UNIT-III (WORK STUDY & WORK MEASURMENT)

Work study is an important management tool used to achieve higher productivity with standard
performance. The organization’s survival depends on the usage of latest technology and efficient method
of production at reduced cost. The work study involves the study of work. It divides the work into small
elements, studies it, rearrange it to get same or greater efficiency at reduced cost. It deals with both
method and duration of work.

Work study is defined as “ the technique of method study and work measurement employed to ensure the
best possible use of human and material resources in carrying out a specified activity”

Generally work study is made up of two main components i.e Method study and Work measurement

Method study involves study of work to reduce work content and establishing best way of doing the
work.

Work Measurement deals with the investigation of reducing any ineffective time associated with work
and establishing time standard for standard operation.

Objectives of Work Study:

 Recommending and establishing the most economical way of doing work

 Analysis of existing method
 Increased efficiency with better product quality
 Identifying the bottlenecks in the production process
 Identifying of fastest method to do a job
 Less fatigue to the operators and workers
 Effective utilization of resources
 Effective labor control
 Aids in the calculation of exact delivery dates
 Measuring & Setting up of performance standards
 Use of performance standards to pay incentives

ADVANTAGES OF WORK STUDY:

 It selects best method of doing work

 It helps in the continuous production with minimum delays and maintenance
 It helps in the reduction of production cost by eliminating wastages and unnecessary operations
 Better working conditions with less fatigue
 Higher utilization of resources
  Ensures higher productivity
 Ensures Uniform production flow
 Standard time is used to calculate man power and machine requirements
 Provides better service to customers

WORK STUDY PROCEDURE

The work study procedure consists of 8 basic steps some of which are common to both method study and
work measurement. The work study procedure is as follows

Select the job to analysed

Record the facts of existing jobs

Examine the jobs critically and impartially

Develop alternate methods

Measure the amount of work involved and set the

standard time for the job

Define new method and standard time

Install new method

Maintain new method

METHOD STUDY
“Method study is a systematic recording and critical examination of the existing and proposed ways of
doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing
cost.”

With the examination of existing and proposed production methods, one can identify the unnecessary
costs associated with the existing methods which can be avoided in the proposed system with which the
cost of the product will be reduced.

Objectives / Scope of Method Study

The improvement in efficiency of the work through

 Improved layout and design of work station and product with smooth material flow
 Improved work procedure and processes
 Improvement in the design of plant and equipment
 Effective utilization of resources like men, machines, money and material
 Reduction in unnecessary fatigue and movements
 Better working conditions
 To determine the correct sequence of operations and avoid duplications
 To select the material of right specifications, reducing waste, reducing defectives and reducing
raw material consumption per unit of production
 To select the right cutting tools and improves the tool life and tool cost per unit production
 Reduces the inspection costs

The flow chart of the method study is also same as the work study which is shown in the above.
Basic Procedure of Method study
(i) Select the job to be analyzed:
One has to select the job or area to be studied based on their economic, technical and human
considerations. The selection of the job should be such that the method must achieve the one
or more of the following.
(a) Increased production without increasing labor, material and equipment cost.
(b) Improved quality with lesser wastage
(c) Improved plant layout with elimination or minimization of the bottle necks
(d) Improved working conditions
(ii) Economic considerations:

Economic considerations like time and money spent on the work study is always play an
important role in the investigations about the method of operation. Some of the considerations
are

(a) Plant, department or machines works for excessive time

(b) Bottle neck operations which reduces the production
(c) Sections operating with unwanted movement of men and material over long term
(d) Operations having poor utilization of resources
(iii) Technical Considerations:
It concentrates on the technical aspects of the job selected for the analysis.
Ex: Electronic engineer may not able to understand the problems of lathe machines.
Generally the following points are considered for technical considerations
(a) Operations involving more defectives or scraps
(b) Frequent complaints about job performance standards
(c) Job quality problems
(iv) Human Considerations:
Generally the workers accepts the changes in the methods half-heartedly, the performance of
the method will be decreased. For the method study the following points should be considered
(a) All changes should be informed to workers well in advance
(b) Top management should support the system
(c) Proper training should be given to the workers
(v) Recording of Facts:
Systematic recording of the facts about the method is very important. Generally descriptive
method is not used in method study. Instead the method is to be represented by five symbols
And Eight Charting Conventions i.e chart,
 rejection, network, repetition, change of state, Introduction of new raw material, Combined
events and number of events are used. All the details of the study will be represented in four
charts i.e (a) Operation process chart (b) Flow process chart (c) Multiple activity chart (d) two
handed process chart

Further for the recording flow diagram and string diagrams are also used for the recording of
method study.

(vi) Examine the method critically and Impartially:

Critical examination of method is necessary to develop alternatives and selection of best one
of that. It will be done systematically and methodological questioning process. Mostly the
following are the questions
(a) What is achieved (b) How it is achieved (c) Why it is necessary (d) Why that way only
(e) Where is it done (f) why there (g)when is it done (h) when then (i) By whom is it done
(j) Why that person only
(vii) Develop the Alternative for the Existing Method: From the critical examinations alternative
methods are to be developed for the existing methods

(viii) Selection of Best Alