables, the operating temperature
while operating as both a vacuum pump and condenser •P  ower consumption
•R  ugged rotor design, constructed of sturdy cast or ductile iron without •C annot handle particulate matter,
any flimsy rotating components nor large slugs of liquid
Dry Vacuum Pumps

• Noncontact design facilitated by timing gears •M ay require a silencer

• High rotational speed reduces the ratio of gas slip to displacement, •M ay discharge gases at high
increases net pumping capacity and reduces ultimate pressure temperatures
• Multiple staging provides inlet pressures below 1-mm Hg absolute while • Most difficult to repair or rebuild
discharging to atmosphere •M ay require a gas purge for cooling,
• No contamination of evacuated gas or to protect the bearings and seals
• Due to lack of condensation, pump can be fabricated of standard, from the process gas
inexpensive cast iron •D ue to high operating temperatures,
some process gases may polymerize
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Optimizing Reciprocating
Compressors for CPI Plants
Follow this guidance to
improve the design, performance
and reliability of these widely
used machines
Amin Almasi
WorleyParsons Services Pty. Ltd.
R
eciprocating compressors —
the most commonly used type
of compressor throughout the
chemical process industries
(CPI) — are flexible and efficient,
and they can generate high head
(from several bar to several thou-
sand bar) independent of gas density.
Worldwide, the installed recipro-
cating compressor horsepower is
approximately two times that of cen-
trifugal compressors.
However, the maintenance costs as-
sociated with reciprocating compres-
sors are approximately three times
greater than those for centrifugal com-
pressors (due to valve, unloader and
packing-maintenance requirements).
This article provides practical recom-
mendations for users to consider in an
effort to improve the selection, opera-
tion and maintenance of reciprocating
compressors in CPI applications.
Compressor design
Figure 1 shows the basic design of a
reciprocating compressor. Close at-
tention to the selection of the piston
rod packing can improve performance,
because this is a common source of
reliability problems associated with
reciprocating compressors, and is a
common path for the leakage of po-
tentially hazardous process gases.
Experience shows that packing life
can be extended by as much as a fac-
Connecting rod
Crankshaft
Crosshead
Figure 1. Reciprocating compressors compress air or other
gases using a piston that is driven by a crankshaft. Shown here
are the main parts of a reciprocating compressor
tor of three by adding the proper coat-
ing (tungsten carbide is a widely used
coating material for piston rods).
Interstage cooling is required when
the machine or gas being compressed
has a temperature limit. In this case,
as the gas cools, any liquid that may
form is separated in interstage fa-
cilities and then the gas is returned
to next compressor stage for further
compression. Each compressor stage
may consist one or more cylinders.
Vendors usually offer a range of in-
terstage pressures. The ability to opti-
mize interstage pressures can help to
minimize the total cost of ownership
for the compressor and interstage fa-
cilities. This optimization can be done
by evaluating the initial cost and
operating costs of compressors and
interstage facilities for various inter-
stage pressures.
During operation, interstage pres-
sures will increase during part-load
operation (that is, operation at lower
flow that results when an unloader
device is used; this is discussed below)
combined with variation in pressure
at the suction inlet.
In a typical reciprocating-compres-
sor design, the first stage may contain
one or more cylinders and a clearance
pocket. An additional bottle may be
added to the cylinder with an actu-
ated on/off valve. To avoid unwanted
interstage pressure increases, users
Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2010
Piston rod Piston
Distance Piston rod Cylinder
packing
piece
may consider installing additional
clearance pocket(s) on the first-stage
cylinder(s) and using part-load opera-
tion via the compressor control logic.
By selecting the right interstage de-
sign pressure, users can ensure proper
operation in the face of part-load op-
eration and variation in suction pres-
sure. In general, the interstage de-
sign pressures should be around 15%
higher than the interstage basic de-
sign values for applications that are
working with common part-load steps
(such as 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%
capacity) and are expected to experi-
ence a variation in suction pressure of
around +/- 7% during operation.
In some applications, reciprocating
compressors must be designed to op-
erate reliably in the face of consider-
able suction pressure variations while
still providing full design flow at the
desired discharge pressure. These
operating requirements will have a
direct impact on compressor sizing,
especially the frame rating and motor
power required for the unit.
Figure 2 shows load curves for the
connecting rod of a reciprocating com-
pressor in petroleum refining service.
Variation in suction pressure (in this
case, a roughly 7% reduction in suc-
tion pressure) results in a higher load
on the rod. As a general rule, the com-
pressor should be designed so that
the maximum-anticipated rod load
39
 Engineering Practice
does not exceed 80% of the allowable
rod load.
As shown on the y-axis in Figure 2,
the rod load shall change sign from
negative to positive and then nega-
tive again during one revolution of
the crankshaft in order to provide
proper lubrication for the mechanism
(especially for the cross-head pin). The
duration of rod sign reversal (the pe-
riod during which load has the oppo-
site sign) should not be less than 15
degrees of crank angle. The rod-load
reversal peak (maximum amount of
load in the reversed direction) should
not be less than 3% of the actual com-
bined load in the opposite direction.
These minimum requirements should
be satisfied under all possible operat-
ing conditions (especially in the face of
suction-pressure variation and part-
load operation, such as when an un-
loader device is used to decrease flow
through the compressor).
In many cases, higher values of
rod-reversal duration and peak are
considered during compressor design
to increase reliability. In Figure 2,
minimum load-reversal duration cor-
responds to 50% capacity, and the re-
versal duration is more than 70 deg.
In general, the optimum speed for
the reliable operation of reciprocat-
ing compressors is around 350 rpm.
For compressors operating below 400
kW, speed on the order of 450 rpm is
suitable. However, for those operating
below 100 kW, higher speeds (even as
high as 700 rpm) are acceptable.
Lubricated cylinders and packing
may be preferred to extend service
life. However, non-lubricated cylin-
der compressors should be used when
the possibility of oil contamination
cannot be tolerated in downstream
operations (for instance, when trace
amounts of lubricating oils could
cause catalyst problems in down-
stream reactors).
For the optimum operation of re-
ciprocating compressors, sufficient in-
ertia — provided by a properly sized
flywheel — is mandatory to regulate
the variable reciprocating torque.
Figure 3 shows brake torque versus
crank angle for one revolution of the
crankshaft for a reciprocating com-
pressor used in a petroleum refinery
setting. The red and blue curves rep-
40 Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2010
0.8
Calculated rod load, kN / allowable rod load, kN
100% Capacity
0.6
75% Capacity
50% Capacity
0.4
93% Suction pressure
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
One rotation of the crankshaft angle, deg.
FIGURE 2. These rod-load curves are for a reciprocating compressor in refinery
service. This figure shows variation in the ratio of rod load to allowable rod load in
one revolution of the compressor crankshaft (from 0 to 360 deg.). Individual curves
show the rod load for various operating conditions, including 50%, 75% and 100%
compressor capacity, as well as full flow with 7% suction reduction (that is, operation
at 93% of rated suction pressure)
resent compressor torque for normal nance events. For large compressors
full-load capacity and half-load (50%) (that is, those that operate at rela-
capacity, respectively. tively low speeds with high pressure
A step-less capacity-control system ratios), relatively large-bore ring-
uses a hydraulically actuated, finger- type valves (above 100 mm, or 4 in.)
type unloader. This device unloads the combined with plug-type unloaders
suction valve for only a portion of com- should be considered first, to avoid re-
pression cycle to achieve the desired liability issues associated with finger-
adjusted capacity. type unloaders. Since ring-type valves
A finger-type unloader has finger- and plug unloaders are not available
shaped parts that act on the cylinder for smaller-sized compressors (those
valve elements and keep them open that operate at relatively higher
for a defined duration during the com- speeds), such units typically use plate-
pression cycle. Users should note that type valves.
these finger-type unloaders have the During operation, the rotating parts
potential to damage the valve-sealing of the compressor, power transmis-
elements and thus may have greater sion and driver will act like springs
maintenance requirements. connected in series. This torsional dy-
A step-less capacity control system namic system may create resonance
is recommended for larger machines (where one natural frequency of sys-
(units rated above 2 MW, when large tem coincides with one of excitation
operation variation is expected). In torque). In reciprocating compressor
these cases, step-less capacity control trains, there is always a risk of tor-
(working in the range of 20–100% ca- sional resonance and torsional fatigue
pacity) is extensively used due to pro- failure (that is, damage to component
cess requirements. resulting from excessive cyclic loads).
In general, valves and unloaders are Couplings that connect the driver
responsible for nearly half (roughly to the compressor can be modified to
45%) of unscheduled reciprocating- tune the system to avoid torsional res-
compressor shutdowns, so valve and onance. Several coupling options are
unloader selection can have a strong available as follows:
impact on reliability. And many con- 1.  Direct, forged-flange rigid connec-
sider the automatic cylinder valves tion (no coupling) between driver
to be the most critical components of and compressor
such machines, as they are respon- 2.  High-torsional-stiffness coupling is
sible for many unscheduled mainte- allowed by torsional analysis. Since
 coupling options are limited, it may
not be possible to find an acceptable
coupling with the required torsional
characteristics and service factor,
especially for large compressors
(above 3 MW)
3.  Flexible coupling (which provides
more elasticity and damping, but
may require greater maintenance
since elastic elements in such a cou-
pling may need frequent replace-
ment)
The most common reasons for prob-
lems caused by torsional vibration
are lack of comprehensive torsional-
vibration analysis, improper applica-
tion and maintenance of couplings
(especially flexible ones) and lack of
appropriate monitoring. As a general
rule-of-thumb, the shaft diameter of
the electric motor should be equal
to or greater than the reciprocating
crankshaft diameter (because the
crankcase is generally forged from a
stronger steel grade compared to the
motor rotor).
Condition monitoring
Condition monitoring, when done
properly, can pay for itself by helping
operators identify potential systems
malfunctions at an early stage. A rig-
orous program should include moni-
toring of these important conditions:
Vibration (including continuous
vibration monitoring of the com-
pressor and motor casing, provid-
ing both alarm and shutdown ca-
pabilities):
• In general, velocity transducers
are preferred over accelerometers
(because interested frequencies for
monitoring better match with ve-
locity-measurement sensors). The
optimum configuration for using a
velocity transducer is to install one
on each end of the crankcase, about
halfway up from the base plate in
line with a main bearing, both for
compressor and motor
• Crosshead accelerometer (alarm)
Temperature:
• High gas-discharge temperature for
each cylinder (with both alarm and
shutdown capabilities)
• Pressure packing piston-rod tem-
perature (alarm)
• High crosshead pin temperature
(alarm), only for relatively large
compressors (around or above 3
MW)
• High compressor main, and motor
bearing, temperatures (alarm)
• Valve temperature (monitoring)
• Oil temperature, out of compressor
frame (alarm)
• High jacket-water temperature of
each cylinder (alarm)
In addition, proximity probes, typically
located under the piston rods, provide
alarm capabilities but are not used for
shutdown. These are used to measure
the rod position and determine wear
or malfunctions. Such probes can
quickly identify problems such as pis-
ton or rider band malfunctions, cracks
in the piston rod attachment, a broken
crosshead shoe or even a liquid carry-
over to a cylinder.
Improving maintenance
To support regular maintenance, the
installation of any reciprocating com-
pressor must ensure proper access to
the entire compressor system, espe-
cially the non-drive end. In particu-
lar, adequate space and work areas
must be provided to enable the com-
plete withdrawal of the piston, re-
moval of the cooler bundles or piping
spool and laydown area (to carry out
maintenance, dismantling of parts
and repairs).
Similarly, three crane capacities
must be properly identified: The total
capacity of the overhead crane (to lift
components for routine maintenance),
the maximum maintenance weight (to
ensure that the heaviest parts, usu-
ally the motor, can be lifted during
overhauls), and the maximum instal-
lation weight (maximum skid weight,
usually the compressor skid).
For a typical 7-MW API 618 com-
pressor train for petroleum-refinery
service, these crane capacities would
be roughly 11 tons, 55 tons and 100
tons, respectively, and the required
crane height would be roughly 12 m
(around 40 ft)
Any time a given compressor must
be stopped for an extended time, it
should be turned a quarter-turn every
week, using a barring device (this is a
device that slowly turns the compres-
sor to avoid locking and other prob-
lems that often arise during long stop-
pages of reciprocating compressors). A
Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2010
manual barring device can be used for
relatively small compressors. A pneu-
matic barring device must be used for
compressors rated above 750 kW (pro-
vided there is no area classification or
power-availability problem).
For larger compressors (2 MW or
larger), these special tools are often
needed to carry out routine mainte-
nance on reciprocating compressors.
These tools cannot be easily pur-
chased; they must be specially de-
signed and fabricated based on the
actual machine:
• Bearing extractor
• Piston extractor
• Valve extractor
• Piston fit-up tool
• Hydraulic tightening system
• Crosshead assembling tool
• Special lifting tools
• Partition plate-assembling tools
• Mandrels for wear bands
During maintenance of compressor
mechanical components, the following
criteria are important:
• Cylinder clearance for the outboard
end should be around 4–6 mm
(0.2–0.3 in.), and for the inboard
end, clearance should be around 2–4
mm (0.1–0.2 in.)
• The allowable temperature of the
machine bearings, piston rod, con-
necting rod bearing and crosshead
should be maintained around 85ºC,
and for the crosshead pin, it should
be maintained around 90ºC
• The vibration level of the crank-
case should not exceed 100 microns,
and the expected vibration level of
the cylinders should be around 150
microns (these vibration recommen-
dations are peak-to-peak vibration
readings for an installed, trouble-
free, middle-range machine around
1 MW)
• Bearings, piston rings and piston
shoes should also be inspected regu-
larly.
Auxiliaries and accessories
For auxiliaries and accessories, the
optimum configuration is to install a
local panel near the compressor skid
(around 250 mm, or one foot away
from the compressor skid), and on a
standalone skid to minimize the po-
tential for vibration damage.
The oil system should include two
41
 Engineering Practice
oil pumps, both sized for a capacity
that is 20% greater than the maximum
oil flow required for the compressor.
At a minimum, two pumps should be
used. Either a run-down tank (this is
a stainless-steel tank that allows the
supply oil to safely coast down the
machine in the event that both pumps
have failed), or a crank-shaft-driven
main oil pump is required. Dual (two)
removable bundle shell-and-tube oil
coolers (TEMA C), double oil filters
with a removable element and stain-
less-steel piping are also necessary.
Liquids should not be allowed to ac-
cumulate inside the compressor cyl-
inder. For any application, a suction
drum (sized appropriately with regard
to application-specific retention time,
flow velocity, and, if required, a mist-
collection system to capture contami-
nants) with a drain provision should
be provided. It may be part of pulsa-
tion control. To control pulsation, a
vertical vessel is sometimes used as
both suction drum and suction pulsa-
tion vessel, but this not recommended
since vertical pulsation vessels cause
relatively long piping to the compres-
sor, which may lead to dynamic prob-
lems. Similarly, these are sometimes
conflicting requirements for pulsation
damping and suction separation, so
this combined approach is not pre-
ferred. It may be used only for small
compressors, let’s assume below 250
kW, with relatively light gases, such
as those lighter than nitrogen.
Cooling-water systems are gener-
ally used as a heat sink for recipro-
cating compressors, to avoid hot spots
and improve machine stability and
reliability. To design a cooling sys-
tem, first, the generated heat should
be calculated. Then, the anticipated
temperature rise should be identified.
The cooling-water inlet temperature
should be selected between 6°C and
16ºC above the inlet gas temperature.
When selecting the pump to deliver
cooling water to the compressor cylin-
der and packings, consider this:
• With regard to the slope of the op-
erating curve (discussed in greater
detail below), the selected oper-
ating point should not be in the
flat or near-flat part of curve;
rather, enough slope is needed for
proper operation
42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2010
1.5
Ratio of compressor torque, kNm /
electric motor torque, kNm
1
0.5
0
0 50
One rotation of the crankshaft angle, degrees
FIGURE 3. This plot of reciprocating compressor torque versus crank angle shows
the variation in compressor torque represented by the ratio of compressor torque/
motor torque, in one revolution of compressor crankshaft (0 to 360 deg.). The
curves show compressor torque in two operation conditions — 50% capacity and
100% (full) capacity
• There should be a continuous rise
from a selected operating point to
shut off
• There should be proper shut-off
pressure compared to a selected op-
erating point (preferably 10% but a
minimum of 6%)
Note: usually a larger size pump
shall be selected to meet these recom-
mendations.
Any reciprocating compressor sys-
tem should be designed with a margin
of excess flow capacity for the cooling
system, to enable it to respond to situ-
ations that deviate from normal oper-
ation, where the need may arise later
for additional cooling flow to remove
excess generated heat (for example,
unloaded operation when the com-
pressor is idle, overload conditions, or
future expansion, if applicable). The
recommended cooling pump capac-
ity margin is 10–25% (that is, pump
rated capacity is 10–25% more than
required normal flow).
Users should consider suitably sized
pulsation vessels and correct any po-
tential pulsation resonance in piping
rather than using damping devices,
such as orifices, choke tube and so on
to dampen pulsation. Acoustic reviews
should be performed during compres-
sor system design to guarantee all an-
ticipated combinations of pressures,
speeds and load steps (including the
use of flow-reduction steps that rely
on unloaders, which can vary the com-
pressor flow).
Pulsation limits are recommended
Full capacity
50% Capacity
100 150 200 250 300 350
around 85–95% of API 618 (Approach
3) limits to provide some margin
(5–15% of API 618 limit values) to
mitigate risk during construction and
installation periods, and to cope with
unanticipated deviations and prob-
lems. Similarly, pulsation vessels are
generally fabricated before finaliza-
tion of the piping-design-and-pulsa-
tion study, and enough margin should
be provided to meet potential risks.
For nearly all applications, horizon-
tal suction and horizontal discharge
vessels are preferred. Long distances
between vertical pulsation vessels and
compressors increase the likelihood of
pulsation problems.
Improving performance
The maximum predicted discharge
temperature for any API 618 recip-
rocating compressor for CPI applica-
tions must not exceed 150ºC, and must
not exceed 135ºC for hydrogen-rich
service. In general, gas discharge tem-
peratures below 118ºC tend to lead to
longer life for the wearing parts.
When it comes to optimum pressure-
drop values for pulsation dampeners
and suppression devices, the pres-
sure drop maximum is 1% of absolute
pressure. For the intercooler, pressure
drop around 0.70 bar or 2% of absolute
pressure is recommended.
Readers should note that the use
of orifice plates to dampen pulsation,
especially on high-speed, single-act
compressors (that is, those that com-
press gas on only one head of cylin-
der), can contribute to significant
pressure drops.
To gain a better understanding of
reciprocating compressor performance
and track ongoing operation, the fol-
lowing performance curves should
be developed:
• Suction pressure versus load
• Suction pressure versus flow
• Discharge pressure versus load
• Discharge pressure versus flow
• Suction pressure versus discharge
pressure, per load step (that is, for
each flow-reduction step using un-
loaders, typically 50%, 75%, 100%
flow; 25% is rarely used because of
the potential for reliability and load-
reversal issues)
Such flow curves typically plot the
minimum achievable flowrate to the
maximum achievable flowrate in spec-
ified increment steps (for instance, in
10% steps). (Flow-versus-discharge-
pressure plots of specific suction pres-
sures may be an acceptable alterna-
tive when suction-pressure variations
are limited). A review of the steepness
of the proposed load curves can help
the engineer to quickly identify which
load curves (and where) are too steep.
In these situations, small changes in
pressure can have significant changes
in load and flow. In general, compres-
sors with steep load curves are hard to
automate and tune. Thus, steep load
curves usually indicate improper siz-
ing of cylinders.
Optimum conditions
When scoping a reciprocating com-
pressor system, it is absolutely nec-
essary to have a minimum of two
technically accepted proposals from
qualified vendors. Small and medium
compressors should be delivered fully
fabricated as one skid-mounted pack-
age. Larger compressors are typically
delivered as a prefabricated system
(including the crankcase, distance
pieces, and so on) with dismantled cyl-
inders. Assembled cylinders are typi-
cally delivered to the site separately
and installed later. It is common for
the vendor to provide site-supervision
work for cylinder installation at a ne-
gotiated lump-sum price. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Amin Almasi is lead rotat-
ing equipment engineer for
WorleyParsons Services Pty
Ltd (60 Albert St.; Brisbane
QLD 4000 Australia; Phone:
+61 (0)7 3319 3902; Email:
amin.almasi@worleyparsons.
com). He holds a chartered
engineer certificate from IM-
echE (CEng MIMechE) and a
chartered professional engi-
neers license from Engineers
Australia (MIEAust CPEng—Mechanical). He
also holds M.Sc. and B.Sc. degrees in mechani-
cal engineering. Almasi specializes in rotating
machines including reciprocating, centrifugal
and screw compressors, gas and steam turbines,
process pumps, condition monitoring and reli-
ability. He is an active member of IMechE, En-
gineers Australia, SPE, IEEE, ASME, CMVI,
the Vibration Institute, SMRP and IDGTE, and
has authored several papers and articles dealing
with rotating machines, condition monitoring,
offshore operations and reliability.

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Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2010 43

 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Gear Units
In CPI Plants
Follow this guidance to improve the selection
and operation of gear units in CPI plants
Amin Almasi
Rotating Equipment Consultant
G
ear units play a critical role
in a diverse array of chemical
process industries (CPI) fa-
cilities, to match the speed of
a selected driver with the speed of
the driven equipment. Today, they
are used extensively in pumps, tur-
bines and compressors, in material-
handling units (such as conveyers
and stackers), and in other equip-
ment, including mixers, kneaders
and extruders.
This article discusses high-power,
high-speed gear units for large
rotating machines and material-
handling systems. These gear units
can be used in the power range of
0.1–100 MW, with gear tip speeds
usually between 20–200 m/s. The
American Gear Manufacturers
Assn.’s (AGMA) “Specification for
High Speed Helical Gear Units
(6011)” covers different aspects of
high-speed gear units, such as the
gear rating, lubrication, vibration,
testing and others.
Large, high-speed gear units for
CPI applications are usually com-
prised of case-hardened, double-
helical gear-teeth in welded-steel
casings (Figure 1). The gear shafts
are supported by modern bear-
ings (typically plain bearings for
low speeds). Ideally, bearing forces
should be symmetrical with no tilt-
ing moment, to ensure minimum
axial load (the force in the direction
of the shaft).
Practical notes on gear units
As is often the case, engineers tend
to focus their attention on the driver
and the driven equipment, so the
gear unit(s) often receive virtually
no attention. However, the client,
the vendor, and the gear-unit sub-
vendor should all pay considerable
attention to the following aspects of
gear units:
• Gear-set design, such as gear
teeth details
• Gear-unit loading (loads on the
gears and shafts) and analysis
• Material selection
• Heat-treatment options
• Fabrication and assembly
• Gear-unit lubrication
• Quality and testing
• Commissioning
A proper helix angle (the angle be-
tween the axis of a helical gear and
an imaginery line tangent to the
gear tooth) — in the range of 10–30
deg — should be used for the gear
teeth. This will provide suitable
operation and will considerably re-
duce the axial forces.
Within that range, a relatively
large helix angle (in the range of,
say, 22–30 deg, compared to 10–18
deg), can result in a high contact
ratio, which could offer better per-
formance, smoother operation and
lower noise and vibration. The con-
tact ratio is the ratio of face advance
to the circular pitch. This ratio de-
fines how many teeth are in contact
at all times (on average).
Gear-unit arrangement
Several ways of integrating a gear
unit into a CPI machinery train are
discussed below:
Option 1. In this option, the driver,
the gear unit and the driven equip-
ment are all installed separately.
Due to thermal expansions or dif-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2013
David Brown
FIGURE 1. In this conventional, double-
helical gear unit (with a welded-steel
casing), double-helical gears are used to
minimize the axial load (that is, the load
in the direction of the shaft). The complex
casing was fabricated by welding
ferent mechanical loads, the shafts
could displace in the plane perpen-
dicular to the axial direction of each
shaft (known as radial shifts). If
relatively large radial shifts occur
between each equipment shaft
and the gear unit shafts, a double-
jointed coupling is needed, to allow
for some movement between shafts.
This depends on thermal expan-
sions, mechanical displacements
and other design and operation de-
cisions.
Option 2. In the second arrange-
ment, the driver is attached directly
to the gear-unit housing. In this sce-
nario, because the driver and the
gear unit both display sufficiently
low axial and radial displacements,
the coupling (or shaft extension) be-
tween the driver shaft and the gear-
unit input shaft could be omitted.
The driven equipment is mounted
separately and connected to the
gear unit with a coupling. This cou-
pling is necessary because the dif-
ferent heat-induced expansions of
the gear unit and the driven equip-
ment can cause relative shifts in
the shaft positions.
Option 3. In the third design, the
gear unit is directly connected to
the driven equipment, in anticipa-
tion that no radial or angle shifts
can occur. In this scenario, no cou-
pling joint is required between the
gear unit and the driven equip-
ment. Figure 2 shows an example of
a complex gas turbine coupled to a
gear unit (for the speed match).
Planetary gear units
The most commonly used special-
purpose gear-unit designs include
different models of double-helical
61

Engineering Practice
gear units. However, planetary gear
units can often be employed in high-
speed CPI machinery (typically in
the 0.2–30 MW range). These are
popular both for rotating machines
and material-handling units, par-
ticularly where large speed ratios
are necessary.
While double-helical gear units
are simple and popular, planetary
gear units offer smaller size and
higher efficiency compared to other
types of gear units. Because the
transmitted power is divided over
several tooth meshes, planetary
gear units are more compact and
less expensive than other options.
The smaller gear diameters in a
planetary gear unit also produce
smaller mass moments of iner-
tia, and this substantially reduces
the acceleration and deceleration
torque during acceleration and
braking. Generally, high speed ra-
tios can be achieved (even 80 or
more). The coaxial design permits
a superior arrangement for many
CPI machineries. However, due to
operational issues and reliability
risks, planetary gear units will re-
quire extra consideration.
Figure 3 shows an example of
a planetary gear unit. They can
achieve a large speed ratio (even 40
to 80) in a very compact unit.
A planetary gear unit typically
consists of three coaxially rotating
components: a sun gear, a carrier
with several planetary gears, and
a ring gear. Among the variants of
planetary gear units, the options
preferred for CPI applications are:
• The star-gear type, with speed
ratios of around 2–12
• The planetary-gear type, with
speed ratios of roughly 3–13
• The star-gear type with the dou-
ble planet, with speed ratios of
around 12–40
• The compound-epicyclic gear type,
with speed ratios of about 8–80
The star-gear type and the plane-
tary-gear type can usually offer a
similar ratio range (both can cover
a speed ratio in the range of 3–12).
The star-gear type is used when the
rotating carrier would cause unac-
ceptably high pressure on the bear-
ing journal. The compound-epicyclic
62 Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2013
Tognum
gear type offers one of the
most compact options.
An important loss in a
high-speed gear unit is
windage loss, which rep-
resents the power lost be-
cause of the compression
of the air-lubricant mix- FIGURE 2. Gas turbines typically have a defined op-
ture around teeth roots erating speed range. When used in a machinery train
during meshing and the (with a generator, compressor or pump train), a well-
aerodynamic trail of the designed gear unit is used to match the speed of the
turbine shaft to the driven equipment
teeth in the air-lubricant
mixture. With any planetary-gear planetary gears (for example, in the
type, it is necessary to take into ac- form of flex pins). These will bend
count a relatively high windage. under a load, with the result that
The best operation and perfor- the planet gears do not skew but are
mance occurs when the load is simply minimally displaced parallel
distributed as evenly as possible to the pinion or ring-gear axis. This
across the individual planet gears. solution can ensure an optimum
An uneven load balance can create load balance between the meshed
damaging effects. teeth and the even load distribution
The ability to reduce friction can, across the entire width of the tooth
theoretically, result in a better-cen- face at both full and partial load.
tered gear-tooth loading. However,
in real-life scenarios, some friction Selection criteria
(and thus some unbalances in the Key factors influencing the choice
loading) should be expected. The of gear units are load capacity, effi-
mass inertia of the gear-unit ele- ciency, and successful references (for
ments can also offer some dynamic comparable applications). In gen-
loads. It is desirable to reduce the eral, several types of gear types are
masses, but there are always practi- available for planetary gear-units,
cal limits in the mass-reduction ex- including spur gears, single-helical
ercises (some limits to achieve very gears, double-helical gears and oth-
lightweight designs) ers. If single helical gears are used,
The partial-load operations and the two opposing axial forces acting
particularly the minimum-load on the planetary gear may generate
case, can offer some challenges. The a large tilting moment (axial bear-
no-load case occurs when the gear ings could be required if the helix
unit and the associated machinery angle is not selected properly).
train are operating with no load — The double-helical gear set usu-
for example, when a pump unit oper- ally requires free axial adjustabil-
ates in the pre-commissioning stage ity to allow users to achieve an even
without actually pumping a liquid, load distribution across the two
and thus, the driven gear unit just tooth halves. However, the two gear
rotates with no load transmission. meshes can prevent the necessary
Some machinery trains should only movement (see Figure 1). In this
operate a very short time in a no- way, two side-by-side gear meshes
load condition, otherwise damage or do not allow for the tiny move-
reliability issues may arise. ments required for adjustments
Usually, most gear units have and smooth operation. In addition,
several backlash-prone joints and external axial forces may interfere
relatively large masses that are un- with the load distribution.
able to center themselves when the Spur gears (or straight-cut gears)
load changes, and this may cause a are the simplest type of gear. Their
gear unit to behave unstably. This slightly better efficiency compared
issue needs considerable attention, to the spur gearing is one advan-
especially for planetary gear units. tage for the helical gearing. For
For instance, sophisticated elastic planetary gear units, a single-heli-
mountings are usually used for the cal gearing with an optimum helix

ted power is divided over several teeth. Planetary
gear units are smaller, more compact and cheaper
than their conventional counterparts
angle is commonly used (Figure 3).
In some cases, the CPI machin-
ery shaft could be connected rigidly
(without a coupling) to the plan-
etary gear-unit shaft. In other de-
signs, the machinery bearing can be
incorporated in the planetary gear-
unit housing. As a result, the differ-
ent heat-induced expansions of the
gear unit and that of the machinery
housing would produce no radial
shift. However, this could cause an
angle error between the rotor and
ring-gear axis. This can be absorbed
by a single-jointed coupling.
Gear-unit reliability
Failures on gear units are usually
related to teeth breakage and dam-
age to the tooth flanks (these often
result from impact or fatigue frac-
tures, wear or pitting). Having suf-
ficient lubrication and maintaining
the overall surface condition (par-
ticularly the roughness) of the tooth
flanks are important. Sufficient lu-
bricant film on the gear flanks can
minimize the impact of pitting and
micro-pitting. Cracks (particularly
friction cracks) and erosions can
also cause gear-unit failures.
Fractures can occur in areas of
high stress concentrations, which
can result from abrupt changes
in the geometry, localized areas of
high strain (particularly bending
deformations) or regions experienc-
ing thermal extremes. Reliability
and performance calculations (such
as the gear-unit rating, gear tooth-
bending strength, gear surface pit-
ting, scuffing and others) should be
carefully reviewed.
The fabrication method also has
a great influence on reliability and
gear failure modes. Pinions are al-
ways made from one-piece fabrica-
tion, which is generally more reli-
able than other options.
Shrink fitting is a technique in
which an interference fit is achieved
by a relative size change after as-
sembly. This is usually achieved by
heating or cooling one component
FIGURE 3. In this planetary gear unit, the transmit-
before assembly and allowing it to
return to the ambient temperature
after assembly, employing the phe-
nomenon of thermal expansion to
make a joint.
The shrink-fit design for the gear
wheel is usually limited by the in-
fluence of centrifugal forces. For
instance, the gear-unit codes do
not accept the shrink-fit design for
pitch-line velocities of over 140 m/s.
In those cases, the one-piece version
should be applied. In this configura-
tion, the gear wheel and its shaft are
in one piece. In gear units for rating
powers of more than 20 MW, the
one-piece design usually requires
a large forging with a great weight.
Manufacturing large special-pur-
pose gear units requires access to
special forging shops for very large,
one-piece components.
The gear wheel shaft can be ei-
ther solid or hollow. Because of a
better hardenability (during manu-
facturing), the hollow-shaft design
is often preferred.
Material selection and metal-
lurgical issues are very important
for any gear unit. Case-hardening-
grade gear materials are widely
used. Case hardening (or surface
hardening) is the process of hard-
ening the surface of the gear while
allowing the metal beneath the sur-
face to remain soft, thereby forming
a thin layer of harder metal (the
case) at the surface.
Two important subjects for gear
units deserve special attention for
optimal performance and reliability:
1. Tooth adjustments and correc-
tions. The prediction of mechanical
and thermal deformations and ad-
justments on the tooth dimensions
(such as tooth height and width) is
essential.
2. Heat treatment. Heat treatment
involves the use of heating or chill-
ing, normally to extreme tempera-
tures, to achieve a desired result
mostly the hardening of the gear
material. For gears, carburizing
heat-treatment or nitriding heat-
treatment are commonly employed.
There is one potential problem
that every engineer working with
gear units should be aware of. This
should be considered in the design
Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2013
and manufacturing stage. To achieve
the most-even load distribution pos-
sible, adjustments (also called cor-
rections) are usually necessary in
the direction of the tooth height and
the tooth width. Because the pinion
gets hotter than the gears, the pin-
ion’s base circle and base pitch could
expand more. During manufacturing
in a cold condition (say ambient con-
ditions), the pinion has to be made
with a pitch that has been reduced
by a difference (an adjustment) be-
cause of the thermal expansion. The
increase in the pitch of the rotating
gear as a result of the centrifugal
force should also be taken into ac-
count during the manufacturing.
The heat is distributed unevenly
across the width of the tooth face,
resulting in uneven expansion of
the gear body. Asymmetrical adjust-
ment techniques should be used for
better corrections and consequently
smoother gear unit operation. In
simple terms, these techniques de-
pend on the accurate prediction of
asymmetrical thermal movements
and the required asymmetrical
adjustments to achieve a perfect
match and smooth operation during
actual operating situations.
Suitable profile adjustments (cor-
rections) can be employed by the
gear unit vendor to minimize the dy-
namic loads and the gear unit noise.
These adjustments, if implemented
properly, can considerably reduce
mesh impacts and shock loads at
both the beginning and the end of
meshing (and the transitions from
single to double meshing). These
corrections can also help to achieve
uniform transmission of the rotary
movement, despite a position-de-
pendent tooth deformation.
Heat-treatment options
For critical gear units, carbur-
izing heat-treatment or nitrid-
ing heat-treatment are commonly
used by vendors. Case hardening
(in the usual form of carburizing
heat-treatment or nitriding heat-
treatment) could be considered an
economic solution, since it allows
a good range of adjustments to the
desired hardness depth of the gear.
These manufacturing and heat-
63
 Engineering Practice

treatment options offer one of the hardening method. With nitriding, It has been proven that the resid-
highest values to ensure long-term the whole heat-treatment process ual stresses can influence the total
resistance to pitting and tooth flex- is carried out below the transfor- strain of the gear sets. In the case
ure. Selection of the most appropri- mation temperature (that is, the of carburizing, residual stresses can
ate option depends on many fac- temperature where a metallurgical be relatively high. An advantage of
tors, such as the application (speed, phase transformation occurs). How- nitriding is that the inner residual
power, operating details and others) ever, only small hardness penetra- stresses are relatively low. n
and many other technical and com- tion depths can be obtained using Edited by Suzanne Shelley
mercial issues. this method. For instance, 0.4–0.7 Author
Carburizing usually improves fa- mm with normal nitriding steels, Amin Almasi is a rotating
tigue resistance. With better fatigue- while this depth could be up to 1.5 equipment consultant in Aus-
tralia (Email: amin.almasi@
resistance and better strength, the mm with special steels. Meanwhile, ymail.com). He previously
carburized gears need relatively nitrided surfaces are usually harder worked at Worley Parsons
Services Pty Ltd. (Brisbane,
lower thicknesses and materials and could show more brittleness in Australia), Technicas Reuni-
and thus gear dimensions can be case of shock strains compared to das (Madrid, Spain) and Fluor
(various offices). He holds
better optimized. As a result, car- carburized ones. Also, the damage chartered professional engi-
neer license from Engineers
burized components can theoreti- curve in the fatigue strength for the Australia (MIEAust CPEng –
cally be designed smaller compared finite life in nitrided gears tends to Mechanical), chartered engineer certificate from
IMechE (CEng MIMechE), RPEQ (Registered
to the nitride-hardened ones. be flat compared to that of carbur- Professional Engineer in Queensland) and he
However, care should be taken ized ones. These factors can influ- also holds M.S. and B.S. in mechanical engineer-
ing. He specializes in rotating machines includ-
when selecting carburizing. Dis- ence the rating of gears for startup, ing centrifugal, screw and reciprocating compres-
tortions of the components during the shock loading the short-circuit sors, gas and steam turbines, pumps, condition
monitoring and reliability. Almasi is an active
quenching can result in some re- torque (for gear units connected an member of Engineers Australia, IMechE, ASME,
Vibration Institute, SPE, IEEE, and IDGTE. He
sidual stresses. By comparison, ni- electric machines) and other tran- has authored more than 60 papers and articles
triding is a relatively low-distortion sient situations. dealing with rotating machines.

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64 Chemical Engineering www.che.com December 2013
 Solids
Environmental
Processing
Manager
Fire-Water Pumps
for CPI Facilities
Follow this guidance to improve the selection, design
and operation of pumps handling water for fire-
fighting and related systems
Amin Almasi
Consultant
F
ire-water pumps are criti-
cal machines that save lives
and prevent chemical pro-
cess industries (CPI) facili-
ties from damage more so than
any other plant components. Fire-
water pumps are nearly always cen-
trifugal pumps with capacity from
around 20–3,000 m3/h. Specific re-
quirements for fire-water pumps
are briefly noted in fire codes (such
as NFPA 20 [1]), but this may not
be sufficient for specifying high-
performance fire-water pumps in
a way that ensures good reliability
and operation as well as optimum
price. This article provides practi-
cal notes on fire-water pumps to ex-
pand upon the information that can
be found in existing fire codes.
Various styles and configurations
of fire-water pumps are available
at different prices. In addition to
proper selection, fire-water pumps
must be properly integrated into
the overall fire-water system, as an
integral part of the CPI facility.
Figure 1 shows an example of
a skid-mounted, diesel-engine-
driven fire-water pump package.
The performance and reliability of
a fire-water pumping system is an
important issue, and details of the
fire-water pumping system are usu-
ally a part of risk studies, HAZOP
and inspection activities.
Fire-water pumps are important
to different stakeholders, including
clients, investors in the CPI plant,
and insurance providers. Usually
around 20–35% of the insurance-
deficiency rating points for a CPI
plant are related to inadequate fire-
water pumping systems. On aver-
age, 5–10% of all fire-water pumping
systems in CPI plants have failed to
provide satisfactory services at the
time required (as evidenced during
actual fire cases or drill-type exer-
cises). Thus, it is critical to design,
implement, operate and maintain
these critical systems — beyond the
minimum requirements set forth in
published fire codes.
Fire-water system
Fire-protection efforts are categorized
as passive or active. The primary
passive measures for fire protection
include efforts to ensure sufficient
clearances, install protective barri-
ers, limit and protect fuel sources,
and other steps designed to reduce
fire risks (such as the use of less
hazardous materials, processes and
equipment). By comparison, active
fire-protection systems are designed
to detect and apply fire-protection
measures, which usually rely on some
effort to actually extinguish the fire.
Commonly used system components
include fire hydrants, monitors, hose
reels, water-spray systems, deluge-
type fire-protection systems or water-
exposure cooling systems. The fire-wa-
ter pump plays an important role in
most active fire-protection systems.
System design and sizing
There have been different sets of
rules to define the required flow
and head of fire-water pumps. In
other words, a variety of differ-
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com DECEMBER 2014
FIGURE 1 Fire-water pump assem-
blies are typically skid-mounted to ease
installation and operation. Shown here
is an example of a skid-mounted, diesel-
engine-driven, fire-water pump package
ent guidelines have been used to
estimate the ideal water volume
and flow requirements for CPI fire
cases, depending on plant specifics,
applicable codes, regulations and
fire-fighting methods. As a result,
these specifications will vary based
on whether the plant is using fire
control, fire suppression, exposure
cooling and so on.
Fire-water demands are usually
calculated based on the maximum
rate of water that will be required for
a worst-case scenario — typically a
potential scenario involving a large,
single-fire incident. The most remote
unit(s) from the fire-water pumps, or
the largest unit(s), are typically exam-
ined to identify the worse possible fire
scenario(s). The potential scenario of
a vast fire in the largest unit should
be used to define the capacity of fire-
water system. The most-remote fire
unit(s) should be used to define maxi-
mum rated pressure of the fire-water
pump.
CPI fire cases can be very differ-
ent, considering the different types
of materials handled and the types
of operations carried out at differ-
ent facilities. Today, computerized
simulations play a critical role in
identifying and modeling potential
fire scenarios, validating fire-fight-
ing methodologies, and estimating
the required water capacity.
When evaluating a potential
fire-fighting scenario, additional
pressure (a safety margin to the
calculated head) should be added
to maintain the fire-water pres-
sure in all remote units and critical
fire-fighting systems; this is nec-
essary to ensure that a fire-water
stream with adequate pressure can
be maintained to support all appli-
53
 Environmental Manager
cable fire-fighting systems should
there be a fire in a unit.
Fire-water and utility-water sys-
tems have sometimes been com-
bined in non-critical plants. In the
event of a fire, the connected util-
ity water system would be tripped.
However, these combined systems
are always risky. Various fire codes
recommend that no utility-water
connections be made to the fire-wa-
ter system. In some special cases,
the fire-water system may be used
for emergency process-cooling re-
quirements, but only as the second-
ary (reserve) supply.
Fresh (treated) water is always
preferred (over seawater, brackish
or untreated water, for instance) for
fire-water systems in all onshore
plants. Untreated or brackish water
can cause many issues such as cor-
rosion, which can potentially wreak
havoc on the system components.
In general, engineers should pur-
chase or construct the fire-water
pumping system and the fire-water
distribution system using proper
materials (for instance, selecting
suitable corrosion-resistant mate-
rials or proper protective coatings),
because untreated raw water (such
as seawater) could be used as the
secondary source for extra fire-wa-
ter capacity, in the case of an unex-
pected fire event. If this happens,
the fire-water system should be
flushed with treated water after the
incident, to remove residual traces
of untreated source water.
Selecting fire-water pumps
Centrifugal pumps with a rela-
tively flat characteristic perfor-
mance curve (a graph of head ver-
sus flowrate) are generally selected
for fire-water pumps. Ideally, the
head should rise continuously from
the rated point to the shutoff point,
with only a small increase of head
(say, a 9–15% rise of the head from
rated point to shutoff point). These
pumps can provide a steady, stable
flow of water at a relatively uniform
pressure over a wide range of re-
quired fire-water flowrates.
A relatively flat performance
curve is always encouraged for cen-
trifugal fire pumps for the following
reasons:
54 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com DECEMBER 2014
• The control of a fire event usu-
ally requires variable amount
of water at a relatively constant
pressure
• Fire-water pumps are typically
operated in parallel. A relatively
flat curve ensures troublefree
parallel operation
Sometimes, a large amount of
water can be required by the fire-
water system to battle a vast fire;
in those cases, the required water
could be considerably larger than
the rated flow of the pump. In
this regard, the fire-water pump
overload point (the end operating
point at the right side of the pump
curve) should demonstrate a capac-
ity of more that 150% of the rated
capacity at a head more than 70%
of the rated point. In other words,
operation point could move to the
far right side of the rated point and
that point should offer sufficient
flow and head.
A steep pump curve should al-
ways be avoided. As a rough indica-
tion, the average slope of a fire-wa-
ter pump curve should preferably
be around 10–20% (for instance, an
average slope of 1/10 up to 1/5).
Fire-water pumps can idle
against closed valves for a short
period of time. In other words, for a
short time, the pump should be able
to operate in a closed water system
without any fire-water application.
Check valves should be provided
at both the discharge and the suc-
tion. The rated pressure of a fire-
water pump could be 4–30 barg.
Single-impeller centrifugal pumps
(for applications that require pres-
sure below roughly 12 barg), and
multi-impeller centrifugal pumps
(for higher-pressure systems) are
also commonly used.
The differential pressure of a
pump is proportional to both the
square of the rotating speed and
the square of the impeller diameter.
A discharge pressure of around 10
barg can be obtained by a relatively
large, single-impeller pump (with a
suitable speed).
Overhung (OH) pumps have been
used for small- and medium-sized
fire-water pumps. Users should
consider the between-bearing (BB)
pump design when size, power rat-
FIGURE 2. Shown here are several
examples of fire-water pumps; an identi-
cal spare pump is commonly used to in-
crease the reliability of fire-water pump-
ing systems
ing and power-density exceed a cer-
tain level. As a rough indication,
this limit could be 400 kW.
As noted, the fire-water pumps in-
stalled at any given facility should
be able to operate in parallel. How-
ever, there are some challenges
and issues in ensuring parallel op-
eration. Even in certain conditions,
pumps designed to operate in paral-
lel could be subject to overheating
or damage. A well-known danger is
one pump operating at higher flow,
forcing another pump to operate at
lower flow; operation at lower flow
can be damaging to the pump.
When fire-water pumps are oper-
ated in parallel, the pump with the
lowest head may work at a reduced
flowrate. In this way, the pump
could work far from the “best effi-
ciency point” with a very low effi-
ciency, high friction and heat gener-
ation, which can result in damage.
Even in identical fire-water pumps,
pumps that have been in use for
more hours (and thus has probably
been subjected to more wear), pumps
with minor defects, and pumps with
slightly lower speed could all be
subjected to a reduced flow, which
can create problems during an ac-
tual fire event. Because of this ef-
fect, operators should rotate pumps
over time, so that each pump works
as the main fire-water pump for
some period of time; this can help to
ensure even wear patterns among
identical pumps in service. Individ-
ual protection against the minimum
flow (to ensure a minimum flow for
each pump) is recommended.
Monitoring of the differential
temperature of each pump can pro-
vide valuable insight for estimating
the parallel operation issue (the re-
 Environmental Manager
duced-flow problem) and resulting
inefficient operation (overheat). In
case of reduced flow, the differential
temperature (the discharge temper-
ature minus the suction tempera-
ture) would rise and could indicate
such a malfunction.
Because of small leakage and
small consumption of fire water, the
pressure in a fire-water network
could decrease slightly. Fire-water
pump systems are usually designed
in a way that spare pumps should
be started if fire-water pressure
dropped below a certain level. How-
ever, a slight pressure drop should
not lead always to the startup of a
large fire pump, as this could result
in many unnecessary on-off oper-
ating cycles of the main fire water
pump (Figure 2).
On the other hand, small pres-
sure changes resulting from varia-
tions in fire-water consumption
during a fire incident can result in
an unstable operation of the main
fire-water pump(s). For instance,
this may lead to unnecessary fast
changing of the operating point of a
large pump, which can result in per-
formance and reliability issues.
Smaller-capacity pumps (known as
“jockey” pumps) are usually employed
in conjunction with the main pump(s)
to maintain a relatively constant fire-
water pressure. Jockey pumps usu-
ally initiate operation after a rela-
tively small pressure drop (say 0.5–1
bar) in a fire-water system.
Main fire-water pumps are typi-
cally electrically driven and the
spare (backup or reserve) fire-water
pumps are typically driven by die-
sel engine. A commonly used ar-
rangement for critical CPI facilities
is to install six fire-water pumps,
including two electric-motor-driven
pumps, two diesel-engine-driven
pumps and two jockey pumps. Fire-
water pumps are nearly always pro-
vided on a prefabricated skid. This
packaging concept can help to ease
the alignment and installation is-
sues and ensure high reliability.
As noted earlier, the fire code
NFPA 20 is dedicated to fire-water
pumps. It specifies proper require-
ments for pump tests, pump per-
formance curves, pump accessories
and auxiliaries, and some packag-
ing details. However, in this au-
thor’s view, NFPA 20 should be con-
sidered as a minimum requirement
for a fire-water pump. For critical
fire pumps, the well-known API-
610 pump standard [2] is addition-
ally applied.
API-610 fire-water pumps
The API-610 pump standard is used
to ensure the reliable operation of
high-performance pumps, mainly in
the oil-and-gas, petroleum refinery
and petrochemical sectors. The API-
610 is usually considered to be the
minimum specification for pumps
that handle hazardous, flammable,
toxic and explosive liquids since
any reliability issue associated with
these pumps could result in a poten-
tial disaster. API-610 pumps are also
very popular in applications with
extreme temperatures, including
pumps for both high-temperature
service (such as boiler-feed-water, or
BFW, pumps) and low-temperature
applications (for example, pumps
used in liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
liquefied oxygen, and liquefied natu-
ral gas (LNG) service). For critical
(high-risk) CPI units, fire-water
pumps are usually specified to com-
ply with the API-610, to ensure that
they are able to achieve a high re-
liability level — the same as other
pumps in the unit.
Engineers often struggle with
whether or not to use API-610-
compliant fire-water pumps for
a CPI plant. This decision would
depend on the application, pump
head, power rating, capacity, pump
speed and expected reliability. The
main variable is CPI service (the
CPI plant and expected reliability).
For instance, for critical units han-
dling flammable liquids and gases,
API-610-compliant fire-water pumps
are often preferred.
For a fire-water pump with dif-
ferential pressure more than 20
bar, API-610 is usually specified.
The pump power rating is a bit
tricky, since there are many non-
API fire-water pumps available
(with successful references) that
are intended for high power ranges
in a wide array of industry applica-
tions. As a general rule of thumb
for many CPI plants, API-610 can
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com DECEMBER 2014
be considered for pumps above the
350-kW range.
Fire-water pump arrangement
The location for fire-water pumps
should be selected carefully to mini-
mize various risks and potential
hazard situations. Explosions or
high-hazard fires are major con-
cerns, which can disable fire-water
pumps. Ideally, there should be
40–80 m of clearance between fire-
water pumps and a hydrocarbon
or chemical process unit or storage
area. This limit should also be re-
spected for some utility areas, such
as a power-generation units, gas-
compression units, oxygen-genera-
tion units, and similar.
The possibility of an unconfined
vapor-cloud explosion is one of the
main concerns, as this could disrupt
utilities, damage major support fa-
cilities, and damage the fire-water
pumping system. Generally, there
is a great possibility of the electri-
cal network or the steam-distribu-
tion system failing in the event of
a major explosion or extensive fire
event. This underscores the critical
role of independent, diesel-engine-
driven fire-water pumps. Fire-wa-
ter diesel engines should generally
comply with NFPA 37 [3].
Regarding the diesel fuel-tank ca-
pacity, typically, a 12-h duration is
specified as the minimum require-
ment. However, some critical CPI
plants require 24-h-capacity fuel
tanks for each fire-water pump-die-
sel engine.
Meanwhile, each diesel engine
should be provided with independent
auxiliaries and accessories, includ-
ing a dedicated fuel system and fuel
tank. The startup of the engine is
commonly managed by a battery sys-
tem (with two independent barriers).
The failure of a diesel engine is
usually the result of a problem with
one of the auxiliary systems. Major
reasons for such a failure include
fuel-system issues, a lubrication-
system problem, a starting issue,
a wiring problem or component fa-
tigue. Only clean, high-quality die-
sel fuel should be used, and special
attention is required for the lubri-
cation oil selection and supply.
Proper overhauls and repairs
55
 Environmental Manager
are required, just like for any other
properly designed combustion en-
gines. Experience has shown that
the diesel-engine-driven, fire-water
pump is the most reliable option
currently available for severe loss
incidents in a CPI plant. The reli-
ability and availability of micro-
turbines (small gas turbines in the
50–400 kW range) could be higher
than diesel engines, but their ef-
ficiencies are relatively lower (in
terms of lower operating duration
with the same amount of fuel). Cur-
rently they are not popular for fire-
water pump systems.
Fire-water pumps are typically
arranged for both manual and au-
tomatic startup. Automatic startup
is expected to happen rapidly, in a
very reliable manner, once a fire
event has been detected. Fire-water
pumps are usually stopped manu-
ally at the pump’s local control
panel. In other words, operator in-
tervention is usually used to turn
off the pump, once the situation has
stabilized and the fire is out.
A suitable enclosure (or building)
should be provided for fire-water
pumps. Sufficient reinforcement
should be considered for the fire-
pump enclosure. This is very im-
portant. For example, in the case
of a major earthquake, fire-water
pumping systems need to be fully
operational to respond to fire events
resulting from the earthquake. An
open-sided shelter is not recom-
mended. And, fire-water pumps
should be located at a higher eleva-
tion than the majority of the CPI
facility and upwind of it.
To provide another layer of protec-
tion (in order to avoid common fail-
ures), the main fire-water pumps,
and any other reserve or support-
ing fire-water pumps should not be
located immediately next to each
other. Locating fire-water pumps at
two separate locations can improve
both the fire-water system reliabil-
ity and overall fire-water network
hydraulic behavior.
Special fire-water pumps
For critical CPI plants, additional
emergency (or reserve) firewater
pumps should be provided — in ad-
56 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com DECEMBER 2014
dition to the conventional fire-water
pumps — to supply seawater (for
CPI plants located at the coastal re-
gions) or other sources of untreated
raw water (such as untreated water
from a lake or water wells), to
quickly supply additional capacity
to the plant’s fire-water network.
For a seawater-based emergency
fire-water pumping system, the
pumps are usually submerged in
seawater. For some locations, the
seawater level may fluctuate from
–7 m to +16 m. Considering that
there is often a long distance from
the sea to the CPI facility, these fire-
water pumps should be designed
to produce a relatively high head.
These special fire-water pumps are
usually multi-impeller pumps. Prop-
erly designed highly reliable pumps
are always specified for such com-
plex service. Electric-motor-driven
submersible pumps, or sometimes
hydraulic-driven pumps are used
for these special applications. These
are usually down-hole, vertical tur-
bine-type pumps.
In some cases, local regulations
or plant specifications require three
dedicated fire-water pumps (as the
minimum) for special CPI applica-
tions (such as CPI plants that han-
dle highly explosive or highly flam-
mable materials). In such cases, one
of the main concerns is personnel
safety during a major fire case and
provisions must be made to ensure
a safe personnel evacuation.
Installation and commissioning
The piping installation and connec-
tion to a fire-water pump can lead
to relatively high loads on the pump
nozzles and to the pump train’s sen-
sitive components, such as bearings,
coupling and rotating assemblies.
The fire-water pumps are often
left on standby, therefore any high
nozzle loads or misalignment might
be left unchecked. This can poten-
tially wreck the pump in the first
hours of operation in the event of
fire. Periodic checks are important.
A well-known method to monitor
the movements and deformations of
critical machinery components dur-
ing the piping connection (piping
flange and machinery flange bolt
tightening) is to install dial indica-
tors (or other types of indicators)
that monitor movements in critical
parts of the machinery train. Usu-
ally, two dial indicators are used to
observe movement in each machin-
ery component (such as the driver,
the fire-water pump and the gear
unit, if any) compared to the base-
plate or foundation (the main pur-
pose is to identify improper support
of machinery, called “soft-foot”).
Two dial indicators can be used
to monitor critical bearing housing
movements in the fire-water pump
(usually in x and y directions). Ac-
ceptable movements should be
below 0.04 mm (40 micrometers) to
ensure a proper piping-pump con-
nection. A similar limit should be
applied to movements in all critical
pump train locations (such as bear-
ing housing, coupling, machinery
support and others), and suction and
discharge nozzle flanges (in terms
of limiting deformations in all direc-
tions). For special fire-water pumps,
depending on the machinery design,
speed, power rating and applica-
tions, a limit higher or lower than
the above-mentioned (0.04 mm)
may be specified. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
References
1 NFPA 20, Standard for the Installation of Sta-
tionary Pumps for Fire Protection, National
Fire Protection Assn. (NFPA), 2013.
2 API 610, Centrifugal Pumps, American Petro-
leum Inst. (API), 2009.
3 NFPA 37, Standard for the Installation and
Use of Stationary Combustion Engines and
Gas Turbines, National Fire Protection Assn.
(NFPA), 2014.
Author
Amin Almasi is a rotating-
equipment consultant in Aus-
tralia (Email: amin.almasi@
ymail.com). He previously
worked at Worley Parsons Ser-
vices Pty Ltd. (Brisbane, Aus-
tralia), Technicas Reunidas
(Madrid, Spain) and Fluor
Corp. (various offices). He
holds a chartered professional
engineer license from Engi-
neers Australia (MIEAust
CPEng – Mechanical), a chartered engineer cer-
tificate from IMechE (CEng MIMechE), RPEQ
(registered professional engineer in Queensland)
and he also holds M.S. and B.S. degrees in me-
chanical engineering. He specializes in rotating
machines including centrifugal, screw and recip-
rocating compressors, gas and steam turbines,
pumps, condition monitoring and reliability. Al-
masi is an active member of Engineers Australia,
IMechE, ASME, Vibration Institute, SPE, IEEE,
and IDGTE. He has authored more than 60 pa-
pers and articles dealing with rotating machines.
 Engineering Practice
Chemical Process Plants: Plan for Revamps
Follow this guidance to make the most of engineering upgrades that are designed to
improve plant operations or boost throughput capacity
Koya Venkata Reddy
FACT Engineering and Design Organization
T
he chemical process industries (CPI) are func-
tioning in an era of globalization, and between the
prevailing economic conditions and upheavals
in the energy sector, the number of new invest-
Head, m
ments in CPI facilities has fallen in recent years. Many
industries are seeking cost reductions by revamping
existing plants with minimum investment. The objective
is to reduce the cost of production through the use of
upgrades and new technologies, to remain competitive
in the market. By way of example, if one wants to set
up a new complex to produce ammonia and urea, the
specific capital cost will be on the order of $666/ton of
urea. By comparison, if an existing plant is revamped to
raise the existing production from 100% to 120% (that
is, adding 20% additional capacity), this can be done at
an expenditure that is closer to $300/ton to achieve this
incremental production
This article reviews key concepts, objectives and pro-
cedures that are needed to successfully carry out vari-
ous types of CPI plant revamps.
The need for revamps
Chemical process plant revamps are typically under-
taken for the following reasons:
• To change in feedstock composition
• To adopt energy-conserving processes in light of in-
creasing energy costs
• To reduce the fixed-cost components of production,
by increasing capacity within the existing facility
• To extend the life of a well-maintained process plant
Similarly, there are many benefits to conducting an ap-
propriate plant revamp. These include the ability to:
• Increase the reliability of equipment, leading to reduced
downtime and maintenance costs
• Reduce energy consumption
• Extend useful plant life
• Reduce the cost of production, thereby improving the
overall bottom line for the facility
However, experience shows that inefficient implementa-
tion of proposed revamp options can lead to failure, so
care must be taken to avoid this by building the right
team of experts. This team typically includes represen-
tatives of the process licensor company, engineering
and project-management consultants, and experts from
the owner company representing diverse fields, such as
operations, project management and maintenance. If
sufficient expertise for the proposed revamp is not avail-
able internally, one can hire consultants to carry out the
feasibility studies and implementation of the revamp on
48 Chemical Engineering
600
590 mm (max)
80
Efficiency %
570 mm (rated) 70
500
530 mm (min)
60
400
50
Efficiency, %
300 40
30
200
20
100
NPSHR 10
0 0
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750
Capacity, m3
FIGURE 1. Shown here are typical pump characteristic curves, with three
different impeller sizes, showing capacity versus head, and NPSHR versus
capacity
a turnkey basis. Meticulous planning related to the hook-
up of tie-in points arising out of expansion schemes can
help to reduce the amount of downtime required to ex-
ecute the revamp schemes and put the plant back on-
line.
Targeted revamp capacity, change in process
In general, it is possible to increase the rated capacity
of a plant by 10%, with very little added expenditure.
But to increase capacity by 20–50% over the nameplate
capacity, substantial modifications must be taken into
consideration that often involve implementing different
technologies from the ones already applied in the exist-
ing plant. When seeking such notable increases in pro-
duction capacity, plant operators and managers must
not only verify the soundness of the economics, but also
carefully evaluate the potential drawbacks, if any.
Sometimes the existing process path may have to be
changed to enhance the capacity of the plant, since the
current process may not yield the desired efficiency or
conversion rates. Two cases are discussed below.
Example 1. In the case of units to recover liquefied pe-
troleum gas (LPG) from natural gas, such units are de-
signed for a certain composition of feed gas. The need
for a revamp often arises if the gas composition has
changed and the expected recovery of C3/C4 and higher
compounds has become unprofitable. In this case, the
expected recovery of LPG and natural gas liquids (NGLs)
can be achieved by compressing the feedstock to higher
pressures than present levels, or by spiking heavier NGLs
back to the feed gas stream. Thus, such a revamp re-
www.chemengonline.com december 2015
quires a study to assess the technical and economic fea-
sibility of the different process paths being considered.
Example 2. A feedstock change from naphtha to natural
gas in ammonia plants, hydrogen plants and methanol
plants also necessitates a need for revamp of the re-
former section and front end, but in many cases, the
existing process path can be retained. In this case, the
absorbed duty of the reformer — which tends to be the
major energy-consuming equipment found in the system
— and the burner duties required vis-a-vis the required
reformer absorbed duty are calculated to check their suit-
ability. The maximum skin temperature of the reformer
tubes for the feedstock change must be checked.
In all cases, the existing process path, along with other
options, must be studied in detail to arrive at the most
economical and technically feasible revamp option.
Lifecycle of the plant
The different phases of a plant’s lifecycle must be taken
into consideration when planning a revamp. Such phases
include the following:
1. Incubation stage — Initial stabilization period
2. Growth stage — Optimization and debottlenecking of
operations to improve the efficiency
3. Maturity stage — Attainment of stable operation
4. Declining stage — Realization that plant capacity is
not sustainable because of frequent equipment fail-
ures or excessive maintenance requirements
Revamping the plant during Phases 1, 2 or 3 is relatively
easy, whereas revamping a plant during Phase 4, when
the facility is already in decline, requires the engineering
team to adapt many of the modern technology options
to an aging infrastructure, and to replace many equip-
ment components.
Objectives of a revamp
The objectives of a plant revamp should be spelled out
prior to studying the options. Possible objectives could
be the following:
• Enhance capacity from the present operating level to
expand capacity to, say, 110%, 120%, 130% of rated
capacity
• Reduce production costs
• Reduce pollution
• Reduce the consumption ratios of various raw materi-
als and utilities
• Reduce maintenance costs and increase the onstream
factor
• Upgrade the technology to keep pace with the new
developments, and to increase the plant life
• Minimize plant shutdown
These objectives can be achieved by maximizing efficiency,
yield and conversion of raw materials in various sections.
Specifically, plant revamps are often implemented to im-
prove process optimization, increase energy conserva-
tion, improve product quality and expand capacity.
Key revamp procedures
Every revamp project should start by identifying the goals
and actual bottlenecks. A material-and-energy balance
for the base case should be developed to reflect the ac-
tual operating conditions. The consumption of various
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com december 2015
raw materials, utilities and energy per unit of production
are tabulated. The material-and-energy balance of the
existing operation, and the required revamp plant load,
are prepared.
The existing equipment components are rated for
the revamp conditions, and then changes and required
new equipment are identified. Cost estimates of various
schemes are prepared (after consultation with various
vendors). Feasibility studies, followed by detailed project
reports (DPR), are also prepared. The potential rates of
return of various options are studied. The best option
available (on the grounds of economic sustainability and
technical feasibility) is then selected, so that the basic
engineering design package (BEDP) can be prepared,
and the revamp project implemented.
As noted, successful revamps require assembling
the right revamp team. Typically, such a team consists
of individuals from the process licensor company, con-
sultants for basic engineering and detailed engineering
services, contractors for specific electrical-, mechanical-
and instrumentation-related aspects of the project, and
various engineers from the owner’s group (for instance,
those who represent specific disciplines and have a con-
crete understanding of the current operation).
The following planning steps should be undertaken:
1. Estimate the plant’s inherent capacity from past and re-
cent data. This can be done by identifying weak areas
in the plant (for instance, those that are contributing
to non-realization of rated or required plant capacity),
or by conducting an end-to-end survey of the plant.
Once such a study is carried out, efforts should be
made to predict the potential performance improve-
ments of the plant if the weak areas are rectified.
2. Prepare the process scheme and the equipment data
sheets. Carry out feasibility studies of all options (in-
cluding both technical and financial aspects of the pro-
posed revamps) and then develop the detailed project
report. Set the target of the revamp in terms of time
(schedule) and cost.
3. Implement the approved revamp. Ideally, the revamp
activities should be carried out during the annual
scheduled turnaround period for the plant, to minimize
unscheduled downtime.
Estimate plant capacity
Many older CPI plants can run at or above the rated ca-
pacity continuously for a week or a month. But due to cer-
tain operating limitations, and downtime that may arise
from some underperforming equipment, the annual rated
capacity is seldom achieved. Analyzing past operating
data on a monthly basis (for the past 10 years or so) will
reveal which equipment components are most often to
blame for downtime, and are thus affecting overall capac-
ity utilization. Such a study of past data is often called a
weak-area analysis. Similarly, sometimes an end-to-end
survey of the plant (from the plant commissioning to the
present day) is also conducted.
Existing equipment poses both opportunities (in the
form of underutilized capabilities) and challenges (in terms
of limitations). The ability to identify problem areas can
help the team to prioritize their debottlenecking efforts in
order to improve capacity utilization more quickly.
49
 The weak-area analysis
Understanding current operation is very important for
the successful revamp of a plant. The plant performance
can be evaluated based on the performance data for the
past 10 years, if the plants are relatively old. Otherwise
the plant performance is studied from the beginning to
the present day (using the end-to-end survey).
Two indices, the plant load factor (PLF), and the on-
stream factor (OSF), are important to scientifically evalu-
ate the plant performance.
Actual production 100
PLF =
(Actual stream days) (Daily rated capacity) (1)
Actual stream days 100
OSF =
Annual design on stream days (2)
PLF OSF
Overall capacity utilization =
100 (3)
Actual annual production 100
=
Annual design onstream days x daily rated capacity (4)
The performance of the plant is studied based on the
highest PLF and OSF, on both a yearly and monthly basis.
Data on the highest daily production that is achieved with
the present hardware should also be captured.
In addition to the past production performance of the
units, a breakdown of individual equipment must be as-
sessed to identify the weak areas and arrive at the pre-
dicted performance in the post-revamp implementation
scenario. The best yearly, monthly and daily performance
must be considered in order to find the target capacity of
the plant and identify the number of stream days that this
target capacity is likely to achieve.
Analysis of historic downtime factors can also pro-
vide insight. To assess the feasibility of the plant oper-
ating at higher capacity, the best-achieved PLF (on a
monthly basis), and the highest load achieved, should
be considered.
In any process plant, onstream days are lost due to
various factors — including process problems, mechani-
cal breakdown of equipment, raw material shortages,
planned shutdowns, finished product sales, effluent
treatment and byproduct sales (if any). Such lost days —
which contribute to a loss of overall capacity utilization
— should be tabulated, and the associated causative
factors noted and tabulated.
From the weak-area analysis, one can estimate the
inherent capacity potential of the plant and identify in-
dividual equipment components or sections that are
becoming a bottleneck to maximum capacity utilization.
Sometimes the plant capacity is affected by external
circumstances, such as feedstock supply issues (for in-
stance, urea plant capacity is impacted by the capacity
of upstream ammonia plants) utility supplies and more.
Dividing these factors into recurring and non-recurring
factors will also provide insight into the priorities needed
to address the problem.
50 Chemical Engineering
TABLE 1. A typical calculation of Cv, before and after a
revamp
Unit Before After
Flowrate m3/h 80 100
Density kg/m3 950 950
P kPa 49.03 49.03
P kg/cm2 0.5 0.5
N1 unitless 0.0865 0.0865
Cv unitless 128.73 160.92
Control valve size in. 4 6
Pipeline size in. 6 6
• Internal reasons: Recurring. Examples include pro-
cess problems, mechanical breakdown of equipment,
planned shutdowns and more
• Internal reasons: Non-recurring. Examples include
lack of finished product sales, effluent treatment, lack
of byproduct sales and more
• External reasons: Recurring. Examples include utility
failure, raw-material shortages and more
• External reasons: Non-recurring. Examples include
worker strikes, natural calamities and more
FFS and RLA analysis
In a chemical process plant, critical equipment and pip-
ing must be evaluated for their fitness for service (FFS),
according to API 579 [1], and their potential residual
life analysis (RLA) must also be assessed. The API 579
guidelines are designed to ensure that pressurized criti-
cal equipment are operated safely. The ability to establish
the minimum years of residual life of the critical equip-
ment is essential to justify the revamp of the old and well-
maintained plants.
Use of simulation software
Simulation software can play an important role during the
evaluation of potential revamp options, so its use is rec-
ommended to study the competing process-revamp op-
tions. Such modeling can help the team to substantially
reduce the time needed to study the technical feasibility
of revamp options. However, great care must be taken to
ensure the use of most appropriate thermodynamic mod-
eling options that are suitable for the plant and its com-
ponents, fluid properties, process conditions and so on;
otherwise the results can be wrong. Appropriate use of
simulation software can reduce the time required to carry
out the revamp projects, and help the team to identify an
optimized, cost-effective process path, based on an eval-
uation of proposed process sequence changes given the
various constraints.
The various revamp options are studied from a techni-
cal and financial point of view, a suitable process path
is selected and the equipment that create a bottleneck
for the desired revamp option are identified. Once the
additional equipment and piping are identified (per the
proposed expansion schemes), the required hookup
points and tie-in connections must be identified. As
noted, to reduce the impact of these hookups, they should
— wherever possible — be undertaken in conjunction
with short shutdowns that are planned for preventive
maintenance.
www.chemengonline.com december 2015
Environmental and safety impacts
Environmental-impact assessment studies should be
conducted during the conceptual stage to evaluate the
positive and negative impacts of the proposed engineer-
ing changes on the environment, and to arrive at the so-
lutions to mitigate the adverse impacts, if any.
Safety is always a paramount consideration. The team
must ensure that the proposed plant revamp, and all re-
vised process schemes, conform to the latest codes and
safety norms. Hazard operability (Hazop) studies of the
process schemes during the basic engineering-design
package stage, front-end engineering-design stage, and
the detailed engineering stage should be conducted. Dur-
ing the implementation stage, periodic technical audits
should be conducted to see that the construction is pro-
gressing according to design intentions.
Hazardous-area classification drawings of the plant
are developed, and existing electrical considerations and
other instruments are evaluated and changed accord-
ing to the modified hazardous area classification of the
plant. Quantitative risk analysis (QRA) is also conducted
to submit to the statutory authorities, and any onsite and
offsite emergency plans must be revised, as needed.
Similarly, a safety integrity level (SIL) analysis should
also be conducted according to BS IEC 61511[3] and
BS IEC 61508 [4]. And, all safety-instrumented functions
(SIF) of the instruments are to be SIL 2 (minimum).
Debottlenecking individual equipment systems
Different strategies are available to debottleneck different
equipment components and systems. Some examples
are discussed below:
Trayed columns. The design data of the distillation
column should be studied, preferably using process
simulation software. The column is simulated for both
the existing operating conditions, and for desired higher
throughput or changed feed composition. The liquid and
vapor rates for each tray, along with their physical proper-
ties, are obtained. After obtaining the column profile and
liquid-vapor-traffic details in the column, the tray hydrau-
lics are calculated and suitable recommendations are
made, regarding changes made to the weir height, the
number of holes, pitch, the diameter of the holes (con-
sidering the flooding conditions) and more. Tray vendors
should be contacted when considering revamping the
distillation column trays. The team should ensure that
the reboiler and condenser are rated for the maximum
throughput expected.
Many advanced separation technologies that are avail-
able today allow for higher-capacity trays to be retrofit-
ted into distillation columns. Similarly, the suitability of
advanced structured packings can also be considered
when planning a revamp of distillation columns in petro-
leum refinery and other critical CPI applications. Many
present-day structured packings can help revamped
columns to improve capacity by 40–50%, while reducing
pressure drop across the column.
Packed columns. In the late 1980s, Raschig rings were
popular in chemical process operations. A study of pres-
sure drop of the packed column at the rated capacity
should be carried out to determine the pressure drop per
foot of packed column. Such a study should also identify
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com december 2015
TABLE 2. Typical Design Velocities of Fluids in CPI PIPELINEs
Type of line Allowable velocity (max), m/s
Suction lines for the pump 1
Discharge lines for the pump 2–3
Fire water 5
Gravity lines 0.6–0.7
Low-pressure gas 20
High-pressure gas 15
Low-pressure steam 20
High-pressure steam 15
the percent flooding velocity with the revamped through-
put. If the flooding velocity is greater than 80%, the pack-
ings are replaced with ones that offer lower packing factors
and higher surface area per specified volume. However,
adequate wetting of the packing must be ensured, ac-
cording to design guidelines, and circulation rates of liq-
uids must be enhanced accordingly, if needed.
Packed towers that contain ceramic packings have a
tendency to flood at lower gas velocities. Hence, in some
cases, such packings may be replaced with steel packings
(after conducting the technical suitability check) to help re-
duce the flooding velocity and increase throughput.
Pumps. Pumps are very important and often provide a
relatively simple revamp opportunity, to take advantage
of advancements in pump technology. The throughput
required at desired plant capacity is determined, and
the characteristic head-versus-capacity curves, re-
quired net positive suction head (NPSH), and other key
characteristics should be studied. Normally, pump
manufacturers indicate three impellers (mini-
mum, normal, maximum) that are suitable for
any duty. The possibility of using a larger-sized
impeller diameter should be studied, considering the
head and capacity requirements (Figure 1).
As the pump capacity increases, required NPSH
(NPSHR) increases. Hence, the available NPSH
(NPSHA)should be checked, to avoid cavitation of the
pump at higher flows. The motor’s suitability should
also be verified. Many successful revamps were car-
ried out by changing the impellers to those with larger
diameters. The team should also carry out a design
check to ensure that the piping material classification
is still suitable for the pump’s discharge piping.
Instruments. Instruments such as flowmeters (orifice,
venturi and mass flowmeters), pressure indicators, tem-
perature transmitters, level instruments and so on should
be rated and studied in detail for the proposed changed
condition. Since orifice meters often give rise to higher
pressure drop, they may be replaced with mass flow-
meters. Similarly, level instruments based on differential
pressure can be replaced with non-contact type, radar-
type level instruments, which tend to be more accurate.
Normally, the orifice plates in flowmeters are maintained
with  ratios — that is, the ratio of orifice plate bore di-
ameter (d) to pipeline diameter (D) — of 0.3 (minimum) to
0.7 (maximum). The orifice meters are rated for the tar-
get throughput and the pressure drop across the orifice
element is determined. If the pressure drop is too high,
the orifice plates are changed to those of higher  ratios,
51
 to address the pressure drop issue without changing the
transmitter. To keep the  ratio less than 0.7 for a given
pressure drop across primary element, either or both the
orifice plate and the transmitter is changed.
Control valves. The flow through a control valve depends
on its capacity, or so-called CV value (Equation 5), which is
defined as the flowrate in m3/h of water at a temperature
of 60°F with a pressure drop across the valve of 1 psi. The
rule-of-thumb rule is that the CV is roughly 10D2 (where
D is the size of the control valve in inches). For example,
the CV of a 2-in. control valve is roughly 40. The CV value
is recalculated according to ISA 75.01.01[2] with the new
flowrate, inlet pressure and allowable pressure drop.
Normally, the control valves in the original design of the
plant are kept one size lower than the pipe line diameter,
and their rated flow is specified as 1.7 times the normal
target flow, or 1.3 times the maximum target flowrate.
Since the flowrate is specified as 70% higher normal
flowrate, or 30% higher maximum flowrate, the control
valves will be suitable to handle the revamped target
flow, which is 20–30% more than the design flowrate.
Hence, for a proposed 20–30% plant load increase, the
existing control valve will normally be sufficient. If the
CV of the control valve is not sufficient, the team may
consider either changing the trim of the control valve,
or installing one with a higher CV. Equation 5 is used to
calculate the CV .
Q / 0
CV = 1
N1 P (5)
Where:
Q = the flowrate through the control valve, m3/h is less than that of the original process. One example is an
N1 = a constant (8.65 x 10-2), from ISA 75.01.01-2007
(IEC 60534-2-1 Mod), Table 1 [2]
1 = density of the fluid, kg/m3
0 = density of the water at 15°C, kg/m3
P = differential pressure, kPa
Table 1 shows a typical calculation of CV before and
after revamp flowrates, and shows how the existing con-
trol valve must be changed to the pipeline size for a 20%
increase in flowrate.
Control valves should also be checked for noise lev-
els. Controllability and rangeabilty are also important for
revamping the valve. Revamps involving control valves
should always involve vendor cooperation. If the revamp
is not able to bring the process into the controllability
range, either the valve should be replaced with one of
higher size, or fine feed-control valve can be added par-
allel to the existing control valves.
Heat exchangers. The existing heat exchangers should
be checked for any excess available surface area, by rat-
ing them using standard software modeling packages. In
general, an existing heat exchanger provides enhanced
heat exchanging capacity if the pressure drop across the
tube side or shell side is increased.
If the heat exchanger is downstream of a pump, the
team should consider increasing pump head, which
would increase the allowable pressure drop across the
heat exchanger. There may be a tradeoff between the
operating cost of the pump and fixed cost associated
52 Chemical Engineering
TABLE 3. Allowable Pressure and Temperature ratings, per [7]
Flange rating, Allowable pressure Allowable temperature (max)
per ANSI B16.5 (max) kg/cm2
150 class 18.3 93.3°C /200°F
300 class# 47.8 93.3°C /200°F
with changing the heat exchanger. Also, increasing the
number of baffles on the shell side to increase the heat
transfer coefficient should be considered. In the case of
plate heat exchangers, additional plates can be added
to increase the heat transfer, in consultation with original
equipment manufacturer.
Limitation in line sizes. All of the line sizes are checked
using the standard velocity criterion. Typical standard ve-
locity criteria are shown in Table 2.
The lines are checked for pressure drop. In case the line
pressure drop is high, the lines are changed to provide
larger-diameter pipes. Special attention must be given for
gravity-flow lines, as the allowable velocity is in the range
of 0.6–0.7 m/s and sufficient slope must be ensured.
The piping material thickness (according to ANSI B
31.3) and flange ratings (ANSI B16.5) are checked to be
sure they comply with higher pressure. In some cases,
the flange rating will be sufficient, as there is often a wide
margin available, as shown in Table 3.
Thus, if a line that was designed for 10 kg/cm2 is going
to experience a pressure of 12 kg/cm2 at 90°C, then the
flange rating of 150# need not be changed. However, the
actual pipe thickness should be measured and checked
for its suitability in the revamped design pressure condi-
tion. Sometimes no piping needs to be changed — for
instance, if the design pressure in the revamped condition
ammonia synthesis section, where pressures have come
down from 200 kg/cm2 to 140 kg/cm2.
Pressure safety valve (PSVs). When the plant runs
at higher revamped capacity, all of the PSVs must be
checked according to API 520 [5]. The team must evalu-
ate the nozzle area suitability and the rating of the inlet
and outlet piping, after recalculating the fluid-relieving
rates associated with the new throughput. PSVs are
changed if they are found to be unsuitable. In the case of
feedstock changeover, PSVs must be also be checked
for changes in fluid properties such as molecular weight,
compressibility factors and so on.
Compressors. Various options for revamping the com-
pressors should be studied initially. Various revamp op-
tions include the following:
1. Installation of a suction booster
2. Installation of a parallel compressor
3. Changing internals in the low-pressure and high-pres-
sure casing, along with steam turbine upgrading
4. Providing a chiller at the suction inlet and changing the
intercoolers. A chiller can be installed to reduce the
gas temperature and increase the volumetric capac-
ity of the gas and reduces the power requirement. In
cases where the drive needs to be changed, this can
be applied.
5. Change of compressor type. In older-generation urea
plants, urea reactors operated at 200 kg/cm2, and
they fed the CO2 to the urea reactor; Historically, CO2
www.chemengonline.com december 2015
 compressors have been reciprocating-type, which
incur high energy costs. As the pressures in present-
day urea reactors have come down to 135 kg/cm2,
centrifugal compressors can be used instead, which
helps to reduce operating costs as well as mainte-
nance costs).
Effluent treatment plants (ETP). Worldwide, waste-
water-treatment plants are typically designed with high
safety margins, to cater to shock loading or sudden
peak loading of effluents containing high chemical oxy-
gen demand (COD). However, when a plant is stabilized
and optimized, the generation of wastewater containing
high COD is drastically reduced.
The following methodology should be adopted while
checking the capacity of ETP that are based on an acti-
vated sludge process during revamp planning:
1. Evaluate existing facilities by collecting operating data
for one month and developing a statistical analysis of
various parameters.
2. Check the design basis and the design volume of the
aeration basin, thickener and clarifier.
3. Evaluate the operating case using the above design
basis.
4. Calculate the energy requirements of the design and
operating cases, and quantify the potential for reduc-
tion of electrical energy at various loads.
Flares and knockout drums. Flare systems, including
knockout drums, must be checked before embarking on
a plant revamp. Flares are used to ensure plant safety,
by flaring hydrocarbons in case of emergency conditions
such as power outages, fire or blocked discharge.
While converting the ammonia plant from a liquid fuel
(such as naphtha) to natural gas, the properties of the
fluid (such as molecular weight, compressibility factor),
viscosity and density undergo a drastic change and
have profound effects on height, flare diameter and flare
tip suitability. Calculations must be performed to verify
the new case, according to API 521[6]. The goal is to
see whether the existing flare is suitable to handle the
changed load and fluid conditions associated with the
proposed revamp. Vendor support should be sought,
if needed, and the flare design can be checked using
manual calculations, spreadsheet calculations and flare-
specific computer software.
Reactors. Reactors are the heart of chemical process
operations. Efforts should be made to maximize yield and
conversion rates in the revamp scheme. If, following the
reaction, raw materials remain unconverted, they must
be separated and recycled back to the reactors. This
consumes utilities, thereby increasing energy consump-
tion. If conversion rates in the reaction are increased via
a revamp, the recycle ratios will be drastically reduced.
In one urea plant, a revamp involved the following
changes: Introduction of higher-capacity trays in the
urea reactor in the ammonia plant; changing the con-
verter baskets from axial- to radial-type in the ammonia
converter in the caprolactam plant; using an enriched-
oxygen supply to the cyclohexanone reactors with in-
troduction of improved safety features. These changes
were able to increase the conversion rate, increase over-
all production and decrease energy consumption.
In the ammonia plant’s synthesis section, the synthe-
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com december 2015
sis converter pressures were reduced to 135 kg/cm2
(from an initial level of 200 kg/cm2), as a result of the
introduction of radial basket converters instead of the
older-generation axial converters. By retaining the same
high-pressure converter shell, one can change the con-
verter baskets to radial ones, which helps to reduce
pressure drop.
Catalysts play a vital role in enhancing the reaction rate.
The use of advanced catalysts should be considered,
where possible. For example, in sulfuric acid plants, va-
nadium pentoxide (V2O5) is typically used as a catalyst.
If an improved cesium catalyst is added to the reactor,
the SO2 to SO3 conversion can be increased, and the
emission of SO2 can be reduced, generally to far below
the statutory limits.
Storage tanks. If the process revamp is based on a
“more in/more out” concept — that is, more fluids will be
flowing into and out of storage tanks — then the team
must check the capacity of “breather” valves and emer-
gency vents according to API 2000 [8]. If the breather
valves need to be replaced, the pressure settings may
be adjusted in consultation with vendors, according to
the applicable codes.
Utilities. During any plant revamp, the capacity of key
plant utilities, such as demineralized water, instrument
air, plant air, steam plants, power, and cooling tower
should also be checked to be sure they will support the
proposed revamp. Offsite facilities related to raw-mate-
rials receiving, tank farms, and product-storage capaci-
ties must also be studied and related personnel require-
ments must be ascertained. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
References
1. American Petroleum Inst., API 579: Recommended Practice for Fitness for Service, 2nd
Ed., July 2007.
2. Instrument Soc. of America, ISA 75.01.01-2007 (IEC 60534-2-1 Mod): Flow Equations
for Sizing Control Valves, 2007.
3. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), BS IEC 61511: Functional Safety –
Safety Instrumented Systems for the Process Industry, 2003.
4. International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), BS IEC 61508: Standard for Functional
Safety of Electrical/Electronic/Programmable Electronic Safety-Related Systems, 2010.
5. American Petroleum Inst., API 520: Sizing, Selection and Installation of Pressure Relieving
Devices, Part 1, 8th Ed., 2008, and Part 2, 5th Ed., 2003.
6. American Petroleum Inst., API 521: Pressure Relieving and Depressurizing Systems, 5th
Ed., 2007.
7. ASME/ANSI B16.5: Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, April 2013.
8. American Petroleum Inst., API 2000: Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage
Tanks, 7th Ed., March 2014.
Author
Koya Venkata Reddy is senior manager, process engineer-
ing, at FACT Engineering & Design Organization (FEDO), a div. of
Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACT; Udyogamandal
683501, Kochi, Kerala, India; Phone: +91-484-2568763; Email:
koyareddy@yahoo.com). He has 24 years of experience in chem-
ical plant operations, including expertise in the fields of process
control, process design, process risk analysis, Hazop analysis, pro-
cess simulations, environmental management and plant revamps.
He is a recipient of FACT’s Merit Award. Reddy holds a Bachelor of
Technology degree from Andhra University (Visakhapatnam) and a
Master of Technology degree in project management from Cochin University of Science
and Technology. He also received an M.B.A. in finance from Indira Gandhi National Open
University (IGNOU; Delhi). He is a lifetime member of the Indian Inst. of Chemical Engi-
neers (IIChE) and a member of the Institution of Engineers (India).
53
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice

Variable frequency drives:

An Algorithm for Selecting Vfds for Centrifugal Pumps
Using this simple algorithm on a E
Discharge
reservoir
Suction
personal computer, engineers can reservoir A

evaluate competing scenarios to B

P
P
C
V
D H2

identify the most cost-effective and H1

energy-efficient pump system design Static head: H = H2 - H1 P: Pump

ABCDE: Piping schematic V: Throttle valve

D. K. Shukla and D.K. Chaware

Essar Oil Ltd. FIGURE 1. 1.
Figure Shown
Pipinghere is the piping
schematics schematic
(Type I and II) for Type 1
and Type 2 pumping systems. Type 1 systems will have one
operating point (see Figure 2), while Type 2 systems will have
R. B. Swamy two or more than two operating points (see Figure 3) lying on
Litwin PEL LLC the same characteristic curve

T
his article describes an algo-
rithm that end users can use to
develop a program on a personal
computer to assess the technical
and economic feasibility of installing
a variable frequency drive (VFD) on
centrifugal pumps. This simple algo-
rithm serves a variety of useful func-
tions, helping engineers to carry out
the following functions:
Check the technical feasibility and
evaluate whether or not it is advis-
able to use VFD. Such an evaluation
is useful for operators considering both
(a) the re-rating of pumps already in
operation, and (b) the deployment of
other, perhaps redundant pumps that
may be warehoused at the facility.
During plant expansion and de-
bottlenecking activities, operating pa-
rameters are commonly revised, and
this calls for either the re-rating of
existing equipment, the deployment of
surplus equipment that may be ware-
housed at the facility, or the purchase
of new equipment. Generally speak-
ing, plant operators prefer to avoid
new equipment purchases, which can
be time consuming and costly, and
instead prefer to look for opportuni-
ties to re-rate existing and available
equipment at the plant. The addition
of a VFD provides one option for re-
rating centrifugal pumps to help users
gain better control and to help the
38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010
units achieve greater fuel efficiency,
reduced emissions and less wear and
tear compared with continuous opera-
tion at some pre-determined setpoint.
Maintaining a large inventory of re-
dundant pumps in store or using them
without due consideration for energy
is costly. The use of this algorithm
can help plant managers to devise a
proper system to use surplus or re-
dundant pumps in the most energy-
efficient way anywhere in the same
plant or elsewhere.
Increase the energy efficiency of
centrifugal pumps. In recent years,
pressures related to rising fuel costs
and environmental concerns call for
the most energy-efficient operation
of plant equipment. By more closely
matching pump operation with actual
usage requirements, the use of a VFD
can help to improve the pump’s per-
formance with respect to both energy
efficiency and emissions.
Critically evaluate when the use of
a VFD is appropriate — and when
it is not. While the use of a VFD can
provide compelling advantages in
some applications [1, 2], in other ap-
plications its use is not warranted
due to technical or economic reasons,
including the results of a lifecycle
cost (LCC) analysis [3]. The simple
computer-based algorithm discussed
below helps the engineer to assess a
large number of alternative scenarios,
which is an important part of the eval-
uation process but calls for the sys-
tematic processing of large amounts
of data. (This is explained in the case
study, box, p. 42).
Support standardization efforts
throughout the plant. The use of
VFDs allow a particular pump or
suite of pumps to be operated at dif-
ferent speeds, providing greater op-
erating flexibility for the facility. This
algorithm can help engineers in their
efforts to evaluate whether it may be
possible to standardize plant opera-
tions on a few efficient models for the
entire plant, to help reduce inventory
and maintenance requirements.
Methodology
To develop the algorithm, curves
showing the available pump hydraulic
performance characteristics — spe-
cifically, flow-versus-head, and flow-
versus-efficiency curves for a set of
available speed and corresponding di-
ameter for each model — were divided
into two segments. A simple quadratic
equation is written for each segment.
This is essential as it is nearly impossi-
ble to describe the entire performance
curve using a single quadratic equa-
tion. The iterative calculation proce-
dure, using different speeds from from
minimum speed (NMIN) to maximum
 m=1 System curve m=2 System curve
As per
schematic
ABCDE of
H R2 (162)
HR figure 1
Operating
Operating
Operating

Head, m ------>
point
point
point
Head, m ------>

Operating
point
H R1 (70) Operating
H point
H Static head
H Static head
0 0
0 QR 0 Q R1 (31) Capacity, m3/h -----> Q R2 (103)
Capacity, m3/h ----->

FIGURE 2. InFigure
Type 1 pumping systems, the
2. Type I ( Single operating point).
FIGURE 3. This system characteristic curve for Type 2 pumping
pump will be operated only at one point (m = 1), Figure 3.two
system shows Type II ( Two operating
different operatingpoints on same
points system
(m=2), bothcurve)
of which
with required head HR at capacity = QR. Both op- lie on the same system characteristic curve, with required heads =
tions — the use of VFD and the use of FFD — are HR1 and HR2 at respective capacities = QR1 and QR2. In such a sce-
possible to meet these requirements nario, there can be more than two operating points (m>2). However,
all operating points will be lying on same characteristic curves.
Such requirements can be best accommodated by the use of a VFD

speed (NMAX) with predetermined in-
crements (say, 1 rpm), is then applied
to the segments.
First, one of the segments is con-
sidered, and using Affinity Laws (dis-
cussed below), another performance
curve is generated at (to start) mini-
mum speed. Specifically, a simple qua-
dratic equation is used to define this
segment of the performance curve. The
quadratic equation for the segment is
then used to check if the required duty
point lies on the segment or not.
If the duty point lies on the segment,
then the speed corresponding to this
particular curve is established as the
matching speed. Otherwise the second
segment is checked in a similar way. If
that segment does not match with the
duty point, then the calculations are
repeated for the next higher speeds
(NMIN +1, NMIN + 2, and so on) until
the matching speed is determined.
If there is no matching speed to
achieve the required duty, then the
model is not suitable to fit with a VFD
and is thus rejected. The process is re-
peated for all the available models to
list out those models that can be fitted
with a VFD (box, page 42).
Take your time in deciding
Because of the potential advantages
that may result from the use of a VFD,
many users rush to implement such
a system without conducting a thor-
ough evaluation of its economic and
technical viability. Efforts to carry out
such a viability check require an eval-
uation of lifecycle costs (LCC) calcula-
tions [2, 3].
LCC calculations require techni-
cal-feasibility data related to, for in-
stance, the number of units required,
the pump and motor rating, and power
consumption. The engineer must sys-
tematically analyze the hydraulic per-
formance data for each pump model to
evaluate the overall technical benefits
and feasibility of the solution.
Ideally, end users should check a
large number of pump models for tech-
nical feasibility (as discussed below in
the case study), which will require the
processing of a large amount of data.
In general, VFDs often prove ideal
for systems with zero static head
(closed systems) or those with rela-
tively low static head. However, as the
static head increases, the use of a VFD
may lose its economical advantages
[2, 4]. A novel method is discussed in
Ref. [4] to study the effect of changes
in static head. Similarly, VFDs may
prove to be less ideal for systems with
operating points at the same head but
at different flows.
While these aforementioned rules-
of-thumb are handy, they may not be
sufficient to justify the selection of a
VFD for a given application. By con-
trast, using the LCC analysis to iden-
tify the exact cutoff point to confirm
VFD viability is a more reliable ap-
proach, as it takes into consideration
all the operating conditions.
Some pump manufacturers and
VFD suppliers may not be equipped
with software to check VFD feasibility.
Thus, many will not be able to carry
out analysis for the redundant or ex-
isting pumps of some other manufac-
turer for VFD feasibility.
The algorithm described here can be
used to guide the procurement of new
pumps, as well. In addition to data
Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010
related to existing pumps (including
both those that are either already in
operation or available as surplus),
data related to new pumps from ap-
proved pump vendors can also be
stored and used to check the feasibil-
ity of new purchases.
Using the algorithm, data related to
the hydraulic performance of compet-
ing pumps that are offered by differ-
ent approved vendors can quickly be
analyzed, which may lead to more op-
tions, as discussed in the case study.
The literature [1, 4] provides flow
charts and some discussion about
the methodology behind VFD selec-
tion. However, these references do not
provide a precise algorithm with the
necessary equations and formulas to
write a simple computer program to
help pump end users evaluate poten-
tial scenarios for the need to develop
an algorithm.
Pump system operating points
For the purpose of VFD selection, the
pumping system can be classified into
three types, whose requirements and
constraints are described below:
Type 1. The pump and VFD system
must cater to only one operating point
(so that m = 1, where m = the number
of operating points). The typical piping
schematics and corresponding system-
characteristics curve are shown in Fig-
ures 1 and 2. In this case, the required
process capacity is QR and the corre-
sponding system head is HR. The valve
settings, piping schematics, liquid lev-
els and pressure acting on the liquid
surface remains unchanged. Because
this is a relatively simple pumping sys-
tem, the use of fixed frequency drive
39
 System curve
m=2
System curve
Engineering Practice Per schematic
ABCDE of figure 4
Per schematic
H R2 ABCFG of figure 4
Operating
point
Discharge H R1
Discharge G reservoir Operating
Suction point
E reservoir

Head, m ------>
reservoir
A
P V
1

B C D H2
H2 H1
H1
H V2
F 0
0 Capacity, m3/h -----> Q R2 Q R1
Static head: H1 = H1 - H
FIGURE 5. The system characteristic curves for a Type 3 pump-
Static head: H2 = H2 - H
ing system shows two different operating points (m=2). Both lie
ABCDE: Piping schematic P: Pump on the different system-characteristic curves with required heads
ABCFG: Piping schematic V1, V2: Throttle valves = HR1 and HR2 at respective capacities = QR1 and QR2. There can
be more than two operating points (m>2); however, all operating
IGURE 4. The piping array for a Type 3 pumping system is
F points will be lying on different characteristic curves. These re-
shown here. In a Type 3 pumping systems, two or more operat- quirements occur most frequently in real life situations and can
ing points all lie Figure
on different system
4. Piping characteristic
schematics (Type III) curves (see be handled by the use of a VFD
Figure 5)

(FFD) — for which a constant-speed
electric motor driven at 50 or 60 Hz is
typically used — is generally preferred,
although the use of a VFD is possible.
Type 2. The pump and VFD system
must cater to two or more operating
points (so that m ≥ 2). The typical
piping schematics and corresponding
system-characteristic curve for this
scenario are depicted in Figure 1 and
Figure 3. In this case, the process re-
quirements change from one operat-
ing point to another (say, QR1 to QR2,
or vice versa). The operating points lie
on the same system curve. The valve
setting, piping schematics, liquid lev-
els and pressure acting on the liquid
surface remain unchanged.
Such requirements can usually be
best handled by a VFD, as the use of
flow-control-valve throttling to modu-
late the flow from QR1 to QR2 (or oth-
erwise, per the process requirement)
is eliminated.
The case study discussed in the box
(p. 42) provides a typical example of a
Type 2 application. In the absence of
a VFD, the required changes in flow
are achieved by throttling, but this
approach is inherently inefficient and
leads to energy loss.
Type 3. The pump and VFD system
must cater to two or more operating
points (so that m ≥ 2). The operat-
ing points, however, lie on different
system curves that are generated
due to changes in the following
system attributes:
• Valve setting
• Static head
• Piping schematics, say, from ABCDE
to ABCFG (see Figure 4)
40 Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010
• A combination of any of the above
factors
The typical piping schematics and
corresponding system-characteristic
curves are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
In this case, the process requirements
change from one operating point
(say, QR1) to another (QR2), with cor-
responding system heads of HR1 and
HR2. Such requirements are more
complex. However, they occur fre-
quently in real-life situations and can
usually be managed effectively by the
addition of a VFD.
Required inputs
To use the algorithm to assist with
VFD evaluation and compare compet-
ing pumping-system scenarios, the
various types of data that must be
gathered are discussed in this section.
First, data from hydraulic perfor-
mance curves are collected and stored
in the computer for any pumps for
which the VFD feasibility is to be eval-
uated. Table 1 (Numbers 1 through 21)
shows the database values that need
to be gathered to use the algorithm.
These details should be collected from
the pump maker.
For existing pumps, the details are
taken from the hydraulic performance
curves, which are based on actual test-
ing that is carried out by the vendor
before the unit has been dispatched
to the purchaser. For new purchases,
the data are collected from the stan-
dard hydraulic-performance curves at
the maximum impeller diameter at a
speed corresponding to a 2-, 4- or 6-pole
motor at 50 or 60 Hz. These standard
performance curves are available from
the pump manufactuers’s literature.
After the details described above
are gathered, the required operating
point(s) (marked as m on the system
curves), and, as detailed in Table 1
(values Number 22 through 25), are
gathered into the database.
Assumptions for the algorithm
The algorithm relies on the following
assumptions:
1. According to the Affinity Laws, flow
(Q) and head (H) are assumed to be
proportional to speed (N) and speed
squared (N2), respectively, for Q-H
characteristics from the minimum
continuous stable flow (QMCSF) to the
maximum permissible flow (QMAX).
It should be noted that the Affinity
Laws are most accurately applicable
for flows close to the pump’s best ef-
ficiency point (BEP) flow QBEP, and
can deviate slightly as flow values
move away from BEP. This slight de-
viation, usually on the order of 3 to 4
percentage points, is neglected for
calculation purposes.
2. It is known that the pump efficiency
can change with respect to speed.
This change can be up to 4 percentage
points. This change is also neglected
for calculation purposes. (It should be
noted that there is no universally ac-
cepted way for the accurate prediction
of deviations in value predicted by the
Affinity Laws and change in efficiency
with respect to speed.)
3. The pump efficiency read from the
pump’s flow-versus-efficiency curve
is used to calculate the power input
to the pump (instead of reading the
pump input power directly from the
 Table 1. values to be gathered to evaluate competing pumping scenarios
Item Variable (**) Details Item Variable (**) Details
1 n Number of pump models for which 12 H60, m Head, corresponding to Q60
the details below are available 13 BEP60, % Efficiency, corresponding to Q60
2 pump Pump model designation as per the 14 Q110, m3/h 110% of QBEP flow (If QMAX is close to
vendor (such as 80 X 360) Q110 then Q110 is selected as an aver-
3 D2, mm Impeller diameter at which laboratory age of QMAX and QBEP)
test results are available. If laboratory 15 H m Head, corresponding to Q110
110,
test results are not available, then refer
to standard curve from the pump man- 16 BEP 110 % Efficiency at Q110
ufacturer’s book for a particular diam- 17 QMAX, m3/h Maximum permissible flow
eter. If pump manufacturer’s data are 18 H
MAX, m Head, corresponding to QMAX
to be stored for new purchase, then
refer to impeller maximum diameter 19 BEP MAX, % Efficiency at QMAX
20 N rpm * Maximum permissible speed for the
4 N, rpm Speed at which standard laboratory MAX,
tests results are available given pump model
21 N rpm *  Minimum permissible speed for the
5 QBEP, m3/h Flow at best efficiency point (BEP) MIN,
given pump model
6 HBEP, m Head, corresponding to QBEP
22 m Number of operating point(s) at
7 BEP, % Best efficiency, corresponding to QBEP which the pump is expected to run,
8 QMCSF, m3/h Minimum continuous stable flow with the details listed in Items 23, 24
9 HMCSF, m Head, corresponding to QMCSF and 25 for each operating point
23 Q m 3/h Required capacity
10 BEPMCSF, % Efficiency, corresponding to QMCSF R,

11 Q60, m3/h 60% of QBEP flow (If Q60 is close to 24 HR, m  Required head corresponding to
QMCSF then Q60 is selected as an rated capacity
average of QMCSF and QBEP) 25 Sp Gr Specific gravity
* These values are to be collected from the design department of the pump manufacturer, as they are not mentioned in standard performance curves.
** Units of measurement are shown for individual attributes.

pump’s flow-versus-power-input char-
acteristics curve). This is justified, as
the pump efficiency curve nature is
well-known (that is, it follows a con-
tinuous rise from zero flow to flow at
BEP, and then decreases continuously
for flow greater than flow at BEP),
and the pump efficiency curve is inde-
pendent of the density of liquid being
pumped. Plus, the industry practice is
to refer to the efficiency curve as it is
easy to read and interpolate.
4. The H-Q characteristics can be ex-
pressed using the quadratic Equations
(1) and (2) given below:
h = An2 + Bnq + Cq2 (1)
Where:
h = head, m
n = rotational speed, rpm)
q = flow, m3/h
A, B and C = constants for a given
pump, impeller, and speed
For the typical case of a pump capacity
operating at constant speed, the above
equation can be written as standard
quadratic equation.
h = a + bq + cq2 (2)
The constants a, b and c are for a given
speed [5]. The range from minimal
continuous stable flow to maximum
permissible flow (QMCSF to QMAX) is
chosen because the nature of the H-Q
curve in this region for most machines
usually rises continuously (pump
head, H, is continuously increasing
with decreases in pump flow). This
known variation makes curve fitting
simple. This is the usual range for
pump selection.
This portion of the H-Q curve is
further divided into two segments —
the first from QMCSF to QBEP, and
the second segment from QBEP to
QMAX. The goal is to get better curve
fit and also to take into account the
change in slope of the Q-Efficiency
characteristics after QBEP (that is,
the decrease in efficiency with flow
after BEP).
The efficiency variation from
QMCSF to QMAX can be expressed
using quadratic Equation (2) for the
two segments mentioned above. The
constants used in the quadratic equa-
tions for first segment (from QMCSF
to QBEP) are calculated using QMCSF,
Q60 and QBEP and corresponding
head and efficiency values for a given
speed. The constants used in the qua-
dratic equations for the second seg-
ment (from QBEP to QMAX) are calcu-
lated using QBEP, Q110 and QMAX and
corresponding head and efficiency
values for the speed used for the
first segment.
The algorithm
The specific steps in the algorithm are
shown here:
Step 1. The data mentioned in Table 1
for the available pump model(s) being
evaluated are gathered and stored in
the computer, per the requirements
of the programming language. For
Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010
the given operating points (QR, HR
and SpGr), the feasibility of using the
first model for which data are stored
in Table 1 is checked, using the it-
erative calculations described in the
following steps.
Step 2. The iterative calculations for
selection start with generating the
first segment of the Q-H curve (from
QMCSF to QBEP) at minimum speed,
NMIN, for the first model being con-
sidered, using data stored in the com-
puter data bank.
The three points (QMCSF, Q60 and
QBEP) required to generate the first
segment (QMCSF to QBEP) at speed
NMIN are calculated using the Affinity
Laws to points QMCSF, Q60 and QBEP
that are available in the data bank at
speed N (see Table 1). The quadratic
equation based on these three points
is used to define the first segment at
speed NMIN. The head for the required
flow QR is calculated using the qua-
dratic equation and is compared with
the required head HR. Then, the second
segment is checked in the same way.
If the calculated head is within 1% of
HR (or a different limit chosen by the
user) on any one of the segments, then
the speed is taken as VFD speed.
Step 3. If matching is not within 1%
(or a different limit chosen by the
user), then the speed is increased by
a small increment, say 1 rpm, and the
next iteration is carried out for speed
= (NMIN +1).
Step 4. The process is continued until
41
 Engineering Practice

Case study

T
he following case study relates to a naphtha splitter application.
This study involves the purchase of a new pump, not the rerating
of an existing or redundant one. Nevertheless, this case study
demonstrates the efficacy of the algorithm discussed here for identi-
fying the best pump models and determining whether or not the use
of a VFD is warranted, after processing a large volume of data to
support proper selection. The input data (attributes 1 through 21 of
Table 1) for this case are based on standard pump series from two
of the approved vendors.
The pump needed by the facility must accommodate two flows:
103 m3/h at system head of 162 m, and 31 m3/h at system head
of 70 m (Figure 3). While the pump must be operated at a flowrate
of 31 m3/h most of the time, operation at 103 m3/h for smaller,
periodic intervals, is also required.
The exact operating hours for individual duty are required to cal-
culate LCC. The computer program based on the algorithm checked
all the pump models available in the data bank and identified 13
possible options with VFD. These are shown as item Numbers 5 to
17 in Table 2.
Table 2 shows all of the possible equipment scenarios — both with
and without a VFD — that were identified here. The data marked
with an asterisk refers to duty parameters that can be achieved
by throttling the flow-control valve, while the data marked with a
double asterisk represent the rated duty parameters required for
pump selection.
In Table 2, Option 4 (using a 37-kW motor) is taken as the
benchmark for comparison. The pumping liquid’s specific gravity
is 0.63.
The higher flow requirement of 103 m3/h can be achieved in sev-
eral ways — by selecting rated flow of 34 m3/h (via three pumps
in parallel), or 51.5 m3/h (via two pumps in parallel), or 103 m3/h
(single pump operation).The flow of 31 m3/h can be achieved with
a single pump.
The scenarios that required FFD versus VFD to achieve these flows
are also tabulated in Table 2. The VFD and corresponding motor
were selected following a discussion with the VFD manufacturer’s
technical representative [9]. For the purpose of comparing potential
power savings among the competing options (the last column of
Table 2), Option 4 was taken as a benchmark, although any of the
options could be used as the benchmark for such a comparison.
The negative sign shows power saving, while a lack of a nega-
tive sign represents excess power consumption with respect to the
benchmark value.
From the options for FFD (Options 1 to 4, Table 2), it is clear that
to achieve the flowrate of 31 m3/h, the single pump will operate
at a head considerably higher than 70 m, which represents energy
loss during throttling.
The options for a pump scenarios involving a VFD (Options 5 to
17, Table 2) show that for the same flowrate, the operation at sys-
tem head of 70 m is possible, with substantial savings indicated by
the negative sign. Thus, it is clear that for flowrate of 31 m3/h the
VFD provides increased energy efficiency.
Looking at impressive savings of 14.95 kW (Option 5 and 14,
Table 2), the engineer may be tempted to recommend the same,
however, an overall review including other flowrates is essential.
For instance, for the higher flow requirement of 103 m3/h, we do
not see very encouraging results with the addition of a VFD, except
for Option 11 and 13 ,where savings of 3.89 and 0.4 kW, respec-
tively, are observed.
As noted in the main text, all options that are potentially viable
from a technical standpoint should also be checked for economical
viability as well, using the LCC analysis methodology; while LCC
analysis is not discussed here, it is described in Ref. 3. When car-
rying out LCC analysis for cases involving operation at the same or
different flows (here 31 m3/h and 103 m3/h), an estimate of the
number of hours of operation for each flow is critical to carry out
the correct estimation of energy consumption.
Due to some specific constraints, engineers at the naphtha split-
ter described here ended up selecting Option 4 (Table 2), which
entailed fixed-frequency operation (that is, no VFD). Nevertheless,

the matching speed or NMAX — which-
ever comes first — is reached. If the
matching speed is not available within
the range of NMIN to NMAX that is ap-
plicable for the pump model being con-
sidered, then the use of a VFD will not
be suitable for this pump model.
Step 5. Once the matching speed has
been established, the flow-versus-effi-
ciency curve is plotted for the match-
ing speed. From this curve, using
quadratic equations for segments, the
efficiency value for the required flow
is calculated, and the same is used
to calculate the power input to the
pump.
Step 6. If there is more than one oper-
ating point (m ≥ 2, as shown in Figures
3 and 5), then the feasibility of using
the same pump model is checked for
all of the operating points, following
Steps 2 through 7.
Step 7. After checking the feasibil-
ity of the first pump model for all the
operating point(s), the process is re-
peated for the rest of the models that
are under consideration (that is, the
pumps whose data are available in the
data bank).
Step 8. The pump models that can
best cover the duty parameters are
tabulated as output.
Finally, once the candidate pump
models have been identified using
this methodology, the compatability of
using a VFD for each of those pump

Authors
D. K. Shukla is the senior vice-president with
Essar Oil Ltd, (Essar Oil Ltd., Refinery Division,
Essar House, 1st Floor, 34 KM Jamnagar Okha
Highway, Vadinar 361 305, Gujrat, India.; Phone:
0091-2833 661 444; Mobile: +91 9819730390;
E-mail: Dhirendra.Shukla@essar.com). He has
more than 30 years of experience in process and
systems engineering in the hydrocarbon process-
ing industries, including oil-and-gas production
facilities, and petroleum refining and petrochem-
ical processes. His previous experience includes
working with Engineers India Ltd. (New Delhi),
M.W. Kellogg (Houston) and BOC Gases (in both
Murray Hill, N.J., and Guildford, U.K.).
Deepak K Chaware is the rotating equip-
ment engineer with Essar Oil Ltd. (Essar Oil
Ltd., Refinery Division, Essar House, 1st Floor,
34 KM Jamnagar Okha Highway, Vadinar 361
305, Gujrat, India.; Phone: 0091-2833 661 444;
Mobile: +91 9909992483 E-mail: Deepak.Cha-
ware@essar.com). He received an M.Tech degree
in mechanical engineering from Indian Insti-
tute of Technology (Chennai). He has more than
25 years of experience in the field of rotating
equipment design, testing and selection. He has
worked with several leading pump manufactur-
ers, including Jyoti Ltd. India, Sulzer Pumps
India Ltd., and KSB Pumps India Ltd.
Rajkumar B. Swamy is the senior process en-
gineer with Litwin PEL LLC (Litwin PEL LLC,
Emdad Complex, P.O. Box: 44715, Mussafah,
Abu Dhabi, U.A.E; Phone: 00971-2-5070121; Fax:
00971-2-5516254; E-mail: Rajkumar.SWAMY@
litwinme.ae). He has more than ten years of expe-
rience in the field of process and system engineer-
ing in petroleum refineries, oil-and-gas, and petro-
chemical complexes. He holds a graduate degree in
chemical engineering from Gulbarga University
(Karnataka, India). Prior to joining Litwin, his
previous experience included working with Foster
Wheeler Asia Pacific Pte Ltd. (Singapore), Reliance
Engineering Associates Private Ltd. (Jamnagar,
India) and Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
Mumbai Refinery (India).

42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010

 Table 2. A comparison of the FFD and VFD optioNS
Duty parameter Proposed Electric
No. of pumps Pump † Motor VFD Total Power
Pump BkW / motor input /
Option Drive = working Q, H, Speed, model efficiency, efficiency, efficiency, power, saving,
pump rating, pump,
+ standby m3/h m rpm % % % kW kW
kW kW
1 FFD 2 = 1 + 1* 31 164 2,900 80x360 34.00 25.71 37 92 100 27.95 27.95 4.77
    2 = 2 + 0** 51.5 162 2,900   50.00 28.69 37 92 100 31.18 62.37 6.68
2 FFD 2 = 1 + 1* 31 167 2,900 100x360 22.00 40.46 75 91 100 44.46 44.46 21.28
    2 = 1 + 1** 103 162 2,900   58.00 49.47 75 91 100 54.36 54.36 -1.33
3 FFD 3 = 1 + 2* 31 163 2,900 80x360 34.00 25.55 37 92 100 27.78 27.78 4.60
    3 = 3 + 0** 34 162 2,900   36.00 26.31 37 92 100 28.60 85.79 30.10
4 FFD 2 = 1 + 1* 31 168 2,950 80X50E 42.00 21.32 37 92 100 23.18 23.18 0.00
    2 = 2 + 0** 51.5 162 2,950   56.00 25.62 37 92 100 27.84 55.69 0.00
5 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 2,260 50X280 52.00 7.18 45 89 98 8.23 8.23 -14.95
    2=2+0 51.5 162 3,452   54.00 26.57 45 89 98 30.46 60.92 5.23
6 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,928 50X360 44.00 8.48 45 89 98 9.72 9.72 -13.46
    2=2+0 51.5 162 2,948   46.50 30.85 45 89 98 35.37 70.74 15.05
7 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,493 50X450 43.20 8.64 55 89 98 9.90 9.90 -13.28
    2=2+0 51.5 162 2,297   43.70 32.83 55 89 98 37.64 75.27 19.58
8 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 2,247 80X280 44.50 8.38 55 89 98 9.61 9.61 -13.57
    2=2+0 51.5 162 3,424   48.00 29.89 55 89 98 34.27 68.53 12.84
9 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,820 80x360 44.00 8.48 55 89 98 9.72 9.72 -13.46
    2=2+0 51.5 162 2,769   46.00 31.19 55 89 98 35.76 71.51 15.82
10 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,528 80X450 40.80 9.15 55 89 98 10.49 10.49 -12.69
    2=2+0 51.5 162 2,331   43.00 33.36 55 89 98 38.25 76.50 20.81
11 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 2,247 80X280 44.50 8.38 90 89 98 9.61 9.61 -13.57
    2=1+1 103 162 3,547   63.50 45.18 90 89 98 51.80 51.80 -3.89
12 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,820 80X360 44.00 8.48 75 89 98 9.72 9.72 -13.46
    2=1+1 103 162 2,890   58.20 49.30 75 89 98 56.52 56.52 0.83
13 VFD 2=1+1 31 70 1,528 80X450 40.80 9.15 75 89 98 10.49 10.49 -12.69
    2=1+1 103 162 2,410   59.50 48.22 75 89 98 55.29 55.29 -0.40
14 VFD 3=1+2 31 70 2,260 50X280 52.00 7.18 37 89 98 8.23 8.23 -14.95
    3=3+0 34 162 3,413   44.00 21.52 37 89 98 24.68 74.04 18.35
15 VFD 3=1+2 31 70 1,928 50X360 45.00 8.29 37 89 98 9.51 9.51 -13.67
    3=3+0 34 162 2,897   38.00 24.92 37 89 98 28.58 85.73 30.04
16 VFD 3=1+2 31 70 1,493 50X450 43.20 8.64 37 89 98 9.90 9.90 -13.28
    3=3+0 34 162 2,225   36.00 26.31 37 89 98 30.16 90.49 34.80
17 VFD 3=1+2 31 70 1,528 80X450 40.80 9.15 45 89 98 10.49 10.49 -12.69
    3=3+0 34 162 2,304   31.00 30.55 45 89 98 35.03 105.08 49.39
* Achieved by throttling. ** Rated duty for pump selection. VFD=Variable frequency drive FFD=Fixed-frequency drive. Specific gravity = 0.63
Option 4, which was ultimately selected with 37-kW motor, was taken as the datum for calculating power saving. “-” A negative sign indicates power
saving, while the absence of the sign indicates power loss. † BkW = brake kilowatt (similar to brake horsepower); BkW is used as we are using the meter-
kilogram- second (MPS) system, not the foot-pound-second (FPS) system.

models will need to be verified by the
VFD, pump and motor vendors.
From the procedure described above,
it is clear that selecting VFD for Case
1 (m = 1, Figure 1) will be relatively
simple compared to Case 2 and Case
3 (m ≥ 2, Figures 3 and 5). Selection
for Case 3 will be more difficult, as a
References
1. “Hydraulic Institute and Europump Variable
Speed Pumping: A Guide to Successful Ap-
plications.” ISBN: 1-85617-449-2.
2. Alfredsson, K., and Bokander, N., Life cycle
cost calculations applied: Constant or vari-
able speed operation, ABS Partners. 1/2002.
3. Hydraulic Institute and Europump, Pump life
cycle costs: A guide to LCC analysis for pump-
ing systems, 2001. ISBN: 1-880952-58-0.
4. Yongzheng, F., Kegi, W., and Yaqiao, C., In-
fluence of back pressure on variable-speed
control, World Pumps, February 2005.
5. Paugh, J., Head vs. capacity characteristics of cen-
trifugal pumps, Chem. Eng., October 15, 1984.
single pump catering to the number
of operating points, lying on differ-
ent system curves, with maximum ef-
ficiency may not be easily available.
Under such circumstances, the user
will likely be forced to select the pump
that offers optimum efficiency, as
achieving the highest efficiency for all
6. Nelson, W., Dufour, J., Problem-free pumping
system – A guide to holistic design, Chem.
Eng., January 1995.
7. Case, G., and Marscher, W., Centrifugal
pump mechanical design, analysis and test-
ing, Proceedings of the 18th International
Pump Users Symposium.
8. Shukla, D.K., et al., Centrifugal pump se-
lection and upgrading for revised operating
conditions. Hydrocarbon Processing, May
2005.
9. Personal discussion with Mr. P. P. Nanavaty
GM-Marketing, Hi-Rel Electronics Pvt Ltd,
India. www.hirel.com.
operating points with a single pump is
not possible.
The LCC analysis is carried out for
each of the selected models using the
method mentioned in Ref. 3. Selection
is then finalized taking into consider-
ation the advantages, disadvantages,
operational issues, constraints and
problems [1, 6, 7] related to the addi-
tion of a VFD. It is essential that the
feasibility of the selected pump mod-
els for the new operating conditions be
checked. The checklist mentioned in
Ref. 8 is a useful tool for doing so. ■
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the manage-
ment of Essar Oil Ltd. (Mumbai, India) and
Litwin PEL LLC (Abu Dhabi, UAE) for granting
permission to publish this article.

Chemical Engineering www.che.com february 2010 43

 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Sizing, Specifying and Selecting
Centrifugal Pumps
Follow these tips to
determine preliminary
pump sizing, to support
cost-estimation efforts
Asif Raza
Zeton Inc.
D
etermining the proper prelimi-
nary size for centrifugal pumps
during the initial stages of any
pump-specification exercise
requires numerous calculations and
assumptions. This article reviews the
steps needed to size centrifugal pumps
during the early stages of a project, to
support initial cost-estimation efforts.
Such early pump-sizing efforts are im-
portant steps toward final pump selec-
tion and detailed engineering.
Sizing centrifugal pumps
Normal flowrate and rated flow-
rate. To define the normal and rated
flowrates, refer to the heat and mass
balance of your project. Normal flow-
rate is the flow at 100% capacity.
Rated flowrate is the design margin
that is added to the normal flowrate
(typically on the order of 10–30%), to
accommodate potential short-term ex-
cursions in flowrate during operation.
Rated flowrate is usually defined by
the user. If it is not defined, consider
10% for normal-service pumps, and
20–30% for critical-service pumps,
such as distillation column reflux
pumps, reactor feed and furnace-feed
pumps and other feed pumps that play
a critical role in the overall process.
Pressure-drop calculations. The
intent of these calculations is to de-
termine suction pressure and rated
differential pressure. Please refer
to sample calculation #1 (discussed
below) and Figure 1 for performing
pump-sizing calculations, which in-
C-100
F-102
12.5 ft
Control
valve
Filter
P-101
2 ft Pump 3 ft
Grade
Figure 1. Refer to this pump-system sketch for the pump-design calculations
discussed here. Note, a distance of 2 ft between the pump-inlet piping and grade and
3-ft distance between pump-discharge piping and grade is assumed during initial siz-
ing. These values should be confirmed once pump selection is done
clude calculation of suction pressure
and rated differential pressure.
Net pressure suction head (NPSH)
calculations. During the early stages
of the project, the plant layout is not
yet firm. Hence, NPSH available for
the pump(s) cannot yet be calculated
with confidence. However, it is okay
to carry out preliminary NPSH cal-
culations using information from the
preliminary layout. Note that NPSH
values can be increased by later modi-
fications to the layout. NPSH plays a
very important role during pump se-
lection, and could significantly impact
the cost of the pump if a lower-NPSH
(required) pump is specified, since
pumps with a lower NPSH require-
ment tends to be more expensive.
The goal is to calculate a preliminary
NPSH value and provide it to the
pump vendors to get initial feedback.
This allows both parties to determine
whether a pump with the specified
NPSH can be achieved or not, can be
achieved with some modification to
the plant layout, or can be achieved
by selecting a pump with lower NPSH
requirements. Based on the vendor’s
feedback, modify your layout to have a
design margin between the available
and required NPSH. A design margin
of 3–4 ft is widely accepted, per indus-
try standards. See sample calculation
#2 for calculating NPSH (available).
Chemical Engineering www.che.com FEBRuary 2013
C-106
E-103
H-105
Heat Furnace
exchangers Distillation
column
22 ft
Horsepower and efficiency. In the
early stages of the project, you will
have to provide preliminary horse-
power to the electrical engineer for
load calculations. From the rated dif-
ferential pressure, calculate the rated
horsepower. Since the pump has not
yet been selected, you can assume a
pump efficiency between 50 and 60%.
Make a judgment call — 50% is typi-
cally a sufficient value for calculating
horsepower during the initial stages
of a project.
Shutoff pressure. Shutoff pressure is
required in early stages of the project
to determine the flange rating for the
discharge piping of the pump. There
are several ways to calculate shutoff
pressure. A more conservative method
uses the following formula:
Differential pressure × 1.25 +
maximum suction pressure
Maximum suction pressure is
calculated by:
Pressure safety valve (PSV) set pres-
sure × 10 – 21% accumulation + static
head based on high liquid level
If a user does not have information
such as the PSV set pressure in the
early stages of the project, a simple
approach for calculating shutoff head
is to use this formula:
Rated differential head × 1.5
43
 TABLE 1. Pump-sizing spreadsheet for calculating suction
pressure and rated differential pressure (Calculation #1)
Engineering Practice Rated flow Normal flow
condition condition
Suction pressure
Re
opecomm Source pressure, psig 30 30
rat en
Head produced by pump

Impeller 1 ing ded Static head = 10.5 ft (ft x specific gravity/2.31), 3.2 3.2
ran
ge* psi
Impeller 2
Suction line loss, psi 0.3 0.3
Impeller 3 Pump suction pressure, psig (30+3.2) (30+3.2)
–0.3 = 32.9 –0.3 = 32.9

Best efficiency
Discharge pressure
point (BEP)** Delivery pressure, psig 100 100
Static head = 19 ft (ft x specific gravity/2.31), psi 5.8 5.8
Flowrate produced
Line loss, psig 33 23
* The recommended operating range is between
70–120% of the BEP flowrate Control-valve pressure drop, psid 38 83.5
* * BEP is a point on the curve, is specific to each
pump, and is provided by the pump manufacturer Filter pressure drop, psid 14.4 10
Heat exchanger 1 pressure drop, psid 14.4 10
Figure 2. This pump-performance
curve shows the best efficiency point Heat exchanger 2 pressure drop, psid 14.4 10
(BEP) and the recommended operating Furnace pressure drop, psid 72 50
range, which are helpful during pump
selection. Note the shaded region rep- Orifice flowmeter pressure drop, psid 2.88 2
resents the operating range for different Contingency, psig 10 10
impeller sizes
Differential pressure, psig
Specifying centrifugal pumps Discharge pressure, psig =100+5.8+3 =100+5.8+2
The following steps must be carried 3+14.4+14. 3+10+10+10
4+14.4+72+ +50+2+83.5
out during the specification of centrif- 2.88+38+10 +10=305
ugal pumps: =305
Gather basic process data. Fill out
Minus suction pressure, psig 32.9 32.9
the pump data sheet with the follow-
ing basic information: Suction pres- Total pump differential pressure, psig 272 272
sure, normal and rated discharge Pump head (psi x 2.31/specific gravity) 900 900
pressures, normal flowrate and rated Hydraulic power = gal/min x pump head (ft) x 382 318
flowrate, fluid properties, such as den- specific gravity/3,960, hP
sity, viscosity and vapor pressure at Efficiency at 3,600 rpm, % 60 60
operating temperature.
Rated power = Hydraulic power/efficiency, hp 637 530
Determine a preliminary value
for NPSH. Please refer to the NPSH
calculations presented below (sample regarding whether to use a sealed or must be based on the end user’s re-
calculation #2). sealless design pump. Consider seal- quirements, process conditions, and
Specify desired materials of con- less pumps for liquids that are flam- the cost of the equipment. In general,
struction. This should come from the mable, toxic and corrosive. For in- the cost increases in this order: Non-
end user or from a metallurgist who is stance, many facilities use traditional ANSI, sub-ANSI, ANSI and API, while
involved in the project and is respon- sealed pumps for pumping water, and non-ANSI pumps have the lowest cost.
sible for specifying the appropriate sealless pumps for pumping acids and A non-ANSI pump usually finds its ap-
metallurgy of the equipment. alkalis and other corrosive liquids. plication in small sizes handling less
Specify sealless versus mechanical Work closely with your vendor and critical service, such as water that is
seals. Magnetic-drive sealless pumps seek guidance based on previous being pumped at relatively low pres-
are desirable for many applications experience in applications with sure and low temperature. An ANSI
since they eliminate the need for me- similar service. If a sealless pump is pump is usually used in applications
chanical seals, and thus eliminate the not available, consider using a double requiring relatively larger sizes (for
inherent risk of leakage and mainte- mechanical seal to minimize the risk instance, more than 10 hP) in chemi-
nance associated with such seals. But of leakage. Rely on the vendor’s expe- cal or hydrocarbon service.
sealless pumps also have drawbacks, rience, as well, in selecting the most However, some ANSI pumps may be
such as an inability to handle larger appropriate mechanical seal for your limited to a maximum casing pressure.
particles in the process fluids. And service. Provide vendors with as much For higher-casing pressures, the user
in some applications, relatively high process data as you have, to ensure may have no choice but to consider a
differential pressure requires high proper seal selection for your service. custom-made pump or an API pump.
torque, which may be beyond the ca- Classify non-ANSI, sub-ANSI and API pumps tend to be considerably
pabilities of the sealless pump. ANSI–API pumps. Ultimately, the more expensive than ANSI pumps, as
Rely on the end-user’s experience selection of specific centrifugal pumps they are typically used in hydrocarbon
44 Chemical Engineering www.che.com FEBRuary 2013

380
90 360
80 340
70 320
Head, ft
60 300
Efficiency, %
50 280
40 260
30 240
20
10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1,200 1,300
Figure 3. This figure shows a relationship between flowrate and head, power, effi-
ciency and NPSH. Note the NPSH curve is bowl-shaped. NPSH requirements increase
with flow. Make sure you analyze this value carefully and select a NPSH (required)
value that corresponds to the rated flowrate
service involving high temperatures
and very high pressures. Such pumps
are widely used in refinery service.
Specify design pressure and tem-
perature. Specifying design pressure
and temperature based on the design
conditions of the pump suction vessel
may seem to be the easiest approach.
But check for any possible upset condi-
tions that might warrant an increase
in design pressure and temperature,
such as a new process stream entering
the pump suction in a different pro-
cess operating mode.
Specify the motor requirements.
The required power supply, whether
it is 460 V at 60 Hz, or 230 V at 50
Hz, must be supplied by the end user.
Lastly you have to specify the hazard-
ous area classifications and tempera-
ture rating of the motor. Check with
your electrical engineers to identify
the required hazardous area classi-
fication. Motor temperature rating
should also come from the end user.
This is based on the lowest autoigni-
tion temperature of the components
involved in the process. Keep in mind,
most of the time, a motor rating up to
T3A is available at no added cost, but
the cost increases substantially if a
motor with a rating of T4 or higher is
specified.
Next, you need to specify whether
you want a fixed-speed motor or a
variable-speed drive motor. If you are
controlling the pump flow with a speed
controller, then you must select an
inverted-duty, variable-speed motor.
However, note that if there is a control
valve on the pump discharge, then you
must use a fixed-drive motor.
40
NPSH– required, ft
NPSH-required
20
0
Rated flow Efficiency
Head
BEP
Allowable
operating region
Preferred
operating region 150
Power, BHP
100
Power
50
Flowrate, U.S. gal/m
Sample calculations
Consider the pump system sketch
shown in Figure 1. A fluid with a vapor
pressure of 45.9 psia at operating tem-
perature of 430°F with a viscosity of
0.5 cP is pumped at normal flow of
2,000 gal/min. The specific gravity is
0.7 and the delivery pressure is 100
psig. The operating pressure of col-
umn C-100 is 30 psig. The atmospheric
pressure at site is 14.5 psia. Assume
a rated flowrate of 2,400 gal/min (1.2
times the normal flowrate).
Note that two sets of calculations
are done for calculating horsepower
— one for normal flowrate and other
for rated flowrate. Refer to Figure 1
for calculating static head. Pressure
drop across filters, heat exchangers,
orifice meters and furnaces are taken
from actual equipment vendor quotes.
These quotes may be available from
different disciplines, such as mechani-
cal and instrumentation departments.
If vendor quotes are not available
during preliminary pump sizing, then
assumptions must be made based on
interactions with other disciplines.
For instance, it is okay to assume a
pressure drop of 10 psid across heat
exchangers or a pressure drop of 5–10
psid across a filter. Pressure drop
across a vessel filled with catalyst
should be calculated using the Ergun
equation. These pressure-drop values
are finalized when equipment design
is finalized and are used for final pump
sizing, during the detailed engineering
phase, to check the rated differential
pressure and rated brake horsepower.
It is helpful to perform these calcula-
tions using an Excel spreadsheet.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com FEBRuary 2013
The pump-sizing calculations also
provide pressure-drop data across the
control valve, under normal- and rated-
flow circumstances. Specify control-
valve pressure drop at the rated flow,
following the widely accepted rule of
thumb — that is, pressure drop is 25%
of the dynamic head loss at rated flow.
In this case, dynamic head loss at the
rated flow is 151 psig (the sum of pres-
sure drop across filters, heat exchang-
ers, furnaces, orifices and line losses.
Hence the differential pressure across
the control valve in this scenario at
rated flow is 38 psig).
Note: If the calculated pressure drop
across the control valve is less than 10
psig, use a minimum value of 10 psig
for the control valve at rated flowrate.
Now adjust the pressure drop across
the control valve at normal flow and
try to match the discharge pressure
until it is equal at normal and rated
flow. Pressure drop is directly propor-
tional to the square of the flow, hence
pressure drop across rated flow is cal-
culated using the following formula
(Note that the rated flow is 1.2 times
the normal flow):
Filter pressure drop at normal flow =
10 psig
Filter pressure drop at rated flow =
10 × (1.2 × 1.2) = 14.4 psig
In reality, the discharge pressure at
normal flow and rated flow may not be
the same, but the two values will be
very close. A pump is designed to oper-
ate at rated flow conditions. However,
a pump operates at normal flow most
of the time during normal operation.
Normal operation
During normal operation, because the
flow is lower than the rated flow, the
pump will try to develop more head.
During this scenario, the control valve
will start closing and will consume
more pressure drop. This will have the
effect of moving the pump back onto
the pump curve.
Here, you will notice that pressure
difference in rated flow is 38 psig
(specified by the designer) and is 83.5
psig in normal flow. The difference be-
tween these two values is the excess
dynamic head between normal flow-
rate and rated flowrate. The relation-
45

Engineering Practice
ship between the pump’s head-capac-
ity curve and pipe-system relationship
resistance is shown in Figure 4.
Pressure drop across the control
valve should not be included as a part
of the dynamic head loss. The gap be-
tween the head-capacity curve and the
system-resistance curve is available
for throttling (control-valve pressure
drop). Control valve pressure drop at
normal flow is higher than the pres-
sure drop at rated flow. While pipe
dynamic head loss increases at higher
flowrates (rated flow), control-valve
pressure drop decreases. At higher
flowrates, the control valve has to
open more and pass larger flow with
less resistance.
Designers should appreciate the
importance of specifying the correct
pressure drop for the control valve
at different flow conditions, to en-
sure a rugged system design. If a sys-
tem is poorly defined, the pump will
never be able to control the flow and
it will never provide proper flow at
the required head. The efficiency will
be low and the pump will consume
more power.
It is also advisable to install a globe
valve at the pump discharge, to allow
for throttling the flow and adjusting
the flow and discharge pressure. How-
ever, please keep in mind that the in-
stallation of a globe valve will incur a
constant pressure drop, which must be
accounted for during head-loss
calculations.
Ultimately, the calculated control-
valve pressure drop at normal and
rated flows will be given to the in-
strument engineer who is responsible
for specifying and sizing the control
valves for your project.
Sample calculation #1. Table 1
shows the results of a pump-sizing ex-
ercise, in which suction pressure and
rated differential pressure were calcu-
lated.
Sample calculation #2. Static pres-
sure available at the pump suction
inlet = (Operating pressure of the
vessel + static head) – suction-piping
head loss at rated flow.
NPSH (available) = Static pressure at
the pump suction inlet – vapor pres-
sure at the operating temperature.
The results of these sample calcula-
tions are shown in Table 2.
46 Chemical Engineering www.che.com FEBRuary 2013
Head capacity curve
Head at normal flow
Total head, ft
Head at rated flow
System
resistance
Static and
pressure head
differentials
Figure 4. This figure shows the relationship between a pump's head-capacity
curve and pipe system resistance (dynamic head loss). It also shows pressure drop
across a control valve at normal and rated flowrate. Note: Pressure drop across the
control valve at rated flow is less than the pressure drop at normal flow
Pump selection
During this stage of the project, you
should be getting quotes back from
the vendor, based on the pump speci-
fications you have provided. While
various quotes will vary in their dol-
lar value, keep in mind that a more-
expensive pump does not necessarily
mean that it is the best pump for the
job, and the least-expensive pump is
not worth further consideration. To as-
sess competing quotes fairly, develop a
spreadsheet to gather the following se-
lection criteria. Assign points to each
item that meets your specifications.
NPSH. Check for NPSH (required)
from the pump data sheet provided by
the vendor. How close it is to your esti-
mated value of NPSH (available)? Ask
yourself — Can you make this pump
work by increasing NPSH (available)?
It cannot be stressed enough that
NPSH is a key parameter during pump
selection, and insufficient NPSH often
results in pump cavitation.
Cavitation occurs when vapor bub-
bles that have formed in areas of low
static pressure move along the impel-
ler vanes into high-pressure areas,
where they rapidly collapse. The forces
produced by these bubbles as they im-
plode erode the impeller vane, result-
ing in progressive pitting to the impel-
lers. As a rule of thumb, an acceptable
margin between NPSH (available) and
NPSH (required) is required to ensure
pump reliability. A minimum margin
of 3–4 ft is a widely practiced rule of
thumb. Since the NPSH requirement
increases with increasing flow, it is
important to consider the maximum
expected flow when specifying an ac-
ceptable NPSH margin.
Rated flow and differential pres-
Operating points Control valve
A
pressure drop
B
∆P1
∆P2
∆P2
∆P1 Dynamic
head loss
through
discharge
∆H piping
Capacity (Q), gal/min
sure. Analyze all quotes to see whether
they meet your specified value of rated
flow and differential pressure.
Material of construction. Does this
meet your specified material of con-
struction?
Analyzing pump curve and effi-
ciency. Pump efficiency is a very im-
portant value to be considered. Some
vendors may quote a bigger pump
than what is required. In such a case,
the pump efficiency will be reduced.
Designers should note that a pump
with even 10% higher efficiency will
save thousands of dollars in power
costs over the service life of the pump.
It is good practice to examine sev-
eral performance charts at different
speeds to see if one model satisfies the
requirements more efficiently than an-
other. Whenever possible, the lowest
pump speed should be selected, as this
will save wear and tear on the rotat-
ing parts. Efficiency can be found on
the pump curve provided by the pump
vendor. Refer to Figure 3, which shows
the relationship between efficiency and
flowrate. This figure also shows the re-
lationship between volumetric flowrate,
head, NPSH and brake horsepower.
Every pump has a best efficiency point
(BEP), which is the flow/head combina-
tion that corresponds to the highest ef-
ficiency. The preferred operating region
is between 70 and 120% of the BEP
flowrate value [1], although most users
require the rated flow to fall between
80% and 110% of BEP. The allowable
operating region varies from pump to
pump, and is defined as the flow range
within which vibrations do not exceed
the limits established by the American
Petroleum Institute (API) [1].
Refer to Figure 2, for the recom-
 TABLE 2. NPSH CALCULATIONS (Calculation #2)
Atmospheric pressure, psia
Specific gravity (SG), dimensionless
Original pressure (vessel pressure), psig
Static head = 10.5 ft (Note 1)
Suction line loss, psig
Suction pressure at pump inlet flange, psia
Vapor pressure, psia
Net pressure suction head (NPSH) = Suc-
tion pressure – vapor pressure, psia
NPSH available, ft
Note 1: Static head is measured from the low liquid level in the vessel to the center line of the
pump-suction flange, or from the vessel bottom nozzle to the center line of the pump-suction
flange. The latter is more conservative approach.
mended operating range. The shaded
region represents the operating range,
that is discussed in the above para-
graph. Note in this figure, there are
three curves for three different impel-
ler sizes provided by the pump vendor.
While selecting an impeller, it is good
practice to select a pump with an im-
peller that can be increased in size, as
this will allow for future increases in
head and capacity.
Mechanical seal arrangements.
When evaluating competing vendor
quotes, be sure you are comparing
“apples to apples.” For instance, some
vendors may have quoted a double me-
chanical seal, while your requirement
was for a single seal. If this happens,
ask the vendor to revise the quote.
Motors. Check for the motor sizing,
and whether it has been sized for full
run-out case. Full run-out means that
the motor should be sized for the max-
imum flowrate the pump can deliver.
The stated motor temperature rating
and specified electrical area classifica-
tion must meet your requirements.
Physical size of the pump. Check
for the dimension of the pump from
the quotes received. If space is tight,
you may have to consider an inline
pump, or a high-speed, single-stage
pump over a multistage pump.
Design conditions. Check for design
temperature and pressure from the
vendor quotes and make sure that
they meet your requirements.
Design codes. Does the quoted pump
meet your specified design codes, such
as API, ANSI and so on.
Warranty. When evaluating compet-
ing pump options, check for the manu-
facturer’s performance warranties and
for the availability of onsite startup
assistance from the vendor, if specified
in the Request for Quotation (RFQ).
Scope of supply for auxiliary
equipment. Make sure the vendor’s
quote includes the supply of all the
accessories required, such as lubrica-
14.5
0.7
30 Get Chemical
(10.5/2.31) x 0.7 = 3.18 psig
0.3 Engineering’s
=30 + 3.18 – (0.3)
= 32.88 + 14.5 = 47.38 psia
plant cost index
45.9 to improve plant
47.38 – 45.9 = 1.48 psia
cost estimates…
= 1.48 x 2.31/0.7 = 4.89
and delivered in
advance of the
tion-oil coolers, interconnecting piping
between the coolers, instruments, such print edition!
as flow switches on the cooling water
lines and so on. Be sure to compare all For more than 37 years,
the quotes on the same basis. chemical process industries
Price. Before selecting a particular
professionals- engineers,
pump, make sure that you are com-
paring “apples to apples,” as different manager and technicians,
vendors may have quoted different have used Chemical
pump options in different styles, with Engineering’s Plant Cost
different seal arrangements, using dif- Index to adjust process
ferent assumptions and so on. plant construction costs
from one period to another.
Final thoughts
Close coordination with the pump This database includes all
vendor and developing a solid under- annual archives (1947 to
standing of the process requirements
present) and monthly data
are essential steps during pump de-
sign and selection. By understanding archives (1970 to present).
the concepts of rated flow, head, suc- Instead of waiting more
tion pressure and NPSH, and by un- than two weeks for the
derstanding pump curves, you will be print or online version of
on the right track to design and select Chemical Engineering to
the most appropriate pump that meets
all of the process requirements. ■ arrive, subscribers can
Edited by Suzanne Shelley access new data as soon as
it’s calculated.
Reference
1. American Petroleum Inst. (API), “Centrifugal Resources included with
Pumps for Petroleum, Petrochemicals and
Natural Gas Industries,” 10th Ed., API Stan- Chemical Engineering’s
dards 610 (ISO 13709), Washington, D.C.
Plant Cost Index:
Author • Electronic notification of
Asif Raza is a lead process monthly updates as soon
engineer at Zeton Inc. (740
Oval Court, Burlington, ON as they are available
L7L 6A9, Canada; Phone:
905-632-3123; Email: asi- • All annual data archives
fraza_us@yahoo.com). His
work involves the design and (1947 to present)
manufacture of pilot and
demonstration units for re- • Monthly data archives
search and development, in
(1970 to present)
the areas of petroleum refin-
ing, petrochemicals, gasifica-
tion and unconventional sources of energy, such • Option to download in
as biomass, gas-to-liquids and coal-to-liquids. Excel format
He has more than 15 years of experience in pro-
cess design. His areas of interest include major
equipment sizing and selection, P&ID develop-
ment, selection of control logics and process
simulation. Before joining Zeton, Raza worked Subscribe today at
as a lead design engineer with engineering, pro-
curement and construction (EPC) companies, in- www.che.com/pci
cluding Bantrel Inc. and SNC Lavalin Engineers
and Constructors. He holds a B.Tech degree in
chemical engineering from Amravati University 17817
(India). Raza is a registered professional engi-
neer in the province of Ontario, and is a member
of Ontario Society of Professional Engineers.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com FEBRuary 2013 47
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice

Lubricating
Rotating
Machinery Figure 1. In an oil-injected, twin-screw compressor, the lu-
Follow this guidance to improve bricating oil is injected into the gas stream to absorb the heat
of compression and act as lubricant and sealant. This enables
lubricant selection, process a much higher pressure ratio in a single stage and provides
significant protection against corrosive gases. In multi-stage
machines, inter-cooling is usually not required
operation and asset reliability
Amin Almasi compressors or pumps, the lubricant lent wear protection, excellent lubric-
WorleyParsons Services Pty Ltd. is in contact with moisture (from the ity. They should be non-poisoning to
handled fluid), so the lubricant must catalysts, since some oil will be trans-

L
ubricants in rotating machines
reduce friction and wear, dissi-
pate heat, protect surfaces, keep
out foreign contaminants and re-
move wear particles. Commonly used
liquid lubricants fall into two main
categories: mineral (petroleum-based)
oils and synthetic oils.
Mineral oils are produced by refining
crude petroleum. They usually contain
trace amounts of some unwanted sub-
stances. By contrast, synthetic oils are
engineered, so their properties can be
more tightly controlled. Synthetic oil
lubricants include synthesized hydro-
carbons (such as polyalphaolefin, or
PAO), organic esters (such as diesters
and polyol-esters), polyglycols, polyal-
kylene glycol (PAG), phosphate esters
and silicone lubricants.
Mineral oils are more frequently
used in chemical process industries
(CPI) applications, but the impor-
tance and use of synthetic oils has
been steadily increasing in recent
years. In general, they offer superior
performance in terms of higher oxida-
tion stability, improved corrosion re-
sistance, and the ability to withstand
both higher and lower temperatures.
Compressors and pumps
Some compressors operate with gas
discharge temperatures exceeding
160°C. This calls for a lubricating oil
that has good oxidation properties and
thermal stability. Meanwhile, in some
44 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2012
have good demulsibility (that is, resis-
tance to emulsification, or good resis-
tance to mixing with water).
Today, the overwhelming majority
of compressors and pumps are best
served by premium-grade oils with
ISO VG 32 or 46 (sometimes ISO VG
68 or 100 grades). However, there are
many different types of compressors
and pumps, and each manufacturer is
likely to recommend only those lubri-
cants that have been used successfully
before. Occasionally, compressor lubri-
cants have to be formulated for excep-
tional severe-service performance.
Reciprocating and screw compres-
sors. During operation, lubricants used
in screw compressors and in the cylin-
ders of reciprocating compressors are
in direct contact with compressed gas.
With conventional mineral oils, such
gas can become dissolved in the oil.
Additionally, any oil that becomes dis-
solved in the gas can be carried away,
depleting the lubricating film. This can
result in machine component scoring
and higher wear rates. Specially for-
mulated synthetic lubricants generally
perform better in these instances.
When selecting a lubricant for re-
ciprocating or screw compressors, low
solubility in compressed gas should be
a key selection criteria. The selected
lubricants should also have relatively
high viscosity indexes, minimal vis-
cosity loss, good thermal stability over
an extended temperature range, excel-
ferred downstream by the gas.
For reciprocating or screw compres-
sors, the lubrication oils that meet all
of these criteria are mainly synthetic
lubricants formulated with PAG base
stock. Overall, these provide excellent
oxidative and thermal stability, which
are particularly important for high-
temperature applications. Relatively
high viscosity indexes facilitate low-
temperature startup and help to main-
tain acceptable viscosity over a wide
temperature range.
PAG lubricants are highly stable,
even at sustained high temperatures,
and thus have very low deposit-form-
ing tendencies. And importantly, any
decomposition products that may form
tend to be soluble in the lubricant and
thus do not tend to separate as sludge
or contribute to the formation of var-
nish or lacquer. Similarly, because of
their close contact, it is important to
select lubricants that are compatible
with the elastomer and coatings used
in the compressor’s wetted parts.
Minimizing lubricant carryover to
downstream discharge streams is im-
portant for any compressor, particu-
larly for screw compressors and recip-
rocating compressors. In general, gas
solubility increases roughly linearly
with increasing pressure. As a rough
indication, PAG lubricants typically
have a gas solubility that is less than
half of that of mineral oils or PAO syn-
thetic oils. High-pressure reciprocat-
 Turbine lubrication oil system
MOP
To
hydraulic
system
Lubrication
oil cooler
Oil ejector
ACP TGOP EOP
ing compressors (that is, those above
300 bar, up to several thousand bar)
need special attention in this regard.
Another important consideration is
water solubility. PAG lubricants show
less than 20% of the water solubility
of typical mineral oils. Generally, min-
eral oils (or petroleum oils) are complex
mixtures of naturally occurring hydro-
carbons, but synthetic base fluids have
a controlled molecular structure with
predictable and advanced properties.
When it comes to reciprocating com-
pressors, the traditional approach has
been to ensure that the lube oil that
is supplied to the crankcase (bearing)
is the same as the lube oil supplied to
the cylinder and packing. The goal has
been to keep lubricant types to a small
number, to bring down costs and avoid
lubricant misapplication. However, in
a majority of cases, it is more appro-
priate to provide a different lubricant
to the cylinder and packing working
space to improve overall performance.
For instance, lubricants for the
crankcase and crankshaft mechanism
should be suitable for the particular
bearing application. In many cases,
this will involve using a suitable min-
eral oil (or sometimes a synthetic lu-
bricant that is suitable for bearing ap-
plications) in relatively large volumes
in a closed lubrication loop.
On the other hand, cylinder and
packing lubricants must be suitable
for use in contact with gases. In many
cases, separate lubricant-supply sys-
tems are used for working space (cyl-
inder packings) and running compo-
nents (crankshaft bearings), to enable
the most optimal lubrication for each.
Synthetic lubricants with ISO VG
100 to 220 ratings are extensively used
for reciprocating compressor cylinder-
packing for process services. In the lu-
brication of double-acting compressor
FIGURE 2.
A typical turbine
ACP: Alternative-current,
motor-driven oil pump
lubrication oil
TGOP: Turning-gear oil pump
EOP: Emergency oil pump system requires
JOP: Jacking oil pump
MOP: Main shaft-driven a combined oil
oil pump
system that sup-
plies lubrication
oil for bearings
and hydraulic oil
for the turbines
JOP
cylinders, one of the most important
factors is the rate of oil feed. In general,
the risk of over-lubrication is greater
than that of supplying too little oil. Be-
cause many problems associated with
reciprocating compressor operation
can be overcome by preventing exces-
sive lubrication, proper control of the
supply of oil to the cylinder is the key.
Nearly 45% of reciprocating com-
pressor shutdowns are due to cylinder
valve and unloader problems. About
20% of reciprocating compressor shut-
downs result from packing or piston
ring problems. Proper selection and
use of cylinder and packing lubricant
is essential to improve the perfor-
mance of cylinder valves, unloaders,
packings, piston rings and bearings.
Operators should examine how
closely the applied lubricant’s feedrate
meets the actual cylinder packing’s
lubricant requirements. This can be
done by examining internal surfaces,
such as cylinder walls. When properly
lubricated, these surfaces should be
covered with a thin film of oil. There
should be no evidence of oil accumula-
tion. If the cylinder surfaces are wiped
with a piece of paper, oil should stain
paper evenly, but should not soak in.
If the paper is dry or unevenly spot-
ted, the feedrate is too low. If the paper
is saturated, the feedrate is too high.
Lubricant feedrate should be adjusted
to provide no more than the minimum
lubricant requirement.
There is violent mixing of lubricant
and gas inside rotary screw compres-
sors (oil-flooded screw compressors).
In general, screw compressors need
lubricants with extra oxidation re-
sistance to ensure long service life in
closed circulatory systems. They also
require lubricants with lower viscos-
ity compared to cylinder-packing lu-
bricants. In rotary screw compressors,
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2012
the same lubricant is often used for
bearings as well as internal compres-
sor lubrication.
Inside screw compressors, the lubri-
cant is used to lubricate mating metal
surfaces and seal compression cham-
bers (which form as a result of screw
mashing) and to cool the compressed
gas. Lubricant films seal and lubricate
all contact lines between male and fe-
male screws.
Oil viscosity plays an important role
in ensuring machine performance and
minimizing power losses. The selected
lubricants should maintain a depend-
ably strong lubricant film to provide
dependable wear protection, ther-
mal stability, and appropriate viscos-
ity across the temperatures they are
likely to encounter during operation
(Figure 1). At the same time, the vis-
cosity should be appropriate to limit
power losses.
Dynamic compressor and pump lu-
brication. Dynamic compressors and
pumps are machines that achieve a
pressure rise by adding kinetic energy
and velocity to a continuous flow of
fluid. These machines deliver relatively
large volumes of fluid at relatively low
or medium pressure increases. Com-
mon types of dynamic machines include
centrifugal and axial compressors
and pumps.
Optimal lubricants for dynamic com-
pressors and pumps are usually pre-
mium extreme-pressure (EP), multi-
purpose oils designed for dependable
performance over a wide range of tem-
peratures and operating conditions
(extreme-pressure lubricants are oils
that can work under shock or sudden
high pressure rises). The most ap-
propriate lubricants for dynamic ma-
chines tend to be synthetic lubricants
formulated from PAG base stock, and
that have dedicated anti-wear, severe-
service and long-life properties.
Specifically, when specifying a lu-
bricant for dynamic machinery, users
should opt for ones that have the fol-
lowing characteristics:
1. Superb oxidative and thermal sta-
bility
2. Relatively high viscosity indexes
(values depend on the application
and can vary considerably)
3. Relatively low pour points for easy
cold temperature startup (again,
45
 Engineering Practice
optimal values depend on applica-
tion and can vary considerably)
4. Excellent lubricity for enhanced
resistance to friction and wear
5. Extreme pressure lubrication
6. Good resistance to mechanical
breakdown
7. Good resistance to sludge and var-
nish formation
8. Non-corrosive and stain resistant
9. Suitable compatibility with elasto-
mers and coatings (particularly seal
system components, gear unit inter-
nal paints and so on)
Lubricants with ISO VG 32, 46 and 68
grades are commonly used in dynamic
compressors and dynamic pumps.
Turbine lubrication
Turbine lubricants must have excellent
thermal and oxidation resistance at
bearing oil temperatures, which can ap-
proach 100°C in typical steam turbines
or heavy-duty industrial gas turbines,
and can exceed 200°C in aero-deriva-
tive gas turbines. Turbine lubricants
must control the rust and corrosion
that could destroy precision surfaces,
and resist foaming and air entrain-
ment, which could impair lubrication
and lead to equipment breakdown.
Such lubricants must also have suit-
ably high viscosity indexes that allow
more uniform lubricating performance
over a wide range of ambient and op-
erating temperatures. They should
also be easily filterable without addi-
tive depletion (additive separation or
sludge formation).
Turbine lubricants should be ver-
satile, able to serve as both lubricat-
ing oil and hydraulic fluid for various
turbine systems, generators, driven
equipment, gear units and other aux-
iliary components. The goal is to sim-
plify lubricant inventories to a rela-
tively small number of multi-purpose
products, thereby minimizing the
chance of potentially costly lubricant
misapplications. Products of interest
for turbine operators are ISO grades
32, 46 and 68.
Steam and gas turbine oils are ex-
pected to provide years of trouble-free
operation (Figures 2 and 3). In-service
monitoring of turbine oils is a valuable
means of assuring optimum oil perfor-
mance and extended turbine life. The
following recommendations are in-
46 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2012
tended as a general guideline. If
the limit is passed, the lubricant
should be replaced, and the prob-
lem root-cause should be studied
so that required corrective action
may be taken at the first oppor-
tunity: FIGURE 3. Tilting-pad bearings are com-
monly used for high-speed rotating machines.
• Total acid number increase — Each bearing consists of a series of pads.
The warning limit is 0.3 mg Because oil is basically incompressible, pres-
KOH/g) sure builds within the oil film, which provides a
• Water content — The warning means for the oil film to transfer the load
limit is 0.2%)
• Cleanliness — It is necessary to find in the case of leakage. Operators
the source of particulates (for exam- should adjust or select oil operating
ple, makeup oils, dust or ash entering pressures greater than the cooling-
system, wear and so on), so that steps water’s operating pressure.
can be taken to address the problem 3.  The main contributor to entrained
• The Rotary Bomb Oxidation Test water in the oil system is steam by-
(RBOT) warning limit is less than passing the steam seals, and subse-
half of the test result value of the quently mixing with the lubricant
original oil (RBOT is a method of oil. This is particularly prevalent in
comparing the oxidation life of lu- steam turbines with high back pres-
bricants. For more information refer sure or high first-stage pressure, once
to ASTM 4378 and ASTM D-2272) the seals are worn. It is good practice
Steam turbines. A steam-turbine to provide air purge connections on
oil system is usually required to pro- the bearing seals of steam turbines.
vide oil for bearings, trip-and-throttle Dry instrument air will provide posi-
valves, governor systems, power cyl- tive pressure in the lube oil area.
inders and similar accessories. Trip- Gas turbine lubrication. In general
and-throttle valves have two major there are two classes of gas turbines:
functions — as an emergency shut-off 1.  Heavy-duty gas turbines. Lubricant
valve to trip the steam turbine (that is, selection for these types of gas tur-
to cut steam flow immediately at the bines is similar to the selection for
inlet) and to admit and throttle steam steam turbines. Standard compo-
to the steam turbine, particularly dur- nents of these turbines are fairly
ing startup. The use of a combined oil massive and the bearings are typi-
unit — one that provides both lubri- cally located at some distance from
cation oil for bearings and hydraulic the heat sources. In most cases,
control oil for trip-and-throttle valves, petroleum-based lubricants perform
governors and similar applications — suitably for these gas turbines.
is very common. 2.  Lightweight aero-derivative gas
Steam turbine lubricants must turbines. These turbines tend to be
readily shed any water that becomes compact, as they are mainly based
entrained during operation. Water in on aircraft gas turbine engines. As
the steam-turbine train’s oil reservoir a result, size and weight are ex-
typically comes from one of the three tremely important, and the bearings
following sources (A water analysis are typically located relatively close
can usually determine the source): to sources of heat. Aero-derivative
1. Simple condensation from air within gas turbines tend to require that the
the reservoir can be minimized by oil not only lubricates under more-
maintaining the manufacturer’s severe thermal and oxidative condi-
specified oil level within the reser- tions, but that the oil also serves as
voir and maintaining good ventila- a heat transfer fluid, to carry heat
tion around the turbine train. away from the bearings and shafts.
2.  A leak in the shell-and-tube oil Additionally, aero-derivative gas tur-
cooler(s) may allow cooling water bines are subjected to repeated and
into the oil loop. If the oil pressure is rapid starts, as well as hot peaks. The
greater than the water pressure, oil extreme operating conditions of aero-
will be forced into the cooling water derivative gas turbines generally re-
 Case studies
Hot gas fans at a very large refinery complex. At this facility,
various hot gas fans were experiencing frequent bearing fail-
ure. The fan manufacturer originally recommended mineral oil.
With the bearing housing typically reaching 130°C, the cooled
and filtered mineral oil would still overheat to the point of cok-
ing. Several bearing failures occurred less than five months
from refinery startup. The solution was to switch to a properly
formulated synthetic oil, which provided superior high-
temperature capabilities.
Mid-size gear unit of a special fan unit in a petrochemical plant.
Using mineral oil (ISO VG 160) results in some excessive wear
and oil oxidation. Lubricant drain intervals of four months and a
gear unit life less than two years were reported. Changeover to an
appropriate synthesized hydrocarbon lubricant with appropriate
additives, specifically, an optimized temperature stabilizer, wear
reducer, oxidation inhibitor and anti-corrosive agents, allowed the
lubricant drain intervals to be extended to more than 20 months
after lubricant changeover.
Unscheduled shutdowns of centrifugal pumps as a result of cold
weather. Rolling element bearings in 18 centrifugal pumps in a
large chemical plant were experiencing serious problems that re-
sulted in plant shutdown, due to wax plugging when using ISO
VG-68 grade conventional mineral oil (the pump manufacturer’s
recommended oil). The bearings of both pumps and motors were
failing because of lubricant starvation.
In addition to the downtime costs, significant labor and hardware
costs totalling $300,000 were required to restore the unit to nor-
mal operation. After extensive evaluations, a synthetic wax-free
lubricant was used in place of the mineral oil. Since making this
change, no cold weather plugging has been experienced.
Large gear unit in a power-generating station. The unit was hav-
ing lubrication problems with its originally selected petroleum-
based lubricant. Specifically, the following was experienced:
• The lubricant was losing viscosity and had to be changed every
four months
• Air entrainment in the lubricant was causing cavitation in oil
pumps
• The gear unit was experiencing an unacceptable level of wear
• On cold mornings the lubricant was so viscous that it had to be
heated before the unit could be put in service, and many operators
complained about the impact of significantly varied viscosity
A synthesized hydrocarbon lubricant, with good shear resistance,
was selected to address these problems. In addition to solving vis-
cosity problems, reducing wear and eliminating cavitations, this
newer lubricant helped to reduce power losses by around 8%.
With the resulting efficiency gains and reduction in energy cost,
the higher cost of the new lubricant was paid off in six months. ❏

quire a high-quality synthetic-base-
oil (often one with an ester base).
Gear unit lubrication
Lubricants in gear units are often sub-
jected to shock loads and associated
overloading. This creates extreme
pressure (EP) requirements for gear-
unit lurication oils. Gears should be
continuously lubricated, and at the
same time, the oil must be kept clean.
Viscosity is probably the single most
important factor in lubricant selection
for a gear unit. A lubrication oil must
be selected with a viscosity that can
withstand the anticipated load, speed
and temperature. Other important
factors are: EP additives (relates to
load and speed), viscosity index (re-
lates to temperature), and oxidation
stability (relates to temperature and
contamination).
Lubrication-oil film thickness is
mainly a function of operating speed.
Based on experience, high-speed gear
units (above 5,000 rpm) often require
heavier oil (for example sometimes,
heavier than ISO-grade 100).
Mineral oils. Mineral oils are still
widely used for gear units. EP ad-
ditives of the lead-napthenate, sul-
phur-phosphate or similar types are
recommended for gear drives when
a lubricant with higher load capacity
is required. As a general rule, min-
eral oils should be used in relatively
low speed, highly loaded gear drives,
with a low or medium operating tem-
perature (below or around 75°C). EP
oils are more expensive compared to
straight mineral oils. Some EP oils
have a relatively short life at operat-
ing temperatures above 75°C.
Compounded oils, that incorporate
several different additives, are also
available for gear units. The most com-
monly available additive is a molybde-
num disulfide compound, which has
been successfully used in some gear
applications. However, it is difficult
for a gear manufacturer or operator
to recommend these oils since some
of these additives have a tendency
to separate from the base-stock. As a
result, such compounded oils are not
generally recommended by vendors.
Similarly, viscosity improvers in
gear drives should be used with great
care. In some cases, these polymer
additives can nominally improve the
viscosity index and extend the operat-
ing temperature range of oil. However,
what must be remembered is that
polymers are non-Newtonian fluids
(so shearing reduces viscosity). A gear
unit is a very high-shear environment,
and as a result, the viscosity of the oil
will be reduced rapidly if too much
polymer is added.
Synthesized hydrocarbon lubri-
cants. Synthesized hydrocarbon lu-
bricants are gaining more wide-spread
acceptance in gear unit applications. If
properly formulated, synthesized hy-
drocarbon lubricants (typically based
on diesters and PAO) can significantly
improve gear unit (gears and bear-
ings) reliability.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2012
Synthesized hydrocarbons (diesters
and PAOs) are highly recommended
for gear units. Other synthetic lubri-
cants, such as polyglycols (high-tem-
perature lubricants), phosphate-esters
(fire-resistant lubricants) or silicone
lubricants (high-temperature and
heat-resistant lubricants) are not rec-
ommended for gear unit applications.
This is because of their very high cost
(because of high volume of oil required
in a typical gear unit), possible reli-
ability issues and lack of referenced
experience in gear unit applications.
In extreme applications (those in-
volving higher or lower temperatures
or with a need for fire protection), true
synthetic lubricants (such as polygly-
cols, phosphate-esters, or similar) may
be used for gear units. The user must
be careful when selecting these lubri-
cants since some of them remove paint
and attack rubber seals.
The more recent synthesized hydro-
carbons (again, based on diesters and
PAOs) have many desirable features
such as compatibility with mineral
oils and excellent high- and low-tem-
perature properties.
Engine lubrication
Engine manufacturers and lubricant
manufacturers offer lists that recom-
mend lubricants that are suitable for
each engine type and model (in general,
the engine makeer’s preferred lubri-
cants must take precedence). If experi-
ence indicates abnormally severe con-
ditions, it may be necessary to reduce
47
 Engineering Practice

the oil drain interval or recommend an
oil that provides higher detergency.
Detergent additives are often added
to help keep the engine clean by mini-
mizing sludge buildup. For instance,
superior engine lubricants are usually
formulated from specially selected,
solvent-extracted naphthenic base
stocks, which have inherent resistance
to carbon formation in the engine’s
combustion chamber, port and valves.
Generally, engine oils (whether pe-
troleum-based or synthetic, which are
more common) are available in a wide
range of viscosities and are suitable
for both crankcase and cylinder lubri-
cation. They should be highly effective
to reduce ring-zone suppressing, port
deposits and the formation of crank-
case sludge.
The following list indicates desir-
able properties for engine lubricants:
1.  Full synthetic engine oil designed
for superior performance under se-
vere conditions, suitable for critical
service engines 1 MW or above.
2. Premium ash-less lubricant for two
cycle engines.
3.  Detergent dispersant lubricant
(with around 0.4% ash), recom-
mended for most four-cycle engines.
4. Premium medium-ash lubricant for
lean-burn and cogeneration applica-
tions.
For most operators, an engine overhaul
at two- to five-year intervals is com-
mon (five-year interval is reported for
low-BMEP gas engines; BMEP means
brake mean effective pressure). Pis-
ton-ring and valve problems are often
reported as the main reasons for the
unscheduled shutdown of engines, and
this is closely related to proper lubri-
cant selection and use. When using or-
dinary petroleum-based lubricants, it
is necessary to punch carbon (remove
carbon deposits) from engines ports
more frequently (let say every 12–18
months). When using superior oils
(mainly synthetic lubricants), there
is no need to punch carbon between
major overhauls (for instance, once
during three- to five-year intervals). n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Suggested reading
Bloch, H.P.,”Practical Lubrication for Industrial
Facilities,” 2nd Ed., Fairmont Press, Lilburn,
Ga., 2009.
Author
Amin Almasi is a lead
rotating equipment engi-
neer at WorleyParsons Ser-
vices Pty Ltd. in Brisbane,
Australia (amin.almasi@
worleyparsons.com). He pre-
viously worked in Technicas
Reunidas (Madrid) and Fluor
(various offices). He holds a
chartered professional engi-
neer’s license from Engineers
Australia (MIEAust CPEng-
Mechanical), and a chartered engineer certificate
from IMechE (CEng MIMechE), RPEQ (Regis-
tered Professional Engineer in Queensland). He
also holds M.S. and B.S. degrees in mechanical
engineering. He specializes in rotating machines
including centrifugal, screw and reciprocating
compressors, gas and steam turbines, pumps,
condition monitoring and reliability. He has au-
thored more than 45 papers and articles dealing
with rotating machines.

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48 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2012

 Engineering Practice
Use Simplified Lifecycle-Cost
Computations to Justify Upgrades
The methodologies presented here can be used to
set goals, and will enable performance comparisons
among different plants or industry segments
Heinz Bloch
Consulting Engineer
V
irtually every process-plant
manager pursues the com-
mendable goals of safely ex-
tending equipment life and
maximizing both the availability and
reliability of plant assets. Achieving
these objectives usually requires
upfront effort and money — both of
which can be scarce resources.
But even the realistic manager who
knows that reliability comes at an
ufront price may not want to autho-
rize these expenditures on the basis of
intuition or guesswork. Instead, he or
she may ask for some cost justification
that is linked to a payback period, a
cost-to-benefit calculation, a lifecycle-
improvement multiplier, or some other
tangible factor. It is usually at this
point in the sequence of events that
the reliability engineer realizes that
he or she has no data and the issue
is placed at the bottom of the priority
list. Things revert back to status quo
and urgent repeat repairs siphon off
precious resources.
Even in the absence of abundant
data, many methods are available to
allow us to determine, with reasonable
accuracy, the monetary incentives or
justification for equipment and com-
ponent upgrading. Such upgrades are
the key to future failure avoidance.
This article describes some options
for determining the value of upgrad-
ing. The narrative and illustrations
presented here highlight some meth-
odologies that are available to reli-
ability professionals who are ready
to de-emphasize purely intuitive ap-
proaches, in favor of simple yet effec-
tive numerical pathways.
Lifecycle cost estimating
Lifecycle cost estimating is one of the
reliability engineer’s most effective im-
provement-justification tools. Lifecycle
cost estimating takes into account the
initial purchase and installation costs
of the equipment, auxiliaries and soft-
ware systems. It assesses the true cost
of failures, including, of course, the im-
pact of lost production [1–3].
A certain amount of information or
general data is usually available from
the plant’s computer-based enterprise-
asset management (EAM) or comput-
erized maintenance-management sys-
tem (CMMS). The existence of EAM
and CMMS is assumed here because
modern plants cannot compete with-
out a CMMS. The plant CMMS is pop-
ulated with accurate data related to
work orders, expenditures and failure
incidents. All data of interest should
be specific enough to clearly describe
the root causes of failures observed.
The annual cost of parts failure (Cy)
can be assessed using Equation (1):
Cy = (Cg)(8,760)/(MTBF+MTTR) (1)
where:
Cy = Annual cost of failures for a com-
ponent (or subassembly) system
Cg = Cost per failure event
MTBF* = Mean time between
failure, h
MTTR = Mean time to repair or re-
place, h
The total lifecycle cost can be ob-
tained by adding the initial acquisition
cost (AC), the initial installation cost
(IC), and the recurring yearly costs.
A present value conversion [Equation
(2)] takes into account the time value
of money. The costs of future operations
(OC), maintenance (MC), lost produc-
tion (LP) and even decommissioning
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2013
TABLE 1. Estimated years of
run time before failure of
four principal wear-prone
pump components
Pump component Estimated
life, L life for
upgraded
part, yr
Mechanical seals, L1 2.5
Ball bearings, L2 5
Couplings, L3 7
Shafts, L4 15
(DC) must be added to present acqui-
sition and installation costs. Thus, the
total lifecycle cost (LCC Total) = AC
+ IC + present value of (OC + MC +
LP + DC).
A “present worth” value can also be
calculated. The cumulative present
worth factor in Equation (2) can be ob-
tained from many sources and tables
as a function of interest rate and time
(yr). It is usually available from the
plant’s accounting staff and can also
be obtained as a computer spreadsheet
program displaying a present value
(PV) function. PV is cost multiplied by
the cumulative present worth factor:
 (2)
where:
i = real annual interest rates, %
n = number of years
Except for data derived from well-de-
signed, in-plant EAM-CMMS systems,
precise failure frequencies and life ex-
pectancies are rarely available for pro-
cess machinery and their components.
There are simply too many variables
that influence these numbers. Nev-
ertheless, an experienced reliability
professional will not be deterred in his
*The MTBF of a randomly failing. multiple-com-
ponent, active-redundant system may be evalu-
ated by the following equation:
where the failure rate , and c =
number of parallel
components
53

Engineering Practice
or her search for data. Remember, you
want to make the business case for up-
grading and your managers are only
asking for reasonable “ball-park” num-
bers that directionally show which up-
grades should be pursued. Such num-
bers can be found elsewhere [4–6].
For precise estimates, calculated
life expectancies of various component
categories should ideally be based on
the experience collected at the reli-
ability engineer’s facility. But the rel-
evant data may never have been col-
lected, or may have been lost when the
source expert left the company. If that
is the case — or whenever realistic
life assessments or cost estimates are
needed — a reliability engineer may
want to, at least initially, use the data
tables contained in the cited refer-
ences. As experience is gained, similar
tables will grow into ever-more-precise
and locally applicable component-life
databases. Needless to say, once devel-
oped, these should be preserved and
passed on to others.
Using component life details
Many modern facilities are finding it
progressively more advantageous to
collect and classify component data
and to then incorporate these in cal-
culations that predict the probable
run length, in terms of MTBF, of an
entire machine. Some plants have
successively improved the accuracy of
this form of lifecycle cost computation.
Basing decisions on improved compu-
tational accuracy has led to greater
visibility and enhanced respect for the
diligent contributions of the reliabil-
ity professionals at those plants [5].
The monetary value of an improve-
ment can be determined from yet
another version of the lifecycle cost
computation. Specifically, improve-
ment value can also be expressed in
even simpler terms, such as a benefit-
to-cost. Whenever possible, parts that
experience wear — the most failure-
prone components of a machine — can
be assigned by some experience-based
criteria or previously published values
of L1, L2 and so on, as shown in Table
1. Because of their position in Equation
(3), low component-life values in Table
1 will have a real impact on overall ma-
chine MTBF and the influence or effect
of individual component upgrading on
54 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2013
Aesseal
overall machine MTBF can
be readily visualized from
this equation (that is, the
number 1 divided by a large
number yields a small num-
ber). Even a cursory look at Figure 1. A single-type, heavy-duty mechancial
Equation (3) — whether or seal for lime slurry service is highlighted in this
not upgrading is involved pump illustration. Aesseal
— will make a significant
difference in the quest to
improve the life of weak
components.
Centrifugal
pump example
Table 1 shows estimated-
life values for four different
weak, or (relatively) wear-
prone, pump components
(mechanical seals, ball bear- FIGURE 2. Shown here is a half-section of a modern
ings, couplings and shafts). bearing housing protector seal — with the shaft not
rotating (left) and with the shaft rotating (right)
We can use these numbers
to calculate MTBF values
for an entire pump. Of course, our pumps were first marketed in the mid-
calculation is somewhat general and to late-1980s). But, suppose one later
might pertain only to a particular ap- had the option to convert from grease
plication — say, a given pump size in to liquid oil lubrication. Assume one
water service. Calculated MTBF values had also selected a cartridge-style me-
refer to the anticipated running time of chanical seal (Figure 1) where compo-
such a pump, if the life expectancies of nent-style seals had been used previ-
its components are as given in Table ously, and that the user had added an
1. These pumps had been previously advanced bearing-protector seal (Fig-
“upgraded” by converting from sealed ure 2). Suppose these improvements
ball bearings to bearings that can be would increase the operational lives
periodically refilled with fresh grease of mechanical seals and bearings from
(these are commonly called “regreas- the previous value of 2.5–5 years to
able” bearings). Using the values for L 3.5–10 years, and would also make the
from Table 1, the estimated MTBF (op- pump more suitable for working in a
erating time) of the entire pump was mild lime slurry service. In that case,
calculated with reasonable accuracy the expression in Equation (5) would
using Equation (3), and the numerical apply, and we would probably have
result is shown in Equation (4). reason to expect a continuous pump
operating life of 2.93 yr [6].
(5)
 (3)
Then, it is reasonable — and probably
Here, L = estimated life, in years, of quite conservative — to anticipate an
the component subject to failure [6]. increase in pump MTBF of close to
40% from these two upgrades. Seeing
a 40% increase in predicted component
life should prompt a more-detailed
 (4)
analysis of the pump’s lifecycle cost.
The stipulated 2.11-yr operating life It may be worth paying a certain
determined by Equation (4) meets price for upgraded parts if lifecycle
the expectations of many reliability costs go down as a result. Calculat-
engineers in U.S. process plants for ing a simple, straightforward cost-to-
“upgraded” ANSI/ISO pumps (Such benefit ratio would be another way

Failures per 1,000 pcs rotating equipment
FIGURE 3. Bearing failure rate per 1,000 machines at a U.S. chemical plant, plotted
using the author’s field data
to quantify the value of equipment
upgrades. If the incremental cost of
upgrading is $400 each year and the
benefit of an upgrade is avoidance of a
$4,000 repair each year, then the cost-
to-benefit ratio is 400/4,000 = 1:10.
Cost-to-benefit ratios
Perhaps the most familiar form of cost
justification practiced on a wide scale
compares the incremental cost of an
upgrade option with the yearly value
of maintenance cost avoidance. With
that goal in mind, let’s take another
look at the pump-upgrade example
discussed above. Recall that for the
proposed upgrades, an older-style me-
chanical seal would be replaced with
the cartridge seal shown in Figure
1. Also, the bearing protectors with
the lip-seal style in this centrifugal
pump would be discarded and the
bearing-housing-protector seal with
an advanced design — in this case, a
rotating labyrinth design, as shown in
Figure 2 would be used instead [6]. We
make the following two assumptions:
• That the two upgraded components
would incrementally cost $800 and
result in shifting the pump MTBF
from the previous value of 2.11 yr to
2.93 yr
• That repairs to a mid-size pump
will cost $7,000 by the time materi-
als, labor, overhead, benefits, spare
parts procurement, shop supervi-
sion, planning, vibration monitoring
and reliability engineering have all
been factored in
Based on these two assumptions,
our yearly pump-repair cost will
have dropped from $3,318 (based on
$7,000/2.11 yr) to $2,389 (based on
$7,000/2.93 yr). The ensuing cost sav-
ings (or benefit) of $929/yr will go on
for years, while the one-time incre-
Bearing failure rate per 1,000 machines at a U.S. chemical plant
70
60 C UCL C LCL C = Control
50 UCL = Upper control limit
C mean C rate LCL = Lower control limit
40
30
20
UCL = 12.5
10
Mean = 6.7
0 timated that removing good pumps
-10 LCL = 1.0
-20
-30
J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Calendar time
mental outlay (the cost) of $800 will
have a payback of (800/929)12, or 10.3
months. The cost-to-benefit ratio is
1:1.16 in the first year, and (5 × 929)/
800 = 1:5.8 over a 5-year period. That
is a substantial result and is not dif-
ficult to achieve.
Meanwhile, a secondary benefit can
be attributed to the systematic exten-
sion of equipment life: Instead of get-
ting bogged down in frequent break-
down-related maintenance tasks,
reliability engineers will be able to
devote their attention to other, more-
proactive reliability-improvement
opportunities, thereby putting their
effort to use to save money for their
employers over the long run [7].
Make use of in-plant data
Important reliability-related data are
available [4] and such data can be ef-
fectively used and applied to carry out
simple MTBF, cost-justification, and
lifecycle-cost studies. However, while
published data sources are valuable,
the use of in-plant data may be even
more directly applicable and should
never be overlooked.
One in-plant data example is dis-
played in Figure 3. This figure shows
the reduction in total bearing failures
that were actually experienced by a
U.S. Gulf Coast petrochemical com-
pany over the span of 54 months (4.5
y). Although these improvements were
undoubtedly attributable to a combi-
nation of procedural, organizational
and hardware-specific upgrades, the
reliability staff made the simplifying
assumption that such downturns in
the number of bearing replacements
related entirely to pumps. It was fur-
ther assumed that incorporating im-
proved bearing-protection components
only during shop repairs would typi-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2013
cally add $500 to the average small or
mid-size pump repair cost of $6,700.
In sharp contrast, it had been es-
from field locations and taking them
to the shop to implement various up-
grades would cost, on average, $3,470
per pump. That particular option was
obviously far less attractive and was
not pursued.
Again, note that the incremental
cost of $500 per pump pertained only
to pumps that were expected to be
sent to the shop in the following year.
An elementary plot, shown in Figure
4, demonstrates the anticipated reduc-
tion in the pump-failure rate; the plot
was used to calculate (in the 1990s)
the cost-to-benefit ratio of bearing
protector seals that would replace lip
seals. The calculation was performed
by taking total incremental cost per
year and dividing it by the projected
value of all avoided pump repairs.
Attractive and reasonable pro-
jections along the lines of what we
just discussed contributed to wider
use of a variety of different bearing-
protector seals in the mid-1990s.
Then, with time, more-advanced
styles became available. Figure 2
shows a successful configuration,
which was first marketed in 2003. If
we decided to install it today and used
the same calculation approach, we
find its cost-to-benefit ratio surpris-
ingly attractive.
Upgrading mechanical seals
Earlier in this article, we had encour-
aged reliability professionals to ex-
tend their horizons by reviewing data
published elsewhere. In 1992, a Brit-
ish reliability engineer published the
results of failure-reduction programs
at three petroleum refineries [8]. As
shown in Figure 5, Refinery A started
with a pump MTBF of 29 months at
the end of Year 2. The refinery’s pump
MTBF had risen to 71 months at the
end of Year 7. Accordingly, the run
lengths of the pumps there had ex-
perienced an increase of 42 months
in the span of five years. Since these
increases are attributable to upgrade
efforts that went beyond seal improve-
ments, we will temporarily put them
aside and focus instead on Refineries B
and C, whose reports dealt with
55

Engineering Practice
mechanical seals only.
Refinery B documented an increase
in seal-related MTBF, from 57 months
to 80 months, calculated as (80–57) /
57 = 40%, in four years. Seal-related
MTBF values at Refinery C improved
from 33 months to 50 months in the
span of two years — an increase in
MTBF of 51%. To determine this, we
picked the numbers off of Figure 5
and put them into the expression:
(50–33)/33 = 0.51.
It makes good sense to expect more
substantial improvement possibili-
ties for the refinery that has the lower
starting MTBF rate. We note that Re-
finery C started with a seal MTBF of
33 months, and that “our” refinery (as
an arbitrary example) is presently at
28 months MTBF. Returning to Re-
finery A and its overall pump MTBF
(which had increased from 30 months
at the end of Year 2, to about 71 months
at the end of Year 7), we would calcu-
late an MTBF increase of (71–30)/30 =
36% in 5 years.
If we take into account the obser-
vation that refineries starting with
MTBF figures of 30 months have ex-
perienced MTBF increases around
25%/yr it is reasonable to expect that
our own plant could go from an MTBF
of 28 months to one of 56 months in
the span of five years.
Such a reasonable assumption now
allows our refinery operator to embark
on a program to improve mechanical
seal MTBF. As reliability professionals,
we will accede to our management’s re-
quest to develop an appropriately ref-
erenced cost and benefit projection. We
have 1,474 centrifugal pumps at our
plant site. Our seal MTBF was origi-
nally calculated from (1,474 pumps in-
stalled) × (12 mo/yr)/632 seal failures /
yr = 28 mo. Furthermore, it is assumed
here that upgrading to superior seal
References
1. Goble, W.M., and Paul, Brayton, O., Life Cycle
Cost Estimating, Chem. Proc., June 1995.
2. Paul, Brayton 0., Life Cycle Costing, Chem.
Eng., December 1994.
3. Roscoe, Edwin S., “Project Economy,” Richard
D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, Ill., 1960.
4. Bloch, Heinz P., and Geitner, Fred K., “Ma-
chinery Failure Analysis and Troubleshoot-
ing,” Butterworth-Heinemann Publishing,
Waltham, Mass., 4th Ed., 2012.
5. Bloch, Heinz P., and Johnson, Donald A.,
Downtime Prompts Upgrading Of Centrifu-
56 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2013
Resonably anticipated pump failure rate reduction
due to upgrades efforts
17.7
Failure rate per 1,000 machines
configurations and im-
proved seal materials
would add $1,700 to each 6.7
pump repair and that
typical pump repairs,
using traditional grades
of seals, would cost ap- 0 54
proximately $5,000. Months
Assuming a linear FIGURE 4. A facility starting with 17.7 pump failures per
MTBF increase from 1,000 pumps per month might upgrade these 17.7 pumps
28 months presently to and then, over a period of 54 months, reduce its monthly
56 months five years statistics so as to meet a best-of-class number of 6.7 fail-
ures per 1,000 pumps per month
from now, we could cal-
culate our yearly repair
cost outlay in the most 80
straightforward man- 70
ner and list our results B
M.T.B.F. months
60
in tabular format. We A
could pick one of the ap- 50
C
proaches described ear- 40
lier in this article and 30
Refinery A
would review it with 20 Refinery B
one or two competent Refinery C
10
mechanical seal manu-
facturers — ones that 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
would agree to a part- Years
nership or alliance that FIGURE 5. Shown here are data demonstrating improve-
rewards them for failure ment in pump MTBF, from experience at three British pe-
reductions instead of troleum refineries
lowest cost per seal. The
ultimate results will be tangible and tual information to cost-justify equip-
will, after five years, have saved the re- ment improvements. Many reach out
finery many millions of dollars. for other data sources to augment and
validate in-house data. It has been
Different methods shown that data published in the past
We have attempted to show how a can form the core material of fairly ac-
number of straightforward calculation curate savings projections made today.
approaches can be used to determine The methodologies presented in this
lifecycle costs, cost-to-benefit ratios, article can be used to set goals, and
and payback periods for reliability will enable performance comparisons
improvements in process plants. A re- among different plants or industry
sourceful reliability professional will, segments. n
of course, diligently collect and compile Edited by Suzanne Shelley
failure statistics for equipment and
components at his or her plant site. At
many locations throughout the world, Author
competent professionals use this fac- Heinz P. Bloch, P.E., is a
consulting engineer in West-
minster, Colo., (heinzpbloch@
gmail.com). He has held ma-
gal Pumps, Chem. Eng., November 25, 1985. chinery-oriented staff and line
6. Sales and Marketing Literature, AESSEAL, positions with Exxon affiliates
Inc., Rotherham, U.K., and Rockford, Tenn., in the U.S., Italy, Spain, Eng-
www.aesseal.com. land, The Netherlands and
Japan, during a career that
7. Roberts, Woodrow T., The ABC's of Improv-
ing the Reliability of Process Plant Systems, spanned several decades prior
“Proceedings of 3rd International Confer- to his retirement as Exxon
ence on Improving Reliability in Petroleum Chemical’s regional machin-
Refineries and Chemical Plants,” Houston, ery specialist for the U.S. Bloch is the author of 18
comprehensive texts and over 500 publications on
Tex., 1994
machinery-reliability improvement. He advises
8. David, T.J., A Method of Improving Me- process plants worldwide on strategies and op-
chanical Seal Reliability, “Proceedings of the portunities for extending equipment uptime and
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Fluid reducing maintenance. He is an ASME Life Fel-
Machinery Ownership Costs Seminar,” Man- low and maintains registration as a professional
chester, U.K., September 16, 1992. engineer in Texas and New Jersey.
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Remote Thermal Sensing
By making it easy to
detect heat anomalies,
thermal cameras and
infrared thermometers
support preventive and
predictive maintenance
Roger Mavrides
General Tools & Instruments
Suzanne Shelley
Precision Prose, Inc.
R
ising temperatures and rapid
or excessive heat buildup are
useful markers for determin-
ing the operational health
of many types of machinery and
components that are used in a wide
array of industrial and manufactur-
ing settings. The types of mechani-
cal and electrical systems for which
temperature increases often signal
problems include (but are not lim-
ited to): rotating machinery, such as
motors, turbines, compressors, and
their bearings, couplings and gear-
boxes; other types of process equip-
ment, such as pumps, valves, heat
exchangers, steam traps, heaters,
conveyors belts, rollers, furnaces
and more; steam and electrical
heat-tracing systems; insulation on
pipes and vessels; refractory lining
systems for high-temperature sys-
tems and much more.
Because equipment malfunctions
and abnormal or fault conditions in
mechanical and electrical systems
are often forewarned by a rise in
temperature, the ability to gather
and analyze temperature data in
realtime can often help operators to
both pinpoint existing performance-
related issues and identify the
onset of incipient problems. These
problems can be caused by an array
of issues, including wear, imbal-
48 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Figure 1. Rising temperature is often
an indicator of operational problems in
many types of machinery. The ability to
gather and analyze temperature data in
realtime using non-contact options can
help operators to pinpoint issues and
act accordingly
ance, misalignments, insufficient
cleaning or lubrication, friction and
electrical problems.
The traditional approach to tem-
perature monitoring in industrial
settings relies on direct-contact
temperature sensors, such as ther-
mocouples and resistance tempera-
ture detectors (RTDs). While these
devices are certainly proven and ac-
curate, they are not appropriate for
use with certain types of equipment
components or in some types of in-
dustrial settings.
By contrast, remote or non-con-
tact temperature-measurement
devices, such as infrared thermal-
imaging cameras and infrared
thermometers (IRTs) allow use-
ful temperature data to be easily
gathered from remote locations
and thus offer a useful alternative
to direct-contact temperature sen-
sors. The ability to safely carry out
temperature sensing from a dis-
tance, using either a thermal cam-
era or an IRT, is particularly use-
ful for machinery components and
systems that may be hard to reach,
inaccessible, or potentially hazard-
Figure 2. Problems such as over-
heated bearings can be diagnosed with
a thermal imaging camera, which pro-
vides an alternative to direct-contact
temperature sensors, especially for
components that may be hard to reach,
inaccessible or potentially hazardous
ous. In this way, these temperature-
monitoring devices help to enable
realtime temperature measure-
ment while ensuring worker safety
(Figures 1 and 2).
Technology options
The two types of remote thermal-
sensing options — infrared ther-
mal-imaging cameras and IRTs
— are widely used for tempera-
ture assessment in industrial and
manufacturing facilities. In addi-
tion, two different types of IRTs are
available — conventional IRTs, and
so-called scanning IRTs. Used sepa-
rately or together, these devices can
help users across numerous indus-
try sectors to quickly and easily
assess the thermal condition of ma-
chinery, process systems, pipelines
and more.
Conventional IRTs are best
suited for applications that re-
quire accurate spot-temperature
readings, while scanning IRTs and
thermal cameras are useful for ap-
plications for which knowing the
absolute temperature of a surface
is less important than knowing the

Figure 3. Thermal-imaging cameras
measure the surface temperature of the
objects or areas being analyzed in terms
of the amount of infrared (IR) energy
that is emitted, transmitted or reflected
by the object. The data can then be ren-
dered as still or video images to help
operators interpret the result
temperature of a particular surface
relative to other surfaces around it.
The primary advantage of a ther-
mal camera is its ability to display
the thermal spectrum of an entire
area, as seen in Figure 3.
Infrared thermal-imaging cam-
eras. Portable thermal-imaging
cameras are easy to use, and typically
come with a pistol-grip design, as
seen in Figure 4. They use infrared-
imaging techniques to measure the
surface temperatures of the objects
or areas being analyzed and can ren-
der the data in the form of two-di-
mensional images or videos images
to illustrate the data. Specifically,
these specialized cameras measure
surface temperature in terms of the
amount of infrared (IR) energy that
is emitted, transmitted and reflected
by the object or area being analyzed.
The temperature data are displayed
as an IR heat spectrum, using a
range of colors that are correlated to
specific temperature ranges. Today’s
thermal cameras have great sensi-
tivity, and provide measurement ac-
curacies of up to ±2°F.
Thermal cameras produce a
thermal signature or thermogram,
which is a two-dimensional vi-
sual display that depicts the rela-
tive temperature variations across
the object’s surface. These images
allow operators to quickly pinpoint
problem areas, since temperature
excursions, such as areas of heat
loss or heat gain relative to the
surroundings, are easily displayed
through color variations in the
rendered image.
Such visual displays of relative
temperature variations across the
surface of the objects gives opera-
tors and technicians unprecedented
insight into the health of equip-
ment and systems, and help to ad-
dress emerging problems efficiently.
Thermograms are especially useful
when thermal imaging is used as
part of regular inspections, because
they allow engineers to quickly rec-
ognize changes that may signal an
emerging problem. Thermal images
that are captured and analyzed over
time for the same component (for
instance, a given motor or pump)
can help users to identify locations
of incipient malfunction or progres-
sive wear or deterioration.
Creating such a record of heat
buildup due to deteriorating con-
ditions allows operators or tech-
nicians to dispatch the most ap-
propriate intervention in a timely
manner. These interventions in-
clude detailed inspection, trouble-
shooting and diagnostic efforts, and
strategic maintenance and repair
activities. Because thermal imag-
ing is carried out at a distance, it
enables the capture of thermal data
from components that are in remote
or hazardous areas, thereby ensur-
ing worker safety.
Infrared thermometers. IRTs are
portable, non-contact devices —
again, typically with a user-friendly,
pistol-grip design. IRTs use a spe-
cial lens to focus the thermal radia-
tion that is being emitted by the ob-
ject (in the form of IR energy) onto
an IR sensor. The embedded soft-
ware correlates those IR readings
to the temperature of the object
using information about the mate-
rial’s emissivity. Like thermal im-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Figure 4. De-
signed with an
easy-to-use pistol
grip, thermal-im-
aging cameras are
used to diagnose
hot spots in ma-
chinery systems
aging cameras, IRTs offer an ideal
way for operators to determine the
temperature of hot or cold surfaces
remotely, which is especially useful
for inaccessible or hard-to-reach ob-
jects or areas.
As noted earlier, two types of
IRTs are available — conventional
“spot” IRTs and so-called scanning
IRTs. Scanning IRTs allow users
to scan an entire area or system
and quickly identify those sections
where there is a significant tempera-
ture differential between the actual
temperature of that section and a
pre-set temperature setpoint value
that the user has programmed into
the device.
Using a conventional IRT with
an appropriate distance-to-spot
(D:S) ratio — one that allows the
measurement “area” to be entirely
focused within the object being
measured — plant personnel can
determine the temperature of an
object at a single spot. A built-in
laser-beam sighting source helps
the user to focus the device on
the target precisely, to ensure
measurement accuracy.
While conventional IRTs are use-
ful for remotely gathering point-
source data about the absolute tem-
perature of a given spot, scanning
IRTs are useful for applications
where it is not necessarily impor-
tant to determine the absolute tem-
perature of a surface, but it is useful
to determine the relative tempera-
ture of a surface or area compared
to its surroundings.
Today’s scanning IRTs are not
only very affordable (typically
under a hundred dollars, compared
to more than a thousand for thermal
cameras), they are also extremely
easy to use. With a point-and-shoot
design, the user first establishes a
49
 Engineering Practice
baseline temperature that is ap-
propriate for the application, after
which an acceptable bandwidth or
tolerance range is set — for exam-
ple, ±10 degrees, although tighter
tolerances of ±1 or ±5 degrees
are possible.
When the trigger on a pistol-grip
scanning IRT is squeezed and the
device is moved slowly across the
target area, the device uses a com-
bination of sound (in the form of
slower versus faster beeping sounds)
and colored lights (for example, red
for above range, green for within
range, and blue for below range)
to alert the user to any location
where the temperature falls outside
of the user-specified threshold val-
ues that define the setpoint range.
The IRT will also provide an abso-
lute temperature reading for that
particular spot.
While scanning IRTs do not pro-
duce a thermal image, they do pro-
vide a quick, easy, and relatively in-
expensive way for facility personnel
to assess specific mechanical assets
and identify those problem areas
that may require closer inspection.
A valuable investment
While individual thermal cameras
typically cost more than a thousand
dollars, they can be a strategic in-
vestment — and will easily pay for
themselves over a short amount
of time if their use prevents a
catastrophic failure.
As noted, the use of remote, IR-
based thermal sensing to inspect,
troubleshoot, diagnose and rectify
problems with specific equipment
in realtime can help facility opera-
tors to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of both component-
specific and plant-wide operation
and maintenance (Figure 5). Such
improvements provide a number of
opportunities for long-term savings
and payback. For instance:
• The costs associated with un-
planned downtime in industrial
facilities, such as manufactur-
ing plants and chemical process
facilities can be greatly reduced
when thermal imaging is used to
improve preventive and predic-
tive maintenance tasks
50 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
• Proactive troubleshooting
and diagnostic interven-
tion can help to decrease
the likelihood of expensive
or catastrophic equipment
failures — especially im-
portant when considering
mission-critical assets
• The ability to plan and ex-
ecute more-strategic re-
pairs helps to cut material
and labor costs and extend
Figure 5. When operators are able to monitor
equipment life, thereby the thermal profile of equipment and systems
helping to reduce both oper- using a remote monitoring technique, they can
ating and capital budgets plan for the most appropriate and timely inter-
• Increased uptime allows vention to address a deteriorating condition
the facility to maximize
its throughput capacity, product nent’s ideal state under normal
yields and profitability. The abil- working conditions. Going forward,
ity to carry out strategic main- any departure from normal temper-
tenance activities helps to not atures that appear in the thermal
only save money, but improve images produced for the unit would
plant and personnel safety and signify trouble spots that require
environmental performance closer inspection.
Proper training and certification
Best practices are extremely beneficial when using
There are several ways to make IRTs and thermal-imaging cam-
best use of thermal-imaging data. eras. While these devices are typi-
Trending opportunities can be used cally simple to operate and provide
to the engineer’s advantage. For data and images that are easy to
instance, the thermal signature interpret, both rely on sophisticated
from a given component, such as a technology. As such, to ensure the
particular pump that may be sus- most accurate results, users should
pected of having a problem, can be gain a good working knowledge of
compared to the thermal signature the capabilities and limitations of
of similar pumps in the facility. This these tools through proper training
will help to evaluate its condition and certification. Without proper
relative to other equipment with training, the accuracy of the result-
comparable operation. ing thermal data and images could
In addition, the thermal images be compromised. Following vendor-
generated for a given mechani- recommended operating guidelines
cal asset (say, a particular motor), and proven industry best practices
can be strategically captured and is a must for data confidence.
cataloged over time in specific in- Today, a variety of third-party
tervals. This record can provide groups offer training and certifica-
timely indications of deteriorating tion in the proper use of thermal-
conditions and help the operator to imaging cameras, including the
make reasonable predictions about American Society for Nondestruc-
the rate of future deterioration, tive Testing (Columbus, Ohio; www.
so that the required action — be asnt.org), the Academy of Infrared
it maintenance, repair or replace- Training (Bellingham, Wash.; www.
ment — can be carried out, at the infraredtraining.net), the Infraspec-
appropriate time, in the most cost- tion Institute (Burlington, N.J.;
effective manner. www.infraspection.com), The Snell
When practical, it is a good idea Group (Barre, Vt.; www.thesnell-
to carry out baseline thermal-imag- group.com) and others.
ing inspections on new components, Choosing the right thermal imag-
to establish baseline or reference ing camera for the environment has
images that represent the compo- an effect on the equipment’s ability
to best collect accurate data. Ther-
mal imaging cameras are widely
used to carry out energy-efficiency
studies and audits in residential,
commercial and business settings,
by helping to identify areas through
which heated or cooled air is escap-
ing from a building. Industrial fa-
cilities can also use these devices
to carry out energy audits to iden-
tify further opportunities to reduce
operating costs.
When this is done, users should
note that regional climate varia-
tions can impact what time of year
the use of a thermal imaging cam-
era will be most effective. For in-
stance, in northern climates, the
use of thermal imaging to carry out
energy audits at a facility tend to
be most accurate when carried out
during winter months (when the
temperature differential between
indoor and outdoor temperatures
is the greatest) and temperature
differentials resulting from the un-
wanted ingress or escape of heated
or cooled air will be most easily
identified by the thermal camera
or scanning IRT assessment. By
contrast, in southern climates, the
summer months tend to guaran-
tee the biggest temperature dif-
ferential between ambient outdoor
temperatures and air-conditioned
settings.
This potential seasonal “limita-
tion” can be somewhat overcome
by selecting a higher-resolution
thermal camera. Today, a variety of
thermal cameras — with a range of
prices and image-resolution capa-
bilities — are available. Relatively
low-end models have sensors with
a resolution of 60×60 pixels. Mid-
range units have a resolution on the
order of 160×120 pixels, and high-
end thermal cameras offer a resolu-
tion of 360×280 pixels.
While lower-resolution thermal
cameras may be available at a
lower cost, the desire for cost sav-
ings alone may “cost” the buyer in
the long run by limiting the num-
ber of months over which the cam-
era can be reliably utilized to carry
out energy audits and other types of
thermal inspections. In general, the
higher the resolution of the thermal
camera, the more reliably it can
depict a thermal difference when
carrying out a thermal assessment
— even during those times of the
year when the temperature differ-
ential between indoor and outdoor
temperatures is relatively narrow.
By investing in a higher-resolu-
tion camera, users will be assured
of greater sensitivity and easier
thermal assessments no matter
what climate or time of year. This
helps to ensure more accurate re-
sults and faster payback for the
camera itself.
Another important factor to con-

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Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014 51

 Engineering Practice
sider when using thermal cameras
and IRTs is the relative emissivity
values of the materials being sur-
veyed. Emissivity is a measure of
an object’s ability to absorb or re-
flect radiation in the infrared range
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
As a simplifying assumption, many
thermal cameras have fixed emis-
sivity values that are associated
with certain commonly encountered
materials programmed into the
control software.
However, today’s more-sophis-
ticated thermal-imaging cameras
allow the user to make adjustments
to the emissivity settings, to more
accurately characterize the actual
emissivity values of the materi-
als being analyzed. Such values
can often be found in published
books and reference articles. This
flexibility can help users to im-
prove the accuracy of the resulting
thermal images.
Certain surfaces, such as highly
reflective metals, have very low
emissivity values and cannot be
measured accurately using IR-
based temperature-measurement
techniques. To overcome this prob-
lem and improve the utility and ac-
curacy of IR-based thermal cameras
and thermometers, industrial oper-
ators often paint the target surfaces
or cover them with electrical tape.
This raises the emissivity values of
the components and improves the
accuracy of the IR-based thermal
imaging techniques.
When it comes to evaluating dif-
ferent IRT models, an important
concept to consider is the distance-
to-spot (D:S) ratio (Figure 6). This
characteristic of the device provides
a measure of the optical resolution
that a particular unit can provide.
Every IRT model has a stated D:S
ratio, which determines the dis-
tance for which the device will pro-
vide the most accurate temperature
reading as well as the diameter
of the imaging area. For instance,
most standard IRTs have a D:S
ratio of 8:1. This indicates that an
IRT 8 in. away from the object can
accurately measure the tempera-
ture at a spot that is 1 in. in diam-
eter. Similarly, an IRT that is 48 in.
52 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Figure 6. Infrared thermometers let
users determine the temperature of a
specific point on hot or cold surfaces
remotely, which is especially useful for
inaccessible or hard-to-reach objects or
areas. D:S ratio is an important feature to
consider when choosing an IRT
away from a target will measure the
temperature within a circle that is
6 in. in diameter.
Units with a D:S ratio of up to
100:1 are also available. In general,
the higher the D:S ratio of the de-
vice, the smaller the zone for tem-
perature capture, because less of
the surrounding area is involved in
the measurement. IRTs with higher
D:S ratios also provide for more ac-
curate readings to be gathered from
greater distances.
Closing thoughts
Remote, non-destructive, ther-
mal-sensing techniques, using IR
thermal cameras and scanning or
conventional IRTs, provide useful
alternatives to direct-contact tem-
perature devices based on RTDs and
thermocouples. They provide useful
information on temperature excur-
sions that are often the precursor
to operational problems, allowing
users to plan the most strategic pre-
dictive and preventive maintenance
activities and to carry out the most
Authors
Roger Mavrides was for-
merly vice president of en-
gineering and product devel-
opment for General Tools &
Instruments (80 White St.,
New York, N.Y. 10013; Phone:
1-800-697-8665 x222; Email:
gentools@generaltools.com).
He holds a Certificate of Elec-
tronic Maintenance (CEM)
from Wentworth Institute of
Technology, a B.S. in electri-
cal engineering technology from Northeastern
University and an M.B.A. from Anna Maria
College. Before joining General Tools, Mavrides
was engineering and product manager, test
and measurement, for FLIR Systems (Nashua,
N.H.), sales and product manager for Nidec/
Power General (Canton, Mass.), and senior de-
sign engineer and project manager for Vishay/
BLH Electronics (Norwood, Mass.). Mavrides
holds three patents, is a Level 1 Thermographer,
and was a team leader during the development
of FLIR’s MeterLink communication protocol.
He also developed a wireless alternating-cur-
rent circuit identifier that won a Hong Kong
Electronic Industries Association (HKEIA) In-
novation and Technology Grant Award at the
2009 HK Electronics Fair, and developed an
electrically safe video borescope that won the
Bronze HKEIA Innovation & Technology Grand
Award at the 2011 HK Electronics Fair.
cost-effective repairs and upgrades.
Such efforts can help to optimize
the productivity and reliability of
the mechanical assets, maximize
the uptime of the facility, and mini-
mize downtime-related losses and
expenses and reduce the risk of
catastrophic equipment failures.
And, remote IR-based temperature
monitoring lets facility personnel
carry out such surveillance with-
out shutting down the machines,
interrupting the process or put-
ting themselves in harm’s way. This
maintains equipment reliability,
the facility’s desired productivity
levels, as well as personnel safety,
and thereby helps to protect the
facility’s bottom line. ■
Edited by Mary Page Bailey
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank
John Javetski, Adrian Gomez,
Kevin Basso and Peter Harper of
General Tools & Instruments for
their assistance during the develop-
ment of this article.
Suzanne Shelley is the prin-
cipal/owner of Precision Prose,
Inc. (65 West 96th St., Suite
21F, New York, N.Y. 10025;
Phone: 917-975-2778; Email:
SuzanneAShelley@yahoo.com).
In that capacity, she provides
freelance technical writing,
ghostwriting and editing ser-
vices (specializing in science,
engineering, technology and
business) to magazines and
corporate clients. Prior to launching her consultancy
in 2005, Shelley spent 17 years as a full-time editor
at Chemical Engineering magazine, serving as the
magazine’s managing editor for her last 5 years on
staff. As a freelance writer and editor, Shelley serves
as a regular freelance contributing editor at Chemi-
cal Engineering and Pharmaceutical Commerce
magazines, and as a periodic freelance contribut-
ing editor at Chemical Engineering Progress (CEP;
AIChE). From 2005–2009, she also served as a regu-
lar contributing editor to Turbomachinery Interna-
tional magazine. Shelley also provides freelance
writing, ghostwriting and technical editing services
to a wide variety of operating and service compa-
nies, consultancies, advertising agencies and trade
associations throughout the global chemical process
industries. She holds a B.S. in geology from Colgate
University (Hamilton, N.Y.) and a M.S. in Geology
from the University of South Carolina (Columbia,
S.C.), and worked as a deepwater exploration geolo-
gist in the Gulf of Mexico for Amoco Production Co.
(New Orleans) in the late 1980s.
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Pressurized Piping:
Sampling Steam and Water
Without proper systems,
analysis of steam
and water chemistry
can provide
erroneous results —
with costly implications
Lee Machemer
Jonas, Inc.
C
orrosion and deposition in boil-
ers, steam turbines and many
types of process equipment
are among the most expensive
causes of outages in utility and in-
dustrial steam plants. Deposits and
scale buildup on heat-transfer sur-
faces reduce efficiency, and when
allowed to accumulate on steam
turbines, such buildup can reduce
the capacity. Corrosion-related fail-
ures can result in outages ranging
from a few days to several months,
depending on the affected systems,
and can potentially cost tens of mil-
lions of dollars.
To reduce the risk of corrosion
and deposition in water and steam
systems, the standard practice is to
monitor cycle chemistry and control
impurity levels within industry-
and manufacturer-recommended
limits for the equipment. In steam
plants, the chemical parameters of
interest include: pH; conductivity;
sodium; calcium; magnesium; chlo-
ride; sulfate; fluoride; phosphate;
acetate; formate; propionate; total
organic carbon (TOC); silica; cop-
per; and dissolved and suspended
iron (oxides). Typical target concen-
trations are in the range of <1 part
per billion (ppb) to several parts per
million (ppm) [1, 2].
Unfortunately, many utility and
42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Isolation
valves
Flow
Isokinetic
sampling nozzle
Online
instruments
Analyzer
flowmeter
Sample filter
with bypass
Back
pressure Grab
regulator samples
Figure 1. This figure shows an example of a well-designed sampling system for
extracting and conditioning a representative sample of steam or water. It includes
isokinetic sampling, rapid condensation and cooling, pressure reduction, and
process indicators, as well as safety devices to protect online instruments
and plant personnel
industrial steam plants do not
have properly designed and oper-
ated sampling systems to monitor
water and steam chemistry. In fact,
in water chemistry and corrosion
control audits, sampling problems
are found in roughly 70% of all
plants. As a result, operating deci-
sions are often based on data that
can have sampling errors as high
as ± 1,000%. These errors, as well
as data inconsistencies and concen-
tration swings in the analytical re-
sults, become commonplace and are
often ignored by plant personnel,
preventing the timely identification
of actual chemistry excursions. This
article outlines the principles that
must be considered when designing
and operating water- and steam-
sampling systems.
Sampling system design
To monitor systems for the ingress
of impurities and for the production
and transport of corrosion products,
several cycle streams are sampled
and analyzed, either continuously
Source: Jonas
< 20 ft.
< 200 ft.
sloping
down
Primary
cooler
Sampling Expansion
tubing coil
Secondary
cooler/chiller
T P
Total Pressure Thermal Pressure
flowmeter gauge shut-off reduction
valve valve
Temperature
indicator
or periodically. Proper design of the
sampling systems is critical in order
to produce samples and analytical
results that are representative of
the sampled stream [3–9]. Problems
with sample withdrawal, transport,
collection and handling are often
major sources of errors that can
lead to incorrect or unnecessary
corrective actions by operators. A
meticulously performed chemical
analysis is of little value if a bad
sample is used. As shown in the box
on p. 43, there are many potential
causes of sampling errors, some of
which can cause analytical results
to be orders of magnitude higher or
lower than the actual concentration
in the process stream.
In high-purity systems, the mea-
sured concentration of impurities
in many of the process streams is
in the low parts-per-billion (ppb)
range. At such low concentrations,
the fluid being extracted is very sen-
sitive to any deposition or chemical
reactions within the sampling sys-
tem. The extraction of non-repre-

FIGURE 2. This weld-in style, single-port isokinetic sampling nozzle meets current
ASTM standards for sampling water and steam. Flanged connections to the process
pipe are also acceptable
sentative samples can lead to large
sampling errors [3]. Even in lower-
purity systems, sampling errors due
to improperly designed sampling
systems can be significant.
A well-designed sampling system
(Figure 1) consists of an isokinetic
sampling nozzle (discussed below),
isolation valves, sample tubing, a
primary cooler (for steam and high-
temperature liquid samples), a
secondary sample cooler, pressure-
reduction and total-flow-regulation
valves, a thermal-shutoff valve
(for process temperatures above
100ºF), back-pressure regulator and
sample drains.
Because steam impurities are eas-
ily adsorbed by magnetite (Fe3O4),
the oxide buildup on the inner di-
ameter of the sampling nozzle and
tubing should be minimized. For
this reason, all wetted components
of the sampling system should be
made from at least Type 316 stain-
less steel. Carbon and low-alloy
steels should be avoided.
Deposit buildup in the sample
lines can result in plugging of the
sample line or seizing of sample
isolation valves. Even when not
directly affecting sample flow, de-
posits in the sampling system can
affect the sample accuracy. Deposits
can act as ion-exchange media and
adsorb or release impurities during
changes in the flow conditions. Even
the best sampling-system design is
still susceptible to deposition and
plugging if the cycle chemistry at
the plant is not maintained within
industry standards, particularly
when high concentrations of corro-
sion products (such as iron oxide or
copper oxide) are present. Lengthy
sample lines (for instance >100 ft) or
low sample velocities (for instance
< 4 ft/s) increase the probability of
Jonas
sample line blockage and can cause
unacceptable time lags between
sample collection and analysis. A
sample flowing at 2 ft/s through 500
ft of tubing will take over four min-
utes to reach the analyzers.
Why isokinetic sampling?
Isokinetic sampling is the extraction
of a representative portion of the
process stream without altering the
physical and chemical properties of
the sample. In isokinetic sampling,
all phases (solid oxides and precipi-
tates, liquid droplets and vapor) of
the sampled fluid enter the sam-
pling nozzle with the same velocity
vector (meaning the same velocity
and direction of flow). The main
reason isokinetic sampling is nec-
essary is that the sampled stream
is almost always a two-phase fluid
(gas-liquid, gas-solid, liquid-solid)
and the second phase typically has
a very different chemistry composi-
tion than the steam or water [2]. In
addition, the second phase (droplets
or particles) typically has a different
density and inertia compared to the
primary phase (gas or liquid) and
therefore would not be proportion-
ally represented in a sample that
was not withdrawn isokinetically.
The benefits of isokinetic sampling
have been verified during an Elec-
tric Power Research Inst. (EPRI)
project [3] and through an indepen-
dent analysis [10].
Sampling nozzle design
The design of the isokinetic sam-
pling nozzle (Figures 2 and 3) is a
critical part of the sampling system,
and should be performed prior to
the selection of the other sampling
system components. As noted, if
designed incorrectly, the sampling
nozzle could provide a sample that
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Causes of Sampling
System Errors
O
perators should be mindful of these
common sources of sampling errors
(in order of priority and impact):
• Sample withdrawal — Sample does
not (1) represent the stream (due to
wall effects, stratification, not isoki-
netic, or mixing issues), and (2) repre-
sent all phases (solid, liquid, gas)
• Deposition in the sample line (could
also result in plugging)
• Release of built-up deposits into the
sample stream (leading to spikes)
• High pressure drop leading to insuf-
ficient sample flow (typically due to
long sample lines)
• Changes in sample flowrate (for in-
stance, sampling system can take up
to 6 hours to reach equilibrium from
the start of sample flow)
• High sample temperature (can lead to
pH and conductivity errors)
• Chemical reactions in sample lines or
coolers (reduction of oxygen concen-
tration, change in pH and so on)
• Corrosion of the sampling system may
lead to generation of corrosion prod-
ucts (as a result of improper materials
of construction)
• Filters in the system interfere with de-
sire to sample suspended solids
• Sorption on sample tubing and sus-
pended oxides may remove a por-
tion of the chemical species being
monitored
is not representative of the condi-
tions in the pipe. Proper sampling
-nozzle design must consider the ef-
fects of flow- and vibration-induced
forces on the nozzle, as well as the
design pressure and temperature.
Prior to 2006, the ASTM Standard
D1066 “Standard Practice for Sam-
pling Steam” [4] included a multi-
port sampling nozzle, which — in
its most basic form — consisted of
a piece of pipe with multiple holes
in it. The sampling pipe extended
most or all of the way across the
process pipe and was supposed to
simultaneously sample from sev-
eral locations across the diameter
of the pipe. However, research has
shown that such a multiport design
operates non-isokinetically, is prone
to plugging, and is susceptible to
failure due to vibration [3].
In many piping applications, the
flow in the process pipe is fully tur-
43
 Engineering Practice
bulent. This results in a uniform
velocity profile across the pipe and
the stream is well mixed, so the
composition is uniform across the
pipe. This makes it unnecessary to
sample at more than one location
along the pipe diameter. In light of
this, a single-port sampling nozzle
was designed in the early 1990s
[3]. The isokinetic sampling nozzles
have a compact design, which has
the advantage of being inserted
only about 12% of the way into the
pipe, compared to multiport nozzles,
which must traverse most (if not
all) of the diameter of the pipe. In
fact, the single-port nozzle design
was included in the ASTM standard
in 1996. In 2006, it became the only
recommended sampling nozzle de-
sign included in the standard.
Transport of samples
Almost any fluid will leave or pick
up some residue, both while flow-
ing through a tube and while being
stored in a container. As a result,
any chemical analysis will become
biased due to the loss or gain of con-
taminants. Several factors contrib-
ute to deposition on the tubing wall,
including: crystallization resulting
from solubility changes, settling
due to gravity and hydrodynamic
forces, and electrostatic attraction
of charged particles [6].
In any sampling system, there
will be an exchange of contami-
nants and particulates between the
flowing sample and the sample line
surfaces. Eventually, an equilibrium
state will be reached. Whenever the
sample is not in equilibrium with
the surface, the sample composition
will be changed from its original
state. In general, the time for new
sample tubing to reach equilibrium
decreases with smaller tubing (due
to decreased surface area) and in-
creased sample velocity. Even when
a sufficient sample velocity (say, on
the order of 6 ft/s) is maintained,
the equilibration process can take
up to a month. It is for this reason
that sample streams should flow
continuously rather than be peri-
odically started and stopped.
In order to minimize deposition in
the sample lines and to reduce the
44 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Source: Jonas VB VB VB
VN VN VN
Isokinetic Non-isokinetic
VB = VN VB < VN VB > VN
FIGURE 3. Shown here is the ideal flow path of particulate matter and droplets into
isokinetic and non-isokinetic sampling nozzles. In isokinetic sampling, the extracted
fluid is representative of the composition in the process pipe, including particles and
droplets. When the sampling is non-isokinetic, the concentration of particles andV
droplets can be higher or lower than that found in the process fluid. VB = velocityB of
process fluid; VN = velocity in the sampling nozzle
time required to achieve equilibrium the primary sample cooler should be
between impurities in the flowing located as close to the sample point
sample and the tubing, the sample as possible (less than 20 ft).
tubing after the primary cooler/con- The total length of sample tub-
denser should be sized so that the ing should be as short as possible
sample flow velocity is maintained to limit both the pressureVN drop and VN
around 5–6 ft/s [3–8, 12]. Several the lag time from when the sam-
studies have shown that both linear ple enters the isokinetic sampling
velocity and the Reynolds Number nozzle to when it reaches the ana-
Isokinetic
VB = VN VB
(Re; a unitless dimension that de- lyzers. Low sample residence time
scribes the amount of fluid turbu- in the tubing is also preferred to
lence) control the net deposition of limit chemical reactions, such as
particulate matter in sample lines oxygen scavenging and sorption on
[13–17]. Therefore, the sample line oxides. The sample velocity should
should be designed to achieve both be maintained as constant as pos-
turbulent flow (Re > 4,000) and sible in the interest of maintain-
proper velocity (5–6 ft/s). ing equilibrium between deposition
In steam-sampling systems, one and re-entrainment of particles,
of the most critical design consider- and chemical equilibrium between
ations is the size and length of the the sample and deposits. In one
sample line from the sampling noz- research project [16], it was found
zle to the primary sample cooler/ that it took less than 30 days for a
condenser. Long and oversized sam- newly installed sampling system to
ple lines produce a significant pres- reach equilibrium when the sample
sure drop and heat loss from the was flowing at 6 ft/s, compared to
extracted fluid. In general, both the several years for a sample flowing
temperature and pressure of the at 1 ft/s.
sample should be maintained right In addition to the effects on sam-
up to the primary cooler/condenser ple purity, the use of larger-diame-
so that desuperheat and condensa- ter tubing can result in an unnec-
tion occur together. To achieve this, essary waste of sample water (and
the sample line should have approx- additional energy required to heat
imately the same inside diameter as and cool the fluid), require impracti-
the isokinetic sampling nozzle, and cal sample-conditioning equipment,
 Table 1. Reynolds Number, sampling rate, annual volume, and pressure drop (ΔP) for water
(T = 100°F) flowing through various sizes of tubing at 5 Ft/s
Outer dia. Inner dia. Wall thick-
(OD), in. (ID), in. ness, in.
0.250 0.120 0.065
0.250 0.152 0.049
0.375 0.245 0.065
0.500 0.370 0.065
and place an extra and expensive
burden on the makeup system.
Table 1 compares sampling rate,
Reynolds number, estimated pres-
sure drop, and the annual volume of
water consumed for several tubing
sizes with a sample flow velocity of
5 ft/s. Typically, ¼-in. tubing with
a sampling rate of 1,000 to 1,200
cm3/min (condensed) is sufficient to
provide for all online analyzers and
grab sampling while maintaining
the required flow velocities.
Additional considerations
When designing a sampling sys-
tem, such as that shown in Figure
1, follow these recommended prac-
tices for each of the components dis-
cussed below:
Installation location for the
sampling nozzle. The preferred
location is in long, vertical sections
of pipe, away from all flow distur-
bances (such as bends, valves, and
so on) [4, 6]. Ideally, the sampling
nozzle should be at least 35 internal
pipe diameters downstream, and 4
pipe diameters upstream, of any
flow disturbances. In many plants
where space is at a premium, this is
not possible, so it is recommended
that the sampling nozzle be located
where the ratio of its distance from
the upstream disturbance to down-
stream disturbance is about 9:1. If
a long vertical section is not avail-
able, the sampling nozzle may be
installed in a long horizontal sec-
tion, provided the sampling nozzle
is installed on the top of the pipe be-
tween the “10 o’clock” and “2 o’clock”
positions to prevent the possibility
of water accumulating around the
sampling nozzle during outages.
Isolation valves. These valves
should be rated for the application
temperature and pressure, and pro-
Reynolds Num- Required sampling
ber, unitless rate, cm3/min
6.8 × 103 670
8.6 × 103 1,070
1.4 × 104 2,780
2.1 × 104 6,340
vide a minimum change of cross-
section between the inside diameter
of the isokinetic sampling nozzle and
the orifice of the valve. Large changes
in cross-section can result in deposi-
tion within the valve and may even-
tually lead to seizing of the valve,
which can become a safety issue if
the sample line is damaged during
operation. Valves should be made of
Type 316 stainless steel or a higher
alloy. Because valves in steam and
water service are susceptible to de-
position inside the valve (particularly
for steam service), it is recommended
to always have two isolation valves.
Sample tubing between the isoki-
netic sampling nozzle and pri-
mary cooler. Such tubing should
be as short as possible (not longer
than 20 ft for steam systems) in
order to minimize the pressure drop
and reduce the possibility of impu-
rity deposition in the sample tubing.
The inside diameter of this sample
tubing should be close to the inside
diameter size of the isokinetic sam-
pling nozzle, to minimize changes in
cross-sectional area. This normally
requires ¼- or 3/8-in. tubing for liq-
uid water and medium- to high-
pressure steam systems, and ½-in.
tube or ½-in. pipe for low-pressure
steam systems.
The sample line should include a
series of bends or a coil to allow for
any movement or expansion of the
process pipe. Sharp-radius bends
should be avoided. The tubing
should be downward sloping along
the entire length to eliminate any
sections where condensed steam or
water can accumulate and result in
water hammer during startup.
Primary and secondary sample
coolers. The coolers should have a
counterflow design and be sized to
ensure adequate cooling capacity,
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
Annual vol., Estimated ΔP per
gal/yr) 100 ft of tubing, psi
93,000 57
148,000 42
386,000 24
879,000 14
with allowances for reduced heat
transfer due to scale buildup. The
cooler tubing should be made from
Type 316 stainless steel or Inconel.
Sample tubing after the primary
sample cooler. This tubing should
slope downward to allow for com-
plete draining during outages, and
have a minimum number of bends.
It should be sized so that the sam-
ple flow velocity is 5 to 6 ft/s.
Pressure-reduction valve. Such
a valve is used to reduce pressure
and therefore control the flow of a
cooled sample in order to protect
online instruments. For sample
pressure greater than 500 psig, the
pressure reducer should be a rod-
in-tube-type orifice or capillary [5].
For sample pressure less than 500
psig, the pressure reducer should be
a needle valve.
Thermal shut-off valve. This valve
protects personnel and downstream
components by automatically inter-
rupting sample flow when the sam-
ple temperature reaches a preset
limit, in the event of an insufficient
amount or loss of cooling water or a
fouled sample cooler.
Pressure and temperature
gages and flow indicator. Such
devices provide the operator with
verification that the system is work-
ing properly.
Back-pressure regulator. This
regulator is used to maintain a
slight pressure (~20 psig) in the
sample tubing before the grab sam-
ple location. This will ensure proper
flow to the online, chemical-analysis
instruments.
Inline sample filters. These filters
should be installed to protect online
instruments during commissioning,
or any other time when high concen-
trations of corrosion products (iron,
copper) are present in the sample.
45
 Engineering Practice
They should be installed down-
stream of the grab-sampling line (as
shown in Figure 1), or must be by-
passed when obtaining grab samples
for iron and copper analysis.
Online analyzers. The sample
flowrate, temperature and pres-
sure must all be within the instru-
ment manufacturers specifications.
A chiller may be required in order
to cool the sample streams to the
proper temperature. ASTM D5127
requires that the sample tempera-
ture be 25±1°C when measuring
pH, and ASTM D5391 requires that
the sample temperature be con-
trolled to 25±0.2°C when measuring
conductivity if specialized tempera-
ture compensation is not available.
Such strict temperature control
may not be practical; therefore, the
use of modern pH and conductivity
analyzers that include temperature
compensation algorithms may be
an acceptable alternative.
Booster pumps. These pumps may
be required for long sample lines
(high pressure drop) or low pres-
sure samples (condensate).
Once all of the sampling compo-
nents are specified, the estimated
pressure drop through the system
should be calculated. The pressure
drop throughout the entire sam-
pling system (including primary and
secondary coolers, tubing, valves
and elbows) must be low enough to
ensure that there is enough pres-
sure to provide adequate flow veloc-
ity (5–6 ft/s) through the tubing to
the online instruments and grab-
“sample tap. A high pressure drop
References
1. Jonas, O., Corrosion and water chemistry
problems in steam systems — Root causes
and solutions, Materials Performance,
December 2001.
2. “Interim Consensus Guidelines on Fossil
Plant Chemistry,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., CS-
4629 and other water-chemistry guidelines,
June 1986.
3. “Development of a Steam Sampling System,”
EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., TR-100196, Dec.
1991.
4. “Standard Practice for Sampling Steam,”.
ASTM D1066, 2011.
5. “Standard Practices for Sampling Water
from Closed Conduits,” ASTM D3370, 2008.
6. “Steam and Water Sampling, Conditioning,
and Analysis in the Power Cycle,” ASME
Performance Test Code (PTC) 19.11, 2008.
7. “Guidelines Manual on Instrumentation and
Control for Fossil Plant Chemistry,” EPRI,
46 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2014
through the system could result in
insufficient sample flow at the sam-
ple panel, or, the deposition rate in
steam sample lines could be high,
which could result in plugging of
the sample line or a sample that is
not representative of the conditions
in the pipe. The design must also
ensure that the maximum pressure
recommended by the online instru-
ment makers is not exceeded.
Commissioning of the system
After the sampling system is in-
stalled, the following tasks should
be performed to ensure proper op-
eration of all components:
• Check all sampling points to en-
sure proper location and sampling
nozzle orientation
• Verify that all sample tubing and
cooling water tubing is properly
sized for the required flowrate
• Ensure that all valves and flow-
meters operate properly
• Confirm the proper flowrate of
cooling water to the primary and
secondary sample coolers
• Check for leaks along the entire
length of sample tubing including
the sample panel
• Perform startup and calibration
of all online instruments in ac-
cordance with the original equip-
ment manufacturer’s (OEM) in-
struction manual
• Verify that online instrument
readings agree with readings on
the distributed control system
(DCS) or other data-recording sys-
tem, and that alarms are working
properly
Palo Alto, Calif., CS-5164, April 1987.
8. Jonas, O., and Mancini, J., Sampling savvy,
Power Engineering, May 2005.
9. Eater, L., Make sure water chemistry sam-
ples are representative, Power, July 1989.
10. Binette, V., and others, Impact of Sampling
System Design on Superheated Steam Qual-
ity, “Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chem-
istry,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., TR-108459,
Nov. 1997.
11. Daucik. K., Design of Sampling Devices
for Water/Steam Cycle, “Proceedings of
the 9th International Conference on Fossil
Plant Cycle Chemistry,” EPRI, TR-1020563,
Jan. 2010.
12. McKinney, J., Analyzers and Steam Pan-
els — A Perspective from Both Sides of the
Fence, “Proceedings of the 9th International
Conference on Fossil Plant Cycle Chemistry,”
EPRI. TR-1020563, Jan. 2010.
13. Bird, L., Requirements for Crud-Sampling
• Check sample flowrates
• Check sample temperatures after
both primary and secondary sam-
ple coolers
• Check sample pressure
• Ensure flowrate through online
instruments meets manufacturer
requirement
• Check for any vibration at the
sampling nozzle and along the
length of the sample tubing.
Operation and maintenance
Once the sampling system is in-
stalled, proper operation and main-
tenance are required to ensure ac-
curate sampling, including:
Total sampling rate and sam-
pling time. The total sampling
rate should be governed by the rate
required for isokinetic sampling,
which is a function of the sampling
nozzle design and the process mass
flowrate. Even if this sampling rate
exceeds the requirements of online
analyzers, the total sampling rate
should be maintained by routing
excess flow either through the grab-
sample location to drain or to the
condenser hotwell. For high-purity
systems, it can take up to six hours
of isokinetic sample flow to stabilize
the sample chemistry. This time can
be shorter for lower-purity systems,
but for all sampling systems, con-
tinuous flow is preferred.
Grab samples. There are many
opportunities for the grab sample
to degrade during collection and
storage. This is especially critical
in samples for pH, conductivity, dis-
solved oxygen and hydrazine anal-
Systems for PWR Primary-Coolant Circuits,
“Proceedings of the Workshop on Corrosion-
Product Sampling from Hot-Water Sys-
tems,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., NP-3402-SR,
March 1984.
14. Emory, B., Crud Sample-System Design
Criteria, “Proceedings of the Workshop on
Corrosion-Product Sampling from Hot-Wa-
ter Systems,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., NP-
3402-SR, March 1984.
15. Sundberg, L., Sampling of Metallic Impuri-
ties in BWRs, “Proceedings of the Workshop
on Corrosion–Product Sampling from Hot-
Water Systems,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif., NP-
3402-SR, March 1984.
16. “Survey of Corrosion-Product Generation,
Transport, and Deposition in Light-Water
Nuclear Reactors,” EPRI, Palo Alto, Calif.,
NP-522, March 1979.
17. Svoboda, R., and others, Trace Analysis of
Corrosion Products by Integrated Sampling
Techniques, “Water Chemistry 3,” British
Nuclear Energy Systems, London, 1983.
ysis. Special preparation of grab
samples or sample containers may
be required, depending upon the
type of analysis being performed. In
some cases, chemicals are added to
the container before the sample is
added to prevent sample degrada-
tion (for instance, samples used for
the analysis of iron or copper).
Collection methods for samples
to be analyzed for pH, conductiv-
ity, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, hy-
drazine and organics must exclude
contact between the sample and air.
Storage methods and holding times
of samples from collection to analy-
sis require special consideration to
avoid degradation of samples.
Calibration and maintenance.
These steps should be routinely
performed on all online instruments
per the manufacturers’ recommen-
dations. Improperly calibrated and
maintained instruments will result
in inaccurate measurements, negat-
ing all engineering efforts to obtain
representative samples.
Maintaining clean coolers. Pe-
riodic cleaning of the cooling water
side of the coolers may be required
to maintain proper heat transfer
and sample temperature. The fre-
quency of cleaning depends upon
the scaling properties of the water
used for cooling.
Sample tube cleaning. All sam-
ple tubing should be periodically
cleaned by flushing or acid clean-
ing, or it should be replaced. The
frequency of cleaning depends on
the amount of impurities in the
sample streams. One “quick and
dirty” method to test the cleanli-
ness of the sample line is to shut off
the sample flow at the sample panel
and then quickly turn on the flow to
the maximum sampling rate. If the
sample is brown or black, there are
deposits in the sampling system.
Maintain safety. The sampling
nozzle, attachment to the process
pipe, valves and all welds should be
periodically inspected for evidence
of cracking and other forms of dam-
age. For sampling wet steam and
water, the section of process pip-
ing immediately downstream of the
sampling nozzle should be periodi-
cally inspected for thinning by flow-
accelerated corrosion. Installations
that sample liquid water should be
checked for cavitation. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Lee Machemer is president
of Jonas, Inc.(4313 Nebraska
Court, Pomfret, MD 20675,
Phone: 301-934-5605; Email:
jonasinc@steamcycle.com)
and has worked for the com-
pany for 18 years as a water
chemistry and corrosion con-
sultant. Machemer has been
involved with the design
and development of several
products used in fossil-fired,
nuclear, and geothermal power-generation facili-
ties. He holds a B.Ch.E. from the University of
Delaware and is a professional engineer.

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 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Plot Plan Design:
Process Requirements
It is important to conceptualize plant layout in terms of both ideal location and
optimal geographical positioning of equipment components
Mohammad Toghraei
Engrowth Training
F
or any chemical process facility,
the cost of improper or sub-ob-
timal plant layout can be enor-
mous. Designers are generally
well aware of safety constraints, but
there is often less recognition about
other process requirements that
will impact the design. This article
discusses key elements of plant lay-
out and plot plan design, in two im-
portant levels:
• Level 1. Plant location. This step
involves selecting the best loca-
tion
• Level 2. Plant layout. This step
involves the placement of units
and equipment relative to each
other, in an effort to optimize all
safety, operations and mainte-
nance objectives
Each requires a certain chain of de-
cision making that can impact the
success of all efforts (Figure 1).
An integrated effort
Level 1. During Level 1, engineers
seek to identify the optimal location
for the plant. Generally speaking, a
chemical process industries (CPI)
plant should be in a location that
allows it to easily receive raw ma-
terials and have access to utilities,
such as water and power. Other key
considerations are related to access
to the infrastructure needed, such
as roads, rail lines and shipping op-
tions, to enable both the shipment
of products (and side-products) and
the disposal of waste streams.
Other than material resources,
any CPI facility also needs access to
52 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com January 2015
a good supply of human resources.
When plants are established in de-
sirable locations, they have access
to a broad pool of qualified, skilled
people for operation, maintenance
and management of the plant.
Plant location should also be se-
lected to minimize the potential
environmental impact of plant op-
erations. For instance, establish-
ing a plant in an area that is sur-
rounded by mountains is often not
a good decision, due to potentially
poor air-flow characteristics in the
area. Similarly, if the treated waste-
water of a plant needs to be injected
into a disposal well, the plant can-
not be very far from an area that
has a suitable underground geologi-
cal structure.
Economic parameters are also
important when scouting possible
plant locations. Ideally, stakehold-
Plot plan
AREA 1: Production tank farm AREA 2: Separation area
Separator
Product Product Separator
tank tank
Separator
Finger pipe racks
Future Future Pipe racks
Raw water Flush water Feed tank
tank
Future
AREA 4: Tank Farm
Figure 1. Shown here is a typical plot plan
ers want to locate plants in loca-
tions with minimum land costs and
minimum applicable taxes.
Level 2. During Level 2 efforts,
stakeholders work to identify the
best method for laying out the dif-
ferent units within the facility. One
overarching objective of a plot plan
(but not necessarily the most impor-
tant one) is to minimize the length
of equipment-connecting elements,
such as pipes that convey liquids,
gases and bulk solids. Material
conveying systems, such as screw
conveyors, belt conveyors, also fall
within this category.
During the development and de-
sign of a plot plan, requirements
and limitations are identified and
decisions are made with regard to
the following considerations:
• Process requirements, such as
the need to support equipment
Heat exchangers AREA 3: Reaction area
O2 Scavenger Acid
Ion exchange beds
Catalyst
beds
Caustic
Sand Filters
Neutralization
Thickener Thickener
BFW tank Feed tank
Off specification water Overflow tank Overflow tank

• Suitable performance
• Safety requirements, such as the
need to ensure the proper dis-
tance between the furnace and
oil-storage tanks
• Construction requirements, such
as the need to provide enough ac-
cess area to allow construction
equipment (such as cranes and
lifts) to maneuver around the
equipment
• Operation, inspection and main-
tenance requirements, to ensure
easy accessibility for operators to
reach each component, system or
monitoring console
• Logistics requirements, to ensure
easy accessibility for service com-
panies and their vehicles, includ-
ing chemical-delivery trucks
If the team follows the basic rule
of seeking to minimize pipe length
wherever possible, it will undertake
efforts to minimize the length of
both process piping and utility pip-
ing. To minimize the process piping
length, equipment must be placed
in the order of the process flow dia-
gram (PFD) arrangement. However,
the effort to minimize the utility
piping length often forces designers
to lay down the developed “string”
of equipment based on the PFD
along the perimeter of a circle with
shared utility units in the center.
Although other requirements (such
as those related to safety and logis-
tics) will usually result in changes
to this preliminary arrangement,
it will be a useful exercise to group
equipment components that are
using common utilities, in a first
attempt to minimize the utility
pipe lengths.
The designer not only needs to try
to minimize the pipe length but also
to minimize the pipe rack length
and the number of finger pipe racks.
Doing so requires effort to develop
common routes for different pipes,
as much as possible.
Safety requirements call for seg-
regating areas within a plot plan in
a way that groups equipment and
units with common hazardous char-
acteristics. To minimize the risk of
releasing flammable, toxic, or lethal
liquids from storage tanks, they
should be grouped based on hazard-
ous classification areas and then
put within different containments
or diked areas.
Stacked heat exchangers Figure 2. In many cases, it makes
good engineering sense to incorporate
vertical designs, to take advantage of
gravity-based flow, limited footprint area
in the facility, and other engineering
considerations
Control
cabinet
Centrifuge
Mezzanine
level
Chute
Truck for
dumped
sludge
Prevailing wind direction at the this typically leads the plot plan de-
target location also affects the loca- signer to locate all the air coolers in
tion of equipment. Thus, a furnace, one location, to economize.
for instance, can be placed at the The concept of constructability
edge of a plant against the direction can affect the location of equipment,
of the prevailing wind to make sure too. For instance, a piece of equip-
any potential flammable leaked ment may be placed relatively far
fuel gases would move away from from the main part of the plant —
the plant. This same logic is why in a less-congested area against all
flares are typically placed far from other requirements — to satisfy the
human activity. need for ease of access for construc-
Another group of safety consid- tion vehicles, such as large cranes.
erations could be better classified Operation and inspection require-
as “nuisance issues.” For instance, ments will also impact the location
even though engineering controls of equipment. Such considerations
are often used to manage noise often require that operator-inten-
and fugitive emissions, units that sive equipment be grouped and
are inherently noisy or odorous placed in easily accessible areas.
should be placed in areas with little There must be specific clearance
human presence. around each piece of equipment, to
Construction requirements are provide enough room for operators.
equally important during the de- Specific maintenance require-
velopment of a plot plan. Ease-of- ments may require wider clearance
construction rules typically call for around one or all sides. For exam-
a plant with a regular shape, pref- ple, a floating bundle shell-and-tube
erentially with right angles. heat exchanger needs a clearance of
Meanwhile, specific installation about 1.5 times the tube length in
requirements associated with cer- front of the heat exchanger as an
tain equipment must also be taken area for bundle removal. Similarly,
into account. For example, air cool- plate-and-frame heat exchangers
ers are usually installed in a hori- need enough clearance to allow for
zontal direction, at some height plate removal.
above the ground. Such an installa- Some equipment — raw material
tion will require an additional sup- tanks, silos of additives, chemical-
port structure. The added expense of injection skids that may need fre-
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com January 2015 53
 Engineering Practice
quent fillings by trucks — is con-
sidered “logistic-intensive” in the
sense that it may affect the logistics
if placed in non-suitable locations.
Placing such units in a poorly con-
sidered spot could also be unsafe
or might interfere with an opera-
tor’s daily duties because of the in-
creased truck traffic that would be
needed to transfer products or raw
materials. To address these poten-
tial issues, such units are usually
placed near the edge of the plant.
Another aspect of plant design
to consider is where to place ponds
such as storm water ponds that are
often used in plants to collect rain
water. Placing such ponds in the
middle of a plant will decentralize
the other units and will lengthen
intra-plant travel time for person-
nel, so it best to place them at the
periphery of the overall layout.
Key elements to consider
The following elements should be
reconciled during the development
of the plot plan:
1. Indoor versus outdoor instal-
lations. If the outside ambient
temperature is not extreme (and
the variation in temperature over
time is not significant), then the
least expensive decision is often to
place all of the equipment outdoors.
However, this option is not avail-
able everywhere.
The indoor-versus-outdoor deci-
sion is important because of the
added cost of providing buildings
to house the equipment. The first
choice is always to locate the equip-
ment outdoors unless the equip-
ment is sensitive to very low or high
temperatures, or the equipment is
very operator-intensive. In these
cases, it makes more sense to locate
the equipment indoors.
Higher costs are associated with
indoor installation not just because
of the cost of buildings, but also due
to added costs required to meet ju-
risdictional building codes (which
tend to be more explicit, and thus
more costly, for indoor facilities).
Polymeric membrane systems,
for example, usually cannot tol-
erate temperatures greater than
40–50°C or very low temperatures.
As a result, they are usually placed
54 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com January 2015
indoors.
The main group of operator–in-
tensive equipment includes equip-
ment used in semi-continuous,
intermittent or batch operation. Al-
though many batch operations are
designed to be operated fully auto-
matically, frequent operator checks
are still necessary.
Consider the case of filtration. It
is popular to place pressure filters
indoors even though the filtering
media (such as sand or anthracite)
are not temperature-sensitive.
Any equipment that, for whatever
reason, is not monitored by instru-
ments — and thus requiring more
operator attention — is usually
placed indoors. For example, equip-
ment for which taking samples is
important should be placed indoors
to ensure a suitable environment
for the operator to be able to take
the samples. However, some compa-
nies may opt to utilize another op-
tion, which is to use an expensive,
automatic grab-sampling system
for some equipment so that they
can locate it outdoors.
The other consideration during
plot plan development is the need
for clean rooms, which are used to
protect processes for which even
trace amounts of impurities could
impact the quality of the product.
Examples of such processes are
pharmaceutical and microchip man-
ufacturing plants. In general, clean
rooms need to be located indoors.
It is not the case that only two
options — indoor or outdoor —
are available. Having equipment
partially indoors is one option to
achieve a compromise between cost
and operability. For example, in
some cases, the side of the equip-
ment that has all the sampling
points can be located indoors while
the rest of the equipment could
be left outdoors. Similarly, when
equipment has tall towers, instead
of raising the roof of the building,
the tower portion can be left above
(that is, outside) of the building.
Another interim option is plac-
ing equipment inside of a “shed” or
walk-in cabinet. The downside to
this approach, however, is that not
all provisions associated with an in-
door building will be available. For
example, in a small walk-in cabinet,
a full firefighting system will not be
available. Selecting this interim op-
tion should be considered very cau-
tiously, making sure that all safety
measures are considered carefully.
In very cold areas, such as north-
ern Canada, the plot plan of indoor
equipment sometimes needs to en-
sure that certain sensitive equip-
ment components are not located
near doors or windows, to minimize
the chance of freezing. In such areas,
frequent opening of doors and gates
can increase the chance of freezing
for the equipment near the door, es-
pecially if there is no hot-air curtain
available.
2. One story versus multi story
plant. The decision must be made
as to whether or not the plant
should be designed on one level, or
whether some equipment should be
placed on a second or third floor. The
default option is to maintain the en-
tire plant on one floor to minimize
the cost, however, that may not
be possible.
Having the plant built on more
than one story increases the cost
because of additional required
structures and supports to hold
all equipment systems, especially
when the equipment is dynamic
rather than static, and reciprocat-
ing rather than rotary. For example,
placing a small tank on a mezza-
nine level could be less expensive
than placing a centrifugal pump or
mixer on that level.
However, in some cases having a
multistory plant is preferable and
justifiable (Figure 2). Consider the
case for plants involved with sol-
ids handling, such as those whose
raw materials, products or interim
products are in bulk, granulated
or powdered form. Solids convey-
ing is typically carried out by
pneumatic conveying systems, belt
conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket
conveyors and related systems. One
way to reduce the need for some
modes of pneumatic or mechani-
cal conveyance (and hence reduce
energy requirements) is to ar-
range the equipment vertically and
use gravity.
In some cases, vertical arrange-
ment can ease cleaning, especially
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 Engineering Practice
for sticky materials. In this ap-
proach a simple chute can some-
times replace a more complicated,
mechanical solid-conveying system.
Another common example of
plants that benefit from vertical ar-
rangement are those that deal with
liquids in the boiling temperature
range (or in the bubble-point range
for non-pure liquids). In such cases,
the designer usually prefers to have
a vertical arrangement to prevent
unwanted evaporation or flash of
the liquid. It is common to see a
“stack” of heat exchangers that op-
erate at temperatures close to the
boiling temperature of liquid, to
suppress the flash of liquid caused
by the weight of the column of liq-
uid (Figure 2).
3. Pipe length in the suction side
of pumps. All pumps, either cen-
trifugal or positive-displacement
types, are sensitive to low suction
pressure. This sensitivity can be
quantified using the required net
positive suction head (NPSHR)
term for centrifugal pumps, and the
required net positive inlet pressure
(NPIPR) term for positive-displace-
ment pumps. NPSHR is essentially
the required effective liquid column
in the suction side of the pump to
guarantee proper operation with
minimum cavitation.
This sensitivity can be addressed
by ensuring an adequate margin on
top of NPSHR exists to provide a
suitable available net positive suc-
tion head (NPSHA). The goal is to
make sure NPSHA is higher than
NPSHR with enough margin. This
can be done by minimizing the suc-
tion pipe length and the number of
fittings used. Doing so forces the de-
signer to place the source container
and the pump as close as possible
on the plot plan.
Although reciprocating pumps
are typically less sensitive than
centrifugal pumps toward suction
pressure (in other words, they could
have lower NPIPR than equivalent
NPSHR), their pulsational opera-
tion, or the fact that pressure in
their suction (and discharge side)
can go much below average suction
pressure makes them vulnerable.
The effect of pulsation in their suc-
tion side is quantified in the “suc-
56 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com January 2015
tion acceleration head” term, which
needs to be added to the NPIP by
the manufacturer. The magnitude
of acceleration head is a function of
the speed of reciprocation, the vol-
ume of cylinder(s) and the length of
suction pipe.
4. Chemical compatibility. Dif-
ferent equipment handles different
chemicals, which are not necessarily
compatible. In an ideal world, vari-
ous chemicals are bound by their
respective equipment or containers.
However, there is always a chance
of leakage in an accident or via con-
trolled release as the primary step
of maintenance. Plot-plan develop-
ment must consider the impact of
the presence (and potential co-min-
gling) of all site-specific fluids, in
any given location.
One specific concern is sumps.
Sumps can receive different liquids
and must be designed to store them
safely for a limited time. The com-
patibility of any liquids that could
end up in a given sump should be
checked to make sure no uncon-
trolled reactions can occur. If fluids
are not compatible, the respective
equipment could be moved to an-
other building, or a dedicated sump
could be considered.
Another issue related to poten-
tual incompatibility of chemicals
is electrical area classification.
The electrical devices in each area
should be compatible with the na-
ture of the chemicals in each area.
For example, a conventional electri-
cal device that may generate sparks
during its functioning is not suitable
to be installed in any area in which
highly flammable liquids may be
present. This requirement is gen-
erally addressed by designating an
“electrical area class” for each area,
depending on the type of chemicals
in that area.
It should be considered that one
area with a less-stringent electri-
cal class should not be pushed to a
more-stringent electrical area class
only because of a few units that are
located (unwisely) in the area and
require more-stringent electrical
area classification. With proper plot
plan design, engineers can avoid the
poor (and costly) practice of classify-
ing a big area or building with more
severe electrical classification level
only because of one or a few units
that are handling flammable fluids.
5. Inline mixing with or without
static mixers. When two or more
streams will be mixed in line (pipe)
rather than a mixing tank, require-
ments associated with the static
mixer should be defined by the plot
plan. The aim of any mixing effort
is to produce a fairly homogenous
mixed fluid at the inlet of the down-
stream equipment.
If the downstream equipment
can be placed far from the mixing
point, a homogenous fluid can often
be attained via regular pipe flow
even without a static mixer. If this
is not the case, then a static mixer
is needed. As a rule of thumb, when
dealing with relatively watery liq-
uids (viscosity <20 centipoise), a
pipe length of 100–150 times the
pipe diameter is usually sufficient
and removes the need so that a
static mixer can achieve the desired
homogeneity.
6. Handling time–sensitive flu-
ids. As noted, the relative location
of equipment affects the pipe length
between units. This could be critical
for time-sensitive fluids. Although
the travel time in specific sections
of pipe is a matter of minutes, it
could still be important for very
sensitive fluids.
For example, in some flotation
vessels, the bubbles are generated
outside of the flotation vessel and
then bubble-laden liquid is trans-
ferred to the vessels. If the distance
between the bubble-generating
mechanism and the flotation vessel
is too large, bubbles will coalesce
with each other. And at the vessel
inlet, instead of having a liquid with
small bubbles, there could be liquid
with big slugs of gas. This reduces
the separation efficiency of the flo-
tation vessels.
7. Process gravity-flow pipes.
When flow from one equipment
component or container to another
occurs only by gravity, some other
issues should be considered. In two
interconnecting containers, the
liquid level in the second (down-
stream) container is partly adjusted
by the pressure drop in the connect-
ing pipe. This shows the importance
 Engineering Practice
of gravity-pipe pressure drop and
its length in the design and opera-
tion of a unit. The pipe pressure loss
can be minimized by placing these
containers as close as possible and
using the minimum number of el-
bows and other fittings on the con-
necting pipe.
If the gravity pipe is placed with
a slope toward the second intercon-
nected container, the importance of
minimizing the pipe length becomes
more obvious. If the pipe is long, the
second downstream container may
need to be placed in a pit to be able
to provide the required slope. This is
not an ideal situation, because deal-
ing with equipment in a pit provides
some difficulties for operators.
8. Hydraulic transferring of
critical solids. One method of
transferring powders, granules
or beads is through the use of hy-
draulic transfer systems. Hydrau-
lic transferring can be done by air,
water or other fluids. If the integ-
rity of solid beads is important, this
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Sep ‘06
Prelim.
Aug ‘06
CE Index 513.1
Equipment 606.5
Heat Exchanges and Tanks 565.1
Process Machinery 559.6
Pipe, valves and fittings 734.7
Process Instruments 441.4
Pumps and Compressions 788.9
Electrical equipment 418.9
Structural supports 643.7
Construction Labor 314.7
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Engineering Supervision 350.7
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24688 CE PCI House Ad_HalfHorizontal.indd 1
operation should be done carefully planned. While the designer of the
and the design should minimize plot plan cannot leave room for the
attrition. One requirement in such unplanned modifications, he or she
systems is to minimize the transfer should try to reserve enough room
line length and use specific fittings, in suitable locations to accommo-
such as long-radius elbows. This re- date those future modifications
quires the source and destination that can be planned or anticipated
units to be placed as close to each in some way. n
other as possible, which will affect Edited by Suzanne Shelley
the plot plan.
9. Symmetric piping. Providing
a symmetrical piping design to the Author
inlet of two similar equipment com- Mohammad Toghraei is an
instructor and consultant
ponents is one passive way to split a with Engrowth Training
stream equally to both of them. The (Web: www.engedu.ca; Phone:
403-808-8264; Email: moe.
need for symmetric piping can force toghraei@engedu.ca), based
the designer to relocate or rotate in Calgary, Alta. He has more
than 20 years of experience in
equipment in the plot plan. As a the process industries, and
has published articles on dif-
rule of thumb, any need for ferent aspects of process op-
symmetrical piping around equip- erations. His main expertise
is in the treatment of produced water and waste-
ment should be identified early, water from the oil-and-gas industries. Toghraei
as it will impact the plot-plan received a B.Sc. in chemical engineering from
Isfahan University of Technology (Iran), and an
design efforts. M.Sc. in environmental engineering from Tehran
10. Future plans. The basis for University (Iran). He is a member of the Assn. of
Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Al-
future modifications in the plant berta (APEGA), and is a professional engineer,
P.Eng., in the province of Alberta.
could be economic or technical, and
they may be either planned or un-
Resources included with
Final
Sep ‘05
Final
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510
Plant Cost Index:
602.3 541.2
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Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com January 2015 57

Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
B
est-efficiency point (BEP), the flowrate
at which a pump operates at its
highest or optimum efficiency for
a specific impeller diameter, is a key
consideration when assessing pump
performance. While most pumps do not
consistently operate at their exact BEP, a
pump that is properly sized will maintain
a flow near peak efficiency (85–105%
of BEP).
Operating a pump “off-BEP” means
that the flowrate is either too far above
or below the BEP for a sustained period
of time, resulting in a number of negative
consequences. This article outlines the
consequences of operating pumps away
from their BEP for extended periods, as
well as the key questions to ask when
assessing off-BEP pump operation.
Consequences of off-BEP operation
Vibration and noise. Noise and vibra-
tion can occur when a pump operates
too far to the right of BEP, generating
high-velocity eddy currents that contribute
to the imbalance of pressure and shaft
deflection. The resulting stress on the
pump’s internal components can lead to
poor pump performance, excessive wear
and increased risk of failure. The ideal
noise/vibration point is approximately
90% of BEP.
Cavitation. Cavitation occurs when
vapor bubbles continuously form and
collapse, creating intense pressure (up
to 10,000 psi) and shock waves (Figure
2). This is caused when the net positive
suction head required (NPSHR) increases
beyond the NPSH available (NPSHA),
or when the NPSHA drops below the
NPSHR. In determining reliability, if
the NPSHA in the system drops below
the NPSHR by the pump, the pump will
experience cavitation — eroding the
impeller, vibrating the bearings and cas-
ings, and causing damage that can be
quite severe. The fatigued metal breaks
away, creating pitted surfaces, which
become concentration points for further
bubble collapse. NPSHR is typically
based on test standards established by
the Hydraulic Institute (www.pumps.org);
the definition of it is based on a 3% total
Total head, ft
Constant flow
14 12 10 8 6
Figure 1. Shown here is an example of an NPSH test plot used to determine a pump’s NPSHR
Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
Low velocity/
high pressure
Bubble
inception
Static pressure
Figure 2. Cavitation can be created for demonstration purposes using a venturi
head drop (Figure 1). At that 3% ratio,
a pump is already cavitating. That is
why there are common practices in the
industry that require a certain margin to
be in place to make sure a pump is not
running right at the NPSHA, and thus, by
definition, cavitating.
Bearing and seal failure. Bearing and
seal failure accounts for more than 80%
of all premature centrifugal pump fail-
ures, and occurs when a pump experi-
ences increased radial and thrust loads
during off-BEP operation. Pumps that
have a single-volute casing design nor-
mally experience a rapid increase in im-
peller radial and thrust loads as the flow
declines below BEP flow. Dual-volute cas-
ing designs help to balance radial loads
and are essential for reliability when a
pump must operate for a substantial pe-
riod of time at flows considerably below
its BEP flowrate. Modified concentric
volute-casing designs are an alternative
to single volutes — offering reduced
radial loads in off-BEP operation, but
giving up a little bit of pump efficiency
in the process. The impeller loads that
develop during off-BEP operation can
lead to shaft deflection and mechanical
seal failures, or overload the bearings
with increased temperatures.
Discharge and suction recirculation.
Discharge and suction recirculation hap-
pens when fluid does not flow through
the pump as it was designed, causing
small flow instabilities called eddies. The
damage caused by eddies mirrors cavita-
Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
–3%
Of total head
4 2 0 –2 –4 –6
NPSHA, gage
The Impact of
Off-BEP Pump
Operation
Venturi
Increased velocity /
pressure drop
Bubble
Bubble collapse
growth
Vapor pressure
tion and can lead to catastrophic pump
failure when portions of the impeller inlet
or discharge vanes fatigue and fail by
breaking off.
Temperature rise. Temperature rise is one
of the more severe effects of off-BEP opera-
tion, because at its most extreme, human
life can be lost. If a pump is allowed to
run at shut-off for an extended period
of time, enough energy can be applied
to the fluid to cause the pressure in the
pump to build to a point where it’s greater
than the yield strength of the casing, thus
causing an explosion. Such explosions
have been known to throw motors through
concrete block walls. The chances of this
happening are remote, yet real.
Key questions
The following application-related ques-
tions should be considered when assess-
ing off-BEP pump operation:
• What type of damage can occur if a
pump is run below the BEP?
• What type of damage can occur if a
pump is run above the BEP?
• How does off-BEP operation affect a
pump’s mechanical seal?
• Why does vibration increase in off-
BEP operation?
• What are some ways pump manufac-
turers use hydraulic design to mini-
mize loads on bearings and increase
bearing life?
• Are proper operational controls in
place to prevent a catastrophic event?
In pursuit of peak efficiencies and
increased reliability (longer mean time
between failures), pump adjustments are
often made to align their BEP with the
duty point of the pumping systems. Con-
sider testing a pump if you are uncertain
about its BEP for a specific application. ■
–8 –10 Editor’s note: Content for this edition of “Facts at
your Fingertips” was contributed by Rich Nardone,
global product manager at ITT Goulds Pumps (Sen-
eca Falls, N.Y.; www.gouldspumps.com).
 Feature Report
Lifecycle Costs for
Capital Equipment
In the CPI
Longterm equipment costs
need to be fully considered
in capital-cost assessments
Jeff Hoffmann
Paul O. Abbe
W
hen considering project pro-
posals for new processes in
the chemical process indus-
tries (CPI), capital equip-
ment costs often become the primary
focus. The purpose of this article is
to provide a detailed examination of
the total cost of process equipment
and the implications that the initial
equipment cost has for longterm costs
over the full life of the process.
Aside from equipment costs, other
critical costs to consider include, op-
eration, maintenance and decommis-
sioning (Figure 1). Also, since a pro-
cess generates revenue only when it
is operating, downtime must be added
to the total costs. When the whole life-
time of a process is considered, equip-
ment costs may account for as little as
5–10% of the total cost (Figure 2).
There are a number of questions
that should be considered before mov-
ing ahead with projects. How should
you define the product output, quality,
unit operations, support equipment
and profitability? Who is responsible
for operating and maintaining the
process? Do the demands for process
performance conflict with operating
and maintenance realities? What is
the likelihood that the equipment
will operate trouble-free? Are replace-
36 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
Operation
ment parts available for both routine
and non-routine maintenance?
Minimizing total cost
The emphasis on total operating
costs over the life of a process does
not imply that the initial equipment
costs are unimportant. On the con-
trary, it is precisely the investment
in the correct equipment in the first
place that is to be examined. The pur-
pose of the procurement of process
equipment is to perform a particular
function within a unit operation. The
goal is not the purchase of a particu-
lar piece of equipment. If we add the
dimension of time, then our defini-
tion for process equipment becomes
a piece of equipment that performs a
specific function under various con-
ditions over a prescribed period of
time. Therefore, we should not focus
on equipment with the lowest initial
cost, but rather on the realistic long-
term cost of that purchase.
In the early 1980s, Edward Deming
— the father of quality management
— stated that organizations should
“end the practice of awarding business
on the basis of price tag alone and, in-
stead, minimize the total cost.” This
sentiment is consistent with evaluat-
ing lifecycle cost.
Equipment
Lifecycle
cost
Maintenance
Decommis-
sioning
FIGURE 1. Initial capital costs alone
are too often the primary criteria for se-
lecting process equipment
Lifecycle cost
The purpose of lifecycle-cost (LCC)
analysis is to make informed deci-
sions based on available alternatives
in order to achieve the most economi-
cal process from inception to decom-
missioning. LCC takes into account
the design, equipment selection, op-
eration, maintenance and final dis-
position costs of a project over its
lifespan. LCC is useful for engineers
in justifying equipment and process
design based on total costs rather
than the initial purchase price of
equipment alone.
Procurement strategies focused on
lowest initial costs are more likely
to lead to higher longterm costs. We
are often directed to reduce costs and
work within budgets. In the short run,
this approach can make us and our
department appear efficient. How-
ever, the lower initial capital costs
may come with maintenance or other
problems that eventually will be real-
ized by the company shareholders in
the coming years and decades. LCC
can help avoid unnecessary downtime
and help make a process more com-
petitive and profitable. At the very
least, an LCC analysis may prompt
engineers to consider a wider range
of possibilities.
 Installation
5%
Flush water
7%
Decommissioning
8%
Capital costs
9%
Operating cost
9%
Maintenance
14%
Figure 2. Initial capital costs represent a small fraction of the total lifecycle costs
for process equipment. The graph depicts the case of a “worst case” situation with
considerable downtime costs (see Table 1, scenario 1, p. 41)
The remainder of this article pres-
ents a more-or-less qualitative view
of the LCC analysis process and the
elements that go into LCC. The “Fur-
ther reading” list at the end of the
article refers readers to several more
analytic versions of LCC, includ-
ing Weibull analysis, risk-based cost
analysis, Monte Carlo modeling, and
other “what-if ” analyses.
The main goals of LCC are: 1) To
identify risks to process operation
and efficiency; 2) Quantify these risks
in terms of downtime; and 3) Deter-
mine how to avoid these risks and
subsequent losses early in the design
of the system (Figure 3).
LCC for the CPI
Of all the industries and all the types
of manufacturing plants in the world,
it is safe to say that the process in-
dustries are some of the most variable
and complex. With more than 70 mil-
lion identifiable chemicals and a near-
infinite number of combinations, and
given the number of unit operations
possible, there are many opportuni-
ties to examine process costs. The four
primary components involved in the
LCC are:
• Capital equipment costs
• Operating costs
Environmental
3%
Downtime
32%
Supplier
designs
Electric
13%
• Maintenance costs
• Decommissioning costs
These components are further subdi-
vided (Figure 4).
Steps in LCC analysis
LCC considers everything in the life
of a process, starting with a definition
of the process, its unit operations, and
the equipment required to fulfill those
unit operations, as well as operating
costs, maintenance costs and finally
decommissioning costs. The following
are the major steps involved in deter-
mining LCC.
Assess process requirements.
Tasks to consider when undertaking a
new process include the following:
• Determine present and future ca-
pacity for the product
• Anticipate the lifetime of the pro-
cess. Some processes may have a
lifespan of anywhere from a year or
two to decades. Anticipating process
lifetime will either concentrate or
extend cost impacts and affect the
long-term maintenance and reliabil-
ity of the process
• Define product quality based on cus-
tomer requirements
• Determine process flexibility. How
easily can the equipment and sys-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
Process
requirements
Subcontract
Define unit
all or part of
operations
process
Define
equipment
Installation
Operation Anticipate
downtime risk
Causes of failure
• Equipment design
• Proper operation
Maintenance
• Maintenance
• Parts availability
Decom-
mission
FIGURE 3. The LCC analysis process
shown here is designed to minimize total
cost, even if initial capital costs are higher
tem be modified to accommodate in-
creased output of product, changes
in formulation or the addition of a
step in the process?
• Quantify waste. What percent of
waste is acceptable? What is the cost
of waste disposal? How can waste be
minimized by a change in the pro-
cess? Can off-specification product
be reprocessed or sold “off-spec” to a
different market?
Define unit operations
This step involves identifying the unit
operations and types of equipment re-
quired by the process.
Subcontract. Subcontracting one or
more operations in a process is some-
thing often overlooked, but can in-
crease cost efficiencies and flexibility.
Few manufacturers of process equip-
ment manufacture everything — mo-
tors, gear drives and bearings are not
manufactured in-house. Likewise,
chemical companies do not manufac-
ture all of their raw materials, nor
do they necessarily perform all tasks
37
 Feature Report

in-house. Subcontracting is, for most

businesses, a matter of degree rather Equipment
than a yes-or-no decision. Some steps sizing and design features

in a process may not be cost-effective Pipes, valves, Installation

to execute in-house. For example, fitting, electrical rigging
permits
high-pressure reactors, spray-drying Foundations
and structure
or packaging may best be outsourced Warranties
operations, at least until the opera-
tion grows and the investment can be
Equipment
better justified.
Continuous, batch or a combina- Preventative
Operation
tion. The decision for a continuous or supervision
maintenance

batch process (or a combination of the Raw monitoring Maintenance

two) is sometimes dictated by the pro-
cess, and sometimes optional. Within
this decision, a set of factors should
be considered:
• Continuous process operations can
often have much higher output
and may require less equipment,
but they may have more vari-
ability in quality and reworking
off-spec product in a continuous
process may be difficult
• Batch operations may require more
storage and intermediate buffer
tanks and larger equipment, but
they have the advantage of con-
sistency and often have a better
chance to re-work off-spec product
Storage strategy. In anticipation of
routine or emergency shutdown, a stor-
age strategy should be created. Can the
finished product be stored and, if so,
can the downstream process or packag-
ing accommodate a surge in capacity?
Process bottlenecks. Which aspects
of the process have the most variation?
For example, liquid mixing is fairly
consistent, whereas solids drying can
vary considerably with particle size.
Does a dryer need excess capacity?
Evaporator capacity can fall off quickly
due to tube fouling either on the prod-
uct or heat-transfer-fluid side. In the
example on page 39 (Figure 5), the
performance of the evaporator falling
below 600 gal/hr can be the result of
scale build-up or fouling. Investing in
a water demineralization system may
be worthwhile if the bottleneck affects
productivity and profitability. Like-
wise, too large an evaporator with low
velocity may be more prone to fouling.
Bigger is not always better.
Define required equipment
Process equipment has many varia-
tions in basic design and design op-
38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
material
supply
Waste stream Operation
treatment and
disposal
Utilities:
Gases
electric, N2, CO2
gas, water
FIGURE 4. Each of Dismantling
the four main LCC and removal
components can be
further broken down
into specific cost
factors
tions. Discuss your requirements with
equipment manufacturers and gather
information on: performance; design;
options; installation; foundation and
support requirements; utility require-
ments; mean-time between failures;
and recommended spare parts for
the first few years of operation. This
is also the time to start gathering in-
formation on refurbished and used
equipment (discussed later). The steps
are as follows:
1) Identify suppliers and dealers for
new versus used versus reconditioned
equipment. Identify alternate designs
(for example, shell-and-tube versus
plate-and-frame heat exchanger, or
fluid-bed versus vacuum dryer).
2) Identify design features that may
improve product quality, increase up-
time and reduce maintenance. These
might include automatic lubrication,
and monitoring devices for vibration,
over-temperature and low-level pro-
tection. Evaluate whether a clean-in-
place (CIP) system would be cost-effec-
tive, or whether the equipment would
training
Lifecycle Unexpected
Maintenance failure
cost maintenance
Parts supply
chain
Parts
inventory
Decommis-
sioning
Demolition
Sell or scrap
Cleanup equipment
Waste disposal
(including contaminated
pipe, insulation,
and so on)
be better cleaned manually. Also,
it is important to understand what
level of operator exposure to product
and cleaning chemicals is acceptable.
Other options might include mainte-
nance-reducing features, such as ad-
ditional access hatches, sight glasses
and lights, split seals and bearings
and replaceable wear liners.
Equipment installation
Installation costs may equal or exceed
equipment costs, depending on the size
and complexity of the equipment. An
important consideration during the
layout and installation of equipment
is the accessibility to allow preventive
maintenance and future repair. Suffi-
cient space must be provided for the
extraction of shafts, rotors and motors,
as well as to provide access to seals and
bearings. Overhead structure should
allow for portable hoisting chains or
permanently installed hoists.
Although not routine, anticipating
the removal of large pieces of equip-
ment should not be made impossible

1,100
1,000
900
gal/hr
800
700
600
500
Mixer/
Metering reactor
pumps Filtration
by physical constraints. Without clear
access, preventative maintenance
may suffer and repair time may be ex-
tended. Factors involved in the instal-
lation cost may include the following:
• Machine foundations
• Accessibility for maintenance and
repair
• Support structures and mezzanines
• Piping, valves and fittings
• Instrumentation
• Electrical controls
• Monitoring equipment
• Electrical switchgear
Operation
Operation and maintenance are two
areas that are critical to avoiding
downtime and both are affected by
equipment selection, design and oper-
ating procedures.
If the equipment was sized prop-
erly, there should be no reason to op-
erate it beyond safe design capacities.
Many types of equipment are tested
at, or designed for 150 to 200% of the
rated capacity, but operating at these
capacities may risk shortening the
life of the equipment. Other aspects
of operation costs include the train-
ing of operations personnel, utilities
(electricity, gas, water, steam and
cooling tower capacity) and the time
that the equipment is offline for pre-
ventative maintenance.
The costs of raw materials, water
treatment (demineralizing, pH adjust-
ment), purge gas (N2, CO2) and waste
disposal are also key operations costs.
Most CPI processes, even in the food
FIGURE 5.
Certain aspects
of a process
Minimum
have higher
Design
potential to
present process
bottlenecks than
others
Evaporator Packaging
Dehydrator
industry, have to dispose of waste prod-
uct or waste streams from washing, off-
specification product or simply contami-
nated water coming from a wash step.
Maintenance
Generally, maintenance can be classi-
fied into two types: preventative and
repair. Some failures occur randomly
and cannot be predicted, but other
failures occur as a result of a lack of
preventative maintenance (PM).
PM is an area that has evolved into a
service that can be subcontracted and
may be economical when considering
the total longterm value provided. PM
companies often have superior knowl-
edge of pumps, drives, lubrication and
routine maintenance issues, including
good record keeping. The PM record
keeping can also help support any
warranty claims and avoid disputes
with original equipment manufactur-
ers (OEMs). The cost of subcontracting
PM must be considered against the
benefits of avoiding downtime. Parts
availability is important in avoiding
downtime both for PM and unexpected
failures. Questions to consider in hav-
ing parts available when required are
the following:
• Do you know the supply chain for
the parts you need?
• Do you know your OEM parts and
service contacts?
• Are you considering non-OEM or
counterfeit parts?
• Do you have a recommend parts list
for each machine for the first few
years of operation?
Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
• What are the availability of stan-
dard parts?
• What is the availability of special
non-standard parts?
• What is the cost to purchase and
stock the recommended parts?
• Will your OEM put consigned stock
in your facility? What is involved in
administering consigned stock? Are
you prepared to safely store and pro-
tect the parts?
• What is the cost to stock parts for
catastrophic failures? Some large
parts, such as motors, gear drives or
centrifuge scrolls and bowls, can take
weeks or months to obtain. The low
probability of failure may be offset by
the very long lead times and may re-
quire investment in costly parts that
may sit on the shelf for years.
• Is maintenance staff knowledgeable
and prepared to identify symptoms
of failure early, and diagnose and
repair issues quickly and correctly
the first time? Check with the OEM
for guidance and training. Do you
have the installation and operat-
ing manuals on file? Have they been
thoroughly reviewed?
• What are the anticipated preventa-
tive maintenance intervals?
• What is the expected time between
failures for components like seals,
and bearings, and the expected time
between belt adjustments and filter
replacements?
• Should all or some PM be out-
sourced?
• Does the OEM offer PM services?
• What is the repair turnaround time
for a specific failure?
Decommissioning
The concept of decommissioning is
not something most engineers tend
to consider as they are designing a
plant, but some plants will have finite
lives of just a few years due to licens-
ing agreements, patents, changes in
markets or plans to shift to overseas
production in the future.
Planning for decommissioning a
process plant can vary from simple
tear-down and selling of equipment
to preparing for a sophisticated de-
contamination procedure. Chemical
process equipment has special con-
siderations that can increase the cost
of decommissioning. Not only will
39
 Feature Report
discover failure
and remove Teardown
from service
FIGURE 6. Downtime represents one of
the most significant and costly issues
for many processes
waste material have to be disposed
of, but piping, insulation and floor-
ing may have to be decontaminated
or treated as hazardous waste.
Other costs of decommissioning
include dismantling of equipment,
waste disposal of chemicals (unused
chemicals, water-treatment and
cleaning chemicals, as well as those
in above- and below-ground tanks,
evaporation ponds and contaminated
pipes).
Costs of downtime
Process downtime is one of the most
significant and costly issues for many
processes. To properly take into ac-
count the costs of downtime over the
life of the process, engineers must
estimate how much cost is accrued if
the process fails, either in whole or in
part. Further, once it fails, the ques-
tion becomes how long will it take to
restore operation?
In terms of equipment selection and
design, which equipment and design
features will be less likely to cause
downtime? Which will be most eas-
ily maintained? How quickly can an
expected failure be repaired so the
equipment can be put back in service?
The risks and costs of process down-
time can be considered in a semi-
quantitative form by examining the
likelihood of an event occurring in a
given time period and the cost per unit
time of that failure.
Downtime Cost = f requency of
failure/year
x downtime/days
x $ losses/day
Downtime starts with the failure of
the equipment and stops when it is
put back in service. Better mainte-
nance training can reduce the diagno-
sis and repair time significantly. The
basic sequence is the discovery of a
failure, followed by teardown, diagno-
sis, obtaining parts, repair, restart and
monitoriing (Figure 6).
40 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
Obtain
Dagnosis
parts
5 $500 $5,000
4 $400 $4,000
Events per year
3 $300 $3,000
2 $200 $2,000
1 $100 $1,000
$100 $1,000
FIGURE 7. A matrix can help quantify the costs of downtime in a process
One factor with a great impact on re-
ducing downtime is the availability of
parts. The parts may be common, such
as O-rings or gaskets, seals or bearings,
or they may be less common, such as
pump housings or drive shafts.
If a complete shutdown costs
$100,000 per day, the expected fre-
quency of a catastrophic shutdown
three times per year is a total of
$300,000. For a non-critical failure
that reduces productivity, but does
not shut down the process entirely,
an event cost of $50,000, with a fre-
quency of five times per year would
total $250,000 (Figure 7).
The following examples (Figure 8
and Table 1) emphasize maintenance
training and parts availability in the
prevention of downtime. Suppose the
additional cost of training and parts
is $80,000. With downtime cost at
$20,000 per day, the investment of
$80,000 saved $86,000 compared to
without the training and parts after
just one outage event.
In a second example, a $70,000 design
feature reduces downtime by making a
routine and expected part replacement
faster, from three days to one day. Over
Repair Restart Monitor
$50,000 $500,000 $5,000,000
$40,000 $400,000 $4,000,000
$30,000 $300,000 $3,000,000
$20,000 $200,000 $2,000,000
$10,000 $100,000 $1,000,000
$10,000 $100,000 $1,000,000
Cost of event
the 10-year life of the process, the sav-
ing is $890,000.
Those examples represent the costs
of just one critical unit operation and
one design feature. When consider-
ing similar analyses across an entire
plant, the cost savings can be sub-
stantial. The conclusion of the above
is that a relatively small upfront in-
vestment may save considerable cost
in the long run.
New, USED, refurbished?
There is a saying that all process
plants run on used equipment, and
that is true. The LCC analysis is not
prejudiced with regard to used or re-
furbished equipment — LCC considers
the balance of downtime prevention
and investment in equipment and pre-
ventative maintenance. If you know
your process requirements and have
the resources to keep used equipment
functioning as reliably as necessary,
then used or refurbished equipment
is the right choice. There are several
LCC issues to consider when deciding
between new, refurbished and used
equipment.
Not all buyers are in a position to
 Downtime Costs
Dwell time, days
$250,000
Sequential Scenario Scenario Annual
step Event Preventative action cost
1 2
1 Discover failure 1 0.1 Maintenance training $ 30,000
$200,000
2 Teardown 1 0.5 Maintenance training
3 Diagnosis 1 0.5 Maintenance training
4 Accquire parts 5 0.1 Parts in stock $ 50,000 $150,000
5 Repair 1 0.5 Maintenance training
6 Re-start 1 0.5 Maintenance training
$100,000
7 Monitor 1 0.5 Maintenance training
Total days of downtime 11 2.7 $ 80,000
Investment in training $50,000
$0 $80,000
and parts
Downtime cost $20,000/day $220,000 $54,000
Total $220,000 $134,000 $0
Scenario Scenario
1 2
Additional cost of
$86,000
lack of preparation

FIGURE 8. Different downtime scenarios for availability of parts and other factors can yield variable costs

TABLE 1. The impact of varying downtime costs

Scenario 1 Year
High-pressure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
reactor mixer
Initial capital costs $380,000 $380,000
Installation and $230,000 $230,000
commissioning
Utilities - electric $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
($0.12/kwh)
- flush water ($0.04/gal.) $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $300,000
Operating costs $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $400,000
(normal supervision)
Maintenance costs $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
Downtime costs $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $144,000 $1,440,000
($48,000/d x 3 d)
Environmental costs $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000
$13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $130,000
Decommissioning $350,000 $360,000
Total $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $347,000 $697,000 $4,430,000

Scenario 2 Year
High-pressure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
reactor mixer
Initial capital costs $380,000 $450,000
Split seal and bearing $70,000
option
Installation and $230,000 $230,000
commissioning
Utilities - electric $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
($0.12/kWh)
- flush water ($0.04/gal) $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $300,000
Operating costs $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $400,000
(normal supervision)
Maintenance costs $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
Downtime costs $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $148,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $480,000
($48,000/d x 1 d)
Environmental costs $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000
$13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $130,000
Decommissioning $350,000 $350,000
Total $931,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $601,000 $3,540,000

Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013 41

 Feature Report

purchase new equipment be- Table 2. Comparison of New, Used and REfurbished EquipmenT
cause of cost considerations New Refurbished Used
or time. Used equipment may Application Application definition Limited Limited to none
also be the appropriate alter- assistance and machine design
native when time is a con- Design fea- Unlimited Some variations or None (whatever is
sideration, either in terms of tures modifications possible in stock)
delivery or usage. Used equip- as part of the rebuild
process
ment is frequently available
Delivery 4–8 months 1–2 months Immediate
for immediate delivery, com-
pared to the relatively long Price 100% 40–50% of new 20–40% of new
lead times that are typical Mechanical 12 months from instal- 90 days to a few None (“as is”)
of new capital equipment. In warranty lation or 18 months
from shipment
months
these cases, used equipment
Right to return None None 10–30 days
may provide the optimal al-
Parts In-stock or readily The fact that the unit Call OEM and find
ternative (Table 2). availability available is being refurbished out how available
The following scenarios indicates that parts parts are before pur-
favor the purchasing of used are available from the chasing. Parts avail-
or refurbished equipment: OEM. Variable parts ability diminishes
• When price is of prime im- availability with time
portance because of invest- Aftermarket Complete technical Limited None
technical support
ment limitations support
• When the equipment is
needed immediately for an
emerging market tant to be sure you can obtain parts acquire equipment that will accommo-
• When the equipment will be used when needed, especially if the OEM date your process.
for a limited time, such as a feasibil- is located in another country. Trying Mechanical warranty. Mechanical
ity study or short-production run for to get parts for an overseas machine warranties are a certainty with new
a special product or market made 30 years ago, for example, may equipment, but their real purpose
• When the equipment can be eco- be a challenge. Is the company still should not be overestimated. Warran-
nomically modified to fit the pur- in business? Where are their foreign ties are not substitutes for proper op-
pose. This will have a lot to do with offices? Some resourceful companies eration or preventative maintenance
your ability to refurbish and main- have recognized a gap in the supply and should not be construed as pro-
tain the equipment chain and decided to manufacture cess guarantees. Mechanical warran-
• When the process is routine, low parts for older domestic or foreign ties provide benefits especially during
output or low risk. Infrequently equipment. Once you find them, you the initial startup period. If faults
run equipment will have more op- may be in good shape. arise, they will likely occur during the
portunity for PM and will be more Aftermarket technical support. initial warranty period.
“forgiving” With new equipment, the availabil- Avoid surprises and disappointment
ity of good aftersale support is almost by verifying the specifics of the warran-
Aftermarket support assured. But when purchasing used ties before purchasing.
Most companies that manufacture equipment, the OEM may or may not Delivery timing. The delivery time
process equipment would rather sell provide adequate technical support. for used equipment is typically just
new, but most are quite pleased to Find out if drawings, manuals and days, while new equipment will likely
support their older equipment. parts lists are available. They may be months.
Not every company has the same charge $500 to $1,000 for these docu- Design features. Within limits, new
business model. It is important to ments, but it is a good investment to equipment can be outfitted with vir-
know your equipment and the parts ensure you have the right information tually every manner of control, CIP
supply chain. on hand. systems, quick access to internal
The following are some areas of com- Application assistance. There is no parts, and other features to improve
parison that must be considered when doubt that a new equipment manufac- productivity and uptime. Used equip-
deciding between new, refurbished or turer has a vested interest in guiding ment is sold “as-is,” so you will either
used equipment: you toward the correct equipment for need to find a good match or compro-
Aftermarket parts. This is a very- your application. Due to the nature of mise on the features you would like
important consideration for mainte- chemical processing, subtle changes to have. Refurbished equipment may
nance and repair turnaround time. in product characteristics can have present some opportunities for up-
No matter if you are considering new significant effects on the process and grades and modifications.
or used equipment, you should con- the equipment, which is why process Price. New equipment is not expen-
tact the OEM to find out the avail- guarantees are very rare. It is in the sive if you buy into Edward Deming’s
ability of parts. It is especially impor- best interest of the OEM to help you idea that you are purchasing total
42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013
value. If you only consider price, then
new equipment may appear to be more
costly. LCC is blind to new versus used
equipment, so let the risk data fall
where they may.
Right to return. With new equip-
ment, once you have placed the
order, you are essentially committed
to the equipment. Backing out after
the initial deposit has been made
will have some definite costs. If you
buy refurbished equipment, you
are also committed once a deposit
is made and work is undertaken.
Most used equipment dealers will
allow equipment returns within 10 to
30 days if it does not work as antici-
pated. All dealers differ, so it is impor-
tant to ask specifically before making
the purchase.
Concluding remarks
Understanding the lifecycle costs of one
piece of equipment or an entire process
requires examining not just the cost of
the capital equipment, but also the op-
erating, maintenance and decommis-
sioning costs. The other major longterm
cost is the cost of downtime compared to
investments in training, preventative
maintenance and spare parts. Lifecycle
cost analysis can be done in a rudimen-
tary fashion or it can employ complex
what-if algorithms, but in either case,
the benefits of taking a broader view of
the factors that may impact the long-
term cost of a process will benefit you
and your company. ■
Edited by Scott Jenkins

Further reading
Abernethy, Robert B. The New Weibull Handbook
(4th ed.). North Palm Beach, Fla., 2002.
Landers, Richard R. Product Assurance Diction-
ary, Marlton Publishers, Marlton, N.J., 1996.
Bloch, Heinz P. and Fred K. Geitner. Practi-
cal Machinery Management for Process
Plants,Volume 2: Machinery Failure Analysis
and Troubleshooting, 2nd Edition, Gulf Pub-
lishing Company, Houston, Tex. 1994
Bloch, Heinz P. and Fred K. Geitner. Simplified
Life-Cycle Cost Computations Applied in the
Hydrocarbon Processing Industries, Fourth
International Conference on Process Plant
Reliability, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Tex., 1995.
Goble, William M. Evaluating Control Systems
Reliability, Instrument Society of America,
Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1992.
Ireson, W. Grant, Clyde F. Coombs Jr., Richard
Y. Moss. Handbook of Reliability Engineer-
ing and Management, 2nd edition, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1996.
Author
Jeff Hoffmann is a vice
president at Paul O. Abbe
Co, (735 East Green Street,
Bensonville, IL 60106; Phone:
630-258-4720; Email: jhoff-
mann@pauloabbe.com). Hoff-
mann has an educational
background in chemistry and
a M.S. in industrial and orga-
nizational psychology. During
the past 20 years, Hoffmann
has held sales, marketing and
executive positions at several process equipment
companies. He also holds six U.S. patents for
various process equipment designs.

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Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2013 43
 Feature
Cover Story
Report
A Primer on Reverse
Osmosis Technology
Desalination by reverse osmosis
is a key technology for a
water-constrained world.
Discussed here is
its use in industrial
water treatment and
drinking-water production
Richard L. Stover
Desalitech, Inc.
W
ater scarcity is one of the
most serious global chal-
lenges of our time. Desali-
nation and water reuse
are effective and reliable means
to provide new water resources.
Among the many methods available
to treat water, reverse osmosis (RO)
has widely demonstrated superior
reliability and cost-effectiveness at
removing dissolved species, such as
salts and trace contaminants. This
article reviews the development and
state of the art of RO for industrial
water treatment, wastewater treat-
ment and drinking water produc-
tion. It also reviews technological
advances that have improved pro-
cess performance, reliability and re-
duced cost, and describes currently
available components and methods.
Finally, it considers the prospects for
future advances in the field.
Water scarcity and desalination
The world’s freshwater resources
are under tremendous pressure.
Over one-third of the world’s pop-
ulation lives in a water-stressed
country, and by 2025, this figure
is predicted to rise to nearly two-
thirds of the global population [1].
38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
technology for desalination and water purification
Industrial operations consume an
estimated 60% of all freshwater
withdrawals in developed countries
like the U.S. Together, industry
and agriculture are responsible for
about 90% of the freshwater con-
sumed globally [2]. Efficient and
sustainable water treatment meth-
ods for industrial and agricultural
water supply are imperative.
Water should be conserved, recy-
cled and reused to reduce the stress
on water supplies, but this will not
meet the increased demand posed
by population and economic growth.
The treatment of salty water re-
sources and wastewater reuse of-
fers new and reliable sources of
freshwater, without impairing ex-
isting freshwater resources. Today,
an estimated 300 million people in
150 countries already rely on de-
salinated water. In 2016, the global
water production by desalination is
projected to exceed 10 trillion gal/
yr (38 billion m3/yr) — twice the
rate of global water production by
desalination in 2008 [3].
Early desalination and water pu-
rification methods included distil-
lation, which uses large amounts
of energy to evaporate freshwater
FIGURE 1.
Reverse osmosis has
become the most efficient and versatile
from saltwater [4]. Distillation
plants for desalination still oper-
ate today in some regions of the
world where energy is abundant
and inexpensive. However, the vast
majority of desalination and water-
purification plants that have been
constructed recently or are planned
employ RO technology.
Thanks to technological improve-
ments over the last 20 years, the
cost to produce freshwater with RO
has been reduced by a factor of four
or more, and the process has become
a reliable component of municipal
and industrial infrastructure (Fig-
ure 1). At present, RO is the most
energy-efficient and versatile tech-
nology for desalination and water
purification and is the benchmark
for comparison for any new water-
purification technology [5,6].
RO is most commonly known for
its use in purifying drinking water
from seawater, brackish water or
contaminated water, where RO re-
moves salt and other dissolved or
suspended materials from feedwa-
ter. Many are surprised to learn
that its use in other applications is
widespread and well-established.
For example, RO is used to remove
 HP
Booster
Figure 2. In a typical pump
RO system, a high-pressure
(HP) pump forces feedwater through
membrane elements arrayed in parallel
minerals from boiler water at power
plants, to clean effluent and brack-
ish groundwater, and for concen-
trating food liquids, such as milk.
Reverse osmosis principles
Osmosis is the natural movement
of water from an area of high water
concentration (low salt concentra-
tion) through a salt barrier to an
area of low water concentration
(high salt concentration). Flow is
driven by the difference in osmotic
potential of the two solutions, quan-
tified as osmotic pressure. Applying
an external pressure to reverse the
natural flow of water through the
barrier is RO.
The process of osmosis through a
semipermeable membrane was first
observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine
Nollet. RO was known in the 1950s,
but was not practically demon-
strated until the early 1960s, with
the discovery of asymmetric mem-
branes at the University of Cali-
fornia at Los Angeles (www.ucla.
edu) by Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa
Sourirajan [7]. These membranes
were characterized by a thin “skin”
layer supported atop a highly po-
rous and much thicker substrate.
This basic structure remains the
basis of modern RO membranes.
When a salt solution is pressur-
ized against an RO membrane,
impurities are retained on the
pressurized side of the membrane
as brine and purified water flows
through the membranes as perme-
ate. RO requires flow across the
membranes, known as crossflow, to
keep the membrane surfaces clear
of concentrate and allow continu-
ous and almost constant flow of
permeate. This differs from con-
ventional filtration processes, in
which impurities embed in the fil-
ter or build up as a cake that must
be backflushed or removed periodi-
cally to restore productivity.
The minimum pressure required
to separate pure water from im-
pure water can be considered as a
barrier. The height of this barrier
depends upon the osmotic pressure
or osmotic potential of the water,
which in turn depends upon its
salinity and composition. Saltier
water has a higher osmotic poten-
tial and requires more pressure
to desalinate. To drive permeate
through membranes at reasonable
fluxes, the osmotic potential must
not only be met, but overcome. This
overpressure depends partly upon
the permeability of the membranes.
In addition, the salt concentration
immediately adjacent to the mem-
brane surface is elevated, which
increases the osmotic barrier above
that in the bulk of the saltwater —
a phenomenon known as concentra-
tion polarization. Concentration po-
larization is reduced with crossflow.
Other non-idealities in RO sys-
tems that elevate energy require-
ments include resistance to flow
through the membranes, mechani-
cal and volumetric efficiency losses
in pumps and viscous friction losses
in flowing water. Also, membrane
surfaces can be blocked with con-
taminants, including organic and
inorganic foulants or salts that pre-
cipitate out of solution.
For RO treatment of brackish,
industrial and wastewater (col-
lectively referred to here as in-
dustrial RO) salinity levels and
the corresponding feed pressure
requirements are typically lower
than those for seawater RO. There-
fore, energy requirements are usu-
ally not a major cost consideration.
However, the cost and practicality
of brine disposal and the need for
the process to handle feed composi-
tion changes are more significant in
industrial RO applications. To limit
brine production and achieve a high
yield of purified water, industrial
Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
RO systems operate at high recovery
rates, where recovery is defined as
the ratio of permeate flow to source-
water flow. However, high recovery
increases the risk of membrane con-
tamination, presents challenges for
maintaining crossflow, reduces per-
meate quality and can reduce the
flexibility of the process to handle
feedwater variations.
Many of these challenges have
been met with emerging technolo-
gies that enhance the utility of RO.
RO systems
RO membranes are incorporated
into systems that deliver source
water to the membranes, apply
crossflow that sweeps concentrate
from the membrane surface, and
provide a pathway for conveying
water that permeates through the
membranes. The primary com-
ponents of an RO system are the
membrane elements, the pumps
and the devices used to manage
flow and pressure. Typically, a high-
pressure pump provides both the
driving force for the separation and
the crossflow, but several current
process designs use a circulation
pump to drive crossflow, so that the
role of the high-pressure pump is
reduced to pressurizing the system
and driving permeate flow.
RO process configurations
A typical system for industrial RO
is shown in Figure 2. A high-pres-
sure (HP) pump feeds the system.
Pressure vessels containing mul-
tiple membrane elements are ar-
rayed in parallel. Each pressure
vessel contains six or seven mem-
brane elements in series, with the
concentrate of each element being
fed to the subsequent element. One
stage typically achieves 50% re-
covery, and higher recovery rates
require multiple stages. The pro-
ductivity of multiple stages are bal-
anced by throttling the permeate
flow from front stages and boosting
feed pressure to later stages with a
booster pump (BP). The number of
pressure vessels arrayed in paral-
lel in each subsequent stage is re-
duced to maintain sufficient cross-
flow in later stages. Finally, brine is
39
 Cover Story
HP
CP
Figure 3. Closed-circuit RO processes utilize brine recir-
culation to achieve high recovery without multiple stages
throttled out of the system through
a valve or a device that regulates
system pressure.
At 50% recovery per stage, four
stages are required to achieve over
90% total recovery. Multiple stages
add design and operational com-
plexity and reduce process flexibil-
ity. Alternately, recovery can be in-
creased by continuously returning
some of the brine to the membrane
feed. However, the increase in feed,
brine and permeate salinity caused
by brine recirculation usually un-
dermines the benefits it provides.
Emerging closed-circuit (semi-
batch) RO processes, which utilize
brine recirculation in a batch-like
operation, provide a new means to
achieve high recovery without mul-
tiple stages or reduced permeate
quality [8,9]. Such a process is illus-
trated in Figure 3. A high-pressure
pump feeds a closed loop comprised
of a single-stage of membrane el-
ements and a circulation pump
(CP). Permeate is produced at a
rate equal to the flowrate of the HP
pump. Brine is recirculated without
depressurization. When a desired
recovery percentage is reached,
brine is flushed out of the system,
displaced by feedwater from the
HP pump. The exchange of brine
and feedwater is executed without
stopping the HP pump or producing
permeate and without depressur-
izing the system. The process then
returns to closed-circuit operation,
during which there is no brine re-
ject stream.
Over 97% recovery has been
achieved in closed-circuit RO pro-
cesses. Energy requirements are
reduced because the average mem-
brane feed pressure required to
achieve a given recovery rate is lower.
The ability to change recovery at the
40 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
HP
CP
Figure 4. Seawater RO processes require higher pressures that
those in industrial RO, making energy consumption more important
control panel provides substantial
flexibility. The frequent flushing of
the system by the brine-feedwater
exchange also helps suppress foul-
ing and scaling, such that higher re-
covery rates can be sustained.
In seawater RO, higher pressures
are generally required than those
used in industrial RO. This makes
energy consumption more impor-
tant and it limits recovery rates.
A typical seawater RO process is
illustrated in Figure 4. Like in the
closed-circuit industrial RO system,
the seawater process uses both a
high pressure pump and a circula-
tion pump to feed the membrane
array. In addition, an energy recov-
ery device (ERD) is used to remove
brine and replace it with feedwater
while maintaining system pressure.
These devices save energy by re-
covering hydraulic energy from the
reject brine and returning it to the
low-pressure feed process, thereby
reducing the duty of the HP pump.
For lower-recovery, higher-pres-
sure applications, such as brine
concentration and seawater desali-
nation, an alternative closed-circuit
process is used to minimize energy
requirements [10,11]. In this pro-
cess configuration, brine is displaced
from the membranes with pressur-
ized feedwater from a side cham-
ber. The exchange, emptying and
refilling of the side chamber is done
under hydrostatic conditions with
almost no loss of pressure energy.
Membranes
RO processes are built around
semipermeable membranes capable
of filtering out salts. The first mem-
branes were made of cellulose ac-
etate and served as the best avail-
able technology until the 1980s,
when robust thin-film composite
ERD
(TFC) membranes were developed
[12]. TFC membranes exhibit much
higher intrinsic water permeabili-
ties than cellulose acetate mem-
branes because of their extremely
thin selective layers. Today, nearly
all RO operations use TFC mem-
branes [13]. Despite the great im-
provements in TFC membrane per-
formance and cost, there are still
shortcomings that hinder their ap-
plication. These limitations include
being prone to fouling and being
susceptible to attack by oxidizing
agents, such as chlorine.
Pumps
The high-pressure pump supplies
the pressure needed to push water
through the membranes and, in
the process illustrated in Figure 1,
supplies the crossflow that controls
concentration polarization. Typi-
cal pressures for industrial water
treatment range from 150 to 450
psi (10 to 31 bars). Seawater RO
pressures range from 750 to 1,200
psi (52 to 83 bars). Typically, cen-
trifugal-type pumps are used, with
sufficient stages and features to
meet the pressure requirements.
In some high-pressure applications,
positive-displacement pumps are
preferred because of their generally
higher efficiency.
The interstage booster pump
shown in Figure 1 adds enough
pressure to the concentrate stream
to overcome its increased osmotic
pressure in later stages. Like the
HP pump, the booster pump drives
both permeate flow and crossflow. It
is sized and operated to “balance”
flux and flow between the stages so
that all individual membrane ele-
ments operate within their design
envelopes and are neither over- nor
under-utilized. Typical boost pres-
 Table 1. Approximate Costs of a 367 gal/min (2,000 m3/d) Industrial RO Unit (10-yr life)
Industrial RO 75% Recovery
Present Cost,
value, 10 yr gal/d
Capex $521,195 $0.99
Energy $480,727 $0.91
O&M $1,148,252 $2.17
Brine $6,436,578 $12.18
Total $8,586,752 $16.25
sures for industrial water treat-
ment range from 40 to 200 psi (3 to
14 bars). In some process configu-
rations, a hydraulic turbocharger
is used as an inter-stage booster
pump, driven by flow and pressure
of brine from subsequent stages.
The role of the circulation pump
shown in Figures 2 and 3 is to pro-
vide crossflow. These pumps only
supply enough pressure to overcome
friction losses in the flow chan-
nels in order to achieve the desired
crossflow rate. Typical applied pres-
sures range from 10 to 50 psi (0.7
to 3.4 bars). The circulation pump
must be equipped with a shaft seal
and bearings designed to handle the
incoming pressure of the brine.
Energy recovery devices
Energy recovery devices (ERDs)
are installed in the brine stream of
seawater RO processes to recover
the otherwise wasted hydraulic en-
ergy. Initially, these devices were
reverse-running pumps or turbines
that were mechanically coupled to
the HP pump. Net energy-transfer
efficiency — the product of turbine
efficiency and pump efficiency —
could be as high as 80% with very
large devices. In the early 2000s,
isobaric ERDs were introduced, al-
lowing direct transfer of pressure
from the reject stream to the mem-
brane feed stream. These devices
offer net transfer efficiencies of 90%
or more, and reduce the size and of
the HP pump [14]. Turbine ERDs
are currently used in some sea-
water RO applications because of
their relatively low cost. ERDs are
not typically applied in industrial
RO installations because the brine
stream does not contain enough en-
ergy to justify their cost.
Costs
The cost of water generated by an
RO plant comprises capital costs
(CAPEX) and operating costs
Cost per Percent of Present
1,000 gal otal Value, 10 yr
$0.28 6% $521,195
$0.26 6% $600,909
$0.62 13% $1,148,252
$3.48 75% $2,145,526
$4.64 100% $4,415,882
(OPEX). CAPEX per volume of
water produced depends upon the
construction cost and the amortiza-
tion rate of the plant, the interest
rate (the desired yield on the capi-
tal investment) and the plant utili-
zation (load factor). OPEX consists
of the fixed costs of staff, insurance
and so on, as well as the variable
costs of operation and maintenance
and repair (including consumables).
Energy costs are directly propor-
tional to the price of power and in-
clude the pumping energy directly
consumed for RO and the energy
used for pretreatment, post-treat-
ment and overall plant operations.
Additional costs can be incurred for
obtaining feedwater and disposing
of brine concentrate.
Industrial RO
Assuming typical financial and
utilization factors, the CAPEX of
an industrial RO unit depends pri-
marily upon the composition of the
water being treated and the cost of
pre- and post-treatment. However,
many industrial RO units can be
installed within existing facilities
or housed in containers, reduc-
ing or eliminating the cost of civil
work. The approximate costs for a
typical industrial RO unit with a
permeate production capacity of
367 gal/min (2,000 m3/d) at a recov-
ery rate of 75%, assuming a 10-year
unit life, is summarized in Table 1.
About 70% of the CAPEX indicated
is for the equipment, and the bal-
ance is for installation. Operation
and maintenance (O&M) costs are
estimated at $0.57 per 1,000 gal.
Brine disposal costs are based on
an average U.S. commercial sewage
fee of $7.60 per 1,000 gal [17].
The values in Table 1 clearly indi-
cate that brine disposal is the larg-
est expense item for industrial RO.
In this example, increasing recov-
ery from 75% to 90% only slightly
increases energy consumption but
Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
90% Recovery
Cost, Percent Cost per
gal/d of total 1,000 gal
$0.99 12% $0.28
$1.14 14% $0.32
$2.17 26% $0.62
$4.06 49% $1.16
$8.36 100% $2.39
reduces brine disposal costs by a
factor of three, and cuts the overall
cost of ownership almost in half.
Seawater RO
Seawater RO installations are typi-
cally larger than industrial RO in-
stallations, and are tendered for up
to 25-year expected lifetimes. A typi-
cal CAPEX requirement for a mid-
scale seawater RO plant in 2008 was
approximately $6 per gallon per day
($1,585 per m3/d) of permeate out-
put, installed. Therefore, a 10-mil-
lion gal/d (38,000 m3/d) plant costs
approximately $60 million to build.
OPEX is approximately $0.57 per
1,000 gal (about $2.8 million/yr for
a 10-million gal/day plant [15]. With
a typical energy requirement of 3.2
kWh/m3, including pre- and post-
treatment and a power tariff or en-
ergy price of $0.10/kWh, the energy
cost for a 10 million gal/d plant is
$4.4 million per year. The resulting
present value costs for 25 years of
operation are presented in Table 2.
The data in Table 1 indicate that
energy comprises more than half
the total cost of a 25-year seawater
RO operation and more than tri-
ple the capital cost of building the
plant. Energy-saving methods and
technologies can be easily cost-jus-
tified. For example, a 5% reduction
in seawater RO energy consumption
in the 38,000 m3/d (10 million gal/d)
plant considered above would save
over $7 million in present value.
This value is equivalent to 12% of
the cost of ownership of the plant.
If a 5% energy savings required a
1% increase in the overall cost of
the plant, the investment would be
paid back in about three years.
For context, it should be noted
that most methods of delivering
large quantities of water are ex-
pensive. Traditional water distribu-
tion and treatment requires build-
ing plants and infrastructure. In
the developed world, the price to
41
 Table 2. Present Value Costs for a 38,000 m3/d (10 million gal/d) Seawater RO Plant for 25 Years
Seawater RO Typical energy consumption 5% Reduced energy consumption
Present Value, Cost, Cost per Percent Present Value, Cost, Cost per Percent
25 years gal/d 1,000 gal of total 25 years gal/d 1,000 gal of total
Capex $60,004,542 $6.00 $0.66 14% $60,004,542 $6.00 $0.66 15%
Energy $216,953,081 $21.69 $2.38 52% $209,569,720 $20.96 $2.30 51%
O&M $138,571,724 $13.86 $1.52 33% $138,571,724 $13.86 $1.52 34%
Total $415,529,347 $41.55 $4.55 100% $408,145,986 $40.81 $4.47 100%

produce 1,000 gal from traditional
water supplies ranges from $6 to
15 ($1.52–3.88 per m3) [17]. A com-
parison of these figures to the costs
listed above makes it clear that RO
can be a cost-competitive means of
water supply.
Potential technology advances
Technology for RO desalination con-
tinues to improve. Here are some
possible future advances for the key
components of RO operations, and
their potential value.
Membranes. Ultrahigh-permeabil-
ity membranes, including graphene
membranes or TFC membranes
made with carbon nanotubes or
aquaporins, have recently received a
lot of attention for their potential to
reduce the pressure needed to drive
permeation, thereby reducing the
energy demand of RO [18]. However,
high permeability typically reduces
salt rejection. Assuming salt rejec-
tion can be improved, the amount of
energy that can be saved by using
ultrahigh-permeability membranes
is likely to be very small. Current
RO plants already operate near the
thermodynamic limit, with the ap-
plied pressure being only 10 to 20%
higher than the osmotic pressure of
the concentrate. Some of this excess
pressure is needed to drive crossflow
past whatever membrane material
is used. Although these membranes
might make it possible to use less
membrane area and therefore save
on capital expense, this would re-
quire a redesign of membrane ele-
ments because concentration polar-
ization induced by high water fluxes
already hinders the performance of
current thin-film composite mem-
brane elements. Additionally, mem-
brane fouling is exacerbated at
higher water fluxes, further dimin-
ishing the value of ultrahigh-perme-
ability membranes for RO.
Reducing or eliminating pre-
treatment could reduce the cost
of RO, but this would require the
development of fouling-resistant
membranes or membrane coatings.
Advances in membrane technology
can also reduce the need for the

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42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
 Cover Story
post-treatment currently required
for lowering boron and chloride
concentrations in permeate to lev-
els suitable for agricultural use.
However, membranes with better
selective-ion rejection are generally
less permeable to water, which in-
creases feed-pressure requirements
and energy consumption.
Pumps and ERDs. Although there
have been no significant improve-
ments in pump or motor efficien-
cies specifically for RO applica-
tions, pump and plant designers
can reduce energy consumption
with smart process designs. These
include the use of larger centrifu-
gal pumps, with inherently higher
efficiencies, and variable frequency
drives (VFDs) instead of throttle
valves for flow and pressure control.
Although VFDs for very large mo-
tors can be cost-prohibitive, the HP
pump can be fed with a feed booster
pump that is equipped with a VFD.
A properly controlled booster pump
can allow both pumps to operate
close to their best efficiency points
despite varying process and feed-
water conditions. In addition, the
use of a feed booster pump allows
the use of a HP pump with a higher
net positive suction head, which can
increase pump efficiency.
Despite the apparently advanced
state of isobaric ERDs, innovation
References
1. Service, R.F., Science, vol. 313, p. 1,088,
2006.
2. UNESCO, Water for People, Water for Life,
United Nations World Water Development
Report, United Nations Educational, Scien-
tific and Cultural Organization, 2003.
3. Schiermeier, Q., Nature, vol. 452, p. 260
2008.
4. National Research Council (U.S.), Committee
on Advancing Desalination Technology, “De-
salination: A National Perspective,” National
Academies Press, 2008.
5. Fritzmann, C., Lowenberg, J., Wintgens, T.
and Melin, T., Desalination, vol. 216, p. 1,
2007.
6. Semiat, R., Environ. Sci. Technol., vol. 42, p.
8,193, 2008.
7. Loeb, S. and Sourirajan, S., “Sea Water De-
mineralization by Means of an Osmotic
Membrane,” Advances in Chemistry Series,
vol. 38, p. 117, 1962.
8. Efraty, A., U.S. Patent No 7,695,614, 2010b.
9. Efraty, A., Closed Circuit Desalination Series
No-4: High Recovery, Low Energy Desalina-
tion of Brackish Water by a New Single Stage
Method without any loss of Brine Energy, De-
salination and Water Treatment, vol. 42, pp.
262–268, 2012.
continues to broaden the appli-
cability of these devices, improve
their performance and reliability,
and ultimately reduce the capital
and operating costs of seawater RO.
ERD efficiencies could be increased
by installing additional ERD units,
thereby reducing the flowrate to
each unit and reducing differen-
tial pressure losses, by tightening
valve seals and by lowering brine
exit velocities [19].
Advanced process designs. The
use of multiple stages can lower
feed pressure requirements to near
the theoretical minimum pressure
requirements [20] and potentially
allow for more balanced membrane
operation. However, the pressure
of the concentrate from the final
stage is much higher than the feed DEFINING THE LIMIT
pressure of the first stage, making
it impossible to use isobaric energy- AS STANDARD
recovery devices in multistage
configurations, undermining some
of the energy-savings potential of Electric actuators for the oil
these designs for seawater RO. Also, and gas industry
the additional pumps required add
capital costs. Safe, explosion-proof, tough.
Closed-circuit RO operations pro- AUMA offer a large portfolio of
vide the energy-saving benefits of
multistaging without the need for
actuator and gearbox type ranges.
energy-recovery devices or addi- ■ Automating all types of
tional pumps. They facilitate opera- industrial valves
tion at high recovery rates, lower-
ing brine production, the disposal of ■ High corrosion protection
■ Integration into all commonly
10. Efraty, A., U.S. Patent No 7,628,921, 2010a.
used control systems
11. Efraty, A., Barak, R. and Gal, Z., Closed
Circuit Desalination — A New Low Energy,
High Recovery Technology without Energy ■ Global certifications and
Recovery, Desalination and Water Treatment,
vol. 31, pp. 95–101, 2011. approvals
12. Larson, R.E., Cadotte, J.E. and Peterson,
R.J, Desalination, vol. 38, p. 473, 1981.
13. Lee, K.P., Arnot, T.C., Mattia, D., J. Membr.
Sci., vol. 370, p. 1, 2011.
14. Stover, R.L., Desalination vol. 203, p. 168, 2007.
15. Sommariva, C., “Desalination and Water
Treatment Economics and Financing,” Bala-
ban Desalination Publications, 2010.
16. Water Desalination Report, Media Analytics,
15 September, [Excerpt], 2008.
17. Global Water Intelligence, vol. 14 (2), Sep-
tember 2013.
18. Elimelech, M. and Phillip, W.A., Science, vol.
333, p. 712, 2011.
19. Stover, R.L. and Andrews, W., IDA Journal Discover our
vol. 4 (1), p. 38, 2012.
solutions
20. Zhu, A.Z., Christofides, P.D. and Cohen, Y.,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., vol. 48, p. 6,010, 2009. for the oil
21. McGinnis, R.L. and Elimelech, M., Desalina- and gas
tion, vol. 207, p. 370, 2007. industry
22. Cath, T.Y., Hancock, N.T., Lundin, C.D.
Hoppe-Jones, C. and Drewes, J.E., J. Membr. www.auma.com
Sci., vol. 362, p. 417, 2010. Circle 6 on p. 68 or go to adlinks.che.com/50978-06
Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014 43
anzeige_drittel_Seite_che.indd 1 02.06.2014 09:47
 Cover Story

which is the largest cost component
in most industrial RO applications.
Forward osmosis. Forward os-
mosis uses a water-permeable and
salt-rejecting membrane between
two solutions of different osmotic
pressures. These solutions can be
natural resources, waste streams
or high-purity solutions. Natural
osmosis drives water to perme-
ate through the membrane from
the less salty “feed solution” to the
more salty “draw solution.” Engi-
neered draw solutions employ spe-
cifically selected draw solutes that
are separated from the extracted
water and recycled to facilitate con-
tinuous forward-osmosis operation.
However, draw solution regenera-
tion is a cost-intensive step [21]. A
recently proposed design is a hy-
brid system that uses a forward-os-
motic contactor to dilute seawater
with wastewater effluent prior to
RO treatment [22]. However, this
system requires two-membrane
operation, which adds costs and,
for potable water production, the
negative public perception about
utilizing wastewater effluent as a
potable water supply would need to
be overcome.
Concluding remarks
Reverse osmosis is a reliable, cost-
effective and well-established
means of purifying water for do-
mestic and industrial use. RO com-
ponent and process designs have
improved in recent years, lowering
water treatment costs. For most
industrial RO applications, raising
recovery, thereby reducing waste
brine generation, represents the
greatest cost-saving opportunity.
For seawater RO, reducing en-
ergy consumption has the greatest
prospect for lowering overall costs.
Anticipated future technological
advances could provide recovery
increases and additional energy
savings, particularly with closed-
circuit RO process designs.  ■
Edited by Scott Jenkins
Author
Richard Stover is the ex-
ecutive vice president at De-
salitech, Inc. (One Gateway
Center, Suite 250, Newton,
MA 02458; Phone: 1-510-
333-2767; Email: rstover@
desalitech.com). Stover has
over 27 years of professional
experience, specializing in
water technologies. He served
as chief technical officer and
vice president for Energy
Recovery, Inc., the leading supplier of energy
recovery devices for seawater desalination. He
directed the technical/commercial effort that
took the company from startup through an IPO.
Stover next served as vice president for Oasys
Water, developing forward osmosis for brine
concentration. Stover’s current work with De-
salitech increases the efficiency of industrial,
brackish and wastewater treatment with high-
recovery RO products. Stover has been granted
numerous desalination patents. He was co-recip-
ient of the European Desalination Society’s Sid-
ney Loeb award for outstanding innovation. He
has a Ph.D. from the University of California at
Berkeley and a B.S. from the University of Texas
at Austin, both in chemical engineering.

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44 Chemical Engineering www.che.com July 2014
 Materials Selection
In The CPI
Table 1. Material
An overview of the many factors to be considered Selection Checklist
when selecting materials of construction n Chemical environment
n Impurities
n Microbiologically influenced
corrosion (MIC)

S
James J. Briem n Corrosion inhibitors
electing a material of construc- n Corrosion accelerators
Briem Engineering tion for process equipment in the n Chemical reaction inhibition
chemical process industries (CPI) n Acidity
is normally not difficult. The material
In Brief selection is often based on past industrial
n Aeration
n Velocity [corrosion erosion and
Resources experience. With few exceptions, past ex- flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) ]
perience is by far the best way to choose n Temperature
Corrosive
an acceptable material of construction. n Downtime corrosion
environment
However, when past experience cannot n Heat transfer
velocity be used as a guide, material selection can n Internal pressure
be complex and difficult. Unfortunately the n Vacuum loading
Temperature
complexity of the problem is often not fully n Residual stresses
cleaning/sanitization recognized. The individual making the ma- n Thermal stresses
operations terial choice may fail to consider all of the n Cyclic stresses
factors involved. n Abnormal stresses
Surface finish/ n Safety and health factors
passivation
The objective of this article is to provide an
overview of the many factors that should be n Codes and Specifications
downtime corrosion considered when selecting a metallic or non- n Product contamination
n Base material cost
material properties metallic material of construction. A checklist
n Ease of fabrication
is provided in Table 1. Some of the many fac-
safety n Finish appearance
tors are obvious; others are not so obvious.
n Desired life
cost Neglect of the not-so-obvious factors could n Reliability
result in costly equipment failures. n Availability
austenitic stainless This article elaborates briefly on corrosion
steels n Vendor
considerations, stress loading and a number n Ease of repair
concluding of other factors that affect material selection. n Required maintenance
comments Initial and ongoing cost considerations are n Value of lost contents
also reviewed. n Value of downtime

Resources
Corrosion resistance is the first and most ob-
vious factor to consider when selecting a ma-
terial of construction for process equipment.
The chemical environment provides the first
clues to selecting an acceptable material.
As mentioned, past industrial experience is
the best way to address the corrosion issue.
Other resources include laboratory corrosion
tests, pilot-plant corrosion tests, published
corrosion charts, data published by the Na-
tional Assn. of Corrosion Engineers (NACE;
Houston; www.nace.org), manufacturers
data, textbooks, articles and materials con-
sultants. Most of these sources are available
on the Internet.
36 Chemical Engineering
Corrosive environment
In a corrosive environment, the primary con-
stituents and their concentration ranges are
usually known by the process or project en-
gineer. Not so obvious, however, is the pres-
ence of impurities. The classic example of a
harmful impurity is the chloride ion, which,
under certain conditions, is known to cause
stress-corrosion-cracking (SCC; Figure 1)
and pitting of stainless steels. These insidi-
ous forms of corrosion can occur at concen-
trations as low as a few parts per million.
An impurity that is commonly found in
water is bacteria. Bacteria cause a type of
corrosion known as microbiologically influ-
www.chemengonline.com june 2015
FIGURE 1. This is a polished and etched metallurgical cross-section
of a stainless-steel pipe viewed at 200x magnification. The branching,
transgranular cracks are characteristic of stress corrosion cracking
enced corrosion, or MIC for short (Figure
2). This is a form of corrosion in which
the bacteria can eat through stainless-
steel tanks and piping in a few months.
The bacteria primarily attack the retained,
ferritic, metallic grains in stainless weld-
ments, although MIC can occur in the
base metal remote from weldments. The
bacteria burrow caves (Figure 3). As ob-
served with a scanning electron micro-
scope, the cave surface has the appear-
ance of a honeycomb structure (Figure
4). Unfortunately, most commonly used
metals are subject to MIC attack to vary-
ing degrees.
The author’s company is currently in-
vestigating MIC attack in a new process-
ing plant at which the hydrostatic test
water was left in the stainless-steel piping
system for several months after the hydro-
static test. This stagnant water allowed
bacteria to eat through several million dol-
lars’ worth of piping in a few months.
Some minor constituents of a chemi-
cal environment can actually inhibit cor-
rosion. One not too obvious example of
this is the inhibition of SCC of titanium in
methanol. Titanium is subject to SCC in
anhydrous methanol at room tempera-
ture, but if water is present in concen-
trations above 1%, the titanium will not
stress-corrosion-crack. As another ex-
ample, low concentrations of sulfites pre-
vent oxygen pitting in boilers.
An infrequent, but potentially costly
mistake is to select a material of con-
struction that, if corroded, could inhibit a
process chemical reaction. Nickel, cop-
per and other metallic corrosion products
have been known to kill a chemical re-
action that was essential to the chemical
processing operation.
The acidity of a chemical environment
may have a significant effect on material
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com
FIGURE 2. Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) cannot be confirmed from
visual inspection. Carbuncles near a weld seam are a strong indication of MIC. Fresh,
wet carbuncles removed from a newly drained pipe can be cultured to confirm the
presence of microbes and identify species present
selection. As a general statement, the
lower the pH, the more aggressive the
corrosion. A pH variation of a few points
could make the difference between using
a relatively inexpensive material and a
costly material of construction. For ex-
ample, a lower pH environment allows
a lower chloride concentration to stress-
corrosion-crack stainless steels.
The presence or absence of air (ox-
ygen) may also affect the corrosion
resistance of a material in a specific
environment. The presence of O2 or
the occasional exposure to air may be
necessary to maintain the protective
oxide films on materials, such as stain-
less steel, which depend on a chrome-
oxide film for corrosion resistance. On
the other hand, the presence of air may
destroy the corrosion resistance of a
material that is normally not corroded
in a reducing, O2-free chemical environ-
ment. Boiler feedwater is a good exam-
ple. A boiler can fail in six months if O2
is present in the boiler feedwater. The
same boiler could last six decades with
deoxygenated feedwater.
Velocity
Velocity must be evaluated when select-
ing a material of construction, particularly
when considering pumps, agitators, and
other equipment subjected to relatively
high fluid velocities. Velocity can mani-
fest itself in a corrosive environment as
“corrosion-erosion” or flow-accelerated
corrosion (FAC). Of concern here is the
fact that most published corrosion data
are based on relatively stagnant corro-
sion conditions. Although there are a FIGURE 3. This magnified cross sec-
few exceptions, corrosion increases as tion of a weld in a stainless-steel pipe
reveals a cave structure that confirms
velocity increases. An example is com- MIC. The cave structures typically
mercial-grade ambient-temperature sul- occur at the boundary between a weld
furic acid transport in carbon steel pipe. and the base metal
june 2015 37
 FIGURE 4. The honeycomb struc-
ture observed on the surfaces
inside the cave confirms MIC. This
is a scanning electron microscopic
view at 1,800x magnification
At a velocity below 3 ft/s, the acid can be
safely handled using carbon-steel pipe.
At higher velocities, the protective iron-
sulfate layer is stripped away from the
pipe wall and corrosive failure occurs in
a short time.
One notable exception to the above
is microbiologically influenced corrosion.
Bacteria like stagnant water. Flowing
water inhibits MIC.
Temperature
The basic effect of temperature on the
corrosiveness of an environment is well
known by most process and project en-
gineers. As a rough estimate, the corro-
sion rate doubles for every 10°C increase
in temperature. This is essentially true up
to the boiling point. If the operation is at
a temperature above the dew point, in a
gaseous state, the corrosion rate is es-
sentially nil.
The above statements explain why
condensing a corrosive gas results in cor-
rosive attack that would not occur if the
operation is kept above the dew-point
temperature.
The effect of temperature must be
carefully assessed for each environment.
Many material failures occur because the
temperature evaluated was the mass
temperature of the corrosive material in a
vessel, not the higher inside-surface tem-
perature of a steam-jacketed vessel.
Cleaning/sanitizing operations
Consideration should be given to the
procedure and frequency with which
the process equipment will be cleaned
and sanitized. It is not unusual for the
cleaning operation to corrode process-
ing equipment. Periodic cleaning with
38 Chemical Engineering
steam and cleaning agents can corrode
processing equipment even though the
basic production environment is non-
corrosive. When designing for a specific
operating environment, don’t neglect the
cleaning operation.
Surface finish/passivation
Surface finish is an important consider-
ation particularly when dealing with stain-
less steels used in the pharmaceutical
and food-processing industries. The sur-
face finish must comply with U.S. Food
and Drug Administration (FDA; Washing-
ton, D.C.; www.fda.gov) requirements to
minimize the possibility of any bacterial
growth on surfaces.
Another important finish consideration
for stainless steel is the issue of surface
passivation. Process engineers are famil-
iar with the passivation of stainless steel
with an oxidizing acid, such as nitric or
citric acid. The passivation treatment pro-
duces a passive protection chrome-oxide
film on stainless steels. This chrome-
oxide film is responsible for the overall
corrosion resistance of the commonly
used austenitic stainless steels, such as
304 and 316. There is some controversy
over the necessity for using a passiva-
tion treatment, either initially or at intervals
while the equipment is operating. It is this
author’s opinion that the main reason for
passivation is not necessarily to form the
protective chrome-oxide film but rather to
thoroughly clean the surface of any de-
posits on the surface that could initiate
pitting corrosion of the stainless steel.
Normally, stainless steel will self-passivate
with intermittent exposure to the oxygen
in the atmosphere. If there is no intermit-
tent exposure of the stainless-steel sur-
www.chemengonline.com june 2015

face to oxygen, then intermittent passi-
vation treatments may be necessary to
maintain the passive chrome oxide film
on the stainless-steel surface. If this pas-
sive film is not maintained, the stainless
steel becomes active and has a corro-
sion resistance approximating that of
carbon steel.
Downtime corrosion
Corrosion that occurs when a piece
of equipment is not operational can be
more severe than corrosion that occurs
when the equipment is online. Equip-
ment that operates in a gaseous environ-
ment at moderate temperatures above
the dew point will suffer more corrosion
at lower temperatures than when online
at an elevated temperature. An example
of this is a boiler economizer operating in
fluegas containing SO2.
In a recent project, a boiler firing a bio-
fuel gas with high-sulfur content failed in
less than a year due to frequent shut-
downs. A large fire-suppression sprin-
kler system sat stagnant and failed due
to grooving corrosion (see Figures 5, 6
and 7).
Material properties
The next group of factors affecting ma-
terials selection includes mechanical and
physical material considerations.
On occasion, the thermal conductivity
of a material may determine its accept-
ability for process equipment, the most
obvious example being heat exchangers.
Low thermal conductivity may be desir-
able for certain equipment. For example,
an un-insulated fiberglass-reinforced
plastic tank may be more economical
than an insulated carbon-steel tank.
Evaluation of internal pressure is ad-
dressed by standards, such as the ASME
Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code and the
ASME Piping Codes, and needs no elab-
oration here.
The intended or unintended presence
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com
FIGURE 5. This sprinkler system pipe
sat too long without flushing or oxygen
scavenger maintenance. Premature
failure was caused by grooving corro-
sion of the longitudinal pipe welds
of a vacuum should be considered. Be
cautious of potential vacuum loading re-
sulting from steam collapse in storage
tanks. Vents frozen shut by ice or cor-
rosion product have caused many tank
failures when cold weather conditions
caused steam to condense inside the
vessel, creating a vacuum.
Both metallic and non-metallic equip-
ment may contain residual stresses that
are usually produced during equipment
fabrication. Forming, welding and ma-
chining metals may result in significant
residual-tensile stresses approaching the
yield strength of the metal. These residual
stresses are often the primary cause of
SCC. Residual stresses may contribute
to corrosion fatigue failures.
Thermal stresses are another consid-
eration that should not be neglected for
process equipment operating at non-
ambient temperatures. Thermal stress
occurs in a monolithic material that op-
erates at different temperatures in differ-
ent locations. Thermal stresses are also
important when combining different ma-
terials with different coefficients of ther-
mal expansion. Consider a plastic-lined
vessel where the thermal expansion of
the plastic can be an order of magnitude
higher than the substrate steel.
Cyclic stress is often overlooked or
underestimated. Cyclic stresses cause
fatigue failure. Fatigue is the failure of a
material under cyclic loading at a stress
level well below the published tensile
strength of the material. As a very rough
estimate, fatigue strength is only about
half the tensile strength of the material. In
a corrosive environment, cyclic stresses
can result in “corrosion fatigue,” a stress-
related material failure that can occur at a
stress below the normal fatigue strength
of the material.
Most published fatigue data are for
fatigue strength in an air environment.
When corrosives are present, the fatigue
strength is even lower and if failure oc-
june 2015 39
 FIGURE 6. Stagnant water inside the sprinkler pipe caused grooving corrosion FIGURE 7. This metallurgical cross section of a sprinkler system pipe reveals
of the longitudinal weld seam grooving corrosion of the longitudinal weld seam. The grooving corrosion is
caused by the weld seam being anodic (corroding) relative to the rest of the
pipe wall, which is cathodic
curs, the failure mechanism is defined as
corrosion fatigue.
Abnormal stress loads must be con-
sidered. Examples include pump vibra-
tion loads, loads resulting from agitator
mountings, and, of course, the impact of
an errant fork truck.
Safety
Today’s increased concern for safety and
health has had its impact on materials of
construction. In the area of safety, it’s eas-
ier to comply with an OSHA (Occupational
Safety and Health Assn.; Washington
D.C.; www.osha.gov) guard-rail require-
ment on a metal tank than on a plastic
tank. Asbestos is no longer an acceptable
material of construction. In the food and
pharmaceutical industries, the material
selection is often limited to a material that
is virtually impervious to chemical attack.
Another factor to consider is the degree
of hazard to humans and the environment
that could result from the accidental re-
lease of hazardous materials contained in
a vessel or pipe should failure occur.
The government, industry and individual
companies have codes, standards and
specifications that will often impact or even
determine the selection of a construction
material. These codes, standards and
specifications must be considered when
selecting materials of construction.
Cost
Naturally, in selecting a material of con-
struction, the objective is to find a mate-
rial that will result in a long safe service
life at a reasonable cost. In assessing the
economics of a material, both initial cost
and lifecycle cost should be evaluated. A
40 Chemical Engineering
normal and reasonable first step in evalu-
ating initial cost is an assessment of basic
material cost. Consider the ease of fab-
rication. Are the materials easily formed,
cut, bonded, drilled or welded? Is heat
treatment required?
Finish and appearance will impact cost.
Polished stainless steel may be neces-
sary for equipment used in the food and
pharmaceutical industries. Sprayed foam
insulation is less expensive and less at-
tractive than lagged, block insulation.
The life expectancy and desired reliability
of the equipment may impact initial cost.
As an example of the result of the trade-
offs between initial cost and lifecycle cost,
consider the bulk storage of commercial-
grade sulfuric acid. The standard practice
is to construct a new carbon-steel above-
ground storage tank to API 650 standards
using a 1/8 to 1/4 in. corrosion allowance.
The steel may be specified as copperized
to slow sulfuric acid attack. During the life
of the tank, periodic thickness surveys are
performed to monitor thinning of the shell.
Toward the end of the tank’s life, capacity
may be reduced because of thinning of
the lower plate courses. In this case, the
best solution is a low initial cost with care-
ful monitoring of vessel condition.
Material availability and the choice of a
vendor will affect cost. Selecting a relatively
exotic material that is fabricated by only a
few vendors could significantly increase
the cost and extend the delivery time of
the equipment. This could impact overall
project costs if the lack of availability de-
lays startup because of extended delivery
times. Consider also the qualifications of a
vendor. A sound, basic material poorly fab-
ricated seldom performs well.
www.chemengonline.com june 2015
 Unfortunately it is not uncommon to
neglect consideration of ongoing cost
factors when selecting a material of con-
struction. Ease of repair, required main-
tenance and availability of spare parts
should be considered.
The value and potential danger of the
material stored in a tank may impact mate-
rial selection. Some consideration should
be given to process downtime should a
material fail. These three factors may af-
fect the degree of conservatism used in
selecting a material of construction.
Austenitic stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels, such as 304
and 316 stainless steel, are the most
commonly used metals in the CPI. As
such, austenitic stainless steels deserve
some special attention here, not only
because of their extensive use, but also
because austenitic stainless steels are
subject to some unusual forms of cor-
rosive attack.
Austenitic stainless steels are subject
to general corrosion, pitting corrosion,
SCC and MIC. Of these, general corro-
sion, where the surface corrodes rela-
tively evenly, is perhaps the most under-
stood. With general corrosion, the rate
of corrosion normally slows with time
since the corrosive agent must diffuse
through the rust layer before it can at-
tack the stainless steel surface. Pitting
corrosion of stainless steel normally oc-
curs in chloride environments. With pit-
ting corrosion, the rate of attack actually
increases with time because the pit acts
to concentrate the corrosive agents and
the pit forms a localized galvanic corro-
sion cell. Both factors increase the rate
of pitting corrosive attack.
MIC has been discussed above. The
rate of attack can be very aggressive.
MIC is capable of causing stainless steels
to fail in a matter of months. Although
most bacteria are killed by sanitizing the
equipment, at a temperature of about
180°F, the caves where the bacteria live
still remain. Reintroducing the corrodant
allows the bacteria to reoccupy homes
(caves) and the MIC continues. MIC is a
tough problem to deal with.
As noted previously, stainless steels are
subject to SCC. The two prime factors
that cause SCC are stress and, as the
name implies, a corrosive environment.
The stress that is normally responsible
for SCC is residual stress, such as found
in the heat-affected zone of a weld or re-
sulting from a forming operation. These
residual stresses are usually significantly
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com
more critical than operational stress.
The corrosive environment primarily re-
sponsible for SCC of stainless steels is
chlorides. The primary variables that ef-
fect stress corrosion are stress, chloride
concentration, acidity and temperature.
Each of these factors has a limit below
which SCC will not occur regardless of
the other factors. For examples, if the
stress level is low enough then SCC will
not occur regardless of the chloride con-
centration, the alloy or the temperature.
Although there are exceptions, SCC rarely
occurs at a temperature below 160°F. If
one of the listed variables is kept below
a threshold limit, the equipment will never
fail from stress corrosion cracking.
When assessing chloride concentrations
it is important to note that what may be
stated as being only a few parts per million
chlorides is not necessarily representative
of chloride concentration on the stainless
surface. Often the processing equipment
is operating in a situation where the chlo-
rides are concentrated. For example, in
a heat exchanger, the heat may actually
drive off the water and leave the chlorides
such that the chlorides will salt-out to a
concentration of half a percent, which is
above the threshold limit for SCC.
Concluding comments
The purpose of this article is to make pro-
cess and project engineers more cogni-
zant of the many factors involved in prop-
erly selecting a material of construction.
If all of the factors reviewed in this article
are carefully evaluated, the process engi-
neer is well on the way to selecting the op-
timum material of construction. I mention
this not because you need to consider
them all for every application but to show
you that there is a lot more to selecting
an acceptable material than looking at a
published corrosion chart. n
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Author
James J. Briem, P.E. is the founder of
Briem Engineering (4134 Rider Trail
North, Saint Louis, Missouri 63045;
Phone: 314-298-3773; Email: jimb@
briemeng.com), which is a materials
testing and engineering firm established
in 1983. At Briem Engineering, Briem
supervises engineers and technicians
involved in materials’ investigations and
tests including: nondestructive testing
and inspection, corrosion evaluation, material selection, fail-
ure analysis, stress testing and mechanical testing. Prior to
founding Briem Engineering, he was an engineering supervi-
sor at Mallinckrodt Chemical Inc. and Proctor & Gamble Co.
He holds a metallurgical engineering degree from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (Troy, N.Y.). He is a member of NACE,
ASM, ASTM and ASME. He is a licensed professional engi-
neer in Missouri and Ohio.
june 2015 41
 Engineering Practice

Rotating Machinery: What You Should Know

About Operational Problems
Follow this guidance to improve the operation, safety and reliability of
rotating machinery in chemical process plants

Amin Almasi
Consultant

T
roubleshooting problems in
rotating machinery (such as
compressors, pumps, steam
turbines, gas turbines, turbo-
expanders and more) can present
difficult challenges during day-to-day
operations in facilities throughout the
chemical process industries (CPI).
Reliable operation is an important
factor in keeping plants running, par-
ticularly as plants push to operate at
higher capacities. Lost profits due to
persistent machinery problems can
never be recovered.
Rotating machinery often pres-
ents the most difficult operational
problems in a CPI plant. This article FIGURE 1. Shown here is a steam turbine dismantled for repair. This is the driver of the centrifugal com-
provides a practical, in-depth review pressor
of the art and science of machinery
troubleshooting and problem solv- A systematic approach is the key for proach provides greater value, by
ing. Five case studies are presented solving any machinery operational enabling earlier machinery trouble-
to cover a variety of relevant rotat- problem. Comprehensive machinery shooting through improved early
ing-machinery systems, such as assessments should be carried out detection of unusual deviations. This
compressors, pumps, gas turbines using advanced data-collection tools can provide an earlier indication of
and steam turbines. All of the case and methods (Figure 1). For instance, problems that may be developing.
studies presented here were devel- the use of automated machine- In modern operations, expert op-
oped from actual field experience. data-collection software — which erators often opt to manage critical
This article offers a broad working automatically collects a wealth of in- machine components using time-
knowledge of troubleshooting princi- formation specific to the machinery based data trends. Useful trends can
ples and practice, to help operators component — coupled with sophis- be developed when the behavior of
gain insight into different techniques ticated modeling techniques, can individual performance variables,
and various methods for machinery provide great insight to support trou- such as pressure, temperature, flow,
problem solving. bleshooting efforts related to com- lubrication oil characteristics and
plex rotating machinery. Such insight more, are plotted over time on a
A systematic approach can help operators to diagnose the graph. These trends can then be an-
Proper CPI plant operation requires actual root causes of underperform- alyzed in conjunction with additional
sustained attention to the following: ing machinery and premature ma- information, such as that derived
• Identifying opportunities to im- chinery failures. from alarm screens and plant con-
prove machinery reliability and When CPI operators rely too trol-system graphics. By monitoring
safety heavily on alarms and trips, there is trends, operators can anticipate po-
• Developing solutions for chroni- limited time to take remedial action tential problems and propose smart
cally problematic rotating ma- in response to a machinery issue. solutions before any major upset
chines Instead, a proactive monitoring ap- occurs. Trends in relevant data can

74 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com march 2015

support operators and machinery
engineers, allowing them to stay
aware of situations as they begin
to arise, diagnose the root cause
of problems and resolve abnormal
situations. The ability to gather and
analyze trend data can also help op-
erators to compare past and present
behavior, thereby supporting efforts
to anticipate future changes.
The importance of monitoring
In one situation, a CPI company avoided an estimated $10 million in property damage and
business-interruption loss in a year as a result of the early detection of high vibration levels
in its rotating machinery. The high-vibration monitors indicated the deteriorating conditions
(a developing problem) within a large, critical compressor train. The developing problem
resulted in the loss of half of the bolts, a circumferential crack in the coupling spacer (about
80 mm long) and a radial crack emanating from the initial break at the time of shutdown.
If the fault had progressed and all of the bolts had sheared before operator interven-
tion, the compressor would have been unrestrained — with potentially disastrous con-
sequences. This clearly illustrates why, particularly in large CPI plants, it is vital to monitor
critical components on a continuous basis.

Keep an eye on key variables
Vibration monitoring is an important
indicator that can help operators to
identify machinery problems at an
early stage. The location of vibration
sensors is vital, to avoid introducing
errors during the measurement. In
general, the best location for vibra-
tion sensors in rotating machinery
is at the bearing or bearing housing
(Figure 2). Vibration measurements
at the machinery casing, in addition
to bearing vibration, can provide
useful data for identifying and solv-
ing machinery problems.
However, monitoring vibration
alone is not sufficient to gauge the
health of rotating machinery espe-
cially when large, critical machines
are concerned. For instance, in a re-
cent case, it was observed that one
electric motor’s temperature and
current increased when the machine
was overloaded — well before any
vibration was detected. This under-
scores the importance of monitoring
other parameters (such as tempera-
ture and current), in addition to vibra-
tion, to allow for early fault diagnosis
of electric machines.
When vibration analysis is used
alone, it may be difficult to estab-
lish the real cause of the vibration.
In general, it is better to monitor
both vibration and overall machin-
ery performance (such as delivered
pressure and flow in pumps or com-
pressors) to obtain a more reliable
fault diagnosis. And, it is important
to realize that the vibration produced
by the machinery is not a fault on its
own — but rather a symptom (and
early warning sign) of a developing
failure condition.
Temperature is another critical
variable, and the ability to moni-
tor it accurately is of paramount
importance in CPI plants. Today, a
wide range of temperature sensors
and measurement systems exists,
including thermocouples, resis-
tance thermal detectors (RTDs; also
known as resistance thermometers),
thermistors, filled thermal systems,
pyrometers, infrared thermography
techniques and glass thermometers.
All are widely used to provide
process and machinery temperature
measurements.
The measurement of flowrate pro-
vides another useful indicator for the
health of many processes and ma-
chinery systems. Traditionally, tech-
niques based on differential pres-
sure, turbine and vortex shedding
have been used to measure fluid
flowrate. However, these methods
might not be suitable if an accurate
measurement is required for gases,
since errors can be introduced in the
measurement due the compressible
nature of gases. To use these meth-
ods with gas flows, it would be nec-
essary to compensate for the gas
density fluctuation in order to reduce
the errors.
Modern Coriolis mass flowme-
ters are a more appropriate choice
for measuring gas flowrate, which is
usually independent of temperature,
pressure, density and composition.
This meter uses the Coriolis effect to
measure the amount of mass mov-
ing through the element. In a simple
form, the fluid to be measured runs
through a U-shaped tube that is
caused to vibrate in a perpendicu-
lar direction to the flow. Fluid forces
running through the tube interact
with the vibration, causing it to twist.
The greater the angle of the twist,
the higher the flow. These flowme-
ters have no rotating parts. Modern
Coriolis flowmeters are highly accu-
rate (providing accuracy to around
±0.5% of the mass flowrate).
For relatively low-speed rotating
machines, vibration analysis may not
be suitable to detect degradation
or operational problems. However,
acoustic-emission sensors, strate-
gically located on the machine, can
give operators early indication of de-
terioration in the machine’s operating
condition.
Control valves are vital compo-
nents in every process and in many
types of equipment packages where
fluid is handled and regulated. How-
ever, the most common malfunction
with control valves is internal leak-
age, which cannot be detected eas-
ily. Internal leakage can result from
one of several factors, including an
eroded valve plugs or seats, or insuf-
ficient seat load.
Five case studies
Case study 1: Insects in an air-
compressor inlet filter. In a CPI
plant in a remote area, insects
caused problems for the inlet-air fil-
tration unit of a large process-type
air compressor. The accumulation of
insects on the filters led to high dif-
ferential pressure in the unit, leading
to periodic compressor shutdowns.
Multiple cases of surge and surge-
related trips occurred because of
this issue. Regarding a problem of
persistent insects impacting the air-
compressor, two solutions should be
considered:
1. A multi-sided insect screen. For
example, three-, four- or five-
sided insect screens can be con-
structed (for instance, in a cube or
similar configuration) in the front
of the air filter, with a surface area
roughly three to four times that of
the front face of the air filter inlet.
The rationale is that insects will
gather on the larger-surface area
of the screen (far from actual in-
take) and thus experience less
intake air velocity, allowing them
to fly away, reducing their oppor-
tunity to trap and plug the air filter.
When a screen is built with three
times the area of the air intake,
the air velocity across the insect
screen would be around 33% of
the original velocity. When the

Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com march 2015 75


FIGURE 2. Tilting pad thrust bearings are widely used in relatively high-speed rotating machinery. These
bearings are vulerable and can be damaged easily; shown here is one that was removed for repair
screen is built at four times the in-
take area, the air velocity across
the screen would be just 0.25%
of the original velocity.
2. Specially designed pulse-clean
filters. Another possibility is to
install pulse-clean filters that
apply a periodic reverse pulse of
air to dislodge the accumulated
dirt and insects from the filter
inlet at a pre-disposed differen-
tial pressure. This will require a
specialized filter assembly with
a compressed-air supply and
associated equipment and con-
trols. However, this solution is not
usually recommended since this
is a complex, expensive and risky
option.
In this case study, the first pro-
posed solution was used and a
four-sided insect screen was built.
For such an installation, the mesh
size should be selected properly to
stop the smallest anticipated insects
from penetrating, and it should be
reasonably rigid to allow for cleaning
with a soft brush. If the mesh has a
dense or tight weave (say, with holes
around 1-mm dia.) to ensure that
small insects cannot pass through,
then it may be necessary to com-
pensate with increased surface area
(so that air intake is not impeded and
pressure drop is not increased). For
this case, a window screen mesh
(with holes roughly 1-3-mm dia.)
was selected. Routine inspections
by technicians have been required
to clean the screen. The structure of
the insect screen was made rugged
enough to resist wind and ensure
longevity of the asset. This insect
screen provides an added bene-
76
fit, by helping to keep rain and dirt
from being driven into the filter inlet
by wind.
Case study 2: Discrepancies in
performance maps. During the
commissioning stage of a CPI plant,
it was noted that there were two dif-
ferent sets of performance maps in
the manual for a particular, critical
centrifugal compressor — one from
the compressor manufacturer and
another from the anti-surge-system
sub-vendor. The compressor had
been delivered three years earlier
but it was not installed and commis-
sioned upon delivery because of a
three-year delay in the project and a
stop in the plant construction. Some
of the engineers who had worked
on this machine and associated unit
had left their jobs and there was no
proper documentation to clarify how
this discrepancy originated.
At this facility, there were concerns
about surge. During the initial period
of operation, the compressor was
tripped several times because of
surge or other operational issues re-
lated to the existence of two different
performance maps and the allow-
able operating range. Any attempt to
identify which performance map and
surge line were the most appropri-
ate for use failed because of person-
nel changes at both the compressor
vendor and the anti-surge- system
sub-vendor during the 3-yr period.
In general, turbocompressors
should be surge tested once they
are installed, to develop accurate,
as-built surge lines. For this machine,
it was decided to perform the surge
test at the site to identify the surge
line and the correct performance
Chemical Engineering
map. This test was completed by
hooking proper surge-detection
hardware into the compressor’s vi-
bration-monitoring system. At each
operating speed, the compressor
discharge valve was slowly closed.
Prior to the surge, the surge-de-
tection system (using vibration sen-
sors as part of the compressor vibra-
tion-monitoring system) detected an
increase in low-frequency vibration,
which indicated the onset of surge.
This was used to define the surge
line. The compressor was not actu-
ally surged, just taken to the point
of onset of stall. Once the as-built
surge line was identified using this
technique, it was seen to be different
from what both the vendor and the
sub-vendor indicated in their respec-
tive performance maps.
Often, it is common to obtain a
site-tested, as-built surge line that
differs from the vendor-calculated
surge line, or even the shop-tested
surge line, because of different com-
pressor piping and arrangement in
the vendor shop test compared to
the final site installation. The site-
tested, as-built surge line should be
considered the most reliable data for
any operator.
Case study 3: Re-rating a steam
turbine. The steam turbine driver
of a large pump train in a CPI unit
created a bottleneck that prevented
the unit from achieving a desired 5%
increase in capacity. The operation
team asked to run the steam tur-
bine using 49-barg steam instead
of 46-barg steam to achieve higher
power generation from the turbine
and higher pump capacity. Simula-
tions showed that using 49-barg
steam, it was possible to generate
higher power, and this modeling also
showed that the pump train could
handle higher power and generate
more flow within the pump curve. In
fact, this investigation showed that
the new pump operating point was a
bit closer to the best efficiency point
(BEP) than the old operating point. In
general, significant engineering as-
sessments are required in order to
re-rate a steam turbine.
The steam turbine casing in this
case was originally designed and
rated to 46 barg. In order to increase
the pressure rating, the design of
the casing was checked by both
the vendor’s engineering team and
www.chemengonline.com march 2015
an independent consultant. It was mulated dirt in the air-compressor in order to reduce drag and improve
determined that it could safely and section of a gas turbine can increase the heat rate and power output. Inlet
reliably contain steam at 49 barg. fuel consumption, and lead to more air filters play a significant role in the
The casing was re-rated, after frequent maintenance outages and a degree of fouling that gas turbines
a proper hydro-testing, as per decreased hot-section life. experience. With the original, older-
code requirements. At a given CPI plant, gas turbines style air filters, the operators of this
Using the same rotor, the pressure were used to both generate power plant were faced with a tradeoff: In-
drop per stage was increased. The and drive the gas compressor. The stalling higher-efficiency filters that
existing impellers were checked to original air filters were used in these remove more of the airborne par-
ensure that they were strong enough gas turbine air-inlet systems, which ticles creates a higher initial pressure
and the rotor did not require chang- mandated turbine shutdown and of- drop and typically have a shorter life
ing. Simulations and investigations fline water washing every six months. span compared to lower-efficiency
showed that diametric changes and The dirty air reduced the efficiency filters. The filter pressure drop de-
changes to internal static compo- of the gas turbine fleet between creases the density of the air going
nents within the casing were not cleanings. For instance, the gas tur- to the gas turbine, which reduces
required. The steam turbine was bine trains exhibited efficiency drop the gas turbine’s output power.
re-rated for 49 barg. The steam-tur- of as much as 2.5% on average in Added pressure drop across the air
bine-driven pump train has enjoyed the three-month period before each filters increases the amount of en-
smooth and trouble-free operation offline water washing. The sched- ergy needed to draw air into the gas
since re-rating after the changes uled offline water washing every six turbine, which increases the gas tur-
were made. months on each gas turbine of the bine’s heat rate.
Case study 4: Inlet filter for gas CPI plant (just for cleaning), in addi- In general, there are tradeoffs be-
turbines. In general, gas turbines tion to other outages for inspection tween efficiency, cost, filter life and
“ingest” different materials depend- and maintenance, was wasteful and pressure drop that all need to be
ing on the location and the plant — non-productive. The operation team considered when evaluating which
primarily dirt and dust, but also ice, asked for a solution. air filters may be best for a particu-
rain, snow and salt. The cleanliness Getting maximum performance lar operation. The small particles that
of a gas turbine is the key factor in its and reliability out of a gas turbine cause most of gas turbine fouling
efficiency, reliability and safety. Accu- requires keeping the blades clean are less than 3 micrometers (µm;

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Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com march 2015 77

 sometimes less than 0.5 µm) in size,
below the standard capabilities of
old-fashioned filters. Thus, empha-
sis should be placed on comparing
the differences in filter efficiency for
the removal of particles smaller than
3 µm (as well as considering filter
efficiency on particles smaller than
0.5 µm) since those particle sizes
generally contribute more to
air-compressor fouling rather than
larger particles.
Switching to better, higher-effi-
ciency air-inlet filters is a good way
to keep air-compressors cleaner,
but they can offer some drawbacks.
The most appropriate air filter should
be selected with respect to the ef-
ficiency, the filter life and pressure
There are tradeoffs between efficiency, cost, filter life
and pressure drop that need to be considered when
evaluating which air filters may be best for a particular
operation.
drop. Today, new filter designs can
keep the gas turbine clean with the
same pressure drop and a better fil-
ter life compared to older-style filters.
Today’s modern filters have a struc-
ture and layers that allow for the ef-
fective capture of even the smallest
particles (below 3 µm and some-
times below 0.5 µm) to keep the
gas-turbine intake air clean without
significant filter plugging.
Advanced hydrophobic high-ef-
ficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters
have the same pressure drop as the
older filters. However, the key to their
improved filter performance is a novel
multi-layer media construction that
includes a hydrophobic membrane
layer. Usually the first filter layer cap-
tures most of the airborne dirt. The
middle layer — or layers — are most
often made from expanded polytet-
rafluoroethylene (PTFE) membranes
or similar, and they stop both sub-
micron particles and water that may
penetrate the first layer. Other layers
are support layers added to provide
strength and burst pressure resis-
tance. These support layers give the
filter more than twice the required
burst strength of the old-fashioned
filters. This extra burst strength pre-
vents filters from breaking before
78
they reach their expected lifespan.
Modern hydrophobic HEPA filters
were installed for all gas turbines
in this CPI plant. They completely
eliminated the need to shutdown the
gas-turbine trains for offline water
washing. The operation has been
satisfactory since the filter change.
Case study 5: Problems in tur-
bine’s steam-admission valves.
In this case, problems in the steam-
admission valves used to supply the
steam turbine reduced the required
steam flow into the steam turbine,
which impacted the performance of a
critical centrifugal compressor driven
by the turbine, and this negatively
impacted the plant’s production rate.
There were four poppet valves in the
steam chest of this steam turbine.
These should be staged to open at
different load requirements.
Problems and issues for steam-
admission valves have been re-
ported extensively for steam turbines
in different CPI plants. For any steam
turbine governor or admission-valve
issues, the following initial investiga-
tions are recommended:
1. Study the changes in perfor-
mance of the steam-admission
valve system and governor sys-
tem
2. Evaluate the actual performance
of steam turbine versus the de-
sign specification
3. Investigate the possible causes
for discrepancies
Usually one or more of the follow-
ing issues are reported for steam-
admission valves:
• Insufficient nozzle-opening size
• Blockage inside the admission
valve system
• Incorrect calibration of the admis-
sion valve system
• Problem with internal setup of the
steam-admission valve system
• Gradual buildup of deposition or
degradation products
Based on the steam-turbine man-
ual for this unit, the governor should
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com
only be opened to around 78% for
the first normal operating condition
case. The investigation showed the
position indicator on the governor
was at 90% for this operating case
(around 12% discrepancy). The initial
suggestion was that the governor or
steam-admission valves might not
be correctly calibrated. The physical
movement of the admission valves
has not changed since commission-
ing, which indicated that the prob-
lem was not related to the gradual
build-up of deposition or to degrada-
tion. A highly nonlinear relationship
was reported at low valve-opening
positions (around 0–20% of the rated
flow). Below 20% of the governor
position, there was very little steam
flow through the steam turbine. This
indicated that there was a problem
with the first poppet valve.
There was almost zero increase
in the steam flow once the governor
position got higher than 91% of the
rated flow. This was evident from
the sharp drop-off at the end of the
stroke-versus-steam-flow curve of
the admission valve. There was also
a problem with the last poppet valve.
In other words, the lack of response
during the first 20% of governor
opening indicated a problem with
the first poppet valve. The lack of re-
sponse to the final 9% of governor
opening indicated a problem with
the last poppet valve. The steam-
admission valve was overhauled for
quick replacements of the first and
last valves. The steam turbine opera-
tion has been satisfactory after this
valve change. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Amin Almasi is a rotating-equip-
ment consultant in Australia
(Email: amin.almasi@ymail.com).
He previously worked at Worley
Parsons Services Pty Ltd. (Bris-
bane, Australia), Technicas Reuni-
das (Madrid, Spain) and Fluor
Corp. (various offices). He holds a
chartered professional engineer
license from Engineers Australia
(MIEAust CPEng – Mechanical), a chartered engineer
certificate from IMechE (CEng MIMechE), RPEQ (regis-
tered professional engineer in Queensland) and he also
holds M.S. and B.S. degrees in mechanical engineering.
He specializes in rotating machines, including centrifu-
gal, screw and reciprocating compressors, gas and
steam turbines, pumps, condition monitoring and reli-
ability. Almasi is an active member of Engineers Austra-
lia, IMechE, ASME, Vibration Institute, SPE, IEEE, and
IDGTE. He has authored more than 60 papers and arti-
cles dealing with rotating machines.
march 2015
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Condition Monitoring for
Rotating Machinery
This valuable insight into the
performance of pumps and
compressors will help
improve operation
Amin Almasi
Rotating Machine Consultant
R
otating machines, such as pumps,
compressors, gas turbines, steam
turbines and electric motors,
play crucial roles in most chemi-
cal process industries (CPI) facilities.
Increasingly, advanced condition mon-
itoring is being used to improve the
operation and maintenance of these
workhorse components. The use of
well-designed condition-monitoring
systems, predictive-maintenance strat-
egies and failure root-cause analysis
can improve equipment reliability and
bring numerous other technical and
commercial benefits, performance im-
provements and cost savings.
The goal of any profitable process
plant is to operate rotating machin-
ery with maximum reliability and ef-
ficiency, and minimum operating and
maintenance costs. The first step is
to ensure proper specification and de-
sign of rotating machinery. An impor-
tant aspect of specification is proper
clarification of details up front — prior
to the bidding phase and purchase-
order placement.
Increasingly, once the equipment is
in operation, CPI facilities are imple-
menting condition monitoring and
predictive-maintenance programs to
ensure that un-spared (critical) rotat-
ing machines can be operated effec-
tively, without an unscheduled shut-
down. At the same time, it should be
noted that in general, manufacturers
of rotating machines maximize their
Figure 1.
Shown here is an
example of a complex
gas turbine in a CPI facil-
ity. Modern rotating machines
are very complex and contain many
stages and auxiliaries. Stage degradation
and related problems have a cumulative effect.
A degraded stage creates different exit conditions
and each subsequent stage then operates further
away from its design point. Ultimately, degradation
at each stage or component will force all stages to
work at off-optimum efficiencies
own profit by producing machinery tion monitoring and predictive main-
that meets the user’s project specifica- tenance efforts, to extend the life of
tions and applicable codes at the low- these costly components.
est possible cost. The manufacturers’ When carrying out reliability stud-
main focus is typically on ensuring ies and condition monitoring, rotat-
performance that meets the warranty ing machines should be viewed as a
conditions. Thus, machine manufac- complete system, including the driver,
turers often do not initiate additional transmission system, coupling, all aux-
improvements that could extend reli- iliaries (such as the gear unit, if appli-
ability and trouble-free operation for cable), lubrication oil system, cooling
a period beyond that of the warranty system (if any) and seal system. Such
period. Many manufacturers believe a rotating machine package, regard-
they cannot remain competitive (or less of type is always customized to
perhaps even stay in business) if they meet the operator’s site-specific re-
were to design and produce equipment quirements, which include upstream
that could ensure reliable, trouble-free and downstream process facilities,
operation for a longer period (say 20 site conditions, the machine’s unique
or 30 years). This makes it even more battery limits and piping arrange-
important for operators to exercise ment, foundation details and more.
great care, through the use of condi- Because every rotating-machinery
Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012 55
 Engineering Practice

FIGURE 3. Thermographic monitoring of

mechanical machines is a useful tool during
condition monitoring. Improper lubrication, mis-
alignments, and failing parts are just a few of the
common problems that can be identified using an
infrared scan of mechanical equipment. Properly
scheduled thermal inspections can help to pro-
vide early detection of problems and thus avoid
costly unscheduled shutdowns
FIGURE 2. Disassembly of a gear unit for inspection allows operators to in-
spect gear-contact patterns after installation or during operation. Under ideal
conditions, the contact pattern across each tooth will be uniform around each
gear (indicating full contact). However, machining, assembly errors, distortion
of the gear unit housing and misalignment can create problems. An improper
gear-set contact pattern creates high stresses on the gear teeth

package is essentially a customized terpreting the operating data.

enterprise, each machine produces
its own unique “operational” signa-
ture. Figure 1 shows an example of a
a complex rotating machine in a CPI
setting. Figure 2 shows an example of
a gear unit that has been taken apart
for inspection.
Condition monitoring
Condition monitoring is carried out
by analyzing trends in data related to
key operating parameters. It requires
the strategic use of suitable sensors to
track relevant parameters, and the es-
tablishment of normal (baseline) data
so that excursions between measured
and baseline values can be recognized
quickly and analyzed to identify con-
dition changes.
The major components that can ben-
efit from condition monitoring include
bearings (including radial and thrust
bearings), seals and packings, rotors
(shaft or crankshaft mechanism) and
auxiliaries. Ideally, baseline informa-
tion should be collected “early in the
life” of the machine components, so that
it captures “ideal” operating conditions
(not conditions that may have already
been subject to some degradation). Too
often, operators fail to collect data re-
lated to baseline operating conditions
because the initial weeks or months of
operation tend to be very busy. A lack
of adequate baseline data will seriously
reduce the value of condition monitor-
ing since there is no reference informa-
tion available for comparing and in-
56 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012
Revised baseline data
should also be collected after
any major maintenance over-
haul.
What to look for
Problematic machines often FIGURE 4. Infrared thermographic inspections of
electrical auxiliary equipment related to plant ma-
generate high vibration (dy- chinery can reveal “hot spots” that are commonly
namic forces) or hot spots. This found in equipment prior to failure. Loose connec-
occurs because machines or tions, faulty components, overloaded parts and high
components that are operating friction are some of common problems that can be
inefficiently or with a problem found during a thermographic scan. All “exceptions”
should be properly documented with thermal and
often run “hot,” causing compo- digital images that can be used in the condition
nents to wear out or fail pre- monitoring
maturely. Temperature sensors
and infrared thermometers are also dures and represents the most im-
essential parts of monitoring rotating portant cause of rotating machine
machines and auxiliary equipment. failure
Figures 3 and 4 show examples of • Design, fabrication, assembly, in-
thermographic monitoring results. stallation and commissioning is-
Rotating machines do not fail ran- sues and problems
domly. There are root-causes for each • Machine wear-out
failure mode. To effectively prevent All rotating machines react to operat-
failure, the reasons leading up to po- ing conditions in the facility. Individ-
tential failure must be known. To ual types of machinery will adjust in
carry out effective failure analysis, different ways.
proper measurement parameters, sen- For instance, for positive-displace-
sors, and setpoints should be defined ment rotating machines (such as
for all key components. Being aware of reciprocating compressors, screw
the major reasons for failure and ob- compressors, screw pumps and oth-
serving the conditions that could lead ers), the adjusted flowrate of the ma-
to failure enable operators to address chine is not significantly affected by
the issue and improve reliability. the process system. Thus, flowrate
Major failure categories include is a very good parameter to monitor
the following: over time, to assess the health of
• Process condition changes, which positive-displacement machines and
may include changes in either oper- determine if any problems or wear-out
ating conditions or operating proce- have arisen.
 rapid temperature, pres- Machine troubleshooting
sure and speed changes. Troubleshooting efforts aim to discover
In many cases, the root- and eliminate the root causes of prob-
cause of mechanical dam- lems. Too often, in the rush to define
age to dynamic rotating what the problem is, sufficient time
machines is that the head is not taken to obtain all of the facts,
required by the process and this thwarts any troubleshooting
FIGURE 5. The root cause of rotating machine com- system has exceeded the effort. Any change that has happened
ponent failure is often found in the supporting aux- capability of the machine. recently (or any change compared to
iliary system, particularly the oil or cooling systems. For a given impeller vane design conditions) should be properly
Since change in the coolant supply temperature is slope, the head produced identified for all components in rotat-
a common cause of many machine failures, coolant
temperature sensors (shown here) should be used by a centrifugal pump is ing machine systems. All functions
a function of impeller di- of the components and sub-systems
Dynamic machines (such as cen- ameter and impeller speed. Once the should be clearly identified. It is nec-
trifugal compressors, axial compres- impeller is designed and fabricated, essary to interview all groups, such as
sors, centrifugal pumps and others) it can produce only one value of head operators, maintenance people, manu-
use high-speed rotating parts (such for a given shaft speed and flowrate. facturers, sub-vendors and related
as blades or impellers) to increase the The only circumstance that can cause contractors, during any troubleshoot-
velocity of the fluid, and then use the a lower value of head is if the machine ing exercise.
velocity of the fluid to increase the has experienced mechanical damage Failed components should be care-
fluid pressure. They typically have or has become fouled. Thus pressure fully observed and the mode of fail-
variable flow and pressure character- (particularly differential pressure) is ure should be identified. The vendor’s
istics. As a result, flowrate can vary a very good parameter to monitor in opinion and any consultant advice
with changing operating conditions, assessing dynamic machine health. should be considered. The machine
such as differential pressure or fluid Based on experience, the most com- history should be properly investi-
density, and thus the reliability of mon root cause of failure is changes gated, including both the operating life
dynamic rotating machines (as well to process or operating conditions. before failure and the history of any
as the reliability of their drivers and The second most-common reason re- previous failures.
auxiliaries) is directly affected by the lates to installation and commission- As noted earlier, baseline conditions
process and operating conditions. The ing issues. need to be obtained or established.
rotating machine loading, transmitted Design or manufacturing problems Operator’s logs and reliability data
torques, driver power and auxiliary rank third, but this type of problem should be examined. Special attention
system operation are affected by the usually shows up shortly after startup. is required when monitored param-
process. For example, process require- The main cause of design problems is eters exceed normal values. Trends
ments that call for a higher flowrate that the component has not been de- must be analyzed.
may result in driver overload. signed for the specified operating con- Data related to the failed compo-
The reliability of machine compo- dition. Component wear is most often nent’s supply source (that is, the man-
nents (such as bearings, seals and the result of the problem — not the ufacturer or other supplier), design,
others) is directly related to auxiliary root cause of the problem. Excessive materials, manufacturing details, as-
systems. Changes in the auxiliary sys- wear of the bearing, seal, wear-ring, sembly data and tolerances should
tems supplied fluid temperature (such or similar item usually results from all be considered. Unit piping, piping
as the temperature of lubrication oil process condition changes. Bearings stress analysis, thermal loads, nozzle
or cooling fluid supplied to the ma- often suffer as a result of assembly or loads, temperatures, support condi-
chine) resulting from a change in the installation problems. tions, foundation and generally all
cooling water temperature (for water- In rotating machine applications, surrounding facilities should also be
cooled systems) or in the ambient-air online condition-monitoring systems analyzed during the investigation to
temperature change (for air-cooled allow operators to monitor key oper- ascertain the root cause of a compo-
systems) is a common root cause of ating parameters, such as vibration, nent failure.
component failure. Figure 5 shows the displacement, velocity, air-gap, tem- New modeling methods, advanced
placement of a coolant temperature perature and other parameters in all simulation techniques and numeri-
sensor in a rotating machine. operating conditions (in all operating cal calculations have become impor-
Failure of machines and components cases including normal and special tant tools in modern troubleshoot-
often occurs because the equipment is modes). Figure 6 shows an example of ing and failure root-cause analysis.
subjected to conditions that exceed a shaft-vibration signal for a complex For example, rubbing on the casing
its design values. Most often, machin- vertical-type rotating machine. Figure is a widely reported problem in ro-
ery damage and wear occur during 7 shows an example of gear unit vibra- tating components. Realistic simu-
transient conditions, such as startup tion monitoring. Figure 8 shows an ex- lations of the dynamic and thermal
or shutdown. During these times, ample of the device arrangement used expansion of rotating parts and
the equipment is often subjected to to monitor rotational speed. inner casings are required to carry
Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012 57
 Engineering Practice
out a root-cause analysis in such
cases. For many reliability studies
or troubleshooting exercises, the use
of accurate finite element analysis
(FEA) of the machine can also yield
important insight. Figure 9 shows
an example of an FEM model with
fine meshing carried out for a fan
impeller.
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58 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012
Notes on gear unit inspection
A broken gear tooth is one of the most
serious problems that can occur in
a gear unit. Because of the relative
weakness of the softer core material
of gears, any gear tooth that has sub-
stantial surface deterioration may be
at risk of breakage.
The most common surface damage
3507
FIGURE 6. Shown here is an example
of shaft vibration monitoring on a com-
plex vertical-type rotating machine. The
radial vibration amplitude of the shaft is
an indicator of the overall mechanical
condition. Such a vibration signature al-
lows operators to detect many machine
malfunctions, including rotor unbalance,
misalignment, bearing wear and rubs.
In some complex rotating machines,
vibrations are not easily detected by
measuring the dynamic motion of the
shaft relative to that of the bearing. De-
pending on bearing stiffness, vibrations
may be transmitted entirely to the bear-
ing housings. Such a vibration signature
often cannot be detected by conventional
methods for measuring shaft vibration.
In such cases, a piezoelectric acceler-
ometer or seismic velocity-meter may be
used to measure the absolute severity of
the bearing vibration
mechanism is pitting. Gear pitting
occurs as the result of a combination
of fatigue forces and surface tension.
Any pits on the surface of a gear are
cause for concern because they show
that the tooth loads are far in excess
of the design loads or there is a prob-
lem. Pitting could also indicate serious
misalignment, contact pattern issues
or metallurgical problems.
Poor tooth contact, eccentric load-
ing that causes pitting, and the re-
sultant tooth fractures are the most
frequently experienced gear problems.
Micro-pitting, a less severe form of
surface fatigue damage, sometimes
occurs when there is an inadequate
lubricant film. It shows up where the
high spots of the mating gear surfaces
create pressures sufficient to cause a
series of tiny fatigue spalls (resulting
in a sandblasted appearance).
The normal progression of damage
in a tooth with excessive loads (or mis-
alignment) is that the micro-pitting
eventually yields to full-scale pitting. If
the micro-pitting occurs in bands and
is uniform and well distributed, it indi-
cates that the gears are heavily loaded
or there were some machining errors.
When micro-pitting is off to one side of
a gear, it indicates there is excessive
misalignment within the unit; this
increases the chance of catastrophic
failure. Future up-rating or modifica-
tions (particularly speed changes) may
be required for some gear-unit-driven
rotating-machine trains.
 FIGURE 8. Shown here is an example
of a rotational-speed-monitoring system
using gear teeth. Common sensors that
are used to monitor rotating speed and
the phase angle of the rotor are known
as rotational-speed sensors or phase-
angle-reference transducers (most often
FIGURE 7. Continuous (online) vibra-
called key-phasor transducers). This type
tion monitoring should be implemented
of sensor can be used to tie the rotor
for critical gear units. The dynamic forces
vibration data (or other performance or
and vibration that result from gear mesh-
monitoring data) to the shaft rotational
ing often present challenges to unit
motion or phase angle reference. The re-
reliability, causing excessive gear and
sulting information is extremely valuable
bearing wear and adversely affect the
for balancing, vibration condition moni-
driver, driven equipment, steel structures,
toring, torsional monitoring and diagnos-
foundation and even nearby equipment
ing various machine malfunctions

The gear unit could be designed to
allow for a replacement gear set with
a different speed ratio, thereby provid-
ing the required operating speed for
the alternate operating cases.
Practical recommendations
Establishing proper alarm and trip
setpoints is very important for proper
operation of a CPI rotating machine.
These setpoints should be properly
selected to avoid unnecessary alarms
or shutdowns (trips). Malfunctions
and problems must be identified in
the early stages to avoid catastrophic
damages. While appropriate setpoints
must be selected on a case-by-case
basis, the following rules of thumb
and practical recommendations gen-
erally apply.
Regarding rolling-element bearings,
peak housing vibration and tempera-
tures in the bearing housing should
be maintained below around 12 mm/s
and 90°C, respectively. For hydrody-
namic bearings, peak-to-peak hous-
ing vibration and temperature in the
bearing housing are recommended to
be maintained below around 70 mi-
crons and 115°C, respectively. For roll-
ing-element and hydrodynamic thrust
bearings, as a rough indication, axial
displacement should be maintained
below around 1.2 mm/s and 0.6 mm,
respectively. Lubrication-oil supply
and return temperatures should be
maintained below around 55°C and
85°C, respectively.
Lubrication oil analysis is another
effective tool for evaluating bear-
ing health. It is helpful to measure
the temperature variation (typically

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Circle 29 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/40265-29
Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012 59
 Engineering Practice

FIGURE 9. Finite element

using a thermographic method), both sure of the air receiver. modeling (FEM) model with
across the gear teeth and around the The machine uses fine meshing for a fan im-
gear sets, to get an idea of the load- sleeve-type bearings peller helps to identify
ing and misalignment in the gear unit. and has suffered from stresses, strains and
displacements in the
The maximum variation should not bearing failure. During an fan impeller
exceed a certain limit (most often in inspection after the failure,
6–10°C range). the bearings were found to be totally
As a rule of thumb for dynamic black and the Babbitt — a special a longer duration of excessive load
machines, if for a given flowrate and material or alloys that is used for the and a corresponding, transient lack
shaft speed the head produced falls bearing surface to provide a thin sur- of lubrication.
below the value predicted (based on face layer in a complex, multi-metal In this case, the compressor ven-
a certified and tested head-flowrate structure and help to resist galling — dor confirmed that this compres-
characteristic curve) by greater than was not found on bearing shells. sor model was originally designed
10–15%, the dynamic machine may be An investigation showed that the for continuous operation. While the
in peril and should be inspected at the plant’s consumption of instrument unit can be operated in long dura-
first opportunity. air had increased four times com- tions of intermittent operation — as
pared to its design value. Since the proposed for the specified condition
Case study flow produced by the compressor during the bidding stage — it cannot
This case study is presented for a remained unchanged, the increased afford four times the usual number
large instrument-air compressor. It flow of instrument air reduced the of starts and stops.
supplies instrument air to an air re- pressure in the air receiver more The proposed solution for this case is
ceiver, which delivers instrument air rapidly, and thus resulted in more- to change the compressor-control phi-
for various continuous and intermit- frequent stops and starts of the ma- losophy by eliminating stop/start op-
tent end uses. The compressor train chine. This put the bearings under eration, and operating the compressor
is started and stopped by the pres- more-transient stresses, resulting in continuously, using a bypass control
valve instead to maintain the desired
air-receiver pressure. In other words,
the compressor was switched to con-
tinuous operation and a new recycle
ADvANCED PROCESS SOLuTIONS loop, from the compressor discharge to
LEADING WORLDWIDE IN MIXING TECHNOLOGIES the compressor suction, was provided
to decrease the discharge pressure.
The discharge pressure needed to be
decreased to relieve stored instrument
air in the air receiver from the dis-
charge to the suction. With this new
mode of operation, there is no need
to stop the compressor. The valve at
the recycle (or bypass) loop is opened,
as needed, to adjust the instrument
air flowrate. n
Having advanced to world market leader, the EKATO GROUP has been providing their
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
customers with the technical excellence and experience for more than 75 years. The
companies within the EKATO GROUP offer a broad spectrum of mixing technologies.
Author
Amin Almasi is a rotat-
From modulary designed industrial agitators to turnkey ing machine consultant in
production plants, the EKATO GROUP provides a range of Brisbane, Australia (amin.
almasi@ymail.com). He holds
engineering services and custom-made solutions for the a chartered engineer cer-
most challenging customer applications. The synergies tificate from IMechE (CEng
MIMechE), a chartered pro-
within the EKATO GROUP ensure reliable and cost-effective fessional engineer’s license
solutions that meet the highest quality standards for every from Engineers Australia
(MIEAust CPEng – Mechani-
application. This is supported by a global service network. cal) and an EUR ING (Eu-
HALL 5.0, STAND D42 ropean Engineer) certificate
from FEANI. He is a registered professional
engineer in Queensland (RPEO). He also holds
M.Sc. and B.Sc. degrees in mechanical engineer-
Your contact in Europe
Tel.: +49 7622 29-0
GROUP Your contact in the USA
Tel.: +1 201 825 4684
ing. He specializes in rotating machines includ-
ing reciprocating, centrifugal and screw com-
pressors, gas and steam turbines, process pumps,
e-mail: info@ekato.com www.ekato.com e-mail: usa@ekato.com condition monitoring and reliability. He has au-
thored more than 50 papers and articles dealing
with rotating machines, condition monitoring
and reliability.
Circle 15 on p. 70 or go to adlinks.che.com/40265-15
60 Chemical Engineering www.che.com March 2012
RZ_AnzChemEng2012.indd 1 09.02.12 15:38
 Feature Report
Inline Viscosity
Measurements
Process viscometers can help keep
process control and product quality in check
Steve Cicchese
Brookfield Engineering Laboratories
I
nline viscosity measurements can
give continuous, realtime read-
ings of a fluid’s viscosity during
processing and consequently, can
provide a means to automate the vis-
cosity control of process fluids. While
it is difficult to control all factors in
the process that can affect a fluid’s
viscosity (such as temperature, air
bubbles, shear history, turbulence
and so on), if these factors are kept
relatively constant, then good control
can be achieved. This article presents
the applications for inline viscos-
ity measurement and the means by
which they are achieved. Let’s first
discuss the subject of viscosity.
The basics
Viscosity is a property that is often con-
sidered by process engineers, but sel-
dom completely understood. It is gen-
erally not a subject that is covered in
much detail in many engineering cur-
ricula. Most engineers know what vis-
cosity is, but may have trouble explain-
ing it or even understanding the full
implications of the measured number.
Scientifically, viscosity is the property
of a fluid that causes it to resist flow.
For materials that flow, either while
being processed (for pumping, spray-
ing or coating) or in an end-use (like
shampoo, detergent or paint), it is im-
portant to think about the material’s
flow characteristics or viscosity. En-
gineers and quality-control personnel
need ways to measure viscosity so that
they can quantify whether a material
will flow the way it needs to for the
process or for the application.
34 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2013
Plant personnel may have an indica-
tion of the viscosity or “consistency” of
a material by looking at it, rubbing it
between their fingers, or having it drip
off a stick or shovel. This type of prac-
tical “measurement” of a material’s
characteristic was eventually devel-
oped into a somewhat more scientific
approach by using cups with holes in
the bottom and a stopwatch to measure
how much time it would take to drain
the fluid. The cups (for example efflux
cups) are relatively inexpensive and
easy to use. This type of test uses the
force of gravity to drain the fluid out
of the cup. The shearing action on the
fluid takes place at the orifice on the
bottom of the cup. As the level in the
cup goes down, the shear rate at the
orifice decreases because the weight of
the fluid remaining in the cup is lower.
This type of measurement is referred
to as kinematic viscosity. This method
was one of the earliest quality control
(QC) tests that checked viscosity in a
quantifiable way.
But the cup method could not al-
ways discriminate successfully be-
tween materials that proved accept-
able and those that were marginal or
even poor performers because of the
varying shear rate. Understanding a
defined “shear rate” and how it can
affect the viscosity of the fluid is im-
portant. Imagine that the fluid you
want to test is sandwiched between
two plates separated by a known dis-
tance. Keeping the bottom plate sta-
tionary and moving the top plate at
a defined velocity, shear rate is the
ratio of the moving plate velocity, V,
to the distance separating the plates,
X. The use of a rotational viscome-
ter running at different speeds can
Figure 1. A Couette-
style viscometer with
defined shear rate
measurements is
typically used when
measurements that
can be compared to
laboratory-type
measurements
are needed
simulate, in part, what is happening
to the fluid during processing. This
analytical procedure for simulating
the shearing action with an instru-
ment is the key to predicting flow
behavior.
Rotational viscometers (Figure 1)
are widely accepted tools for the mea-
surement of viscosity across most in-
dustries. The spindle of a rotational
viscometer, when inserted into the
liquid, rotates at various fixed speeds,
thereby shearing the material contin-
uously at defined shear rates. Simul-
taneously, the viscometer measures
the amount of torque resistance expe-
rienced by the spindle at each speed
of rotation. This torque measurement
is quantified as a “shear stress,” which
acts across the surface area of the im-
mersed portion of the spindle. These
two key concepts — torque resistance
and shearing action — are combined
in an equation that defines apparent
or dynamic viscosity as the ratio of
shear stress to shear rate.
The unit of measurement used to
quantify rotational viscosity is the
centipoise (cP) in the western hemi-
sphere, and the milliPascal second
(mPa-s) in other countries, although
there is some degree of overlap in
useage. The good news is that the two
units are interchangeable because
1 cP equals 1 mPa-s. There is a way
to correlate viscosity measurements
made with dynamic and kinematic
methods for materials that are New-
tonian, using the following equation:
Dynamic viscosity = kinematic vis-
cosity × density (for more on the fun-
damentals of viscosity, see Viscosity:
The Basics, Chem. Eng., August 2009,
pp. 34–39).
 η η
Viscosity
Upper limit
Manual set point
Lower limit
Reject point
t t
Time
Figure 2. With manual control, upper
and lower control limits can often be ex-
ceeded, allowing for out-of-specification
product
Process measurements
Automatic control of process fluid vis-
cosity ensures consistent product all
the time, reduces product hold times,
and can eliminate human errors and
expensive sample testing (Figures
2 and 3). Also, it provides for a com-
plete record of how the process varied
over a span of time, instead of at just
one point in time. In a plant environ-
ment, there are many ways that vis-
cosity can be measured, such as by
a rotational viscometer, a vibrating
element and by a falling object. Un-
derstanding whether a true, defined
shear-rate measurement is needed,
or if you are really just looking for
set-point control, is beneficial when
choosing the right type of instrument
for your application.
Process measurements are made
inline or in a flow loop. A bench-top ro-
tational viscometer can be used for off-
line or near-line measurements, where
a sample of the process fluid is drawn
and tested under controlled conditions
(using the same bath temperature,
shear history, shear rate and so on).
Inline viscometers are immersed in
the process stream and measure con-
tinuously under process conditions.
Installation can be in a side-stream,
in the main flow stream or in a tank.
It is important to consider how clean-
ing and maintenance of these devices
might occur, if necessary, when decid-
ing on the installation.
It is also important to make sure
that a representative sample of the
fluid will be measured. Possible con-
cerns about stratification, mixing and
turbulence should be considered. The
instrument will measure the product
with which it makes contact, so mak-
ing sure the fluid that the instrument
“sees” is the material that you want
it to measure, is a primary consid-
eration. The demands of laboratory
versus process environments are dif-
Viscosity
Time
ferent, so it is unlikely that the same
equipment can be used for both styles
of measurement or that the exact
same measured value will be gener-
ated. However, if done properly, the
results of both laboratory and inline
measurements will follow the same
trend, making inline measurement
useful for ensuring consistent pro-
duction quality.
Choosing an instrument for in-
line measurement. When evaluat-
ing an instrument for inline viscosity
control, there are several parameters
that must be considered to provide
the proper installation. The answers
to these questions will eliminate some
types of viscometers, and aid in defin-
ing the specifications of the final in-
strument. These questions include
the following:
• What are the minimum, maxi-
mum and average pressure and
temperature requirements for the
application?
• What is the expected viscosity range,
and control set-points desired?
• What are the minimum, maxi-
mum and typical flowrates in the
process?
• What is the area electrical classifi-
cation (NEMA 4; NEMA 7; ATEX,
for example)?
• What are the necessary materials of
construction, and recommended seal
and elastomer materials? (This can
often be determined based on what
the plant is using for other process
equipment in the area, such as
pumps.)
• Where will the instrument be
mounted? This will determine the
style of instrument to be used. Ex-
amples include a tank/flange mount
(Figure 4); a flow-through housing
(Figure 1); a probe style for barrels
(Figure 5); and mounting from the
top of an open tank
For process control measurements,
the critical factors are stability, re-
peatability and sensitivity to changes
in viscosity. A stable, repeatable read-
ing from an instrument that is sen-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2013
Upper limit
Automatic set point
Lower limit Figure 3.
Better product
and process
control can be
obtained with
inline measure-
ments
sitive to change in the process will
allow the engineer to properly control
the process.
Applications
Most products are formulated to flow,
spray or coat in a controlled manner.
Monitoring viscosity at critical shear
points ensures that the product will
act the same way every time for the
user. This is the most tangible indi-
cator of quality. With the increase
in standardization initiatives, such
as ISO 9000 and process analytical
technology (PAT), there is an increas-
ing use of viscometers to establish
and document the desired properties
of products. To a much larger extent,
the use of viscometers for quality con-
trol, and in particular, the use of in-
line viscometers, wherever possible,
to automate the process of controlling
desired fluid properties is on the rise.
Quality, consistency and customer ac-
ceptance require testing and control of
key parameters, of which viscosity is
certainly an important one.
Some typical operations where pro-
cess viscosity control can be important
include the following:
Determining the endpoint. For
applications involving chemical re-
actions, viscosity of a product is con-
tinuously monitored in-tank and the
process is either stopped, or the next
steps are taken once a specific viscos-
ity limit is reached.
In addition to determining the end-
point of chemical reactions, this ap-
proach is also used to determine the
endpoint of blending operations, such
as the blending of multiple ingredi-
ents in a batch process. One example is
synthetic-fiber manufacturing. Latex,
spandex and other synthetic materials
are used to manufacture fibers, which
are stretchable, rugged and used in
many applications such as clothing.
The manufacturing process is carried
out in a reactor, where both tempera-
ture control and tight viscosity control
are required over the steps and addi-
tions made during the process.
35
 Feature Report

Carrying properties in oil and gas. Figure 4. This

In many oil and natural-gas production
applications, viscosity is monitored and
controlled to make sure that the fluids
have the proper rheological properties
to carry solids. For example, hydraulic
fracturing fluid must have the proper
viscosity under various shear condi-
tions to carry the proppant downhole,
and deposit it at the required location.
For drilling fluids, the viscosity must
be correct to carry the cuttings away
from the drill bit and out of the hole, as
well as to lubricate the bit.
Field engineers in oil-and-gas drill-
ing operations can experience operat-
ing problems if the viscosity specifica-
tions of fluids pumped downhole are
incorrect. This complicates testing
procedures, increases the risk of costly
errors and wastes time. Consequently,
it is necessary to ensure fast, accurate
viscosity measurement, data collec-
tion and analysis of fluid samples be-
fore they are pumped downhole.
vibrating-probe
style viscometer
can be mounted to
a flange on the side
of a tank, for example.
Vibrating-probe style
viscometers are typi-
cally used for trending
viscosity changes, rather
than obtaining absolute
viscosity values
The inline couette viscometer (Fig-
ure 1) gives field engineers reliable vis-
cosity measurement, onsite at the well.
This simplifies complicated test pro-
cedures, minimizes human error and
ensures quality control without delay.
The instrument output allows for con-
stant monitoring and reporting of fluid
viscosity or for use in ECD (equivalent
circulating density) calculations by oil-
rig engineers.
Oil-delivery systems, such as for
burners. In this application, the vis-
Figure 5.
This vibrating-
probe style viscom-
eter can be mounted on
the top of a tank, for example
cosity of a fluid is controlled
so that when it is pumped
through a spray nozzle,
proper atomization of the
material occurs. Proper
atomization through spray
nozzles, which requires con-
tinuous and accurate viscosity
measurement and control, en-
sures the best combustion efficiency
in oil-delivery systems. To burn fuel
oil at the high-volume flowrates de-
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36 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2013

oil must be atomized (dispersed into
the furnace as a fine mist). This as-
sures high-speed vaporization and
ignition. Most burners atomize oil by
shearing the oil into small droplets.
Burner manufacturers recommend
that the oil be supplied to the burn-
ers at a specific viscosity to main-
tain consistent atomization. Failure
to maintain proper atomization re-
sults in the following: poor fuel burn-
ing due to carbon and soot buildup;
higher fuel consumption and costs;
increased stack emissions and possi-
ble fines from government agencies.
The inline process viscometer mon-
itors and controls viscosity and tem-
perature in pressurized oil-delivery
systems. Repeatable viscosity mea-
surements are necessary to maximize
the efficient atomization and delivery
of a variety of paraffin-based oils,
asphaltic-based oils, as well as heat-
ing fuels and waste oils. The process
viscometer
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Figure 6. This vibrational viscometer is commonly
used in printing and coating applications
sign considerations, which may also
be of interest to other spray-type ap-
plications, such as spray-drying oper-
ations. Some of these considerations
are the following:
• Bypass loop for viscometer installa-
tion for fail-safe operation
• Use of viscosity feedback to control
the heat rate to the oil-feedline heat
exchanger
• Output from the viscometer may go
to a single-loop controller that in-
stantly responds to inline viscosity
changes
Quality control. To ensure consis-
tent quality of many different prod-
ucts, it is important that the viscosity
be constantly measured and controlled
during the production process. In-
line measurement ensures consistent
quality control in realtime. It saves on
laboratory testing times, and reduces
hold-up of product in tanks waiting
for evaluation. Examples of quality-
control
6:19 PMandPage quality-assurance
1 appli-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2013
cations include shampoos, detergents
and yogurts to name a few. In these
cases, too thin a product might ap-
pear to be of poor quality (such as a
runny yogurt, or a shampoo that pours
like water, without any body). Here it
is a matter of consumer perception
where specifications of final products
are written by companies based upon
consumer test groups, and the product
must fall within these specifications
in order to be shipped.
Other quality-related applications
where viscosity is important are in
coatings, such as paint applications. A
few more examples follow.
Roll-coating thickness control.
When dealing in any large-volume
coating and printing applications
where millions of products are being
printed per day, the payback on the
cost of inline control can be very
short when measured against costs of
wasted ink, varnishes, or coatings from
too high a viscosity or from wasted
Collins plastic control valves are
highly responsive control valves
designed for use with corrosive
media and/or corrosive atmos-
pheres.
Collins valves feature all-plastic
construction with bodies in PVDF,
PP, PVC and Halar in various body
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37
 Feature Report

product if the viscosity (and hence the
color) are too light.
In printing applications, constant
maintenance of proper ink viscosity
ensures the quality of the printing,
which reduces rejects and waste, while
also keeping ink costs to a minimum.
To assure the uniform application of
inks on a variety of substrates (boxes,
newspapers, cartons) it is necessary
to control viscosity. Continuous moni-
toring and control of the ink reservoir
viscosity using an inline viscometer
(Figure 6) can provide viscosity mea-
surement and control at multiple sta-
tions and save money by using less
ink. Similar controls are needed in the
coating of, and the printing on soda
and other beverage cans.
Dip-coating thickness control. The
thickness or consistency of a fluid is
controlled to provide a dependable and
uniformly coated item when dipped,
then removed, from a coating tank. In
this application, the thickness or con-
sistency of a fluid is controlled so that
when something is dipped in it and
pulled out, it is uniformly and consis-
tently coated.
Dipping applications are designed in
automated systems whereby an item
is brought over a tank or pan, dipped
into the bath, removed and allowed
to drip dry before proceeding through
the process. The main problem with
the open tank or pan is with the evap-
oration of fluids to the environment.
Viscosity control is used for addition
of water, solvents or other modifiers
as needed to control viscosity to a set
point. In pharmaceutical capsule man-
ufacturing, for example, if the fluid is
too thin, the capsule will break during
filling, or dissolve too soon when swal-
lowed, which would release medicine
in the throat instead of the stomach. If
it is too thick, then there is raw mate-
rial waste on millions of capsules that
will raise product costs, and it may not
dissolve properly when swallowed.
For food batter applications, too thin
a batter will mean improper coating
and product quality. Too thick a batter
will mean bad product quality, longer
cook and dry times, and raw mate-
rial waste. You can easily imagine a
chicken nugget with too much batter.
This can be from too viscous a batter
during the coating process. ■
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
Author
Steve Cicchese is the gen-
eral manager of process sales
and marketing for Brookfield
Engineering Laboratories
(11 Commerce Blvd., Mid-
dleboro, MA, 02346; Email:
s_cicchese@brookfieldengi
neering.com; Phone: 508-946-
6200) where he has worked
for the past 12 years. Prior to
that, he spent 15 years with
Bird/Baker Process, a manu-
facturer of liquid-solid separation equipment.
Cicchese holds a B.S.Ch.E. from Northeastern
University, an MBA from Babson College and a
certificate in business administration from Har-
vard University. He is a member of the AIChE
and Society of Petroleum Engineers, and has
written numerous articles on process viscosity
measurement in various industries, including
food, printing, asphalt and oil and gas.

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38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2013
 Feature
Cover Story
Report
Piping-System Leak Detection
and Monitoring for the CPI
Eliminating the potential for leaks is an integral part
of the design process that takes place at the very
onset of facility design
W. M. (Bill) Huitt
W.M. Huitt Co.
L
eaks in a chemical process in-
dustries (CPI) facility can run
the gamut from creating a
costly waste to prefacing a cat-
astrophic failure.. They can be an
annoyance, by creating pools of liq-
uid on concrete that can become a
possible slipping hazard and house-
keeping problem, or a leak that can
emit toxic vapors, causing various
degrees of harm to personnel. In
some cases a leak may be a simple
housekeeping issue that goes into
the books as a footnote indicating
that a repair should be made when
resources are available. In other
cases it can become a violation of
regulatory compliance with statu-
tory consequences, not to mention
a risk to personnel safety and the
possible loss of capital assets.
Understanding the mechanisms
by which leaks can occur and priori-
tizing piping systems to be checked
at specific intervals based on a few
simple factors is not only a prag-
matic approach to the preventive
maintenance of piping systems, but
is part of a CPI’s regulatory com-
pliance. This includes compliance
under both the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency (EPA) Clean
Air Act (CAA; 40CFR Parts 50 to
52) and the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA; 40CFR
Parts 260 to 299). We will get into
more detail with these regulations,
as well as the leak detection and
repair (LDAR) requirement within
the above mentioned regulations, as
we move through this discussion.
44 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014
When discussing anything to do
with government regulations, the
terminology quickly turns into an
“alphabet soup” of acronyms. The
box on the right lists, for easy refer-
ence, the titles and acronyms that
will be used in this discussion.
Leak mechanisms
Eliminating the potential for leaks
is an integral part of the design
process that takes place at the very
onset of facility design. It is woven
into the basic precept of the piping
codes because it is such an elemen-
tal and essential component in the
process of designing a safe and de-
pendable piping system.
Piping systems, as referred to
here, include pipe, valves and other
inline components, as well as the
equipment needed to hold, move and
process chemicals. Why then, if we
comply with codes and standards,
and adhere to recommended indus-
try practices, do we have to concern
ourselves with leaks? Quite point-
edly it is because much of what we
do in design is theoretical, such as
material selection for compatibility,
and because in reality, in-process
conditions and circumstances do
not always perform as expected.
Whether due to human error or
mechanical deficiencies, leaks are
a mechanism by which a contained
fluid finds a point of least resistance
and, given time and circumstances,
breaches its containment. What we
look into, somewhat briefly, are two
general means by which leaks can
occur; namely corrosion and me-
chanical joint deficiencies.
Corrosion. Corrosion allowance
ACRONYMS
AVO = Audio/visual/olfactory
CAA = Clean Air Act
HAP = Hazardous air pollutants
HON = Hazardous organic NESHAP
LDAR = Leak detection and repair
LUST = Leaking underground
storage tank
NEIC = National Enforcement
Investigations Center
NESHAP = National Emission
Standard for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
NSPS = New Source Performance
Standards
RCRA = Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act
SOCMI = Synthetic organic chemical
manufacturing industry
TSDF = Treatment, storage and
disposal facilities
UST = Underground storage tank
VOC = Volatile organic
compounds
(CA) is used as an applied factor
in calculating, among other things,
wall thickness in pipe and pressure
vessels. The CA value assigned to
a material is theoretical and predi-
cated on four essential variables:
material compatibility with the
fluid, containment pressure, tem-
perature of the fluid and velocity
of the fluid. What the determina-
tion of a CA provides, given those
variables, is a reasonable guess at
a uniform rate of corrosion. And
given that, an anticipated loss of
material can be assumed over the
theoretical lifecycle of a pipeline
or vessel. It allows a reasonable
amount of material to be added into
the equation, along with mechani-
cal allowances and a mill tolerance
in performing wall thickness cal-
culations. The problem is that be-
 Table 1. Elements of a Model LDAR Program Pump, compressor and agitator
seals can develop leaks where shaft
Written LDAR compliance First attempt at repair
misalignment plays a part. If the
Training Delay of repair compliance assurance shaft is not installed within recom-
LDAR audits Electronic monitoring and storage of data mended tolerances or if it becomes
misaligned over time there is a
Contractor accountability QA/QC of LDAR data good possibility the seal will begin
Internal leak definitions Calibration/calibration drift assessment to fail.
Less frequent monitoring Records maintenance The LDAR program
Promulgated in 1970 and amended
yond the design, engineering, and areas for abnormal loss of wall in 1977 and 1990, the Clean Air
construction phase of building a thickness, hydrogen stress-corro- Act requires that manufactur-
facility, the in-service reality of cor- sion cracking (HSCC), and others. ers producing or handling VOCs
rosion can be very different. The LDAR program does not develop and maintain an LDAR
Corrosion, in the majority of specify the need to check anything program in accordance with the
cases, does not occur in a uniform other than mechanical joints for po- requirements set forth under the
manner. It will most frequently tential leaks. Monitoring pipe and Clean Air Act. This program moni-
occur in localized areas in the form vessel walls, particularly at welds tors and documents leaks of VOCs
of pits, as erosion at high-impinge- that come in contact with corrosive in accordance with Method 21 —
ment areas, as corrosion under chemicals, is a safety consideration Determination of Volatile Organic
insulation, at heat-affected zones and practical economics. Perform- Compound Leaks.
(HAZ) where welding was improp- ing cursory examinations for such Table 1 provides a listing of key
erly performed, causing a localized points of corrosion where the po- elements that should be contained
change to the mechanical or chemi- tential exists should be made part in an LDAR program. Those ele-
cal properties of the material, and of any quality assurance or quality ments are described as follows:
in many other instances in which control (QA/QC) and preventive Written LDAR compliance. Com-
unforeseen circumstances create maintenance program. pile a written procedure declaring
the potential for corrosion and the Mechanical joints and open- and defining regulatory require-
opportunity for leaks in the pipe ended pipe. Mechanical joints ments that pertain to your specific
itself or in a vessel wall. Because can include such joining methods facility. This should include record-
of that incongruity, corrosion is an as flanges, unions, threaded joints, keeping certifications; monitoring
anomaly that, in reality, cannot valve bonnets, stem seals and clamp and repair procedures; name, title,
wholly be predicted. assemblies. It can also include and work description of each person-
Corrosion-rate values found in pump, compressor and agitator nel assignment on the LDAR team;
various published resources on the seals. Other potential points of tran- required procedures for compiling
topic of material compatibility are sient emissions include open-ended test data; and a listing of all process
based on static testing in which a piping, such as drains, vents, and units subject to federal, state and
material coupon is typically set in the discharge pipe from a pressure- local LDAR regulations.
a vile containing a corrosive chemi- relief device. Any of these joints or Training. Assigned members of
cal. This can be done at varying interfaces can be considered poten- the LDAR team should have some
temperatures and in varying con- tial leak points and require both experience base that includes work
centrations. After a period of time, monitoring and record-keeping doc- performed in or around the types of
the coupon is pulled and the rate umentation in compliance with the piping systems they will be testing
of corrosion is assessed. That is a EPA’s LDAR program. and monitoring under the LDAR
simplification of the process, but Mechanical joints can leak due to program. Their training should in-
you get the point. When a material improper assembly, insufficient or clude familiarization with Method
of construction (MOC) and a po- unequal load on all bolts, improp- 21 and also training as to the cor-
tentially corrosive chemical come erly selected gasket type, sufficient rect procedure for how to examine
together in operational conditions, pressure or temperature swings the various interface connections
the theoretical foundation upon that can cause bolts to exceed their they will be testing. They should
which the material selection was elastic range (diminishing their also receive training on the test
based becomes an ongoing realtime compressive load on the joint), and instrument they will be using and
assessment. This means that due an improperly performed “hot-bolt- how to enter the test data in the
diligence needs to be paid to exam- ing” procedure in which in-service proper manner. All of this needs to
ining areas of particular concern, bolts are replaced while the pipeline be described in the procedure.
depending on operating conditions, remains in service. “Hot bolting” is LDAR audits. An internal audit
such as circumferential pipe welds not a recommended procedure, but team should be established to en-
for cracking, high-impingement is nonetheless done on occasion. sure that the program is being car-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014 45
 Cover Story
ried out on a routine basis in an ef-
ficient and comprehensive manner
in accordance with the written pro-
cedures. A third-party audit team is
brought in every few years to con-
firm that internal audits are being
carried out in the proper manner
and that all equipment that should
be included in the monitoring is
listed as such. It also ensures that
the tests are being carried out prop-
erly and that the test results are
entered properly.
Contractor accountability.
When selecting an outside con-
tractor to perform internal LDAR
audits for a facility or when bring-
ing in an outside contractor to in-
spect the work of the internal audit
team, it is recommended that the
contract be written in a manner
that places appropriate responsi-
bility on that contractor. In doing
so there should be penalties de-
scribed and assessed as a result
of insufficient performance or in-
accurate documentation of pre-
scribed testing and documentation
procedures. Expectations should
be well defined and any deviation
from those prescribed norms by a
third-party contractor should con-
stitute a breach of contract. In all
fairness, both parties must under-
stand exactley what those expecta-
tions are.
Internal leak definitions. Inter-
nal leak definitions are the maxi-
mum parts per million, by volume
(ppmv) limits acceptable for valves,
connectors and seals, as defined by
the CAA regulation governing a fa-
cility. For example, a facility may be
required to set an internal leak-def-
inition limit of 500 ppm for valves
and connectors in light liquid or gas/
vapor fluid service and 2,000 ppm
internal leak definition for pumps
in light liquid or gas/vapor fluid
service. “Light liquid” is defined
as a fluid whose vapor pressure is
greater than 0.044 psia at 68°F.
Less frequent monitoring. Under
some regulations it is allowed that
a longer period between testing is
acceptable if a facility has consis-
tently demonstrated good perfor-
mance (as defined in the applicable
regulation). For example, if a facil-
46 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014
ity has consistently demonstrated
good performance under monthly
testing, then the frequency of test-
ing could be adjusted to a quarterly
test frequency.
First attempt at repair. Upon de-
tection of a leak, most rules will re-
quire that a first attempt be made
to repair the leak within five days
of detection; if unsuccessful, any fol-
low-up attempts need to be finalized
within 15 days. Should the repair
remain unsuccessful within the 15-
day time period, the leak must be
placed on a “delay of repair” list and
a notation must be made for repair
or component replacement during
the next shutdown of which the
leaking component is a part.
Delay of repair compliance as-
surance. Placing a repair item on
the “delay of repair” list gives assur-
ances that the item justifiably be-
longs on the list, that a plan exists
to repair the item, and that parts
are on hand to rectify the problem.
It is suggested that any item being
listed in the “delay of repair” list au-
tomatically generate a work order
to perform the repair.
Electronic monitoring and stor-
age of data. Entering leak-test
data into an electronic database
system will help in retrieving such
data and in utilizing them in ways
that help provide reports highlight-
ing areas of greater concern to areas
of lesser concern. Such information
can help direct attention and re-
sources away from areas of least
concern, while mobilizing resources
to areas of greater concern. This en-
ables a much more efficient use of
information and resources.
QA/QC of LDAR data. A well
written LDAR program will include
a QA/QC procedure defining the
process by which it is assured that
Method 21 is being adhered to, and
that testing is being carried out in
the proper manner and includes the
proper equipment and components.
This also includes the maintenance
of proper documentation.
Calibration/calibration-drift
assessment. LDAR monitoring
equipment should be calibrated in
accordance with Method 21. Cali-
bration-drift assessment of LDAR
monitoring equipment should be
made at the end of each monitor-
ing work shift using approximately
500 ppm of calibration gas. If, after
the initial calibration, drift assess-
ment shows a negative drift of more
than 10% from the previous cali-
bration, all components that were
tested since the last calibration
with a reading greater than 100
ppm should be re-tested. Re-test all
pumps that were tested since the
last calibration having a reading of
greater than 500 ppm.
Records maintenance. Internal
electronic record-keeping and re-
porting is an essential component to
a well-implemented LDAR program.
It is an indication to the NEIC that
every effort is being made to comply
with the regulations pertinent to a
facility. It provides ready access to
the personnel associated with the
program, the test data, leak repair
reports and so on.
Testing for leaks
Results, when using a leak detec-
tion monitor, are only as accurate
as its calibration and the manner in
which it is used. Calibration is dis-
cussed in the next section, “Method
21.” To use the monitor correctly, the
auditor will need to place the nozzle
or end of the probe as close as pos-
sible to the flange, threaded joint, or
seal interface as follows:
• In the case of a flange joint test:
180 deg around perimeter of the
flange joint at their interface
• In the case of a threaded joint test:
180 deg around perimeter of inter-
face of the male/female fit-up
• If it is a coupling threaded at both
ends, check both ends 180 deg
around the perimeter
• If it is a threaded union, then
check both ends and the body nut
180 deg around the perimeter
• In the case of a valve test:
180 deg around perimeter of
all end connections if anything
other than welded
180 deg around perimeter of
body flange
180 deg around perimeter of
body/bonnet interface
180 deg around perimeter of
stem packing at stem

(confirmed releases, cleanups completed)
National backlog
Figure 1. Progress is slowly being made to clean up leaking underground storage
tanks under the RCRA program
• In the case of a rotating equipment
shaft seal test: 180 deg around the
perimeter of the interface of the
seal and the shaft
Method 21
Method 21, under 40 CFR Part 60,
Appendix A, provides rules with
respect to how VOCs are moni-
tored and measured at potential
leak points in a facility. Those po-
tential leak points include, but are
not limited to: valves, flanges and
other connections; pumps and com-
pressors; pressure-relief devices;
process drains; open-ended valves;
pump and compressor seals; de-
gassing vents; accumulator vessel
vents; agitator seals and access door
seals. It also describes the required
calibration process in setting up the
monitoring device. Essentially any
monitoring device may be used as
long as it meets the requirements
set forth in Method 21.
Cylinder gases used for calibrat-
ing a monitoring device need to be
certified to be within an accuracy
of 2% of their stated mixtures. It is
recommended that any certification
of this type be filed in either digital
form or at the very least as a hard
copy. There should also be a speci-
fied shelf life of the contents of the
cylinder. If the shelf life is exceeded,
the contents must be either re-ana-
lyzed or replaced.
Method 21 goes on to define how
to test flanges and other joints, as
well as pump and compressor seals
and various other joints and inter-
faces with the potential for leaks.
There are two gases required for
National Cleanup Backlog
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
129,828
142,709
136,265
102,798
191,242
113,919
108,766
100,165
40,000
20,000
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Fiscal year
calibration. One is referred to as a
“zero gas,” defined as air with less
than 10 ppmv (parts per million
by volume) VOC. The other cali-
bration gas, referred to as a “refer-
ence gas,” uses a specified reference
compound in an air mixture. The
concentration of the reference com-
pound must approximately equal
the leak definition specified in the
regulation. The leak definition, as
mentioned above, is the threshold
standard pertinent to the govern-
ing regulation.
Monitoring devices
A portable VOC-monitoring device
will typically be equipped with a
rigid or flexible probe. The end of
probe is placed at the leak inter-
face of a joint, such as a flange,
threaded connection or coupling,
or at the interface of a pump, com-
pressor, or agitator seal where it
interfaces with the shaft. With its
integral pump, the device, when
switched on, will draw in a contin-
uous sample of gas from the leak-
interface area into the monitoring
device. The instrument’s response
or screening value is a relative
measure of the sample’s concentra-
tion level. The screening value is
detected and displayed in parts per
million by volume, or if the instru-
ment is capable and the degree of
accuracy needed, in parts per bil-
lion by volume (ppbv).
The detection devices operate on
a variety of detection principles.
The most common are ionization,
infrared absorption and combus-
tion. Ionization detectors operate
by ionizing a sample and then mea-
suring the charge (that is, number
of ions) produced.
Two methods of ionization cur-
rently used are flame ionization
and photoionization. The flame ion-
93,123
87,983
ization detector (FID) theoretically
measures the total carbon content
of the organic vapor sampled. The
photoionization detector (PID)
2010 2011 uses ultraviolet light to ionize the
organic vapors. With both detec-
tors, the response will vary with
the functional group in the organic
compounds. PIDs have been used to
detect equipment leaks in process
units in SOCMI facilities, particu-
larly for compounds such as form-
aldehyde, aldehydes and other oxy-
genated chemicals that typically do
not provide a satisfactory response
on a FID-type unit.
Operation of the non-dispersive
infrared (NDIR) detector is based
on the principle that light absorp-
tion characteristics vary depending
on the type of gas. Because of this,
NDIR detection can be subject to
interference due in large measure
to such constituents as water vapor
and CO2, which may absorb light
at the same wavelength as the tar-
geted compound. This type of detec-
tor is typically confined to the de-
tection and measurement of single
components. Because of that pro-
clivity, good or bad, the wavelength
at which a certain targeted com-
pound absorbs infrared radiation,
having a predetermined value, is
preset for that specific wavelength
through the use of optical filters. As
an example, if the instrument was
set to a wavelength of 3.4 microm-
eters, the device could detect and
measure petroleum fractions, such
as gasoline and naphtha.
The combustion-type analyzer is
designed to measure either thermal
conductivity of a gas or the heat pro-
duced as a result of combustion of the
gas. Referred to as hot-wire detectors
or catalytic oxidizers, combustion-
type monitors are nonspecific for
gas mixtures. If a gas is not readily
combustible, similar in composition
to formaldehyde and carbon tetra-
chloride, there may be a reduced re-
sponse or no response at all.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014 47

Cover Story
Due to the variability in the sen-
sitivity of the different monitoring
devices, the screening value does
not necessarily indicate the actual
total concentration at the leak in-
terface of the compound(s) being
detected. The leak interface is the
immediate vicinity of the joint
being tested — the point at which
the end of the probe is placed. Re-
sponse factors (RFs), determined
for each compound by testing or
taken from reference sources, then
correlate the actual concentration
of a compound to that of the con-
centration detected by the moni-
toring device. As mentioned previ-
ously, the monitoring device must
first be calibrated using a certified
reference gas containing a known
compound at a known concentra-
tion, such as that of methane and
isobutylene. RFs at an actual con-
centration of 10,000 ppmv have
been published by the EPA in a
document entitled “Response Fac-
tors of VOC Analyzers Calibrated
with Methane for Selected Organic
Chemicals.”
Method 21 requires that any se-
lected detector meet the following
specifications:
• The VOC detector should respond
to those organic compounds being
processed (determined by the RF)
• Both the linear response range
and the measurable range of the
instrument for the VOC to be
measured and the calibration gas
must encompass the leak defini-
tion concentration specified in the
regulation
• The scale of the analyzer meter
must be readable to ±2.5% of
the specified leak definition
concentration
• The analyzer must be equipped
with an electrically driven pump
so that a continuous sample is
provided at a nominal flowrate of
between 0.1 and 3.0 L/min
• The analyzer must be intrinsi-
cally safe for operation in explo-
sive atmospheres
• The analyzer must be equipped
with a probe or probe extension
not to exceed 0.25 in. outside di-
ameter with a single end opening
for sampling
48 Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014
Table 2 – Federal Regulations That Require a Formal LDAR
Program With Method 21
40 CFR Regulation Title
Part Subpart
60 VV SOCMI VOC Equipment Leaks NSPS
60 DDD Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Emissions from the Poly-
mer Manufacturing Industry
60 GGG Petroleum Refinery VOC Equipment Leaks NSPS
60 KKK Onshore Natural Gas Processing Plant VOC Equipment
Leaks NSPS
61 J National Emission Standard for Equipment Leaks (Fugitive
Emission Sources) of Benzene
61 V Equipment Leaks NESHAP
63 H Organic HAP Equipment Leak NESHAP (HON)
63 I Organic HAP Equipment Leak NESHAP for Certain Processes
63 J Polyvinyl Chloride and Copolymers Production NESHAP
63 R Gasoline Distribution Facilities (Bulk Gasoline Terminals and
Pipeline Breakout Stations)
63 CC Hazardous Air Pollutants from Petroleum Refineries
63 DD Hazardous Air Pollutants from Off-Site Waste and Recovery
Operations
63 SS Closed Vent Systems, Control Devices, Recovery Devices
and Routing to a Fuel Gas System or a Process
63 TT Equipment Leaks – Control Level 1
63 UU Equipment Leaks – Control Level 2
63 YY Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories: Generic
Maximum Achievable Control Technology Standards
63 GGG Pharmaceuticals Production
63 III Hazardous Air Pollutants from Flexible Polyurethane Foam
Production
63 MMM Hazardous Air Pollutants for Pesticide Active Ingredient
Production
63 FFFF Hazardous Air Pollutants: Miscellaneous Organic Chemical
Manufacturing
63 GGGGG Hazardous Air Pollutants: Site Remediation
63 HHHHH Hazardous Air Pollutants: Miscellaneous Coating Manufac-
turing
65 F Consolidated Federal Air Rule — Equipment Leaks
264 BB Equipment Leaks for Hazardous Waste TSDFs
265 BB Equipment Leaks for Interim Status Hazardous Waste TSDFs
Federal regulations program and help establish a com-
There are federal regulations that prehensive and detailed procedure.
pertain to monitoring for VOCs
and require the implementation of RCRA
a formal LDAR program in concert The Solid Waste Disposal Act of
with the rules of Method 21. There 1965 was amended in 1976 to in-
are other federal regulations that clude the Resource Conservation
require the rules of Method 21, but and Recovery Act (RCRA), which
do not require a formal LDAR pro- encompassed the management of
gram. Tables 2 and 3 list those vari- both hazardous waste and solid
ous regulations. waste. Prompted further by an ever
It is the manufacturer’s responsi- increasing concern of underground
bility to make the proper determina- water contamination, this act was
tion as to what regulations it needs again amended in 1984 to address
to comply with. Those specific regu- underground storage tanks (USTs)
lations, coupled with the Method 21 and associated underground piping
requirements, will define the LDAR under Subtitle I. This Amendment
 Table 3 – Federal Regulations that Require the Use of Method 21
But Not a Formal LDAR Program
40 CFR Regulation Title
Part Subpart
60 XX Bulk Gasoline Terminals • Oversee cleanups of petroleum re-
60 QQQ VOC Emissions from Petroleum Refinery Wastewater Systems leases by responsible parties
60 WWW Municipal Solid Waste Landfills • Enforce cleanups by recalcitrant
parties
61 F Vinyl Chloride
• Pay for cleanups at sites where
61 L Benzene from Coke By-Products the owner or operator is unknown,
61 BB Benzene Transfer unwilling, or unable to respond,
61 FF Benzene Waste Operations or those that require emergency
action
63 G Organic Hazardous Air Pollutants from SOCMI for Process
Vents, Storage Vessels, Transfer Operations, and Wastewater
• Conduct inspections and other re-
lease prevention activities
63 M Perchloroethylene Standards for Dry Cleaning In Figure 1 the progress being
63 S Hazardous Air Pollutants from the Pulp and Paper Industry made by the program can readily
63 Y Marine Unloading Operations be seen. In 2002, RCRA was looking
at 142,709 LUST sites — sites that
63 EE Magnetic Tape Manufacturing Operations
were flagged for cleanup. Through-
63 GG Aerospace Manufacturing and Rework Facilities out the following nine years, 2002
63 HH Hazardous Air Pollutants from Oil and Gas Production through 2011, 54,726 of those sites
Facilities were cleaned, leaving 87,983 still
63 OO Tanks ­— Level 1 targeted for cleanup.
63 PP Containers Within the RCRA program there
are requirements that impact de-
63 QQ Surface Impoundments
sign, fabrication, construction, loca-
63 VV Oil/Water, Organic/Water Separators tion, monitoring and operation of
63 HHH Hazardous Air Pollutants from Natural Gas Transmission and USTs and associated underground
Storage piping. The EPA has provided a
63 JJJ Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions: Group IV Polymers and number of sites on the internet that
Resins provide a great deal of information
63 VVV Hazardous Air Pollutants: Publicly Owned Treatment Works on the various CFR Parts. 40 CFR
Part 260 contains all of the RCRA
65 G CFAR ­— Closed Vent Systems
regulations governing hazardous
264 AA Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, Stor- waste identification, classification,
age, and Disposal Facilities — Process Vents generation, management and dis-
264 CC Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment, posal.
Storage and Disposal Facilities — Tanks, Surface Impound- Listed wastes are divided into the
ments, Containers
following group designations:
265 AA Interim Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous • The F group — non-specific source
Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities — Process wastes found under 40 CFR
Vents
261.31
265 CC Interim Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous • The K group — source-specific
Waste Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Facilities — Tanks,
Surface Impoundments, Containers wastes found under 40 CFR
261.32
270 B Hazardous Waste Permit Program — Permit Application
• The P and U group — discarded
270 J Hazardous Waste Permit Program — RCRA Standardized Per- commercial chemical products
mits for Storage Tanks and Treatment Units found under 40 CFR 261.33
Characteristic wastes, which exhibit
regulates the construction, moni- by current UST regulations to pre- one or more of four characteristics
toring, operating, reporting, record- vent and detect releases and were defined in 40 CFR Part 261 Subpart
keeping, and financial respon- performing the necessary UST sys- C are as follows:
sibility for USTs and associated tem operation and maintenance. • Ignitability, as described in 40
underground piping that handle In 1986, the Leaking Under- CFR 261.21
petroleum and hazardous fluids. ground Storage Tank (LUST) Trust • Corrosivity, as described in 40
As of 2011, there were 590,104 Fund was added to the RCRA pro- CFR 261.22
active tanks and 1,768,193 closed gram. The trust financing comes • Reactivity, as described in 40 CFR
tanks in existence in the U.S. Of the from a 0.1¢ tax on each gallon of 261.23
still active tanks, 70.9% were under motor fuel (gasoline, diesel or bio- • Toxicity, as described in 40 CFR
significant operational compliance. fuel blend) sold nationwide. The 261.24
This means that they were using LUST Trust Fund provides capital Table 4 provides a listing of ad-
the necessary equipment required to do the following: ditional CFR parts that further
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014 49
 Table 4 – Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Feature
Cover Story
Report Information
40 CFR Part Regulation Title
260 Hazardous Waste Management System: General
define the regulations under the 261 Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste
Resource Conservation and Recov-
ery Act. 262 Standards Applicable to Generators of Hazardous Waste
264 Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treat-
Final remarks ment, Storage and Disposal Facilities
I am fervently against overregula-
265 Interim Status Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous
tion and watch with keen interest Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities
the unfolding debate occurring on
Capitol Hill over the amendment 266 Standards for the Management of Specific Hazardous Wastes
and Specific Types of Hazardous Waste Management Facilities
to the Toxic Substances Control
Act (TSCA) for example. But the 267 Standards for Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Facili-
improved safety, clean air, clean ties Operating Under a Standardized Permit
water, and cost savings realized 270 EPA Administered Permit Programs: The Hazardous Waste Permit
from the CAA and RCRA programs Program
are four major returns on invest-
272 Approved State Hazardous Waste Management Programs
ment that come back to a manufac-
turer from the investment in a good 273 Standards for Universal Waste Management
leak-detection program. Whether
279 Standards for the Management of Used Oil
monitoring and repairing leaks
above ground, in accordance with 280 Technical Standards and Corrective Action Requirements for
the CAA, or below ground, in accor- Owners and Operators of Underground Storage Tanks (UST)
dance with the RCRA, it is, simply 281 Approval of State Underground Storage Tank Programs
put, just good business. As alluded
to at the outset of this article, leaks 282 Approved Underground Storage Tank Programs
RG LeaseFleet Ad_4.5625 x 4.875.pdf 1 4/7/14 11:47 AM
in hazardous-fluid-service pip-
ing systems have served, in many
cases, as an early-warning indicator
of something much worse to come.
At the very least, such leaks can
contribute to air pollution, ground-
water contamination, lost product
revenue, housekeeping costs, and a
risk to personnel — a few things we
can all live without. ■
Edited by Gerald Ondrey INTRODUCING THE WORLD’S LARGEST FLEET OF
SUCCESSFULLY TESTED BLAST-RESISTANT BUILDINGS.
Author
W. M. (Bill) Huitt has been No matter how many you need, how big you need them to be or when
involved in industrial pip-
ing design, engineering and you need them, get proven protection from the safety authority.
construction since 1965. Posi-
tions have included design en-
gineer, piping design instruc-
tor, project engineer, project
supervisor, piping depart-
ment supervisor, engineering
manager and president of W. • F O R M E R LY A B O X 4 U •
M. Huitt Co. (P.O. Box 31154,
St. Louis, MO 63131-0154;
Phone: 314-966-8919; Email: wmhuitt@aol.
com), a piping consulting firm founded in 1987.
His experience covers both the engineering and
construction fields and crosses industry lines
to include petroleum refining, chemical, petro-
chemical, pharmaceutical, pulp & paper, nuclear
power, biofuel and coal gasification. He has writ-
ten numerous specifications, guidelines, papers,
and magazine articles on the topic of pipe design
and engineering. Huitt is a member of the In-
ternational Society of Pharmaceutical Engineers
(ISPE), the Construction Specifications Institute
(CSI) and the American Society of Mechani-
cal Engineers (ASME). He is a member of the
B31.3 committee, a member of three ASME-BPE
subcommittees and several task groups, ASME
Board on Conformity Assessment for BPE Certi-
fication where he serves as vice chair, a member
of the American Petroleum Institute (API) Task
Group for RP-2611, serves on two corporate spec-
ification review boards, and was on the Advisory 855.REDGUARD
Board for ChemInnovations 2010 and 2011 a
multi-industry conference & exposition.
Circle 1 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/50976-01
Chemical Engineering www.che.com May 2014 51
 Feature Report
Engineering Practice
Oil-Mist
Systems
This primer discusses the pros and cons
of open- versus closed-loop designs
for lubricating pump and motor bearings
Heinz P. Bloch
Process Machinery Consultant
F
or decades, plant-wide oil-mist
systems have been used to lubri-
cate rolling-element bearings in
high-speed applications through-
out the petrochemicals, textiles,
pharmaceuticals, mining and other
chemical process industries (CPI). Ap-
plications range from small motors to
large rotating cylinders and a variety
of fluid movers. Plant-wide oil-mist
systems provide a centralized way to
supply lubricating oil to all such com-
ponents, and often eliminate the need
for frequent maintenance and correc-
tive action.
Closed-loop oil-mist systems (Fig-
ure 1) have been widely used in these
industries for decades. In fact, the CPI
have been leaders in the use of plant-
wide oil-mist systems since the 1960s.
Due to their lower initial cost, open-
loop oil-mist systems have tradition-
ally been more popular in the U.S.
While they may be less costly up front,
open-loop systems consume oil in a
once-through fashion (Figure 2) and
they can discharge spent or “stray” oil
mist to the atmosphere, which creates
environmental issues.
By comparison, closed-loop systems
(as shown in Figures 1 and 3) allow
the oil mist that has passed through
the equipment bearings to be col-
lected, filtered and reused. As a result,
the lifecycle cost of a well-designed
50 Chemical Engineering www.che.com November 2011
closed-loop system is often less than
that of a comparably sized, plant-wide
open-loop system.
As noted above, one particular
downside of open-loop systems is that
they allow a considerable amount of
stray mist to escape from the pump
bearing housings (Figure 2). In the
face of strict, plant-specific environ-
mental requirements, many facilities
now prefer to implement closed-loop
technology, whereby the mist is routed
in compliance with API 610.
API 610 is a widely used and
strongly recommended — although
not compulsory — industry specifi-
cation, which calls for oil-mist intro-
duction between a modern face-type
or rotating labyrinth-style bearing-
housing protector seal and the adja-
cent rolling-element bearing. This is
shown in Figure 3. The introduction of
an oil mist into this open space pre-
vents process vapors or contaminated
atmospheric air from accumulating
there. Similarly, the existence of oil
mist in those spaces at slightly over
atmospheric pressures precludes the
ingress of moist or dirt-laden atmo-
spheric air.
It is worth noting that lip seals —
which are widely used in inexpensive
pumps — are not considered to be ac-
ceptable, per the API standard. It is
generally assumed that elastomeric
Colfax
Figure 1.
Shown here is a
closed-loop oil-mist system
that provides lubrication for bearings
in process pumps and their drivers. If
desired, the small, blue collection con-
tainers that are shown in this image can
be furnished with automated or manual
means of pumping the coalesced oil into
the spent mist-return header
lip seals start leaking after about
2,000 operating hours. In contrast,
some API-recommended face and ro-
tating labyrinth seals run well in ex-
cess of 50,000 hours. In the modern
face-type bearing-protector seal (as
shown in Figure 3), a closing force is
applied by a series of magnets. These
magnets are equally spaced around
the circumference of the stationary el-
ement of the seal.
In API 610-compliant systems, the
oil mist must flow through the bear-
ing (or bearings) on its way to the cen-
tral outlet port. Central outlet ports
— usually located at the 6 o’clock posi-
tion of the bearing housing, as shown
in Figure 3 — can be connected to a
common return header, which oper-
ates at a pressure below that of the
oil-mist supply line. This application
of a slight vacuum will increase the
flowrate through the system.
The spent mist in the drain header
can then be sent through a final co-
alescer element, which will capture
residual oil droplets that are still en-
trained in the carrier gas. Instrument
air is generally used as the carrier gas.
While other carrier gases are entirely
feasible, instrument air is fully satis-
factory in virtually all plant-wide oil-
mist installations.
A closed-loop system that applies oil
mist to the bearing housings creates
 AESSEAL

AESSEAL
FIGURE 2. Old-style, open-loop oil-
mist systems can result in considerable
mist escaping to the environment. Bear-
ing protector seals are purposely left off
here so as to promote through-flow. As
one knows from basic laws of physics, a
pressure difference is needed for gas to
flow from one location to another
FIGURE 3. This pump bearing housing has face seals that allow
for appropriate oil mist flow, per the API-610 standard. The task
of manually emptying a 2-quart container once or twice per year
is considered to be more cost-effective by many than automating
the means of returning oil from the bottom of a bearing housing
to a more-remote collection point. Modern magnet-closed bear-
ing protector seals are shown; these will prevent atmospheric air
from being drawn into the bearing housing. During operation, oil
mist or carrier air arriving at the bearing housing drain will have
traveled through one of the bearings

virtually oil-free carrier air, which
can ultimately be discharged to atmo-
sphere, or be recompressed for use as
motive air elsewhere in the facility.
However, the volume of this spent air
is typically only about 1% the typical
suction-air requirement of a facility’s
instrument air compressor. Thus, the
economics typically do not favor ei-
ther recompression, or the piping that
would be necessary to return the spent
carrier air to the facility’s instrument-
air inlet system.
The choice of the most appropriate
coalesced-oil collector (from either
the drain or the outlet port) is left to
the user, and many different collector
bottle configurations are available. In
general, the average pump-bearing
housing produces less than two quarts
(about two liters) of coalesced lube oil
per year.
Only closed-loop systems are suit-
able for locations where the use of
best available lubricant application
technology is preferred from a failure-
risk-reduction point of view. In some
cases, open oil-mist systems are sim-
ply disallowed because they discharge
excess oil into the surroundings and
because protecting the environment
takes precedence. Moreover, open sys-
tems consume significantly more oil
than properly managed, closed-loop
systems.
Regarding the ability to reuse the
collected oil, any potential concern
that this oil may have been overheated
— and thus might have lost some of its
required properties — is not supported
by field experience. From a practical
perspective, the temperature rise that
is encountered in the rolling-element
bearing of many process pumps causes
no measurable degradation of the pre-
mium-grade synthetic lubrication oils
that are widely used by today’s reli-
ability-focused plants in their closed-
loop oil-mist systems.
In general, the initial as-installed
cost of closed-loop, oil-mist systems
will be higher than that of open sys-
tems. However, the ability to both
eliminate the unwanted discharge of
stray oil mist (and thus protect the
environment) and to recover lube oil
for reuse helps to lower the overall
lifecycle costs of the system, com-
pared to open-loop designs. In fact, for
many facilities, the benefits of closed
oil-mist systems clearly outweigh the
disadvantages of less costly, but messy
and inefficient open systems. Close
adherence to the configuration shown
in Figure 3 has been shown to result
in increased profitability and
significant reductions in the num-
bers of pump failures in many
facilities worldwide. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
References
1. Bloch, H.P. and Budris, Allan, “Pump User’s
Handbook: Life Extension,” 3rd Ed., Fair-
mont Press, Lilburn, Georgia, ISBN 0-88173-
627-9, 2010.
2. Bloch, Heinz P., “Pump Wisdom: Problem
Solving for Operators and Specialists,” John
Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ; ISBN 9-781118-
041239, 2011.
Author
Heinz P. Bloch, P.E., is a
consulting engineer residing
in Westminster, Colo., (hp-
bloch@mchsi.com). He has
held machinery-oriented staff
and line positions with Exxon
affiliates in the U.S., Italy,
Spain, England, The Nether-
lands and Japan, during a ca-
reer that spanned several de-
cades prior to his retirement
as Exxon Chemical’s regional
machinery specialist for the U.S. Bloch is the
author of 18 comprehensive texts and over 500
other publications on machinery-reliability im-
provement. He advises process plants worldwide
on strategies and opportunities for extending
equipment uptime and reducing maintenance
costs. He is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains
registration as a professional engineer in Texas
and New Jersey.

Chemical Engineering www.che.com November 2011 51

 Feature Report
Making Pump
Maintenance
Mandatory
Transfer pumps must be kept in
optimum shape to handle harsh
chemical processing operations
Edison Brito, Pump Solutions Group
O
ne of the key components in the
operational success of chemical
process industries (CPI) facili-
ties is the transfer pump. These
pumps must handle a wide variety of
materials under a broad range of oper-
ating conditions. These diverse opera-
tional conditions may include harsh
and corrosive environments as well as
the following:
• Changes in ambient temperatures
and other weather conditions, such
as humidity
• Line shock from piping that is not
anchored down properly
• Piping systems that have inhibitive
sharp bends instead of the preferred
gentle curves
• Changes in the product type being
pumped
• Changes in product viscosity
• High volume (such as unloading a
50,000-gallon tanker) at high flow-
rates (4,000 gpm, for example)
• Changes in product velocity and
force
• Changes in hydraulic operating
point
In all of these situations, pumps must
deliver around-the-clock reliability
to avoid costly equipment downtime
that can have a huge adverse effect
on a facility’s operational effective-
ness and profitability.
Pumps will perform at their very
48 Chemical Engineering www.che.com OCTOBER 2011
best only if proactive steps in both pre-
ventive and protective maintenance
are established and implemented. This
article demonstrates how attention to
a strict maintenance routine can keep
pumps running reliably in chemical-
processing environments that put
the pump’s operation under constant
threat, with the ultimate goal of opti-
mizing pumping-system efficiency and
effectiveness. Specifically, centrifugal
and air-operated diaphragm pumps
are discussed here.
Centrifugal pumps
For decades, the number one pump-
style choice by operators of CPI facili-
ties has been centrifugal-pump tech-
nology. Centrifugal pumps meet the
needs of the many and varied trans-
fer operations that are found within
the CPI because their design enables
them to handle many fluid-transfer
applications. Historians tell us that
the first machine that can accurately
be classified as a centrifugal pump
was a mud-lifting apparatus that ap-
peared in Europe as early as 1475
A.D. [1] A straight-vaned centrifugal
pump was developed in the late 1600s
by Denis Papin, a French inventor and
physicist. The curved-vane centrifugal
pump, which most closely resembles
current-day centrifugal-pump tech-
nology, was brought to market in 1851
All photos courtesy of
Griswold Pump Co.
Figure 1. Temperatures above 350°F
require a finned-tube oil cooler to cool
the bearing frame
by British engineer John Appold. Ap-
pold’s design, which was three times
more efficient than other pump tech-
nologies at the time, won him a “Coun-
cil Medal” at the Great Exhibition at
Crystal Palace in London, England,
that year.
Since their earliest invention, cen-
trifugal pumps have moved liquids
through the use of centrifugal force.
This makes them kinetic machines
in which pumping energy is con-
tinuously imparted to the pumped
fluid by means of a rotating impeller,
propeller or rotor. More specifically,
centrifugal pumps use bladed impel-
lers to transfer rotational mechani-
cal energy to the fluid, primarily by
increasing the fluid’s kinetic energy,
or angular momentum, while also in-
creasing the potential energy (static
pressure). The gathered kinetic en-
ergy is then converted into usable
pressure energy in the discharge col-
lector [2]. In other words, a centrifu-
gal pump transforms the energy of
“velocity” transferred to the fluid by
the impeller into energy of “pressure”
in the casing or diffuser(s).
Currently, the two most common
styles of centrifugal pumps are:
• End-suction — These pumps are
ideal for thin liquids and the top
choice for most water-pumping ap-
plications
 The Future is Now for
Pump Maintenance

T
here is absolutely no question that the invention and growth in popu-
larity of the Internet has affected the lives of most everyone on Earth
in one way or another. One of the most important is the immediacy in
which tasks that used to take hours or days can now be completed in a
matter of seconds, all from the comfort of home.
The “right now” effect of the Internet has also trickled down to the world
of industrial transfer pumps. In years past, whenever a pump broke down,
or routine maintenance needed to be performed, the facility manager had
two choices: dig around for the installation, operation and maintenance
(IOM) manual, identify the problem and then go about trying to fix it; or
call the manufacturer or distributor, then wait for a service technician to
arrive onsite to assess and address the problem.
Realizing the power that the Internet can possess in instances like these,
many pump manufacturers are developing maintenance videos for their
distributors and end-users that are designed to help them properly re-
build or maintain their equipment. Now, for a task that may have taken
days to complete, there may be a ten-minute video available on the man-
ufacturer’s or another Website, for example, that shows the proper way
to maintain or fix a pump.
Instead of the frustration that used to accompany a pump breakdown
or maintenance issue, effective use of the Internet can provide a very
helpful, time-efficient way to present maintenance tips and repair steps to Figure 2. The oil level must be at the halfway point
service technicians.  ❑ in the sight glass

• Self-priming — This type of cen-
trifugal pump has the ability to lift
fluid, which gives it an advantage
when the source is below the center-
line of the pump
Both end-suction and self-priming
pumps, as well as other pump styles,
may also meet the centrifugal-pump
manufacturing criteria established
by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) in 1977. With that
standard in mind, ANSI centrifugal
pumps are engineered for operational
flexibility and durability.
No matter the operational atmo-
sphere where these types of pump are
being used, a routine maintenance
program will extend the life of the
pump since well-maintained equip-
ment lasts longer and requires fewer
and less-expensive repairs. In fact,
because many CPI pumping systems
can often have life spans of 15 years or
longer, it is now a valid consideration
for the plant operator to perform a life-
cycle cost (LCC) analysis that factors
in the lifetime costs of maintenance,
along with purchase, installation,
energy usage, operation, downtime,
environmental and other costs when
choosing the proper pump technology
for the operation. According to the Hy-
draulic Institute, while energy, at 40%,
might represent the highest expected
pumping-system-related expense in an
LCC analysis, the second-most costly
is often maintenance, at 25%, which is
well ahead of initial pump cost and op-
erating costs that are both estimated
at 10% of life-cycle costs [3].
Maintaining an edge
In order to obtain optimum working
life from a centrifugal pump, regular
and efficient maintenance is required
[4]. When the pump is purchased, the
pump manufacturer will typically ad-
vise the plant operator about the fre-
quency and extent of routine mainte-
nance, but it is the operator who has
the ultimate final say about how his
facility’s maintenance routine will
function, or in other words, whether it
will consist of less frequent but more
major attention, or more frequent
but simpler servicing. The potential
cost of unexpected downtime and lost
production is also a significant item
when determining the total LCC of a
pumping system. Again, the facility’s
maintenance routine should deter-
mine what steps should be followed
when an unexpected breakdown oc-
curs, while a post-repair assessment
should identify areas where a more-
proactive maintenance regime might
have prevented the breakdown and
resulting downtime.
The facility operator must also be
certain to keep a detailed record of
any preventive maintenance that
was performed and repairs that were
needed for each pump. This informa-
tion should be kept in order to create
an easily accessible record that can
help diagnose problems and elimi-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com OCTOBER 2011
nate, or minimize, any future equip-
ment downtime.
Moving into the nuts and bolts of
centrifugal-pump maintenance, rou-
tine preventive and protective main-
tenance practices should include, at
a minimum, the monitoring of the
following [5]:
Bearing and lubricant condition.
Monitor bearing temperatures (Fig-
ure 1), lubricant level and vibration.
The lubricant should be clear with
no signs of frothing, while changes
in bearing temperature may indicate
imminent failure.
Shaft seal condition. The mechani-
cal seals should show no signs of vis-
ible leakage. Any packing should leak
at a rate of no more than 40 to 60
drops per minute.
Overall pump vibration. Imminent
bearing failure can be preceded by
a change in bearing vibration. Un-
wanted vibration can also occur due
to a change in pump alignment, the
presence of cavitation or resonances
between the pump, its foundation or
the valving located in the suction and
discharge lines.
Differential pressure. The differ-
ence between the pressure readings
at the discharge and the suction of the
pump will provide the total developed
head pressure of the pump. A gradual
decrease in the developed head pres-
sure of the pump can indicate that
the impeller clearance has widened,
which requires adjustments to restore
49
 Feature Report
the pump’s intended design perfor-
mance: impeller clearance adjustment
for pumps with semi-open impeller(s)
or replacement of the wear ring(s) for
pumps with closed impeller(s).
Also worth noting is that mainte-
nance and monitoring intervals should
be shortened if the pump is used in
severe-service conditions, such as with
highly corrosive liquids or slurries.
Quarterly maintenance
The following should be done every
quarter:
• Check the pump’s foundation and
hold-down bolts for tightness
• The oil should be changed after the
first 200 hours of operation for a new
pump then after every three months
or 2,000 operating hours, whichever
comes first
• Regrease bearings every three
months or 2,000 operating hours,
whichever comes first
• Check the shaft alignment
Annual maintenance
A pump’s performance should be
checked and recorded in detail at
least once a year. Performance bench-
marks should be established during
the early stages of a pump’s opera-
tion, when the parts are new and the
installation adjustments are correct.
This benchmarking data should in-
clude the following:
• The pump’s developed head pres-
sure, as measured at the suction
and discharge pressures, for three to
five conditions should be obtained.
Where possible and practical, a no-
flow reading is a good reference and
should be included
• Pump flowrate
• Motor amperage draw and voltage,
corresponding to the three to five op-
erating conditions mentioned above
• Vibration signature
• Bearing housing temperature
When the annual assessment of a
pump’s performance is made, any
changes in the benchmarks should
be noted and used in determining the
level of maintenance that may be re-
quired to get the pump back to operat-
ing at its best efficiency.
When considering centrifugal-pump
operation and maintenance require-
ments, one thing must be kept in mind:
50 Chemical Engineering www.che.com OCTOBER 2011
Figure 3. Major components can be laid out for inspection
all pump bearings will fail eventually
[5]. However, the cause of bearing fail-
ure is more often than not a failure
of the lubricating medium, not equip-
ment fatigue. Therefore, particular
attention needs to be paid to bearing
lubrication in order to maximize bear-
ing and, by extension, pump life.
If an oil is being used for bearing lu-
brication, remember to use only non-
foaming and non-detergent oils. The
proper oil level is at the mid-point of
the bull’s-eye sight glass on the side
of the bearing frame (Figure 2). It is
important to avoid over-lubrication as
it can be just as damaging as under-
lubrication. Excess oil will cause a
slightly higher horsepower draw and
generate additional heat, which can
in turn cause frothing of the oil. Any
cloudiness observed when checking
the condition of the lubricating oil can
be an indication that an overall water
content of greater than 2,000 ppm is
present. This is commonly the result
of condensation. If this is the case, the
oil needs to be changed immediately.
If the pump is equipped with re-
greaseable bearings, be certain to never
mix greases of differing consistencies
or types. Also note that the shields
must be located toward the interior of
the bearing frame. When regreasing,
ensure that the bearing fittings are
absolutely clean as any contamination
will decrease bearing life. Overgreas-
ing must also be avoided because this
can cause localized high temperatures
in the bearing races and create caked
solids. After regreasing, the bearings
may run at a slightly higher tempera-
ture for a period of one to two hours.
In instances where the operator of
a chemical-processing facility may
need to replace a part, or parts, on a
malfunctioning pump, these circum-
stances should also be treated as an
opportunity to examine the pump’s
other parts for signs of fatigue, exces-
sive wear and cracks (Figure 3). At
this time, any worn parts should be re-
placed if they do not meet the follow-
ing part-specific tolerance standards:
Bearing frame and foot — Visually
inspect for cracks, roughness, rust or
scale. Check machined surfaces for
pitting or erosion.
Bearing frame — Inspect tapped
connections for dirt. Clean and chase
threads as necessary. Remove all
loose or foreign material. Inspect
lubrication passages to be sure that
they are open.
Shaft and sleeve — Visually inspect
for grooves or pitting. Check bearing
fits and shaft runout, and replace the
shaft and sleeve if worn or if the toler-
ances are greater than 0.002 in.
Casing — Visually inspect for signs
of wear, corrosion or pitting. The cas-
ing should be replaced if wear exceeds
1/8-in. deep. Check gasket surfaces for
signs of irregularities.
Impeller — Visually inspect the im-
peller for wear, erosion or corrosion
damage. If the vanes are worn more
than 1/8-in. deep, or if they are bent,
the impeller should be replaced.
Frame adapter — Visually inspect
for cracks, warpage or corrosion dam-
age and replace if any of these condi-
tions are present.
 shaft for straightness, noting that the
maximum total indicator reading (TIR)
at the sleeve journal and coupling jour-
nal cannot exceed 0.002 in. (Figure 4).
Implementing all of these mainte-
nance recommendations may seem
daunting, but it is only through a rou-
tine such as this that CPI operations
can maximize the service life of equip-
ment while enhancing the safety of
plant personnel and the environment.

diaphragm Pumps
The invention of air-operated double-
diaphragm (AODD) pump technology
in 1955 was a textbook example of
Figure 4. Shaft run-out must be checked at both the coupling end and the me- necessity being the mother of inven-
chanical seal end. Maximum run-out is 0.002 in. total indicator reading (TIR) tion. The invention of AODD pump
technology was the climax in an on-
Bearing housing — Visually inspect erosion or corrosion, paying special at- going search for a way to effectively
for signs of wear, corrosion, cracks or tention to any wear, scoring or grooves and efficiently pump substances with
pits. Replace housings if worn or out that might be on the chamber face. Re- a wide range of viscosities — from
of tolerance. place if worn more than 1/8-in. deep. water to slurries to cement — at a
Seal chamber/stuffing box cover Shaft — Check the shaft for any evi- wide range of flowrates. The tech-
— Visually check for cracks, pitting, dence of corrosion or wear. Check the nology, which was said to have been

Circle 24 on p. 78 or go to adlinks.che.com/35070-24
 Feature Report
“conceived out of necessity, born in
the arms of innovation, and inspired
by sheer will and determination,”
operates by displacing fluid from
one of two liquid chambers upon
each stroke completion through the
action of an air valve and a pair of
diaphragms that are connected by a
common shaft [7].
This simple design, where the dia-
phragms act as a separation mem-
brane between the compressed air
supply and the liquid, has stood the
test of time. Evidence of this is borne
out everyday at CPI facilities around
the globe where AODD pumps —
whether metal or plastic, ductile iron
or stainless steel, clamped or bolted
— play a critical role in ensuring
that product transfer of thin liquids,
corrosives, abrasives, particle-laden
slurries and more continues apace in
a cost-effective, energy-sensitive, envi-
ronmentally friendly manner.
Like all other types of pumping
Circle 4 on p. 78 or go to adlinks.che.com/35070-04
52 Chemical Engineering www.che.com OCTOBER 2011
systems, no matter their method
of operation, AODD pumps operate
at their best efficiency when main-
tained properly, either through pre-
ventive or protective maintenance.
Thankfully for the operators of CPI
facilities, the AODD pump’s design
means that maintenance is easily
and efficiently performed.
A preventive-maintenance sched-
ule should be set up for the following
AODD pump parts to ensure that
the pump is serviced prior to pump
wear [8]:
• Diaphragms
• Valve seats
• Valve balls
• O-rings
When performing routine AODD-pump
maintenance checks, there are three
main areas that demand attention:
Air valve piston/spool and casing
— Ensure that the piston/spool can
move freely and remove any debris.
Diaphragms — Make sure there is
no swelling, cracking or other damage
to the diaphragm surface.
Balls/seats/O-rings — Make sure
that no swelling, cracking or other
damage is apparent, and lubricate
the shaft, if needed.
Another top-of-mind maintenance
concern is seal replacement since
proper seal installation is critical to
pump performance. Care must be
taken to ensure that seals are placed
in the proper grooves and not dam-
aged during installation. Incorrect
seal location will render the pump
inoperable, while damaged seals may
cause decreased performance and
shorter seal life.
Troubleshooting
Due to the design of AODD pumps,
there are only a few rare complica-
tions that may surface during their
operation. Fixing these problems
can be a simple process in many
cases. Below you will find a list of
potential problems and solutions
that pump users might find in CPI
operations [7]:
Pump will not run or runs slowly
— Solutions: Check for obstructions
in the air passageways or objects that
can obstruct the movement of inter-
nal parts.
Pump runs but little or no product
flows — Solutions: Check for pump
cavitation, slow down pump speed
to allow material to enter pumping
chambers, then increase speed accord-
ingly. Check for sticking ball check
valves and, if necessary, replace check
valves with proper elastomers. Check
to make sure all suction connections
are air tight.
Air bubbles in pump discharge
— Solutions: Check for ruptured
diaphragm. Check tightness of
clamp bands, especially at the in-
take manifold.
Product comes out air exhaust
— Solutions: Check for ruptured dia-
phragm. Check tightness of large
clamp bands. Check tightness of pis-
ton plates to shaft, if applicable.
Pump rattles — Solutions: Create
false head or suction lift.
Over the years, the AODD pump
technology has been modified to fit
specific pumping applications. One
of the modifications that has ben-
efited chemical processors has been
the introduction of plastic, solid-body
AODD pumps. The construction of
these pumps allows them to deliver
increased product capacity and opti-
mized flow patterns, all while using
less air. Their heavier construction
also eliminates the “wander” that can
plague lighter oscillating pumps and
can often result in product leakage.
Like their traditional AODD
brethren, these unique pumps must
be maintained properly in order to
reach their full product-transfer po-
tential. A key area that plant opera-
References
1. Ladislao Reti, Francesco di Giorgio (Armani)
Martini’s Treatise on Engineering and Its
Plagiarists, Technology and Culture, Vol. 4,
No. 3, 1963.
2. “Rotodynamic (Centrifugal) Pumps for No-
menclature and Definitions”, (ANSI/HI 1.1-
1.2), Hydraulic Institute, Parsippany, N.J.
3. “Optimizing Pumping Systems: A Guide for
Improved Energy Efficiency, Reliability & Prof-
itability”, Hydraulic Institute, Parsippany, N.J.
Circle 15 on p. 78 or go to adlinks.che.com/35070-15
tors should focus on for preventive
maintenance are the housing bolts.
Instead of single bolts pressing punc-
tually against the housing, the bolts
are tightened against a diaphragm-
sized ring. These rings must be in-
spected and, if damaged, replaced
in order to ensure that the housing
bolt force is evenly spread across the
pump’s surface, as intended.
AODD pumps are well-suited for
the CPI thanks to their ability to
perform in even the harshest oper-
ating conditions, but like all pumps,
their operational performance is
4. “Pump Life Cycle Costs: A Guide to LCC
Analysis for Pumping Systems”, Hydraulic
Institute, Parsippany, N.J.
5. “Installation, Operation and Maintenance
Manual, Griswold Model 811 ANSI Process
Pump”, Griswold Pump Co., Grand Ter-
race, Calif.
6. Article: Innovation Through Necessity,
Wilden Pump & Engineering Co., Grand Ter-
race, Calif.
7. “Pump User’s Guide,” Wilden Pump & Engi-
neering Co., Grand Terrace, Calif.
Maag Pump Systems AG
8154 Oberglatt, Switzerland
welcome@maag.com;
www.maag.com
Maag Automatik Inc.
Charlotte, NC 28273
MaagAmericas@maag.com
Circle 34 on p. 78 or go to adlinks.che.com/35070-34
Chemical Engineering www.che.com OCTOBER 2011
only enhanced when proper main-
tenance precautions are taken. So,
while AODD pumps can be the an-
swer for many fluid-handling re-
quirements in chemical processing,
it is only those that are maintained
regularly and properly that have the
longest life-cycle and lowest total
cost of ownership. ■
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
Author
Edison Brito is the chemical
market development direc-
tor – Americas for the Pump
Solutions Group (PSG; Down-
ers Grove, IL; Email: Edison.
Brito@pumpsg.com; Phone:
973-780-7985), which is com-
prised of seven leading pump
brands — Almatec, Blackmer,
EnviroGear, Griswold, Mou-
vex, Neptune and Wilden.
Griswold Pump Co. (www.
griswoldpump.com) is a leading manufacturer
of centrifugal pumps, and Wilden Pump & En-
gineering (www.wildenpump.com) invented the
AODD pump category. Brito has worked in the
pump industry for 17 years, previously with
Hayes Pump in Fairfield, N.J. and La Llave in
Quito, Ecuador. He holds a B.S. in mechanical
engineering and and MBA from the University
of Ecuador - Escuela Politecnica Nacional.
Resistant to corrosion
Maag gear pumps in chemistry
While bearing in mind the particular
application, the selection of different
materials allows for complete protec-
tion against corrosion. The design of
the shafts is based on many years of
experience with high temperatures
and pressure conditions. Increased
efficiency and dosing precision allow
Maag gear pumps to operate more
accurately. Decisively longer opera-
ting lives are being achieved com-
pared to with similar products.
brand of maag group
53
 Engineering Practice
Improving the Operability of Process Plants
Turndown and rangeability have a big impact on the flexibility and efficiency of
chemical process operations
Mohammad Toghraei
Consultant
D
uring the design of a chemi-
cal process plant, the main
focus is on which process
units or unit operations
must be integrated to convert the
feed streams into product stream(s).
Design engineers work to achieve
this goal; however, in terms of mak-
ing sure the plant operates smoothly,
which is equally important for opera-
tion engineers and operators, there
are less well-know parameters fac-
ing the design engineers.
There are five primary process
parameters in each plant — flow,
(liquid) level, pressure, temperature,
and composition. Composition can
be considered a collective term that
reflects all parameters (chemical and
physical), and provides an indicator
of the quality of the stream. Com-
position can be used to describe
the moisture of a gas stream or the
octane number of a gasoline stream,
or even the electric conductivity of a
water stream.
During operation, equipment pro-
cess parameters generally deviate
from the design values (normal level)
over time. Five levels can be defined
for each process parameter: nor-
mal level, high level, high-high level,
low level and low-low level. In es-
sence, the operational parameters
of a plant relate to the behavior of
the plant between the low level and
high level of each parameter of the
individual equipment components,
individual units or the entire plant.
In most cases, the operability of a
plant can be defined using at least
three key parameters: flexibility in
operation, resistance against surge
(or upset) and the speed of recovery
from upset.
Maintaining operating flexibility
Flexibility of operation in this context
means the ability of a plant to operate
72
reliably across a wide range of flow-
rates without sacrificing the overall
quantity or quality of product(s).
From a process standpoint, a
chemical process plant is a combi-
nation of equipment, utility networks
and control systems. To design a
plant with sufficient flexibility, each
of these three elements needs to
allow flexibility. Generally speaking,
the control system (including con-
trol valves and sensors) and util-
ity network should offer the largest
amount of operating flexibility, while
the equipment itself could offer the
lowest amount of flexibility (Figure 1).
This requirement for larger flexibility
for control items and utility network
considerations is important because
of the supporting role of the util-
ity system and the controlling role
played by instruments in a plant.
Two important concepts are used
to quantify flexibility: turndown (TD)
ratio and rangeability. These are
discussed below, and illustrated in
Figure 2.
Turndown ratio
The flexibility of equipment or a plant
can be defined using the TD ratio.
The most common definition for TD
ratio is “ratio of the normal maximum
parameter (numerator) to the normal
minimum parameter (denominator).”
However, the meaning of “normal
maximum parameter” and “normal
minimum parameter” is not always
clear and the interpretation may vary
in different companies and plants
(This is discussed below).
For an individual equipment com-
ponent, or multi-component equip-
ment systems, low-flow or low-ca-
pacity operation happens frequently
over the lifetime of a plant. The re-
duced-capacity operation may be
intentional or accidental.
For instance, reduced-capacity
operation could be planned for the
purpose of off-loading the equipment
for inspection, testing, monitoring,
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
Equipment
Utility
Control valve, instruments
FIGURE 1. Different elements of a plant need dif-
ferent levels of operating flexibility. Since the utility
network provides support duty to the equipment,
it needs a higher turndown ratio. Control valves
and other instruments have a duty to take care of
equipment across a wider operating range; thus
they require an even higher rangeability
or even to support the shutdown of
downstream equipment. But it may
also occur accidentally due to, for
example, a drop in feed flowrate.
But process plant operators like
to know by how much the flowrate
of the equipment (and in the larger
sense, the entire plant capacity) can
be decreased without compromis-
ing the process goal or generating
off-specification product. Thus, TD
ratio can be defined as the ratio of
high flow to normal flow, as shown in
Equation 1.
QHigh
TD ratio =
QLow (1)
QHigh = the flowrate of the system at
high level
QLow = the flowrate at low level
The numerical value of the TD ratio
is typically reported as a ratio, such
as 2:1.
It is important to note that the
denominator term is flowrate in low
level, and not low-low level. This is
important as it is the differentiator
between the concept of TD ratio
and rangeability, which is discussed
later. Generally, flowrate in low level
(as shown in Figure 2) is considered
to be the minimum level of flow at
which the process goals can still
be reached.
However, there is another interpre-
tation of TD ratio that is often used
SEPTEMBER 2015
 TABLE 1. TURNDOWN RATIO OF SELECT EQUIPMENT 2:1 for a plant. The required TD
Item Turndown ratio ratio could be as high as 3:1 or 4:1
Pipe Large, but depends on the definition of maximum and minimum flow
for a plant.
Storage containers Very large; The maximum value is the total volume of the container, but the
(Tank or vessels) minimum value could be dictated by a downstream component. For example,
Equipment flexibility
a centrifugal pump may dictate a minimum volume to provide required NPSH The TD ratio can also be determined
Centrifugal pump Typically: 3:1 to 5:1
for a given piece of equipment, using
other values that are stated for the
Positive-displ. pump Theoretically infinite
component. For example, even when
Heat exchanger Small, depends on the type; for instance, less than 1.5:1 a TD ratio is not explicitly stated for a
Burner [1] Depends on the type; for example: centrifugal pump, when the pump is
Pressure jet type: ≈ 2:1 said to have a capacity of 100 m3/h
Twin fluid-atomizing type: >8:1
and a minimum flow of 30 m3/h, this
TABLE 2. UTILITY SURGE CONTAINER TO PROVIDE TD RATIO means that the centrifugal pump has
a TD ratio of 3:1.
Surge container Residence time
The TD ratio of a reciprocating
Instrument air (IA) Air receiver 5–10 min. or higher depending on pump could theoretically be defined
whether it is connected to UA or not
as infinite because it can work over a
Utility water (UW) Water tank Several hours very wide range of flows. However, in
Utility steam (US) Utility steam cannot be stored for a long time without condensing; the options practice, such a pump cannot handle
for storing steam are the steam drum of a boiler, or if a conventional boiler is any flowrate that fails to fill the cylin-
not available, a vessel as an “external steam drum” could do the same task
der of the pump in one stroke. Partial
Utility air (UA) No dedicated container; could “float” with IA filling of the cylinder may cause some
Cooling water (CW) Cooling tower basin Depends on the size of the network damage to mechanical components
Cooling/heating glycol Expansion drum Depends on the size of the network of the pump over the long term. Thus
the minimum required flow is a func-
TABLE 3. TURNDOWN RATIO OF SELECT INSTRUMENTS tion of cylinder volume and stroke
Item Turndown ratio speed of a specific pump.
Flowmeter: orifice-type 3:1 [2 ] The TD ratio for pipelines presents
Flowmeter: vortex-type 10:1 to 50:1 [2 ] a more complicated situation. With
piping systems, there are several dif-
Flowmeter: Coriolis-type 5:1 to 25:1 [2 ]
ferent ways to define the minimum
Control valve Depends on type and characteristics; generally 50:1, and less than 100:1 flow. For instance, it could be defined
TABLE 4. ARBITRARY VALUES OF FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS as the minimum flow that does not
Low flexibility Medium flexibility High flexibility
fall into the laminar flow regime. Or,
it could be considered as the mini-
Equipment (TD ratio) < 1.2:1 to 2:1 2:1 to 3:1 5:1 to 8:1
mum flow that keeps a check valve
Instrument, control valves (rangeability) ≈ 4:1 10:1 to 30:1 20:1 to 100:1 open (if a check valve is used).
For liquid flows in pipes, the mini-
by operations staff. During opera- number. In general, the academic mum flow is more commonly inter-
tion, people expect the TD ratio to definition of TD ratio generally uses preted as the minimum flow that
answer the question in this scenario: a high-to-low values set up, while in makes the pipe full, or the sealing
“My plant is running normally and the field, operators often define TD flowrate (that is, no partial flow), or a
all parameters are normal. How- ratio using normal-to-low values. flow threshold below which the fluid
ever, occasionally, because of differ- The TD ratio can be defined for will freeze in an outdoor pipe. If the
ent reasons (including shortage of parameters other than flowrate, but flow bears suspended solids, the
feed, reduced plant or unit capac- it generally refers to flowrate. One minimum flowrate could be defined
ity), the flowrate falls. What is the reason for this is because flowrate as that at which sedimentation of
minimum value I can withstand can be the most important param- suspended solids may occur.
without compromising the quality of eter of a plant, helping to define the Table 1 provides examples of
the product?” economy of the system. The other typical values and rules of thumb
They basically interpret the TD ratio reason is because the flowrate might regarding the TD ratio for various
so that the numerator is the “normal be influenced by constraints out- types of process equipment. Note
level parameter” (and not the “high side of the plant (for instance, a lack that in Table 1, the TD ratio of stor-
level parameter”). However, the dif- of stored feed), which the control age containers is relatively large. This
ference in the interpretation does not system cannot necessarily adjust high TD helps to explain why large
generate a big difference in numerical (thus making a reduction in flowrate containers are used for surge damp-
value of TD ratio, as the normal and unavoidable). ening as part of a typical plant-wide
high level of parameters are often While the TD ratio is not always a control system.
not very far from each other. Due to requested parameter, and is often In some cases deciding on a re-
this potential confusion, the TD ratio not mentioned in project documents quired TD ratio needs good judg-
should be considered an approxi- for design purposes, operators are ment. One example is chemical-
mate parameter and not a precise usually looking for a TD ratio of least injection packages. The TD ratio

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015 73

 Trip
Alarm
Rangeability
Process
goal
achieved
Alarm
Trip
FIGURE 2. Process plants typically define different threshold values for flowrate levels, and set appropri-
ate alarms and trips when the threshold values of this important parameter are reached. The concept of
turndown ratio and rangeability are shown, in relation to these key threshold flowrate values
is important for chemical-injection
packages to protect against chemi-
cal overdosing or underdosing.
Chemical-injection packages typi-
cally provide a TD ratio of about 100:1
or lower. In some cases, 10:1 can
be provided by stroke adjustment,
and another 10:1 through the use
of a variable frequency drive (VFD)
to control the motor. But the ques-
tion that arises is why such a large
TD ratio is necessary if the host flow
experiences, for example, only a 2:1
TD ratio. This high TD ratio is gener-
ally desired because of uncertainty
in the required chemical dosage and
the variety of available chemicals.
The required dosage of a chemical
depends on the type of chemical
and the host stream properties.
Thus, during the design phase of a
project, the designer doesn’t exactly
know what the optimum dosage
would be, even though a chemical
provider recommends a specific dos-
age. Often, he or she prefers to con-
servatively have a chemical-injection
system with a high TD ratio.
There is generally less uncertainty
when using chemicals of known
composition, rather than proprietary
mixtures. If the dosage is fairly firm
and the chemical used is a non-pro-
prietary type, the TD ratio could be
decreased, to reduce the overall cost
of the chemical-injection system.
Utility network flexibility
The flexibility of a utility network is
also defined by the TD ratio. As men-
tioned above, when a plant requires
a TD ratio of, say, 2:1, the TD ratio of
the utility network should be higher.
To accommodate a larger TD ratio,
the utility network generally requires
containers to absorb fluctuations
that may be caused by utility usage
changes in process areas. Table 2
provides additional details to sup-
74
High-high flow
High flow
Turndown ratio
Normal flow
Low flow
Low-low flow
port this concept.
Different segments of a utility net-
work experience different levels of
turndown, and consequently each
segment may need a different TD
ratio. For instance, as shown in Figure
3, the main header could need the
minimum TD ratio, while sub-headers
may need a higher TD ratio.
The good news is that achieving a
high TD ratio for the utility network
and related instruments is not dif-
ficult. The overall utility network is
mainly a series of pipe circuits that
inherently show a large TD ratio. If
instruments are included in the util-
ity network, this poses no problem.
Many instruments (including control
valves and sensors) have an intrin-
sically large TD ratio — generally
greater than 20:1.
Instrument rangeability
Instruments typically need to oper-
ate over a wider range of process
conditions than other equipment or
utilities. This is because their duty is
not limited to normal operation, or a
band defined by low and high val-
ues. Rather, they have to be opera-
tional across the entire, wider band
from low-low to high-high threshold
values. Therefore, rangeability, R,
can be defined as:
QHigh high
R=
QLow low
Where:
QHigh-high = the flowrate of the in-
strument or control valve at the high-
high level threshold value
QLow-low = the flowrate at the low-
low level threshold value
For control valves, the formula is a
bit different because a control valve
is a device that passes flow and
also drops the pressure of the flow.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Thus, the rangeability cannot be de-
fined only as a function of flowrate
— pressure drop also needs to be
incorporated. The rangeability of
control valves is a function of the
control-valve flow coefficient (Cv).
Rangeability can also be defined for
other parameters, such as tempera-
ture, but generally defining rangeabil-
ity with regard to flowrate is the most
important parameter. Table 3 shows
some typical rangeability values for
commonly used instruments.
It should be stressed that TD ratio
and rangeability are two separate pa-
rameters, for two separate systems.
They cannot be used interchange-
ably and attempts to relate or con-
vert them to each other do not have
much meaning.
Providing required flexibility
There are three main ways that one
can provide a specific TD ratio for
process equipment, and each is dis-
cussed below:
• Using equipment with an inher-
ently high TD ratio
• Replacing equipment with multiple
similar, smaller-capacity equip-
ment in a parallel arrangement
• Providing a recirculation route
Using equipment with an inher-
ently higher TD ratio. Some pro-
cess elements have an inherently
higher TD ratio. Two of them, tanks
and pipes, were mentioned above.
It is not always easy to recognize
if a piece of equipment has an inher-
ently high or low TD ratio. However,
the following rules of thumb can be
used as guidelines:
• Smaller-volume equipment tends
to have a smaller TD ratio than
larger-volume equipment
• Equipment with internal baffles
tends to have a lower TD ratio
(a good example is some gravity
separators, such as baffled skim
tanks)
• Equipment in gas service may
(2) show a higher TD ratio than equip-
ment used in liquid service
• Equipment with an internal weir
(especially fixed ones) may have a
very low TD ratio
• Equipment that uses some prop-
erties of the inlet stream for their
functioning, may have a lower TD
ratio. For example, in cyclones or
hydrocyclones, the energy of the
inlet stream (“energy” as a prop-
erty of the inlet stream) is used to
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015

Utility consumer branch
Utility
Main header
generation unit
FIGURE 3. Shown here is a map of turndown ratio for a typical utility network.The pipes closer to the util-
ity generation system (main header) need less turndown ratio compared to sub-headers and branches
generate centrifugal force, so any
reduced flow will reduce the cen-
trifugal force, which may reduce
the effectiveness of the system
• Equipment containing loose, po-
rous media may show a lower TD
ratio in liquid service, and the TD
ratio may be lower when the po-
rous media is comprised of larger
solid particle sizes. Examples
include sand filtration systems,
catalyst contactors and related
systems
• Despite a common misconcep-
tion, perforated-pipe flow distribu-
tors do not necessarily have lim-
ited TD ratios [3]
As noted, the utility network should
have a relatively large TD ratio. Fortu-
nately, utility networks consist mainly
of pipes in different sizes, which have
inherently large TD ratios. If control
valves are needed on the network,
their lower TD ratios may generate
bottlenecks. In such situations, it
may be necessary to install parallel
control valves with split control, be-
cause of the required large TD ratio.
Using parallel equipment. Instead
of using a component with a capac-
ity of 100 m3/h, this technique is es-
sential to use an arrangement that
employs two parallel components,
each with the capacity of 50 m3/h.
By doing so, a TD ratio of at least
2:1 can often be provided. It should
be noted that the equipment by itself
may have some inherent TD-ratio ca-
pability, which may have to be added
to the provided 2:1 TD ratio.
For example, instead of using one
shell-and-tube heat exchanger with
the capacity of 100 m3/h, three heat
exchangers — each with the ca-
pacity of 33 m3/h —can be used
to achieve a TD ratio of at least 3:1.
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
Sub-header
Low turndown ratio
High turndown ratio
The TD ratio may actually be higher
because each shell-and-tube heat
exchanger has an inherent TD ratio
too, even though it is very small. This
technique has additional benefits.
The parallel arrangement provides
higher availability for the system,
because the failure of two or three
parallel equipment components is
less likely than the potential for failure
when the system relies on a single
equipment component.
Using two control valves in paral-
lel in a single control loop (through a
“split range” control) is also another
example of this technique in the area
of instrumentation.
However, there are some disad-
vantages associated with this tech-
nique. In particular, capital cost and
operating cost considerations may
rule against it.
Providing recirculation pipe. Im-
plementing a recirculation pipe from
the equipment outlet to its inlet is
a widely used method to increase
the TD ratio of the system. In many
cases, a pump and definitely a con-
trol system, are needed to imple-
ment this technique. As long as you
can afford an extra pump and control
system on the recirculation pipe, this
technique can be used. The recircu-
lation pipe needs a control system,
otherwise all flow goes through the
recirculation pipe back to the inlet of
the unit of interest (Figure 4).
One example of this technique is
using a minimum-flow line for a cen-
trifugal pump. A centrifugal pump with
a capacity of 100 m3/h and a mini-
mum-flow line of 30 m3/h (thus, with a
TD ratio of 1:3) can be equipped with
a minimum-flow line with an appropri-
ate control system to increase its TD
ratio. If the minimum-flow line and the
SEPTEMBER 2015
control system are designed to han-
dle a maximum flowrate of 30 m3/h, it
means the TD ratio of the pump can
theoretically be increased to infinite,
by zeroing the minimum flow.
Another example is a vertical
falling-film evaporator. This type of
evaporator has a vertical tube bundle
that is similar to the ones found in a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger. The
tube-side flow is two-phase flow. The
liquid flows down by gravity, and the
vapor (of the same liquid) is pushed
down by liquid drag. The flow inside
the tubes is an “annular regime,”
meaning the liquid covers the inter-
nal perimeter of tubes and the vapor
is in the center of the tubes.
In the case of low flow, there is a
chance of “dry patches” forming on
the tube’s internal surface. Because
of this, vertical, falling-film evapora-
tors are typically equipped with recir-
culation pipes to provide a minimum
practical TD ratio (Figure 5).
However, this method cannot be
applied for all equipment. For ex-
ample it is not a good technique to
increase the TD ratio of a furnace or
fired heater, because recirculation
of fluid around a furnace may in-
crease the furnace coil temperature
and cause burning out if the firing
system doesn’t have sufficient TD
ratio. Table 4 provides some rules of
thumb to gauge the flexibiliy of differ-
ent elements of a process plant.
Resistance against surge
While TD ratio refers to the static be-
havior of a plant, there are two addi-
tional parameters (resistance against
surge, and speed of recovery from
upset) that refer to its dynamic
behavior. However, there is less
emphasis on dynamic theories,
and only practical aspects of
dynamic behavior.
A process upset could result from
a surge. Surge can arbitrarily be de-
fined as the deviation of a parameter
(such as flowrate) beyond its normal
level. The final value of the param-
eter may or may not be in a band
between high level and low level and
the change often occurs quickly.
When a parameter moves quickly,
an upset could happen. The surge/
upset could be defined for each pa-
rameter including flowrate, tempera-
ture, pressure and even composition.
A surge in the composition is often
called a slug. Level surge is generally
75
 Unit Feed

Vs.
Recirculation pump
Compressor

Recirculation pipe
Unit
Feed
FIGURE 4. By providing a recirculation pipe, the
turndown ratio of a piece of equipment can be Distillate
increased. If the fluid pressure is not enough, a
pump (or compressor) may be needed, and a con-
trol system is definitely needed

a consequence of other surges and

it can be dampened in surge-equal-
ization tanks or drums.
Surge can also be defined by its
shape (in a diagram of parameter
change versus time), and by its mag-
nitude. The magnitude of surge can
be stated as a relative number or
an absolute number. For example,
a flow surge of 2% per minute is a
relative number and means if a surge
occurs in every minute, the flowrate
is increased or decreased by 2%. In
another example, a system can be
said to be resistant to temperature
surge (thus no upset conditions will
be generated) as long as any poten-
Brine
FIGURE 5. Shown here is a system for brine recirculation in a vertical falling-film evaporator. The brine-
recirculation line in the vaporizer plays an important control role. Without the recirculation line, the
vaporizer has a very narrow turndown ratio, which is not generally acceptable for optimal operation
tial surge remains less than 2°C per Some systems show different be-
minute (an absolute value). havior against surge, when it is a
A 2%-per-minute surge means positive surge (an increase in the pa-
that the flowrate could start at 100 rameter value), or a negative surge
m3/h and then increase to 102 m3/h, (a decrease in the parameter value).
then to 104 m3/h and so on. Or the Therefore, it is good idea to clarify it.
surge may start at 100 m3/h and For example, an API separator could
then decrease to 98 m3/h, then 96 be more resistant to the impact of
m3/h and so on. decreasing inlet stream compared to

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Circle 24 on p. 94 or go to adlinks.chemengonline.com/56201-24

76 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015

the impact of increasing the inlet stream.
The first line of defense against a surge is provided by
the control system or control valves. However, control
valves alone cannot totally eliminate a surge, but will
only stop a surge from impacting a downstream sys-
tem. Ultimately, the surge needs to be handled, but by
other methods.
There are basically two surge-management methods
that can be implemented for each piece of equipment
or group of equipment in a plant:
• Boxing-in a surge in a specific equipment component
or series of equipmen
• Transferring the surge to an external or auxiliary
system
Understanding the applicability of each of these tech-
niques requires some knowledge about the inherent
dynamic characteristics of the systems from a process
control viewpoint. The three dynamic features of each
equipment or unit are resistance, capacitance and in-
ertia (dead time) [4]. A brief qualitative explanation of
these three features is presented next.
If a system is more dominantly a “resistance” type,
this system will be able to prevent the surge from trans-
ferring to downstream equipment. A piece of pipe is
one example of a resistance-type element. A pipe
could inherently stop the surge if it is narrow enough.
However, because a pipe's main function is to transfer
fluid, the designer generally sizes the pipe based on SEE US AT CHEMSHOW - BOOTH #543
its duty (transferring fluid) and then, if needed, a control
valve is placed on the pipe to stop a potential surge. Circle 13 on p. 94 or go to adlinks.chemengonline.com/56201-13
The capability of a system to dampen the surge de-
pends on the “capacitance characteristics” of the sys-
tem. The higher the capacitance characteristic, the
more it is able to dampen a surge.
It’s more than a check valve...
Here, a capacitance-type element refers to whatever
element that can be used to temporarily store excess IT’S A CHECK-ALL®
mass (such as liquid volume or gas pressure) or energy
(such as thermal or chemical energy). Our spring loaded check
For instance, large-volume equipment generally have valves are assembled to
a higher capacitance feature. Implementing a surge your exact needs, ensuring
tank, equalization tank, surge drum (or even pond) is absolute precision and
one means of providing a system with sufficient capac- reliability. They work as
ity to dampen the surge. they should in any
Another example of using a high-capacitance system orientation. Most lead
is when transferring a surge to heat-exchange media. times are less than one
Utility heat exchangers use streams such as cooling week. That’s what makes
water, steam, and other media, to transfer the heat
Check-All® the only choice.
to or from process streams. These utility streams are
also able to absorb a temperature surge in the system.
The capacitance feature of a utility network can be pro-
vided in part by pipes in the network (the pipes func-
tion mainly as resistance elements but they have some
capacitance too), and also their surge tank, as
discussed above.
A system is called robust against upset when it can
tolerate a large surge (as defined for each process pa- SINCE 1958

rameter) and no upset occurs, thereby allowing the

process to proceed smoothly. GET ME A CHECK-ALL®!
If an upset cannot be tolerated, one solution is to
implement a rate-of-change control loop in the system. Manufactured in
West Des Moines, Iowa, USA
The following llist provides some general rules of thumb 515-224-2301 • sales@checkall.com • www.checkall.com
on the capability of a system to handle surges:
1. Generally speaking, equipment with larger volume
Circle 7 on p. 94 or go to adlinks.chemengonline.com/56201-07

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015 77

 and fewer internals is better able
to dampen upsets.
2. Containers with plug-flow regime
are more susceptible to upset
from surge compared to mixed-
flow-regime containers.
3. The equipment that exerts cen-
trifugal effect on the process fluid
is more sensitive toward the upset
(Examples include centrifuges and
centrifugal pumps).
4. Containers that hold loose media
are less robust against upsets.
5. Non-flooded containers can han-
dle and dampen a surge better
than flooded containers.
Speed of recovery from upset
The speed of recovery from an
upset situation primarily depends on
the dynamic characteristics of the
system, and more specifically, the
“process dead time” and “pro-
cess time constant” of a sys-
tem. The dead time is a result
of inertia characteristics of the
system, while the process time con-
stant is a function of capacitance and
resistance features of the system.
A larger dead time or time constant
means the system requires a longer
time to recover from an upset.
However, in addition to this inher-
ent characteristic of a system, other
features can also impact (and de-
crease) the speed of recovery from
an upset. Sometimes these features
(rather than the dynamic behavior of
the system) govern the behavior of
the system. For example, a hot lime
softener within a water-treatment
system has an established sludge
blanket. It takes time to “heal”
a broken sludge blanket if an upset
creates “breaks” in it.
Another example is “vessel-
media” systems. These are systems
that are used in operations such as
ion exchangers, loose-media filtra-
tion systems, packing-type absorp-
tion towers, catalyst beds and so
on. A big surge in flow may displace
the media in a way that leads to flow
channeling. Putting the displaced
media back into a homogenous form
takes time.
Similarly, a surge to a biological
system will generally require a long
recovery system, because a surge in
temperature or slug of a toxic chemi-
cal may kill a large portion of the bio-
material growing there. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
References
1. Mullinger, P., and Jenkins, B., “Industrial and Process
Furnaces,” 1st Ed., Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann,
2008, p. 171.
2. Upp, E., and LaNasa, P., Fluid flow measurement,” 2nd
Ed., Gulf Professional Publishing, Boston, 2002, pp.
157–158.
3. Perry, R., Green, D. and Maloney, J., “Perry's Chemical
Engineers' Handbook,” 7th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1997, pp. 6–32.
4. Liptak, B., “Instrument Engineers Handbook — Vol 2.
Process Measurements and Analysis,” 4th Ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, 2003. Chapter 2.
Author
Mohammad Toghraei, is an in-
structor and consultant with En-
growth Training (Email: mohtogh@
gmail.com; Phone: 403-808-
8264; Website: engedu.ca), based
in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. He
has more than 20 years of experi-
ence in the chemical process in-
dustries. Toghraei has published
articles on different aspects of
chemical process operations. His main expertise is in
the treatment of produced water and wastewater from
petroleum industries. He holds a B.S.Ch.E. in from Isfa-
han University of Technology (Iran), and an M.Sc. in en-
vironmental engineering from Tehran University (Iran).
He is a professional engineer (PEng) in the province of
Alberta, Canada.

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78 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
 Facts At Your Fingertips
Variable Frequency Drives
Department Editor: Scott Jenkins
E
lectric alternating current (a.c.)
Voltage
motors power all types of equip-
ment in the chemical process
industries (CPI), including pumps, fans,
blowers, compressors and other types
of process equipment. Electric motor
systems offer opportunities for reduc-
tions in power consumption because
while some applications require a con-
stant motor speed, half of all electric-mo-
tor applications have a speed demand
that varies with different conditions. In
those situations, it is desirable to em-
ploy a variable frequency drive (VFD),
also known as an adjustable speed
drive, to achieve flexible process speed
and torque, and thereby increase sys-
tem efficiency. This one-page reference
provides information on VFD operation
and potential benefits.
VFD principles
A VFD is a type of motor controller that
drives a.c. electric motors by varying
the frequency and voltage supplied to
the electric motor. Electrical frequency
(Hertz) is directly related to the motor’s
speed (revolutions per minute; rpm),
so higher frequencies translate into
higher motor rpm. VFDs convert an
incoming electrical supply with fixed
frequency and voltage into a variable
frequency and variable voltage out-
put for the electric motor (Figure 1).
This allows motor speed to be varied
from 0 rpm to typically 100–120% of
its full rated speed, while up to 150%
of rated torque can be achieved at re-
duced speed.
VFDs exhibit high versatility and are
available in a range of capacity sizes,
from 0.2 kW to several megawatts.
They are usually available as stand-
alone devices and are connected to
the motor’s electrical supply. Howev-
er, some smaller motor designs may
have VFDs available as an integrated
motor-drive product.
VFD components
Major components of a VFD include
the following:
Rectifier. This converts incoming a.c.
supply to direct current (d.c.).
Intermediate circuit. The rectified
d.c supply is then conditioned in the
intermediate circuit, most commonly
42
Variable
Rectifier Inverter
Time
by a combination of inductors and
capacitors. Most currently available
VFDs use a fixed-voltage d.c. link.
Inverter. The inverter converts the rec-
tified and conditioned d.c. back into
an a.c supply of variable frequency
and voltage. This is normally achieved
by generating a high-frequency pulse-
width-modulated (PWM) signal for
frequency and effective voltage. PWM
is a modulation technique where
the average value of voltage fed to
the motor is controlled by switching
power supply on and off at fast rates.
The ratio between on and off periods
determines the total power supplied
to the motor, with longer off periods
associated with lower motor speeds.
The high on-off frequency allows the
motor to perceive a smooth power
supply. Semiconductor switches are
used to create the output.
Control unit. This controls the op-
eration of the VFD by monitoring and
controlling the rectifier, the intermedi-
ate circuit and the inverter to deliver
the correct output in response to an
external control signal.
VFDs are typically 92–98% efficient
with 2–8% losses due to additional
heat dissipation caused by the high-
frequency electrical switching and
the additional power required by the
electronic components.
Advantages of using a VFD
In many applications, variable speed
control can lead to substantial reduc-
tions in energy cost. The use of VFDs
is particularly effective in fan and pump
applications, where they can replace
traditional power-regulation methods.
Here, an exponential relationship ex-
ists between the machine speed (and
output) and the energy used.
VFDs can enable energy savings
and process efficiency due to im-
provements in the following areas:
• Speed control
• Flow control
• Pressure control
• Temperature control
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
FIGURE 1. VFDs work by converting
an incoming electrical supply from
alternating current to direct current,
then creating a variable-frequency
alternating current that can be used
to control motor speed
• Tension control
• Torque control
• Monitoring quality
• Acceleration/deceleration control
In addition to energy savings, many
a.c.-motor applications can benefit
from the use of VFDs because they
can also reduce operating costs by
increasing system reliability and low-
ering maintenance requirements by
reducing overall wear and tear
Evaluating VFD usefulness
The following actions can help deter-
mine whether installing a VFD makes
sense for a particular application:
• Understand how the motor sys-
tem meets the requirements of the
process. Determine whether the
demand is variable and to what
extent it can be varied or reduced.
Monitor the load profile to help es-
tablish when motor speed can be
reduced and by how much
• Determine the load type, including
whether its torque requirements
vary and to what extent. Establish
whether VFD control can be imple-
mented on the system or if an al-
ternative solution would be more
appropriate or cost-effective
• Explore opportunities to maxi-
mize the existing system efficiency
through low-cost measures, be-
cause there is little benefit in fitting
a VFD to a system that already suf-
fers from poor efficiency. Improve
efficiency by other low-cost means
along with the VFD
• Monitor the system’s current en-
ergy consumption to estimate the
energy-saving potential n
Further reading
1. Prachyl, Stephen, Understanding Variable Frequency
Drives, Plant Engineering, April 2011.
2. Shukla, D.K. and Chaware, D., Variable frequency drives:
An Algorithm for Selecting VFDs for Centrifugal Pumps.
Chem. Eng., February 2010, pp. 38–43.
3. Ramey, Joseph, Variable Frequency Drives for Centrifu-
gal Pumps, Chem. Eng., November 2012, pp. 31–42.
4. GoHz.com, Variable Frequency Drive, www.variablefre-
quencydrive.org, accessed July 2015.
SEPTEMBER 2015
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015 43
 Calculate NPSH
with Confidence
Determining net positive suction head (NPSH) can be confusing, but with these guidelines,
engineers can avoid the pitfalls of incorrect calculations
M
Asif Raza ost engineers have likely
Equipment Design heard the term NPSH
Engineer (net positive suction
head) at some point in
their careers. Put simply, NPSH is the
IN BRIEF net pressure available at a pump’s
BASIC TERMINOLOGY suction flange, expressed either as a
HOW NPSH IS height or a pressure value. Why is it
CALCULATED so important? How is it calculated?
What needs to be done to increase
IMPLICATIONS OF
NPSH? What best practices are as-
INACCURATE NPSH
sociated with NPSH? This article
WAYS TO INCREASE covers all these points in detail using
NPSH practical examples. After reading this
ENGINEERING BEST article, engineers will have a basic
PRACTICES understanding of NPSH concepts
Grade
and calculations, as well as the abil-
ity to solve simple NPSH problems.
Basic terminology
The first step in understanding NPSH is to
briefly define important basic terms that will
help in clarifying the meaning of NPSH and
guide engineers in its calculation.
Vapor pressure. By definition, vapor pressure
is the pressure exerted by the vapor that is in
contact with the fluid in consideration. This is
the pressure exerted by vapor in thermody-
namic equilibrium with its condensed phases
at a given temperature. The vapor pressure
of any liquid increases non-linearly with tem-
perature, and at an elevated temperature, the
vapor pressure equals the atmospheric pres-
sure. When this happens, the fluid starts boil-
ing. For example, consider a very common fluid
— water. The vapor pressure of water at 10°C
is 0.22 psia, while its vapor pressure at 100°C
is 14.7 psia. Vapor pressure always increases
with operating temperature and is most often
expressed in psia.
Atmospheric pressure. The surrounding
atmosphere exerts a constant pressure on
everything. This pressure depends on the
elevation relative to sea level, and starts de-
creasing with increasing elevation as the at-
mosphere starts getting thinner. It is nearly
always expressed in psia.
46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Operating pressure Suction vessel
= 0 psig
8 ft
Pump
2 ft
FIGURE 1. Drawing a system sketch is extremely helpful for
gaining a better understanding of the system, and can be
used to revise calculations during detailed design, especially
if assumptions made during the basic design have changed
Specific gravity. The ratio of the density of
a fluid to the density of a referenced fluid is
known as specific gravity. In most engineer-
ing calculations, the referenced fluid is water.
Specific gravity is dimensionless.
Subcooled liquid. A liquid that exists below
its normal saturation temperature is called a
subcooled liquid. For example, water at at-
mospheric pressure boils at 100°C. Water at
50°C is a subcooled liquid.
Saturated liquid. A liquid that exists at the
saturation temperature or boiling point that
corresponds to a given operating pressure is
said to be saturated. If any energy is added to
the liquid, and the pressure is kept constant,
some of the liquid will boil. A good example is
a typical pressure cooker. A pressure cooker
operates at elevated pressure so that the water
can boil at an elevated temperature to properly
cook food. If the pressure inside the cooker is
decreased, the water would boil instantly and
the pressure would be released in the form of
steam. Another example is the liquid inside
a distillation column that always exists at a
saturated temperature.
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
NPSH available and required. The NPSH
available (NPSHa) is a function of the system
and should be calculated based on system
design. The NPSH required (NPSHr) is a
function of the pump itself and should be ob-
tained from the pump manufacturer.
How NPSH is calculated
NPSH can be a difficult concept to grasp.
To explain NPSH in simple terms, imagine a
bonus received on a paycheck. However, the
amount actually deposited into the bank ac-
count is much less than the bonus value, and
it is later realized that the rest of the money has
been deducted as taxes. What was deposited
is the actual net bonus. It is a similar case for
NPSH, which is the net pressure available for
pump suction after all deductions, such as line
losses and vapor pressure, are taken into ac-
count. In other words, it is the pressure avail-
able in excess over the vapor pressure to pre-
vent the pumping fluid from boiling. The aim
with NPSH is to provide an adequate amount
of head exceeding the fluid’s vapor pressure to
prevent the fluid from boiling at the pump inlet.
This excess head is defined as NPSH.
Calculating NPSH is relatively simple once
the correct data have been collected. The
sections below detail each piece of data that
is required for NPSH calculations.
Site atmospheric pressure. NPSH calcula-
tions are impacted by the site’s local condi-
tions — specifically atmospheric pressure.
This value is used in NPSH calculations, and
the higher the atmospheric pressure, the bet-
ter, with regard to NPSH. For instance, if a
site is located in Mumbai, India, which is at
sea level, the atmospheric pressure is exactly
14.7 psia. Hypothetically, if the site location
is at a much higher elevation, say on Mount
Everest, which is about 29,000 ft above sea
level, the atmospheric pressure is just 4.4
psia. This puts into perspective the effect of
site location on atmospheric pressure. So, it
is crucial to do due diligence and find the cor-
rect atmospheric pressure for a site’s location.
Suction piping layout. The physical layout
of the suction piping is important in deter-
mining NPSH. This information must include
the exact number of pipe fittings in order
to properly determine the suction-piping
pressure drop.
Vapor pressure of the pumping fluid. As
NPSHr, ft
explained earlier, vapor pressure is dependent
on the operating temperature. Vapor pres-
sure for pure substances can be found in lit-
erature, such as Perry’s Chemical Engineers’
Handbook [1]. There are also many resources
available online, including Ref. 2, which has a
comprehensive list of pure substances in its
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
150 gal/min
2 ft
Grade
5 ft
Low
liquid
level
database. To determine the vapor pressure, FIGURE 2. This system sketch
the operating temperature must be provided. shows a pump configura-
tion where there is negative
Suction vessel elevation and operating suction lift, meaning that the
pressure. It has already been stated that the pump is located higher than
overall site elevation affects the NPSH of a the source suction vessel.
given pump layout. The elevation of the suc- The low liquid level should be
considered in NPSH evalua-
tion vessel (the tank or vessel from which the tions for a more conservative
liquid is being pumped) itself is also impor- approach
tant. Additionally, the operating pressure of
the suction vessel must be known. A system
sketch can be helpful in visualizing the pump-
ing system layout and the suction elevation.
Figures 1 and 2 show some examples of
typical pumping system sketches.
Pump dimensional drawings. If available
during early stages in design, a sketch of the
specific pump model can be very helpful.
Now that the basic terms and required data
have been outlined, actual NPSH calculation
can begin. Consider this example comparing
water at two temperatures. Water is being
pumped from a vessel at atmospheric pres-
sure at a rate of 200 gal/min. The suction line
is 3-in. carbon steel and the site atmospheric
pressure is 13 psia. How will the NPSH be im-
pacted by temperature if the water is at 95°C?
What if the water temperature is 30°C? Assume
this is a new design and the tank elevation and
piping layout are fixed. The following are the re-
quired steps for solving this problem:
1. Contact the pump vendor and get a pump
datasheet based on the process data. Ven-
dors will often provide a value for the re-
quired NPSH of a particular pump model. FIGURE 3. Vendor-provided
For this example, assume that the pump pump curves provide engi-
neers a wealth of information,
vendor lists NPSHr as 6 ft. Figure 3 shows including the NPSH required
the relationship between NPSHr and flow- for a specific pump model
rate from a typical pump curve. Pump over a range of flowrates
20
15
10
5
0
- 400 800 1,200 1,600 2,000 2,400 2,800 3,200
Flowrate, gal/min
SEPTEMBER 2015 47
 TABLE 1. NPSH CALCULATIONS FOR WATER AT 95 AND 30°C
Water at 95°C Water at 30°C
Input data Calculated values Input data Calculated values
Atmospheric pressure at project site 13 psia 13 psia
Liquid specific gravity 1 1
Pressure above the liquid (operating pressure) 0 psig (13+0) × 2.31/1 = 30.03 ft 0 psig (13+0) × 2.31/1= 30.03 ft
Static head (distance from the low-low liquid level in ves- 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft 6 ft
sel to the pump suction flange)
Suction friction losses (calculated based on suction-piping 0.5 psid 0.5 × 2.31/1 = 1.16 ft 0.5 psid 0.5 × 2.31/1 = 1.16 ft
isometrics and pump rated flowrate)
Pressure at pump suction (pressure head above liquid + ft (30.03 + 6) - 1.16 = ft ft (30.03 + 6) – 1.16 = ft
static head – piping suction loss) 34.87 34.87
Vapor pressure at operating temperature 12.26 psia 12.26 × 2.31 / 1 = 28.32 ft 0.615 psia 0.615 × 2.31 / 1 = 1.42 ft
NPSH available (pressure head at pump suction – vapor 34.87 – 28.32 = 6.55 ft 34.87 – 1.42 = 33.45 ft
pressure)
NPSH (required) based on pump vendor’s datasheet 6 ft 6 ft
Satisfactory margin of 3 ft over NPSH required 6+3=9 ft 6+3=9 ft
Compare NPSH available versus NPSH required Margin of 3 ft or more No Margin of 3 ft or more Yes
available? available?

TABLE 2. NPSH CALCULATIONS FOR WATER AT 30°C WITH NEGATIVE SUCTION LIFT
Water at 30°C
Input data Calculated values
Atmospheric pressure at project site 13 psia
Liquid specific gravity 1
Pressure above the liquid (operating pressure) 0 psig (13 + 0) × 2.31 / 1 = 30.03 ft
Negative static head (distance from the low-low liquid level to the pump suction flange) 5+2=7 ft 5+2=7 ft
Suction friction losses (calculated based on suction piping isometrics and pump rated flowrate) 1.5 psid 1.5 × 2.31 / 1 = 3.46 ft
Pressure at pump suction (pressure head above liquid – negative static head – piping suction loss) ft (30.03 – 7) – 3.46 = 19.61 ft
Vapor pressure at operating temperature 0.615 psia 0.615 × 2.31 / 1 = 1.42 ft
NPSH available (pressure head at pump suction – vapor pressure) 19.61 – 1.42 = 18.19 ft
NPSH (required) based on pump vendor's datasheet 6 ft
Satisfactory margin of 3 ft over NPSH required 6+3=9 ft
Compare NPSH available versus NPSH required Yes or no? Margin of 3 ft or more available? Yes

curves illustrate many useful parameters,
such as the relationship between flowrate
and head, power, NPSH and efficiency. En-
gineers should read all of the parameters
with respect to their pump’s normal and
rated flow, and always base calculations on
their pump’s rated flowrate. Notice that the
NPSHr curve is slightly bowl-shaped, and
that NPSHr increases with flow. Make sure
that the entire operating range is taken into
consideration while reading a pump curve.
2. Calculate the pressure drop in the suction
line as accurately as possible, considering
the layout and all fittings.
3. Obtain the pump dimensional drawing from
the vendor.
4. Get the source (suction) vessel drawing
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
to see the orientation of the nozzles and
the elevation.
5. Determine the respective vapor pressure of
water at each considered temperature. In
this example, the vapor pressure of water
at 95°C is 12.26 psia and the vapor pres-
sure of water at 30°C is 0.615 psia.
6. Determine the site atmospheric pressure.
For this example, it is 13 psia.
Table 1 shows the calculations required to
determine the NPSH available for water at
each temperature with the inputs defined in
the preceding sections. Table 2 illustrates the
NPSH calculations at 30°C in a negative suc-
tion-lift scenario. Based on good engineering
practice, an assumed design margin (3 ft) is
applied, meaning that the NPSHa should be
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
 FIGURE 4. Flow inducers can be
at least 3 ft greater than the NPSHr. installed inside the pump casing to
Based on the given inputs, the NPSH decrease the NPSH required. Flow
inducers are available in many
at 95°C is 6.55 ft, but the NPSH at 30°C sizes and metallurgical options
is 33.45 ft. The static head and pip-
ing friction loss are the same in both
cases; the only difference is the vapor
pressure, which is much higher for the
higher temperature case. This illustrates pump is not effectively transferred to the
why using an accurate vapor pressure fluid. Sometimes the problem may be so
is crucial, as it has a significant effect on severe, especially in high-speed pumps,
the calculations. that the shaft is subjected to high levels
Very special care should be taken
when dealing with boiling liquids or sat-
urated liquids, such as the liquids from
distillation columns or from reflux con-
densers. In these situations, the operat-
ing pressure does not help, and no credit
can be taken, since the vapor pressure
will be equal to the operating pressures.
In these cases, high static head and low
friction losses in the suction piping are
the only additional sources of gain.

Implications of inaccurate NPSH

As explained earlier, if excess head is
not provided over the vapor pressure,
the fluid starts boiling at the pump inlet.
Instead of a steady stream of liquid en-
tering the pump inlet, two-phase flow
is introduced at the eye of the pump
impeller. The pump impeller moves the
fluid to a higher pressure and the void of
gas present within the boiling fluid starts
collapsing on the impeller with force,
producing a shockwave and, typically,
Call on the Traveling Sump Screen
a loud thudding sound. These collaps-
ing voids cause cyclic stress through Screening The Vari-Flow SS Series
Traveling Sump Screen is
repeated implosion, which starts dam-
Experts
custom fabricated to easily
aging the impeller. The thudding noises replace stationary screens while
your unit stays in full operation.
are due to vapor bubbles collapsing The screens can be automated
on the impeller. Some of these prob- and are available in more than
lems occur due to a variety of reasons: 20 different screen-mesh sizes.
NPSH has not been not calculated cor- Replace your existing bar The Traveling Sump Screen is
rectly; the pumps have been relocated patented, manufactured and
screens on line, without any distributed by Industrial Cooling
in different service (perhaps to sys- Tower Services. Let the experts
tems with different layout or elevation); basin modifications with our handle your equipment
or the process conditions changed unique, continuous screening
screening needs with this easy-
due to suction piping modifications to-use, cost efficient solution.
and the designer did not reassess the
NPSH available. Vari-Flow SS Series
The problems are more severe in
larger pumps, since increased amounts Traveling Sump Screen
of bubbles are formed and implode on
the high-pressure side of the impeller.
When this happens, the capacity of the
pump is greatly reduced and the impeller
sustains damage. Additionally, the radial
(225) 387-5664 • www.ictsinc.com
and thrust bearings can be damaged
because the energy absorbed by the
Circle 22 on p. 94 or go to adlinks.chemengonline.com/56201-22
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015 49
 Ways to increase NPSH
Frequently during the early design stage of a
project, the NPSH calculations are based on
a preliminary piping layout. This is when engi-
— NPSH with conventional inducer
— NPSH without inducer neers may find that they are dealing with low
NPSH. Steps that can be taken to increase
NPSH are as follows:
NPSHr • Contact the piping-layout designer to see
whether they can increase the elevation of
the suction vessel
• Check whether increasing the size of the
suction piping reduces the pressure drop
Flowrate and increases the NPSH available
• Consult with the vendor to see if a bigger
FIGURE 5. Notice how the of stress and becomes misaligned. impeller is available. Pumps with larger
NPSH requirement of the Engineers should be very careful and com-
pump is decreased with the impellers have better NPSH values. How-
addition of a flow inducer. plete the proper analyses before selecting ever, the penalty for bigger impellers is a
It is worth mentioning here a pump and finalizing the system design.
higher power consumption
that the NPSH requirement of Once the system design is complete and
the pump increases sharply • Check with the vendor for a slower-speed
constructed, very little can be done to alter
with increasing flow. It is very motor. Pump manufacturers may suggest
important to operate the pump the system, and the only option may be to
change the pump or re-configure the suc- a slow-speed motor to reduce NPSH-re-
within the specified range
where the NPSH is within tion piping, both resulting in additional costs lated problems. With a slower motor, high
acceptable limits
and downtime. static head is available at the suction and
This phenomenon occurred in a poly- improves NPSH
isobutane plant where two reactor-bottoms • Determine whether the pump can be
pumps were installed. The more recently physically lowered inside a pit or sump to
installed pump would cavitate because increase the static head
proper NPSH calculations were not car- • If the process allows, lower the tempera-
ried out for the new pump’s piping layout. ture of the pumping process to decrease
The new pump-suction piping length was vapor pressure. A practical example is a
routed with many elbows, and the pressure molten-sulfur pump in a batch process
drop was high, leading to a lower NPSH that cavitated when the temperature of
available for the pump, which was not con- the reactor was high; the high temperature
sidered when the pump was installed. The led to high vapor pressure and decreased
suction piping had to be re-routed, which NPSH availability. The plant personnel
effectively increased the available NPSH. analyzed the problem, and instead of
However, all of these modifications were changing the pump, they decided to install
completed during plant shutdown, resulting a cooling-water jacket on the suction
FIGURE 6. The pump curve in considerable production losses. Diligently piping. The slight cooling of the fluid was
shows not only the NPSH,
but also the shaft power, ef-
collecting the proper data for NPSH calcu- enough to adequately run the pump
ficiency and head, across the lations can make a significant impact on • Check with the pump vendor to determine
pump’s entire operating range plant operations.
whether a flow inducer (Figure 4) is avail-
[ft]
230 Head Application range able for your pump. If available, ask for a
220
210 NPSH curve that also shows the NPSH
200 Operating 206 ft
190
180
point 1 with a flow inducer installed (Figure 5)
170
160
Operating and check the NPSH requirement. A flow
150 point 2
140 inducer is a small impeller that is installed
130
120
110
inside the pump casing just before the
100
90 pump’s main impeller. Simply, it can be
80
70
60
defined as a small booster pump ahead
[%] Efficiency 45.1% of the main pump that increases the static
30 pressure of the pumping fluid at the pump
20
[hp] Shaft power suction, reducing the NPSHr. The NPSH
11.3 hp
8 requirement of the flow inducer is very low
4
[ft] NPSH Operating point 2 Now that the implications of improper NPSH
6
New NPSH curve Operating point 1
5.15 ft calculations and the benefits of flow inducers
4 with flow inducer are understood, consider another example
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 gal/min problem. There is an existing cryogenic pump
50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
in liquid argon service that is designed for 60
gal/min at 210 ft of head. The plant decides
to relocate the pump to a location where 90
gal/min at 180 ft of head is required. Here,
it must be determined whether the pump
can be used in this newly specified service,
and any potential modifications required to
achieve this must also be evaluated. Figure
6 shows the pump curve for the pump in
question. The steps for solving this problem
are as follows:
1. Check the pump curve to make sure that
the pump can achieve the desired head
at the requested flowrate. Draw a straight
line from 90 gal/min on the capacity-head
chart and then read the corresponding
head value. It is seen that it is possible to
achieve 90 gal/min at 180 ft of head.
2. Calculate the NPSH available from the
sample calculations discussed earlier.
For this instance, assume the available
NPSH is 6 ft.
3. Read the NPSH curve in Figure 6 to check
the NPSHr at 90 gal/min. It is 6 ft, and the
available NPSH is also 6 ft. In this scenario,
there is no room for the minimum design
margin of 2 ft, hence the NPSH avail-
able must somehow be increased. Based
on the previously provided guidelines on
what can be done to increase NPSH,
consider whether using a flow inducer
may work.
4. Contact the vendor and ask whether there
is a flow inducer available for this pump.
Assume that the vendor confirms that there
is indeed a flow inducer available, and pro-
vides a pump curve with the flow inducer.
It is seen in Figure 6, that with the flow in-
ducer, the NPSH requirement at 90 gal/min
drops to 4 ft. Now, there is a design margin
of 2 ft available, satisfying the design re-
quirements. Therefore, with the installation
of a flow inducer, this design change can
be implemented.
5. The final step is to confirm with the vendor
regarding the new horsepower require-
ment at the higher flowrate of 90 gal/min
at 180 ft of head. Use this information to
make sure the existing motor is adequate
or if it will need replacement. Working with
an electrical engineer may be required to
make the correct decision regarding pump
motor replacement.
Engineering best practices
While calculating NPSH, follow these guide-
lines to ensure a quality system design:
1. Calculate NPSH using the low liquid level
in the suction tank. This is a conservative
approach, and ensures that a pump will
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
work, even at low liquid levels. This also
ensures that the liquid inventory in the
storage tank is utilized to the fullest.
2. To avoid excessive pressure drop, design
the suction piping with the minimum num-
ber of elbows and fittings. Also, suction
piping should be short as possible. Target
a maximum pressure drop of 0.5 psi.
3. If the pump is connected with a reducer,
use an eccentric reducer with the flat side
up. This arrangement ensures that the en-
trained vapor bubbles will migrate back to
the source instead of remaining near the
pump suction. Be sure to follow any spe-
cific installation procedure that is recom-
mended by the pump vendor.
4. If the line is insulated for personnel pro-
tection, consider removing the insulation
and installing a metal barrier for person-
nel protection. Removing the insulation
will help the fluid to cool down, lower the
vapor pressure and achieve a higher value
for NPSH available.
5. A design margin of at least 2–3 ft should
be allowed between the NPSH required
and the NPSH available. The NPSH avail-
able should always be greater than the
NPSH required.
Through close coordination with pump
vendors and the development of a solid
understanding of the basic terms, includ-
ing vapor pressure, saturation, pressure
drop and rated flow, engineers will be on
the right track to calculate NPSH and prop-
erly design pumping systems that meet
customer or plant requirements. ■
Edited by Mary Page Bailey
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Nikhil Joshi of Praxair Inc. and
Kevin Dilling of Cryogenic Industries for their valuable input.
References
1. Green, D.W., Perry, R.H., “Perry’s Chemical Engineers’
Handbook,” 8th Ed., McGraw-Hill Professional, New York,
N.Y., 2007.
2. Ohe, Shuzo, Vapor Pressure Calculation, www.e-data.jp/
vpcal1/e/, 2010.
Author
Asif Raza is an equipment design engineer at
Praxair, Canada Inc. (1 City Centre Drive, Suite
1200, Mississauga, Ontario, L5B 1M2; Email:
asifraza_us@yahoo.com). His work involves
the design specifications of major equipment,
including heat exchangers, centrifugal and
screw compressors, cryogenic pumps, chillers
and air-cooled heat exchangers. With more
than 15 years of experience in process de-
sign, his interests include complex hydraulics
calculations, P&ID development, process simulation and sizing and
selection of heat exchangers and pumps. Before joining Praxair,
Raza was a lead process engineer at Zeton Inc., where his work
involved the design and fabrication of pilot plants. Also, he previ-
ously held positions with Bantrel and SNC Lavalin. He holds a
B.S.Ch.E. degree, and is a registered professional engineer and a
member of the Ontario Society of Professional Engineers.
SEPTEMBER 2015 51

The Benefits of Seal-less
Pumps for Full Product
Containment
In cases where full containment of dangerous and hazardous chemicals is necessary, seal-less
pumps can provide many safety and operational benefits
Chrishelle
Rogers and
Nicholas
Ortega
PSG, a Dover company
IN BRIEF
SEALING CHALLENGES
SEAL-LESS PUMP
TECHNOLOGIES
SEAL-LESS PUMPS IN
OPERATION
T
o the average person, many of the
raw materials that are commonly
used in the chemical process in-
dustries (CPI) can resemble either a
steaming bowl of alphabet soup — KOH,
NaOH, HCl and HF, for example — or a
bad Scrabble rack — toluene, hexene and
xylene, for instance. However, those who
make a living manufacturing chemical-
based products, such as caustics, acids,
solvents and polymers, know that while
high-value chemicals are pivotal to pro-
duction processes, they can also be ex-
tremely dangerous and potentially harmful
to site personnel and the environment if
not handled properly. If a leak does occur,
the safety of site personnel and surround-
ing communities can be put at risk with the
potential for injury or loss of life.
This is a constant concern for manufac-
turers, as hazardous chemical compounds
are used in a large number of industries and
products, including adhesives, biofuels, pe-
troleum additives, polyurethane foam, coat-
ings and more. In addition to being widely
used and potentially dangerous or hazardous
if mishandled, many chemical compounds
are also extremely expensive. If a leak were to
52 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Part 2
FIGURE 1. Almost all chemical transfer applications employ
some sort of pump, and some types of pumps can unfortu-
nately introduce the potential for leaks. Leaks of dangerous
chemicals can be catastrophic, but for applications where
full product containment is required, seal-less pumps can
provide protection
occur during the handling or transfer of these
products, large costs would be incurred by
the operator due not only to the loss of raw
materials, but also for cleanup and potential
environmental remediation. All of these fac-
tors combine to make the full containment of
dangerous chemicals a primary concern for
facility operators.
Crucial pieces of equipment that are utilized
during the manufacture and handling of dan-
gerous chemicals are the pumps that either
introduce raw materials into the production
process or transfer end products for packag-
ing, storage or shipping to end users (Figure
1). Mechanically sealed pumps are com-
monly used for these transfer activities. This
article illustrates how another pump type —
seal-less pumps — can be employed when
full containment of dangerous and valuable
chemicals is an absolute must.
The Hydraulic Institute (Parsippany N.J.;
www.pumps.org) defines a seal-less pump
as “one in which the rotor is contained in a
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
sealed, pressurized vessel that contains the
process fluid.” This means that all sealing
between the process fluid and the atmo-
sphere is done through static sealing tech-
nologies like gaskets, O-rings and so on.
No mechanical seals or packing are relied
upon to seal the process fluid from the at-
mosphere. These qualities can often make
seal-less pumps a more effective option for
product containment than their mechanically
sealed counterparts.
Sealing challenges
When handling dangerous chemicals, there
are four main areas of concern for manufac-
turers, outlined in the sections below.
Safety. Ensuring that site personnel, sur-
rounding communities and the environ-
ment are not harmed is of utmost concern
to manufacturers, especially in processes
where hazardous chemicals are involved.
Product containment. When dangerous or
hazardous products are fully contained and
not allowed to leak, valuable raw materials
and products are not lost to the environ-
ment, improving safety overall.
Maintenance. Mechanical shaft-seal fail-
ures are the primary cause of pump down-
time. Excessive maintenance costs generally
are accumulated in two ways: the need to
constantly repair, rebuild or replace under-
performing pumps or components; and in
the downtime that brings operations to a
grinding halt.
Operating costs. There are some operating
costs that are intrinsic to mechanically sealed
pumps. For instance, seal-flush water is a
source of costs that is often overlooked in
pumping operations. The impact of the seal
water on the process operations, as well as
the cost of the flush water, must be taken
into account.
The most common pump technologies that
are used in the manufacture and handling of
dangerous chemicals include diaphragm,
sliding-vane, lobe, progressive-cavity, cen-
trifugal and gear. All of the traditional pump
technologies have one thing in common:
they rely on various types of seals to prevent
shaft leakage. The two most common types
of seals — packing rings and mechanical
seals — are used in many applications that
handle hazardous chemicals, but they both
have their own potential shortcomings.
Packing-ring sealing methods utilize
braided packing materials that include a set
of formed rings that are wrapped around
the pump shaft and held in place by an
adjustable gland that has been designed
to control shaft leakage. A small amount
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
FIGURE 2. A short-
coming of me-
chanically sealed
pumps in the
CPI are the cata-
strophic failures
that can occur
when the seals
fail, potentially
causing danger-
ous leaks
of leakage is required for lubrication and
cooling. Packing has been widely used in a
variety of industries (such as in resin, paint
and coatings), but should not be gener-
ally considered a best practice for handling
hazardous chemicals.
Mechanical seals come in two general vari-
ations: single and double. Single mechanical
seals can usually adequately address the
problem of fluid leakage, but when used with
liquids of higher viscosity, the product drag
can distort the seal or cause it to break away
from the shaft completely. Single mechanical
seals also are incapable of containing poten-
tially hazardous vapors. Double mechanical
seals can prevent the escape of vapors and
are more reliable when handling viscous liq-
uids, but they can be prohibitively expensive
to acquire, repair, clean and maintain.
While any of the various types of seals can
perform admirably for long periods of time,
they will eventually require maintenance or
may need to be replaced before major shaft
leakage occurs. Replacing the seals, not
only after they fail, but also as a form of pre-
ventative maintenance, is costly.
The cost of a leak to a manufacturer in-
cludes the loss of valuable raw materials or
finished products, downtime in production,
and the costs and potential penalties as-
sociated with chemical cleanup efforts. Fig-
ures 2 and 3 illustrate some situations where
pump leaks caused extensive, catastrophic
FIGURE 3. When leaks
occur, valuable raw ma-
terials and end products
are irretrievably lost,
while the safety of plant
personnel and the envi-
ronment is put at risk.
Damage is also done
to the operation in the
form of expensive costs
for cleanup, downtime,
parts replacement or the
purchase of a brand-new
pump
SEPTEMBER 2015 53
 FIGURE 4. Seal-less
sliding-vane pumps
are designed to maxi-
mize bearing life and
minimize metal-to-
metal contact
FIGURE 5. Some seal-less
internal-gear pumps feature
only one fluid chamber, which
not only enhances product
containment, but also elimi-
nates product entrapment,
especially when transferring
high-viscosity liquids
54
damage. Leaks of hazardous materials that
reach the outside environment can be sub-
ject to fines and remediation costs from the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA;
Washington, D.C.; www.epa.gov), as well as
other local and state regulatory agencies.
Additionally, other countries have their own
sets of regulations, which can often be more
stringent than those in the U.S. Spilled haz-
ardous materials also pose safety risks for
site personnel and cleanup crews, which
raises liability issues.
Most seal-less pumps, on the other hand,
have built-in safeguards that enable the
containment of the liquid in the event of a
catastrophic pump failure. Depending on the
level of protection required for the applica-
tion, further precautions can be taken by
utilizing double-wall containment shells and
leak-detection technology that triggers auto-
matic shutdown of the pump.
Seal-less pump technologies
While sealed pumps can perform sufficiently
in the manufacture, transfer and handling of
dangerous chemicals and other hazardous
materials, the short-
comings that are in-
herent in their sealed
design can make
them insufficient for
some jobs. In these
cases, manufacturers
should seek out alter-
native pumping tech-
nologies that can help
eliminate some of the
major concerns asso-
ciated with achieving full
containment, includ-
ing seal-less slid-
ing-vane, internal-
gear and eccen-
tric-disc pumps.
Sliding-vane
pumps. Seal-less
sliding-vane pumps
(Figure 4) generally fea-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
ture a magnetic coupling consisting of sa-
marium-cobalt magnets and a specially de-
signed bearing-and-head configuration that
allows a small quantity of the pumpage to
circulate through the containment can and
onto the bearing surfaces. This positive flow
of fluid minimizes temperature rise during
operation, which helps maximize bearing life.
Replaceable 316 stainless-steel end discs
allow easy rebuilding of the pumping cham-
ber to like-new condition without having to re-
move the pump from the piping. Additionally,
the pumps’ carbon-graphite sleeve bearings
help ensure no metal-to-metal contact dur-
ing operation. Operationally, seal-less sliding
vane pumps offer the same advantages as
their sealed counterparts: volumetric consis-
tency, self-priming and limited dry-run capa-
bility, drain plugs that facilitate draining and
easy replacement of worn vanes.
Internal-gear pumps. Recent advance-
ments in internal-gear-pump (Figure 5) de-
sign and operation have allowed for the de-
velopment of models that feature only one
fluid chamber. This method of construction
removes the adapter plate that is a staple of
traditional two-chamber magnetically cou-
pled internal-gear pumps, which eliminates
product entrapment concerns, especially
when transferring high-viscosity liquids. One-
chamber operation is achieved through a
between-the-bearings design that places the
magnets directly on the pump rotor, resulting
in a simpler flow path and full leak-free prod-
uct containment. Some seal-less internal-
gear pump models are also constructed of as
few as seven parts, which helps contribute to
an estimated 50% reduction in maintenance
costs when compared to sealed pumps.
There are also seal-less internal gear pump
models that are interchangeable with nearly
all competitive sealed or packed-gear pump
brands, enabling drop-in replacement.
Eccentric-disc pumps. Seal-less eccentric-
disc pumps (Figure 6) feature no mechanical
seals, packing, couplings, or even magnets
— the shaft is instead sealed by a double
stainless-steel bellows. Operationally, seal-
less eccentric-disc pumps can still offer self-
priming, dry-run and low-shear operation,
very high suction and discharge pressures,
the ability to pump both low- and high-vis-
cosity liquids and clean-in-place and sani-
tize-in-place (CIP/SIP) capability. The pump’s
eccentric-disc operating principle features
an eccentric shaft that rotates, allowing the
disc to form chambers within the cylinder.
When the discharge pressure exerts itself
against the eccentric disc, slip is prevented,
which gives eccentric disc pumps the ability
WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM SEPTEMBER 2015
to reliably self-prime and line strip. This
operating principle also allows for air to
be pumped, meaning that seal-less ec-
centric-disc pumps can achieve prod-
uct-recovery rates of 90% or more on
the suction side and 60 to 80% on the
discharge side of transfer lines. This en-
hanced product-recovery capability can
result in cost savings due to the retrieval
of still usable raw materials and saleable
end products.
Seal-less pumps in operation
Provided that the proper precautions,
which are the same for traditional
sealed pumps, concerning safety, pump
mounting, coupling alignment, flange
loading and startup procedures, are
taken, these varying types of seal-less
pump technologies satisfy all operating
demands with regard to overcoming the
major challenges of handling dangerous
chemicals or other hazardous materi-
als: optimized safety; full product con-
tainment; reduced maintenance; and
streamlined operating costs.
The ultimate result is that positive-dis-
placement seal-less pump technologies
can reliably provide safety and full con-
tainment when used in some danger-
ous industrial chemical-handling appli-
cations, including those that involve the
following: adhesives, biofuels, sodium
hydroxide, lubricant oils and grease,
paints and coatings, petroleum addi-
tives, polyurethane, molten sulfur, res-
ins, soaps and detergents, vegetable
fat and hot oil.
However, there are also a few critical
applications that are not ideal for reliable
operation of seal-less pumps of which
users should be aware. These are ap-
plications involving fluids with moderate
to high percentages of solids, applica-
tions involving crystallizing or solidifying
fluids where reliable pump jacketing is
not used and applications involving ex-
tremely viscous fluids above approxi-
mately 55,000 cSt. In all three instances,
the concern is the potential blockage
of the magnetic-coupling cooling path
during operation.
Sealed pumps have been performing
sufficiently in chemical-manufacturing
operations for many years. However,
operators who are looking for a leak-
preventing alternative should look to
upgrade their facilities with seal-less
pumps. These types of pumps will re-
duce leakage events and improve con-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHEMENGONLINE.COM
tainment of dangerous or hazardous
materials. Maintenance costs can also
be lowered to such a level that the life- FIGURE 6. Seal-less eccen-
time cost to operate the seal-less pump tric-disc pumps feature no
seals, packing, couplings or
may be half that of a sealed model in magnets, enabling full
some cases. Furthermore, the use of product containment
seal-less pumps can increase users’
peace of mind, which comes with the
knowledge that not only is personal and
environmental safety being optimized,
but that the bottom line is receiving a
boost, as well. ■
Edited by Mary Page Bailey
Authors
Chrishelle Rogers is the global gear
pump product manager for PSG’s Maag
Industrial Pumps (22069 Van Buren
St., Grand Terrace, CA 92313; Phone:
909-222-1309; Email: chrishelle.rog-
ers@psgdover.com.) In this role, Rog-
ers is responsible for managing the
PSG Industrial Gear Pump product
portfolio through the execution of stra-
tegic initiatives, driving new product
development and strengthening sales globally. Rogers has
more than eight years of experience in the residential, com-
mercial and industrial pump markets, having held positions
in applications engineering, product management and value-
stream management. Rogers holds a B.S. degree in me-
chanical engineering from the University of Colorado at Boul-
der.
Nicholas Ortega is the engineering
manager for PSG’s Maag Industrial
Pumps and Griswold Pumps (22069
Van Buren St., Grand Terrace, CA
92313; Phone: 909-512-1235; Email:
nicholas.ortega@psgdover.com). In
this role, Ortega is responsible for
managing all engineering-related ob-
jectives and initiatives, including driving
new product development and sustain-
ing engineering efforts. Ortega has more than seven years of
experience in the industrial, chemical-processing and API
pump markets, having held positions in design engineering
and sustaining engineering. Ortega holds a B.S. degree in
mechanical engineering from California State Polytechnic
University, Pomona, and is currently working toward his
M.B.A. at the University of California, Irvine.
SEPTEMBER 2015 55
 Feature
Cover Story
Report
Condition Monitoring
Methods for Pumps
Applying condition monitoring tests
to pumps can save costs
by optimizing overhaul scheduling
Ray Beebe
MCM Consultants Pty Ltd. and
Monash University
P
umps are among the most com-
monly used machines in the
chemical process industries
(CPI). Condition monitoring
tests and predictive maintenance can
help pump operators determine when
to overhaul pumps in a way that mini-
mizes costs. Despite pumps’ ubiquity
and large energy demands, however,
relatively little information is avail-
able on how to apply predictive main-
tenance approaches and condition
monitoring to process pumps.
Pump overhauls may occur on a fixed
time schedule or as a result of a specific
breakdown, but neither case necessar-
ily represents the most cost-effective
policy. In cases where deterioration in
the performance of a centrifugal pump
causes a drop in plant production,
pump overhaul is readily justified, be-
cause the cost of performing the over-
haul is usually small compared to the
losses from reduced production. How-
ever, when pump performance deterio-
rates due to wear and the only effect is
increased power consumption (with no
discernable effect on production), the
question of when to perform an over-
haul becomes important.
The right time to overhaul that
minimizes cost can be calculated
from predictive maintenance test re-
sults. The use of condition monitoring
methods ensures that pump over-
hauls aimed at restoring performance
are executed when they are actu-
ally necessary. This article describes
34 Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
several condition-monitoring tests
for pumps, and discusses how to use
these predictive-maintenance meth-
ods to estimate the increased power
consumption that results from pump
wear (Figures 1 and 2).
Experience in the field or with an
original equipment manufacturer
(OEM) may help pump operators de-
termine when to undertake overhauls,
but others may not have an idea of
Figure 1. Pump wear, such as that
how to determine the optimal time, shown on this pump impeller, can lead
because many pump textbooks, even to reduced pump performance
excellent and widely used ones, have
failed to cover the application of con-
dition monitoring to pumps in detail,
and information in this area has been
lacking until recently [1, 2].
It is hoped that the tools presented
in this article will help asset managers
and engineers improve management
of pump assets to provide capacity for
production, as well as improve energy
efficiency and minimize greenhouse-
gas emissions. Although the article
focuses on pumps, the optimization
FIGURE 2. The degree of pump wear
approach described here can also be ap- is expressed as the percent reduction
plied to other plant equipment where in total head
deterioration results in efficiency loss,
and where energy consumption can be detect each of the pump degradation
measured or estimated. modes that are either experienced or
expected. Common pump-monitoring
Choosing monitoring methods methods include the following:
The extent and specific effects of in- • Vibration monitoring and analy-
ternal wear in centrifugal pumps vary sis: probably the most widely ap-
according to the characteristics of the plied method of condition monitor-
liquid being pumped, as well as the ing for rotating machines in general,
type of pump and its operating duty. and suited to detect such faults as
Some pumps last for years, while oth- unbalance, misalignment, looseness
ers last for only months. • Sampling and analysis of lubri-
Pump monitoring methods (where cants for deterioration and wear
justified) should be chosen that can debris: relevant for bearings and
 18
16
Reduction in head, %
14
12
10
8 Figure 3. The A series of test readings at steady
degradation of conditions, at about 15-s intervals, is
6 pump perfor-
mance can be
sufficient. Average values are plot-
4
shown by the per- ted. Speed must also be measured for
2 cent decrease in variable-speed pumps, and the head-
0 total head at nor- flow data must be corrected to a stan-
0 500 1,000 1,500 mal-duty flow, and dard speed using the affinity laws for
Days in service can be determined
by head-flow test- pump performance.
12 Field tests sometimes yield results
ing (Top graph,
Reduction in head at normal flow, %

230 kW; Bottom that are slightly different from the

10
8
6 ious standards for pump testing) are
4 member that for monitoring, relative
2 solute accuracy.
0
0 2
Time since overhaul, years
lubrication system faults
• Electrical plant tests: relevant for
motor condition
• Visual inspection and non-de-
structive testing: particularly rel-
evant for pump casing wear
• Performance monitoring and
analysis: relevant for pump inter-
nal conditions
For critical machinery, the use of more
than one method of condition monitor-
ing in combination may be justified.
This article demonstrates the use of
performance analysis and includes
some examples of condition monitor-
ing in practice.
An understanding of basic pump
performance characteristics is as-
sumed, as is how to measure test data
in a repeatable manner. For condition
monitoring, repeatability is more im-
portant than absolute accuracy.
Head-flow method shows wear
The most useful condition-monitoring
method is head-flow measurement,
because in addition to pump deterio-
ration, it also detects any changes in
system resistance. This method can
be used for all pumps where flow (or
some repeatable indicator of flow) can
be measured.
Figure 3 shows the trend in degrada-
tion of two pumps over multiple years.
The degree of wear is expressed as the
percent reduction in total head due to
graph, 5,744 kW)
4 6 8 10 12
wear, compared with the pump’s new
condition, at duty-point flow. This is
usually derived from head-flow tests
near the duty point, but can also be
obtained using the shut-off head test,
where this test is allowable.
Regular interrogation of the plant
historian can be used if a plant has a
DCS (distributed control system). Fig-
ure 3 (bottom) shows data for a mul-
tistage boiler-feed pump (specifically,
a constant-speed, four-stage pump;
5,853 rpm; 5,744 kW; 171 kg/s at 20.4
MPa). Data points are extracted every
six months from a run of 10 days at a
steady load.
Performance information such as
that shown in Figure 3 can reveal the
extent to which a pump has deterio-
rated, and pumps can be prioritized for
overhaul on the basis of their relative
wear. The question becomes whether
an overhaul of the worst-performing
pump is justified economically. (The
article will revisit this question and
provide a method for helping to make
the decision later.)
Throttling the pump over its full
flow range to obtain data points is
not necessary for monitoring. Several
points near the normal operating duty
point are sufficient to reveal the ef-
fects of wear, usually shown by a shift
in the head-flow curve towards the
zero-flow axis by an amount equal to
the internal leakage flow.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
manufacturer’s works tests because
site conditions for flow and pressure
measurement (as required by the var-
rarely available. It is important to re-
changes are more important than ab-
For condition monitoring, non-
intrusive ultrasonic flowmeters are
acceptable in many cases. A perma-
nent flowmeter installed as part of a
pump’s minimum flow protection or
for process measurement can be used,
as long as the flowmeter’s long-term
condition is considered to be constant.
Or, it can be inspected regularly.
Shut-off head method
The shut-off head method can be used
for predictive maintenance of pumps.
While measuring the head at zero
flow is a relatively simple test, it is
only possible where it can be tolerated
by the pump. This is not the case for
high-energy pumps, and for pumps of
high specific speed where the power
at shutoff is greater than that at the
duty point. Pumps have exploded from
a buildup of pressure when left run-
ning at zero flow.
To perform the shut-off head test,
read the suction and discharge pres-
sures (when steady) with the dis-
charge valve closed fully for no longer
than 30 s or so. To convert the pres-
sure readings into head values, the
liquid temperature is also needed to
determine the density.
Wear on the outer diameters of
pump vanes will show readily, be-
cause the head-flow curve of a worn
pump shifts toward the zero-flow axis.
To show wear of the sealing ring, the
pump head-flow curve needs to be rel-
atively steep. (Note that if the pump
has a rising head-flow curve, internal
leakage will initially give rise to an in-
crease in shut-off head).
35
 Cover Story

Figure 4.
20 Condition
L/S monitoring of a
High critical
high-energy mul-
tistage pump can
High alarm be accomplished
by measuring
the balance-
Leakoff flowrate

14.6
device leakoff
flow. (Note:
flows shown are
Pump overhauled

corrected to a
standard pump
speed)

5
L/S
J J A S O N 1994 M A M J J A S O N 1995
Months

Thermodynamic method method would be more attractive eco- method is relatively inexpensive.
Another method of pump monitoring is nomically if no special tapping points Figure 4 shows an example of using
to measure the temperature rise of the were required. Research at Monash leakoff flow to schedule pump over-
liquid through the pump. This measure- University (Gippsland, Australia cam- hauls of boiler-feed pumps at a power
ment is a reflection of the inefficiency pus) on high-head pumps using special plant. Flows are read manually, and
of the pump. Because the differential semiconductor temperature probes on trends plotted using a database pro-
temperature is small, great care is re- the outside surface of the piping (even gram. Note that here the balance flow
quired to measure it. For example, ef- when covered with insulation) gave (15 L/s) corresponds to about 10% of
fects of recirculation at the pump inlet usable results, provided the pump was the regular duty flow, and consumes
and outlet must be eliminated and allowed to run at steady operating con- about 250 kW of extra power. When
thermodynamic tests are not possible ditions for 30 min to allow the piping added to the likely internal recircu-
at low or zero flow. Pump efficiency temperature to stabilize [4]. lation, this would mean that an even
can be calculated from the measured The empirical expression shown larger proportion of the power ab-
data of inlet temperature, the differen- below gives the percent efficiency for sorbed is being wasted.
tial temperature and the head. If the pumps at up to 54°C. The expression The boiler-feed pumps are variable-
efficiency changes over time, compari- includes a correction for the isentropic speed units, and other tests show that
sons can be made on plots of efficiency temperature rise. Total head is in kPa, the measured flows must be corrected
versus head. For high-head pumps, an and temperatures are in °C [5]. in direct proportion to the speed. On
allowance must be made for the isen- 100 a set of pumps of a different design at
tropic temperature rise, which occurs  Temp rise  another location, both head-flow and
as a result of pressure increase [2]. 1 − 0.003( InletTemp − 2 ) + 4,160 Total heead  balance flow were measured for some
 
Commercially available devices are years, but no correlation was found be-
widely used for the thermodynamic  tween the two.
method, especially in the water indus- Measurement of balance flow On still another pump type, of the
try [3]. For the installation of pressure Multistage pumps with their impellers 11 stages, the head-flow performance
and temperature probes, tappings facing in one direction usually have a was determined to be well below the
for measuring suction and discharge balance disc or drum arranged such datum curve. As the pump was dis-
must be two pipe diameters away from that the final-stage discharge pressure mantled, measurements showed that
pump flanges. Tong-type detectors are counteracts the axial thrust on the the interstage clearances were not
placed to measure motor power. Pump shaft line. Another method for pump worn. A condition-monitoring credibil-
efficiency is then found from the pre- condition monitoring is to measure the ity crisis was averted when the bal-
cise measurement of the head and leakoff from the balance device [6]. ance seat area was reached and found
temperature rise through the pump. The basis of the method is that if to be severely eroded from water leak-
By assessing motor losses, the power increased wear in the annular space ing past the valve seat. Balance flow
absorbed by the pump can be com- of the balance device is evident from had obviously been very high. For the
puted, and from these data, the pump increased leakoff flow, then the inter- best monitoring, it is therefore desir-
flow can be found. stage clearances must also be worn. able that both head-flow and balance
For condition monitoring, tests at Because the leakoff line is quite small flow should be measured, particularly
around the normal operating point are compared to the pump main flow pip- if the balance area can be separately
usually sufficient. The thermodynamic ing, a permanent flowmeter for this dismantled in the field.
36 Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
 900
Site test –
800
Head, m
700
Test points – worn pump
600
3,000
2,300
2,150
Power, kW
2,000
0 200
Optimum time to overhaul
Cost per month, $
Calculating time to overhaul
The most economically cost-effective
time to restore lost pump performance
by overhaul varies with the circum-
stances. If the deterioration of pump
performance is constant over time,
then operators can conduct a cashflow
analysis to ensure that investing in
the pump overhaul will yield the re-
quired rate of return. This analysis is
the same process as that used in de-
ciding on any significant investment
in plant improvement. If the dete-
rioration rate is increasing with time,
then the optimum time for overhaul
occurs when the accumulated cost of
the increased electricity consumption
equals the cost of the overhaul itself.
The method for calculating the opti-
mal time to overhaul can be applied to
a number of pump-operating scenarios,
which are described as follows:
Pump deterioration results in a
reduction in plant production:
Whenever the cost of the overhaul is
small or insignificant compared to the
cost of lost plant production, prompt
overhaul is usually justified at any
convenient “window.”
Pumps that run intermittently to
meet a demand: In a pumping in-
stallation such as topping-up a water
supply tank or pumping liquid out of
n ew pum
p
A
C D
Figure 5.
Head-flow-
E power char-
acteristics of
B a new pump
differ from the
data points for
a worn pump.
Point C to D
400 600 800 1,000
shows internal
Flow, m3/h
leakage flow
Figure 6.
The point that
optimizes the
time to pump
Cost of overhaul/month overhaul can
Total cost/month be shown
Cost/month of energy usage graphically
Time, months
a tank or vessel, deterioration will re-
sult in the pump taking more time to
do its duty. Therefore, the extra ser-
vice time required of the pump results
in increased power consumption, and
that can be compared to the cost of
conducting the overhaul.
Pump deterioration does not affect
plant production: In some cases,
where a pump is operated at constant
speed with throttle-valve control, a
deterioration in pump performance
may not affect plant performance, at
least initially. The internal wear does
not cause any loss in production from
the plant, because the control valve
can open more fully to maintain pump
output. Eventually, as wear progresses
over time, pump output may not be
sufficient to avoid a loss of production.
Or the extra power consumed will ex-
ceed the motor rating.
Figure 5 shows the head-power-
flow site-test characteristics of such a
pump. Its output is controlled using a
throttle control valve. The duty flow is
800 m³/h, and the duty point in the new
condition is represented in Line A. The
power absorbed by the pump is read off
the power-flow curve (2,150 kW; Line
B). The power-flow curve should ideally
be found onsite, but information from
the works tests may have to suffice.
Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
After some service, the data points
marked on the diagram as “Test points
— worn pump” indicate that internal
wear has occurred. When worn to this
extent, the operating point moves to
Point C (the system resistance curve
moves lower when the throttle valve
is opened further).
The increased power required in the
worn condition can be estimated by
extending from the head-flow curve at
constant head from the operating point
to Point D, and then dropping straight
down to the point where the the power-
flow curve intersects for the new con-
dition at constant flow: Point E. Next,
follow the arrowed line in Figure 5. It
is assumed that the original curve still
represents the flow through the impel-
lers. Less flow is leaving the pump to
the system due to internal wear. (If the
pump was motor-driven, it may be pos-
sible to measure the actual power by a
test at extra expense).
In the example, the power required
for this duty in the worn condition is
shown in Figure 5 by the projection
from the duty flow of 800 m3/h to the
test curve to find 640 m of head, then
by moving across to the “site test —
new pump” curve, and down to the
power curve, to find 2,300 kW.
The extra electricity consumption
is therefore 2,300 – 2,150 = 150 kW,
which is then divided by motor ef-
ficiency (90%, in this case), to obtain
167 kW of extra consumption.
If the sealing clearances are known
(either by previous experience of corre-
lation with measured performance, or
if the pump is opened up already), op-
erators can estimate the extra power
consumed that will likely be saved as
a result of an overhaul [1, 8].
Finding the optimum time for over-
haul from head-flow data. For this
example (Figure 6), the test points
were obtained following 24 months of
service (the pump was known to be in
new condition at the start). An over-
haul would cost $50,000, with electric-
ity costs of $0.10/kWh and with the
pump in service for 27% of the time,
on average. The increased power con-
sumption is estimated at 167 kW (with
motor efficiency included in the total).
The test discussed here shows that
the rate of increasing cost per month
has reached 167 × 0.10 × 0.27 × 720
37

Cover Story
= $3,246/mo (using an average month
as 720 h).
As the time that the pump has been
operating now is 24 months, $3,246 ÷
24 gives the average monthly cost rate
of deterioration as $135/mo.
The optimum time for overhaul (T) is
calculated [7] from Equation (1).
2×O
T=
C  (1)
where O = cost of overhaul and C =
cost rate of deterioration.
This calculation yields an optimum
time to overhaul of the pump of 27.2
months. It is better to calculate and
plot the average total cost-per-month
values for a range of times. Doing so
will allow the cost impact of undertak-
ing the repairs at another time (such
as at a scheduled plant shutdown), to
be seen clearly.
Average cost, month by month
For an example, use the time period
of 22 months. The average cost of con-
ducting the overhaul is now $50,000 ÷
22 = $2,273/mo.
The average cost of extra energy con-
sumed is then ($135 × 22) ÷ 2 = $1,485/
mo. Total average cost per month is the
sum of these two figures: $3,578/mo.
Since pump wear progresses linearly,
the cost per month also is linear and the
average can be obtained by dividing by
two (at the starting time, the value is
zero, and the average over the time pe-
riod is given by the ending value minus
the start value, divided by two).
Repeat this calculation for several
months (the use of a spreadsheet can
be helpful) and look for the minimum
total cost, which is at 27.2 months. If
plotted as cost per month against time,
the resulting curves will show that the
cost per month of overhaul drops over
time, and the cost of extra energy in-
creases with time.
The time value of money could also
be taken into account, if required. Usu-
ally the total cost curve is fairly flat
for ±20% or so. The calculations can be
easily set up using a spreadsheet.
If the overhaul was delayed until
the 30-month mark, for example, then
the accumulated cost of lost energy
would have reached $135 × 0.5 × 30²
= $60,750. At 27.2 months, the cost is
$135 × 0.5 × 27.2² = $49,939. The cost
38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
120
Head a
t 1,660
rpm (
new)
100
Head, m
A C
Head at 1,490 rpm (new)
80
Head at 1,660 rpm (worn)
6 0
rpm
t 1,490
B Power a
1,000 1,200 1,400
Flow, m3/h
of delaying overhaul is thus the differ-
ence between the two ($10,811).
This calculation is only correct if the
wear progresses at a rate that increases
uniformly with time. As Figure 3 shows,
this is not unusual. Information may
not be available to make any other as-
sumption, but decision makers have to
start somewhere. Other formulas apply
for nonlinear rates of change [7].
Some notes and additional points to
consider regarding these calculations
are as follows:
• Some relatively small pumps may
never fully justify an overhaul on
savings in energy use alone, but the
overhaul may be justified on reduced
plant-production rate
• The method does not apply to pumps
of high specific speed that show lit-
tle change, or even a reduction, in
power with increased flow
• If a pump varies in its duty, then the
energy usage would be corrected in
proportion
• The cost of electricity to be used
here may vary with the power sup-
plier’s tariff structure. The cost may
be less in stepped blocks with higher
consumption levels for the plant, or
a peak-demand charge may apply
Pump deterioration does not af-
fect production (variable-speed
control): In situations where a pump
has variable-speed control, and perfor-
mance deterioration does not (at least
initially) affect production, the follow-
ing steps can be taken. For a pump
where the speed is varied to meet
its desired duty, the effect of wear on
power required is much more dramatic
than for the case of a constant-speed,
throttle-controlled pump. This is be-
cause the power usage increases in pro-
portion to the cube of the speed ratio.
Unless the pump output is limited
by the pump reaching its maximum
speed, or by its driver reaching its
highest allowable power output, then
600
Figure 7
Power, kW
For variable-
500
speed pumps,
the effect of
(new) 425 400 wear on power
325 required for
300
operation is
more dramatic
than constant-
1,600 1,800 speed pumps
no production will be lost. However,
power consumed will increase more
dramatically for a given wear state
than that for a constant-speed pump.
To estimate the power required in
the worn state, the head-flow curve
must be drawn for the current higher
speed in the new condition. Select a
head-flow point on the original, new-
condition curve, and correct it to the
higher speed by multiplying the flow
by the speed ratio and multiplying
the head by the square of the speed
ratio. Repeat this for several other
points at flows above regular-duty
flow to draw the new condition head-
flow curve.
Follow the same method and calcula-
tions as in the previous section to find
the time for overhaul at minimum total
cost. The operating point is projected
from the worn curve to the new curve
at the same speed as the worn curve.
Figure 7 shows the performance of
a variable-speed pump. When new,
operation at 1,490 rpm meets the de-
sired duty flow, at operating Point A,
requiring 325 kW of power (Point B).
After some period of service, internal
leakage has increased to the extent
that the pump must run at 1,660
rpm to meet the required duty (still
Point A).
To estimate the power required now,
the head-flow curve must be drawn for
the higher speed in the new condition.
Several head-flow points are selected
and corrected to the higher speed.
To do this, multiply each flow by the
speed ratio, and multiply each match-
ing head by the speed ratio squared.
This will result in the head-flow curve
at 1,660 rpm in the new condition.
Project across from the head at the
duty flow (Point A) to meet the head-
flow curve at 1,660 rpm (new condition;
Line C in Figure 7). Projection down-
ward at a constant flow leads to the in-
creased power required at 425 kW. The
extra power is 31% more. (This pump
is driven by a steam turbine, so power
consumption cannot be measured).
The same calculations as those pre-
sented in the previous section are fol-
lowed to find the time to an overhaul
that minimizes total cost.
Using shut-off head test results
The shut-off head test information
can also be used to estimate the power
used in the worn state, and to perform
References
1. American National Standards Institute.
American National Standard for Centrifugal
and Vertical Pumps for Condition Monitor-
ing. ANSI/HI 9.6.5-2000.
2. Beebe, R.S. “Predictive maintenance of
pumps using condition monitoring.” Elsevier,
London. 2004.
3. Robertson, M. and others. Continuous Pump
Performance Monitoring and Scheduling.
IMechE Symposium — Energy Savings in
Pumps and Pumping, London, 2007.
4. Beebe, R.S. Thermometric testing of high-
energy pumps using pipe surface measure-
ments. Paper presented at the 3rd ACSIM
(Asia-Pacific Conference on Systems Integ
The Chemical Engineering bookstore offers a
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the optimization calculations as ex-
plained in the above section.
Head-power-flow characteristics
in the “new” state are needed as be-
fore, and the operating point must be
known. Note the power required at the
operating point, as before.
Make an overlay trace of the head-
flow curve in the new condition. Place
it over the “new” curve and move to
the left horizontally until the curve
cuts the head axis at the value of the
rity and Maintenance), September 25–27,
2002, Cairns, Australia.
5. Whillier, A. Site testing of high-lift pumps in
the South African mining industry. IMechE
paper C155/72, Conference on Site testing of
Pumps. London, pp. 209–217.
6. Karassik, I.J. and others (Eds.). “Pump
Handbook” McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001.
7. Haynes, C.J., and Fitzgerald, M.A. Schedul-
ing Power Plant Maintenance Using Perfor-
mance Data, ASME Paper 86-JPGC-Pwr-63,
1986.
8. Stepanoff, A.J. “Centrifugal And Axial Flow
Pumps.” John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, N.J.
1957, and Figure 1-77A of the PDF figures
found at www.pumps.org.
17792
Avecom ad 57x117.indd 1
Chemical Engineering www.che.com September 2012
shut-off head obtained on the test.
The trace is now in the position of
the “worn” head-flow curve, which is
being experienced. Exactly the same
process as that explained above can
be followed.  ■
Edited by Scott Jenkins
Author
Ray Beebe (Phone: +61-408-
178-261; Email: ray.beebe@
monash.edu) works part-time
since retiring after a 20-year
tenure as a senior university
engineering lecturer at Mo-
nash University (Gippsland
campus, Victoria, Australia)
and an engineering consul-
tant with 28 years of experi-
ence in the power generation
industry. His commitment
to sharing knowledge and experience has led to
writing and presenting at many conferences and
conducting training courses in condition moni-
toring around the world. His second book gained
the George Julius Medal of Engineers Australia
for the best publication in mechanical engineer-
ing in 2004. His third book, on condition moni-
toring of steam turbines will be published later
this year. He is an active volunteer in rotary and
scouting. Beebe received a diploma of mechanical
engineering from the Caulfield Institute of Tech-
nology, and an M.S. in engineering science from
Monash University.
Multidechlorobac
Rapid and sustainable
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28/06/12 10:17
39
 Feature Report
Magnetically Driven
Pumps: An overview
Understanding sealless pump technologies
and their potential applications
Richard Tym
ITT Goulds Pumps
M
agnetically driven (mag
drive) centrifugal pumps
have been in use since
1947 when the first mag-
drive pump was developed. Mag
drives have always been the work-
horse pump in applications with
corrosive and often toxic fluid ap-
plications, and particularly over the
last 20 years they’ve become more
common in the chemical process in-
dustries (CPI).
A typical mag-drive pump is com-
prised of a magnetically coupled
rotor-and-drive assembly separated
by a containment shell that hermet-
ically seals pumpage from the at-
mosphere (Figure 1). The mag-drive
pump’s key feature is a sealless
design, which eliminates a mode of
failure. This often makes it a strong
solution for pumping applications
with mechanical seal problems.
The mag drive is commonly used to
pump hazardous and high intrinsic
value pumpage where the process
cannot or should not be diluted by
flush media (typical in a traditional
mechanical-seal pump). Mag drives
have many growing applications
in global industries, such as petro-
chemicals in petroleum refineries,
pharmaceutical applications, and
pulp-and-paper mills, which employ
caustic, acid and solvent services
during production. However, this
type of pump is somewhat under-
utilized in many of these industries
due to common misconceptions
about the technology.
56 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
Figure 1.
The main components
of a mag-drive pump
are shown in this
cross section
Mag-drive fundamentals
Magnetically driven pumps have
several design features that extend
pump life, especially in common CPI
applications with hazardous scenar-
ios. The mag drive’s key design fea-
ture is the absence of a traditional
rotating mechanical seal (compare
Figure 1 and Figure 2). Instead, a
full hermetic seal with no rotating
component reduces the risk of leaks.
This sealless design is the most well-
known feature of mag drives and is
a primary reason why they are often
used for hazardous or valuable flu-
ids. Another advantage is avoidance
of mechanical seal maintenance and
flush plan maintenance.
Mag-drive pumps are available
in either ANSI or ISO dimensional
standards. They are available in
most metallurgies, as well as non-
metallic designs, such as with a
polymer lining. A polymer design of-
fers improved corrosion resistance,
utilizing polymer coatings such as
EFTE (ethylene tetrafluoroethyl-
ene). All mag drives, whether metal
Part 1
Source:
ITT Goulds
Pumps
or lined, have very limited solids
handling capability. The nature of
the mag-drive design has circuits
that facilitate process lubrication
of internal bearings, and these pas-
sageways are typically very small.
If solids are introduced, the circuits
can easily get blocked, leading to
pump damage. The passage ways
are sometimes so small that it will
take only a minute amount of very
small solids to erode the compo-
nents of a mag-drive pump.
Design and usage
In addition to the sealless advan-
tages, there are some key consid-
erations when deciding whether
to use a mag-drive pump. Because
they utilize magnets to transfer
power and torque from the drive
assembly to the driven rotor as-
sembly, it’s important to recognize
that there are temperature limita-
tions for magnet’s materials. When
exposed to temperatures above
their threshold they can begin to
lose their magnetism. Over time,

Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
Figure 2. One advantage of mag-drive pumps is the absence of
a mechanical seal (shown here), which reduces the risk of leaks
this loss of magnetism results in
pump failure due to degradation of
the magnetic coupling between the
drive and the driven component.
Therefore temperature characteris-
tics of the application are a critical
factor when considering application
of a mag-drive pump.
Another factor to weigh is the
torque limitation due to the mag-
netic coupling of the drive and com-
ponents. It’s important to make sure
that the magnets are sized correctly
so magnetic-coupling breakaway
torque is not exceeded during unit
startup or steady-state operation. If
breakaway torque is exceeded, the
magnetic coupling between the drive
and the driven assemblies is lost, and
the impeller will cease to spin, which
means the pump must be shut down
to allow the magnets to recouple.
If there are numerous instances of
magnet decoupling due to improper
magnet selection or other circum-
stances, such as clogging or process
upset, magnets will degrade over
time to the point where the pump
will no longer operate properly.
In metallic mag-drive pumps,
eddy currents can also affect perfor-
mance. Eddy currents are electrical
currents generated by the motion of
the magnets moving past an electri-
cally conductive containment shell.
The inner workings of a metallic
mag-drive pump have a drive mag-
net and a driven assembly separated
by a metal barrier. As the magnets
start rotating around this barrier,
eddy currents form and generate
heat. The design of a mag-drive
pump must take into account the
removal of this heat to avoid boiling
and possible flashing or vaporizing
Figure 3. Unlike earlier designs, today’s mag-drive
pumps are simpler and have fewer components
of process lubricants, which will
cause pump failure through bear-
ing damage. Furthermore, there is
a loss of horsepower due to eddy
currents. Eddy-current effects can
be mitigated by correct sizing of the
magnets and the motor.
A final consideration when utiliz-
ing mag-drive pumps is to be aware
that they are extremely sensitive
to dry-run and dead-head condi-
tions. In the case of dry run, a loss
of liquid in the pump system can
cause the process lubricated bear-
ings to overheat and crack, leading
to pump failure. Dead head occurs
when running the pump against
a closed valve or a blockage in the
line results in the loss of fluid cir-
culation. This results in a buildup
of heat and excessive thrust loading
that can cause unit failure.
Overview of mag-drive designs
A common misconception about
mag-drive pumps is that their de-
signs are complicated. These mis-
conceptions are based on older
mag-drive designs that commonly
had a large number of component
parts, including individual heat-
shrunk bearings, spacers and vari-
ous O-rings. More than a dozen
components were typically involved
and assembling and disassembling
required longer maintenance time.
However, the industry has made
great strides in recent years, result-
ing in newer, significantly simpler
technologies (Figure 3). Improve-
ments to bearing-cartridge designs
reduce and consolidate components,
such as bearings and spacers, mak-
ing for easier maintenance, reduced
downtime and less inventory.
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
Operationally, there are several
fundamental components in a mag-
drive pump design. There are two
separate rotating assemblies (drive
and driven) connected by a mag-
netic coupling. The motor transfers
power through the drive magnet
assembly to the driven magnet as-
sembly, which is connected to the
impeller and ultimately moves the
fluid in the pump system. Between
the two assemblies is a contain-
ment shell that keeps all of the
fluid within the pump and serves
to maintain pressure, acting as a
hermetic seal that prevents fluids
and vapors from escaping to the
atmosphere. The magnets interact
through magnetic flux lines that
are translated across the contain-
ment shell. Within these two assem-
blies are alternating rings of north
and south magnets, which both at-
tract and oppose each other based
on positioning, preventing slippage
from occurring. This type of design
is known as a coaxial synchronous
magnetic drive, and ensures that
both the pump and motor will spin
at the same rate.
Some high-temperature mag-
drive designs (>500°F) use a
slightly different design to alleviate
demagnetization effects. The drive
magnet assembly outside the con-
tainment shell is typically the same
as a standard design. However, the
driven assembly consists of a me-
tallic torque ring that couples with
the drive magnet to spin the impel-
ler (Figure 4). This design protects
against excessive temperatures by
removing driven magnets from im-
mersion in high-temperature media,
and is often used in heat-transfer-
57

Feature Report
media applications, as well as many
other high-temperature chemical,
oil-and-gas and general industry
applications. This design allows for
a small amount of slippage due to
the use of the drive metallic torque
ring, but it typically does not ex-
perience issues with decoupling,
although a slight loss of efficiency
(when compared to traditional mag-
drive designs) may result.
Finally, the rare earth materials
from which magnets are made are
important to understand. The most
common is neodymium iron boron
(NdFeB), which has a high mag-
netic field strength per volume, but
cannot withstand high tempera-
tures. Other materials commonly
used in mag drives are samarium
cobalt (SmCo) and aluminum nickel
cobalt (Alnico). SmCo has slightly
lower magnetic strength than
NdFeB, but can withstand higher
temperatures. Alnico can handle
much higher temperatures than
both NdFeB and SmCo, however it
lacks strength and cannot handle
the torque present in some of the
more demanding pumping applica-
tions. Magnet material selection is
therefore critical when specifying
mag-drive pumps.
Typical applications
Hazardous and regulated services
are the most common applications
for mag drives as they are well-
suited for pumping liquids that
may pose threats to people and the
environment. The mag-drive design
offers heightened safety for work-
ers and better protection for the
environment by eliminating leaks
of hazardous fluids (see boxes on p.
58 and 59). Sealed pumps applied
to these types of services may leak
over time, or require complex double
seals to prevent hazardous liquids
and vapors from escaping to the at-
mosphere, which can lead to safety
hazards, downtime and increased
maintenance requirements.
Some examples of primary mag-
drive applications are liquid pump-
ing of strong acids, strong bases,
and solvents, such as acetone, hy-
drochloric acid, sulfuric acid and
sodium hydroxide. Many of these
58 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
Reducing environmental concerns
at paper mills
P
ulp-and-paper mills are now able to drastically reduce environmental concerns by
eliminating a primary potential point of failure by replacing sealed pumps with
sealless mag drives. The latest mag-drive designs and technologies feature fewer
parts and are robust enough to withstand the caustic chemicals commonly used in paper
mills, including sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, sodium hypochlorite, chlorine dioxide,
and hydrogen peroxide. Any of these chemicals may cause damage to and leakage
through the seal faces, ultimately damaging pumps and posing safety and health risks to
workers. Plant operators can streamline maintenance requirements and utilize mag-drive
pumps to handle hazardous sulfuric acid services commonly found in almost any paper
mill, minimizing potential environmental hazards and saving time and money.  ❏
Figure 4. This
high-temperature Motor (drive) Pump (driven)
(>500°F) mag-drive
design uses a metallic
torque ring instead of
a drive-magnet as-
sembly to couple with
the drive magnet. Re-
moving magnets from
the high-temperature
Driven torque ring
pumpage eliminates
the possibility of Drive magnet
driven magnet assembly
demagnetization Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
would pose a serious health risk to their own set of guidelines based on
plant personnel if there is a fluid internal hazard classifications.
or vapor leak. Some materials can Valuable pumpage, such as mer-
even auto-ignite when exposed to cury and printer ink, along with
the atmosphere. other industry services where
In these situations, a mechani- downtime brings significant costs,
cally sealed unit can be riskier and can also be viable candidates for
more expensive than a mag drive. mag-drive usage. Single seals leak
Typically a traditional mechani- fluid upon failure, and once a pump
cally sealed pump in a hazardous leaks, the fluid is not usually recov-
application process would utilize erable. This results in lost money
complex double-seal systems that and environmental cleanup time.
are a significant capital investment. A double seal is an expensive and
They also require much more main- higher-maintenance solution. Mag-
tenance and additional monitoring. netically driven pumps can protect
Other mag-drive applications can precious pumpage and eliminate
be where liquid is hard to seal with risk of leakage due to their her-
a traditional mechanical seal. For metically sealed design and limited
example, pulp-and-paper mills em- maintenance needs.
ploy sodium hydroxide applications Finally, remote locations are sce-
where pumpage can crystallize on narios that often call for sealless
seal faces, which then can cause mag-drive pumps. As plants ex-
seal failure. To avoid this, a flush pand, sometimes over miles of land,
must be run to the seal that can some services are located remotely
increase installation, maintenance, and are not conducive to routine
plant water and energy consump- monitoring and maintenance. Ex-
tion costs. amples include wastewater-treat-
The need for environmental ment facilities where pH correction
regulation adherence in the mar- is needed because water is going to
ketplace has also driven aware- be introduced back into a system
ness of mag-drive pumps. The U.S. or a nearby river or lake. This re-
Environmental Protection Agency quires technology to eliminate po-
(EPA) regulates emissions and tential leaks and limit maintenance
waste, and instituted the Clean Air needs. Another example would be a
Act of 1990, which requires certain sealed pump in a remote area that
chemicals or services to utilize a would require flushing. This may
sealless pump. Furthermore, many require running a significant length
chemical plants have implemented of flush line to the pump’s location

150
Life cycle costs, %
100
50
0 motor pump
Pump size 50-32-160
Discharge Q= 10 m3/h
Head H= 28 m
Speed n= 2,900 rpm
Power P= 1.5 kW
figure 5. This chart compares the lifecycle costs for centrifugal pumps
using various sealing options
and also carries high water-usage
costs. Introducing a sealless pump
to a remote location eliminates the
need for seal checks and flushing,
and provides a reliable system with
minimal maintenance.
By taking the seal out of the sys-
tem, a major failure point is elimi-
nated and reliability is enhanced.
Eliminating bearings is a second
feature mag-drive pumps offer that
improves reliability. Close-coupled
mag-drive designs eliminate the
power end, removing the possibil-
ity of oil-lubricated bearing failure,
coupling misalignment, and in most
cases, the need for a baseplate.
Comparison to other seal options
A mag-drive pump is comparable
in cost to single-sealed and canned-
motor pump designs, and is less
costly than double-sealed pumps
that utilize barrier-fluid systems.
There is no replacement of seals
and no running of flush lines, lead-
ing to reduced maintenance and
downtime. When evaluating differ-
ent pump sizes and duty points one
must look at total lifecycle costs.
The chart shown in Figure 5 pro-
vides a breakdown across the vari-
ous pump designs. Canned-motor
pumps require more maintenance
time and dollars, as they are gener-
ally very difficult to work on, and
require a specialized maintenance
shop on site. Also, operators may
need to send the motor out for ser-
vice if there is a breach of the pri-
mary barrier to the internal motor
windings. Double-sealed pumps
have higher costs across pump
sizes compared to mag drives. Mag
Safer Work Environment for
Aluminum Manufacturer
A
Single North American architectural aluminum
mechanical store-front and door manufacturer used
sealed pump
several anodizing tanks to treat and color
Double its aluminum products. Each tank contained
mechanical 17% sulfuric acid that needed to be maintained
sealed pump at 70°F for optimal results. During the course
of the anodizing process, heat was generated
Mag drive as the sulfuric acid reacted with the aluminum
products, and the acid was pumped out of the
tanks through chillers. Each of the pumps was
Canned a mechanically sealed ANSI pump with a large
sheet of Plexiglas leaning up against the pump
85-50-200 unit, effectively acting as a “spray shield.” A fine
40 m3/h mist of sulfuric acid would emit from each pump
41 m seal, barely noticed by plant personnel. This
2,900 rpm Source: Infractor hazardous condition resulted in workers finding
DEGUSSA-Hüls
7.0 kW multiple holes in work clothing where the acid
had splashed during the workday. Needless to
say, a change was needed in order to increase
worker safety. Initially, the plant agreed to install
drives also deliver optimal one non-metallic magnetically driven pump as a
test on one of these tanks. The mag-drive pump
performance, with metallic
cut maintenance, increased safety and reduced
mag-drive efficiencies often downtime. The replacement was such a success
equivalent to that of metal- that mag-drive pumps replaced all mechanically
sealed ANSI pumps. Also sealed ANSI pumps, providing a safer and more
worth noting is that non- efficient work environment for plant personnel. ❏
metallic (lined) mag-drive
pumps can be up to 30%
more efficient than metallic seal- pressures in the mid to upper 200
less pumps. psi range. Overall, lined mag-drive
pumps are very good for working
Lined versus metallic with various acids or bases as long
Lined mag-drive designs (Figure 6) as they are below certain tempera-
protect the metal casing from cor- ture and pressure thresholds.
rosion that is common in chemical A metallic mag-drive-pump de-
applications. Some common linings sign (Figure 7) is capable of with-
are PTFE (polytetrafluoroethyl- standing higher pressure and tem-
ene), PFA (perfluoroalkoxy alkanes), peratures limits. These pumps are
ETFA (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene) well suited for solvents, heat-trans-
and PVDF (polyvinylidene fluoride). fer fluids and other non-conductive
All offer corrosion resistance from fluids that typically run hotter.
chemicals; however, they are not Some metallic mag drives can easily
universally resistant to all media, handle over 500°F for liquid-service
which is why various coating options temperatures. Metallic mag-drive
exist. Some components can also be pumps also are strong solutions
fiber reinforced with carbon or glass. for pumping non-conductive fluids,
For example, the impeller can often such as benzene, that can build up
be reinforced with these materials to an electrostatic discharge, which
provide greater protection from hy- can be an issue for designs employ-
draulic erosion. In a lined mag-drive ing an FRP polymer-lined contain-
pump there is no eddy-current heat ment shell. When using an FRP-
buildup or potential power loss from lined shell design, the electrostatic
currents as the containment shell is discharge can “arc” through the
typically fiberglass-reinforced plas- nonmetal containment shell, caus-
tic (FRP) that is coated with one of ing a pinhole leak that will cause
the linings listed above. complete pump failure over time,
One thing to consider with lined as well as introduce environmental
mag-drive pumps is that they are and personnel hazards that may be
generally limited in the areas of difficult to observe at their onset.
temperature and pressure. The In a metallic mag-drive pump this
linings can only accommodate arcing charge will not penetrate the
temperatures in the mid-200°F alloy containment shell.
range, with various casings typi- Finally, metallic mag-drive de-
cally capable of sustaining design signs have better solids-handling
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014 59
 Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
Feature Report
capabilities compared to their lined
counterparts. Metal is more resilient
to solids erosion than a lined pump,
although only up to a point. Also,
with metal-mag-drive designs there
are typically options for providing
additional internal bearing flush
since concerns over breaching and
compromising polymer linings are
eliminated. Metal mag drives also
offer more options for monitoring and
controls. Instrumentation devices,
such as thermocouples, resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), level
switches and temperature switches
are all more readily available to use
on a metallic mag drive, once again
because concerns about breaching
lined components are eliminated.
Avoiding failure modes
When using mag drives, one can
encounter failure modes not pres-
ent with a sealed-pump applica-
tion. The most common mag-drive
failure mode is dry run. Simply
put, dry run occurs when a pump
is run without fluid. Mag-drive
designs employ process lubricated
bearings often made of carbon or
silicon-carbide material. During dry
run, the lack of fluid in the system
causes the bearings to lose lubrica-
tion, which can result in cracking,
fracture and eventual failure due to
the nature of the bearing material.
Another cause of dry run is when
fluid overheats, boils and flashes off
in the lubrication circuit, effectively
removing process lubrication. This
can lead to chipping, cracking and
increased temperatures that can
melt plastic linings and lead to a
pump seizing.
Some solutions to avoid dry run
are to attach a power monitor to the
pump, which can alert the operator
or control system of the condition,
or just automatically shut the pump
down after a short period of time.
There are also specialized methods
of treating or coating rotating and
stationary silicon-carbide compo-
nent surfaces that reduce their co-
efficient of friction and can, for a
short time, minimize the effects of
dry run.
The other common failure mode
of mag-drive pumps is dead head-
60 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
Figure 6. Mag-drive pumps can be
supplied with polymer linings for coro-
sion protection
ing, which can occur by running the
pump against a closed discharge
valve. Fluid temperatures begin
to rise quickly because of energy
buildup of impeller rotation in a
closed system, leading to boiling,
cavitation and bearing damage.
Dead heading can be avoided by
flow and temperature monitoring
and controls.
Processing solids can also provide
a set of challenges due to erosion or
clogging. Mag-drive pumps are not
made to handle solids. Introducing
solids will cause accelerated ero-
sion, especially within lined mag-
drive pumps. Solids can also collect
in low-pressure areas in the bear-
ing circuits, typically at the rear
corners of the containment shell,
causing accelerated erosion. Clog-
ging of process lubrication and re-
circulation circuits can also occur
where the bearings can lose lubri-
cation and fail. A primary solution
in metallic mag drives is a bear-
ing flush where added pressure is
introduced to a pump system and
can help to keep solids from build-
ing up in these circuits. Improved
pump designs in both lined and
metallic mag drives can also lead
to more fluid movement (and thus
easier solids removal from “problem
areas”), achieved by introducing
more channels or adding pumping
actuators in the lubrication circuit.
A final important consideration is
magnetic decoupling. In mag-drive
pumps, the magnetic field between
the magnets spins the impeller.
The magnetic coupling has a torque
limit, so the pump must be prop-
erly sized, and designs must take
into consideration the proper mag-
netic materials as well as sizing. If
magnet materials and size are not
properly specified, the torque limit
is exceeded and the magnetic cou-
Source: ITT Goulds Pumps
Figure 7. Metallic mag-drive pumps
are more suited for higher temperature
and pressure applications
pling connection can be broken, re-
sulting in downtime and possible
unit failure. Some common causes of
magnetic decoupling are hard starts
with higher rates of start-up torque
than seen during steady operation,
wet end clogging due to an unex-
pected high shear or fibrous fluid, or
a process upset, such as encounter-
ing colder temperatures than antici-
pated, which causes a spike in fluid
viscosity. Employing a power moni-
tor can detect magnet decoupling
and mitigate these effects.
Final remarks
CPI plant operators continue to gain
a deeper understanding of the latest
magnetically driven pump technolo-
gies, which offer simpler and more ef-
ficient fluid-process solutions. Using
magnetically driven pumps can
yield significant benefits by improv-
ing safety, reducing plant downtime,
slashing maintenance time and as-
sociated costs, cutting onsite parts
inventory and eliminating potential
failure points through a hermetic
sealless design. Today’s mag-drive
pumps have ideal processing ap-
plications in industries that handle
hazardous fluids. Mag-drive pump
designs offer distinct advantages
over traditional sealed models when
used in the proper environments
and appropriately specified. ■
Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Author
Richard Tym is global
product manager for the
non-metallic and mag-drive
product lines at ITT Goulds
Pumps (240 Fall St., Seneca
Falls, NY 13148; Phone: 315-
568-7378; Fax: 315-568-7076;
Email: richard.tym@itt.com).
During his six years with ITT
Goulds Pumps, Tym has held
various positions in engineer-
ing and product marketing.
He earned a bachelor’s degree in mechanical en-
gineering from Wilkes University and an MBA
from the Rochester Institute of Technology.
 Feature Report
Mechanical Seals Update:
Pharmaceutical and Food Applications
For applications that
require cleanliness,
be sure your
centrifugal pumps
have the proper seals
Heinz P. Bloch
Consultant
S
econd only to electric motors,
centrifugal pumps are the
most common machine used
in the chemical process indus-
tries (CPI). Pumps are serving in
every conceivable fluid application.
They move all manner of fluids from
wastewater to paper pulp, from ul-
tra-clean and purest pharmaceuti-
cal liquids to crude oils laden with a
great variety of contaminants. Hun-
dreds of millions of these pumps
are fitted with mechanical seals
at the point where shafts protrude
through the pump casing. And some
of these seals must satisfy very spe-
cial requirements; the prevention of
contamination is among them.
Appropriately, process pumps in
the pharmaceutical and food-and-
beverage industries are subjected
to stringent hygiene and cleaning
requirements. These include clean-
in-place (CIP), and steam-in-place
(SIP). Industry and its regula-
tory agencies seek to reduce, and
hopefully eliminate, the possibil-
ity of bacteria and micro-organism
growth. Cleanliness is especially
important on surfaces that are in
contact with, or “wetted” by, the pro-
cessed media. Needless to say, such
contamination is detrimental to the
finished processed product; there-
fore, considerable efforts are made
by plant operators, engineers and
managers to avoid contamination.
62 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
Product-wetted
components
are surrounded
by orange color
Figure 1. This cutaway shows a traditional component-style mechanical seal. A
buffer fluid is introduced into the space between inside and external seals
But how thorough are the prevail-
ing cleaning routines, and how suc-
cessful are even the most diligent
efforts around the restricted and
confined spaces of the all-important
mechanical seal? Clearly, the an-
swer to this question depends on
the design of the mechanical seal
and the seal housing. More specifi-
cally, cleaning effectiveness is in-
fluenced by the geometry of sealing
components contacted by the pro-
cess fluid.
Seal design considerations
The three main causes of pump
process-fluid contamination in hy-
gienic applications are easily recog-
nized, as follows:
1. Microorganisms can enter the pro-
cess fluid from the atmospheric
side of the mechanical seal and
may pass through the seal fluid
film.
2. Process fluid could pass through
the sealing fluid film to the non-
process fluid side, which may
lead to microorganism growth in
the residues. These microorgan-
Part 2
isms could then move back across
the seal fluid film into the pro-
cess fluid where they could cause
contamination.
3. Process fluid could stick to the
process-wetted components of the
seal or seal cavity. In that case,
it would be difficult to properly
clean the seal region after pro-
cessing each batch. This could
lead to microorganism growth
and contamination.
The issue is of concern to the Eu-
ropean Hygienic Engineering and
Design Group (EHEDG), an inter-
national body which helps industry
focus on best-practices guidelines
for mechanical seal designs. Among
the considerations spelled out by
EHEDG for hygienic and aseptic
applications, we find a classification
of hygienic equipment into the fol-
lowing three groups:
1. Aseptic
2. Hygienic Equipment Class I
3. Hygienic Equipment Class II
Across all groups or categories, the
EHEDG stipulates that the sealing
Figure 2. Shown here is range of traditional, risky, external and internal component seal designs. These are still found in hy-
gienic applications. Internal components are wetted by process fluid, shown in orange. Arrows point to locations where buffer
fluid is injected
Figure 2: A range of traditional, risky, external/internal component seal designs. These
are still found in hygienic applications. Internal components
Reality are wetted
versus by
best practice
process fluid, shown in orange. Arrows point to locations where
Informal buffer
surveys fluid
show thatismany
injected. (Source: AESSEAL plc, Rotherham, UK and seals presentlyTN)
Rockford, found in the food,
beverage and pharmaceutical
industries are not representing
Product wetted
components
best-available designs. Single-coil
spring “component seal” designs
of the 1970s and 1980s (Figure 1)
are still dominant and in common
use. Note that Figure 1 depicts an
old-style dual (inboard versus ex-
ternal “face to face”) component
mechanical seal used in certain
Figure 3. Shown here is a cartridge seal design for use in hygienic applications.
Buffer fluid is introduced into the space between the product-wetted seal on the left, hygienic applications.
and the external seal on the right side However, on the process side, the
fluid (shown in orange in Figure 1)
device should protect the process fluid. A dual-seal arrangement is
Product-wetted is in direct contact with multiple
fluid from being contaminated components
by intended to reduce the possibility seal crevices and cavities. It will
are surrounded
the fluid environment. It should be of cross-contamination and issues be impractical, if not impossible,
by orange color
easy to clean the sealing region to arising from process fluid traveling to thoroughly clean these regions.
reduce the risk of microorganism across the seal fluid film of the in- As an aside, practically every best-
growth. It is intuitively evident that board seal faces. practice seal-design guideline has
equipment that is difficult to clean EHEDG also stipulates that all been ignored in this particular ge-
will result in an inferior processed unavoidable gaps must be sited at ometry. Regrettably, this is not an
product. Flawed product quality the non-process fluid side of the isolated issue.
may result in a rejected product seal and the components in con- Figure 2 illustrates another
batch, incur additional reprocess- tact with the process fluid must be family of similarly unsuitable or
ing cost, force product recalls and smooth and free of crevices. Again, outdated designs. All three are in-
represent a real danger for human this guideline is intended to re- ternal/external component-seal de-
consumption or use. duce the potential for bacteria and signs with buffer fluid. These seals
Within the three equipment microorganism growth. It would find extensive use in the food-and-
groups or categories, Class I and serve no-one’s best interests to have beverage industry. But these and
Aseptic equipment requirements process fluids stick to any part of similar designs have significant
detail the use of an external seal to a pump. Contamination risks are bacteria and microorganism growth
create a buffer region (seal cavity). even greater when changing batch potential around the components
This buffer region can be continu- composition, or with time elapsing wetted by the process fluid. While
ally flushed with an appropriate between successive batches. the issue is entirely design-related,
Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014 63
 Feature Report
it can, and has been, successfully
avoided by the intelligent redesign
depicted in Figure 3.
Using the seal in Figure 3 for new
and existing pumps in hygienic
services allows plant engineers to
avoid substantial risk. This me-
chanical seal is not only easier to
clean, but fully harmonizes with
international best practice guide-
lines. The design is uncomplicated
and very cost-effective. Most im-
portant: It fits in the space shown
earlier in Figure 1 and represents
true state-of-the-art technology.
Note also that the component
seals in Figures 1 and 2 will require
careful dismantling and reassem-
bly. In contrast, the recommended
state-of-the-art “slip-in” design of
Figure 3 can be fully assembled
at the factory, which reduces field
work and potential errors. More-
over, the possibility of process-fluid
contamination is greatly lessened
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64 Chemical Engineering www.chemengonline.com September 2014
by incorporating only smoothly con- Not all mechanical seal designs are
toured wetted parts. Common sense the same. Reliability-focused engi-
convinces us that components with neers look at both the “big picture”
smooth surface finishes facilitate and the details of the best avail-
cleaning and sterilization. Elimi- able seal designs.  ■
nating crevices and cavities makes Edited by Gerald Ondrey
it much more difficult for micro-
organisms and bacteria to adhere Acknowledgement
to surfaces. In the state-of-the-art All three figures courtesy of AESSEAL plc,
(Rotherham, U.K. and Rockford, Tenn.)
seal of Figure 3, springs and drive
mechanisms cannot be contacted
by the process fluid.
So, while single-spring compo- Author
Heinz P. Bloch (heinz
nent seals may appear to be low- pbloch@gmail.com) resides in
cost sealing solutions, they do have Westminster, Colo. His pro-
fessional career commenced
many shortcomings. Best-practices in 1962 and included long-
companies recognize the hidden term assignments as Exxon
Chemical’s Regional Machin-
costs and contamination risks asso- ery Specialist for the U.S.
ciated with outdated designs. Risk- He has authored over 600
publications, among them 18
averse users increasingly make comprehensive books on prac-
tical machinery management,
innovative seal manufacturers failure analysis, failure avoidance, compressors,
one of their technology resources. steam turbines, pumps, oil mist lubrication and
practical lubrication for industry. Bloch holds
As business partners, both manu- B.S. and M.S. degrees in mechanical engineer-
facturers and users demand what ing. He is an ASME Life Fellow and maintains
registration as a Professional Engineer in New
best practices guidelines require. Jersey and Texas.
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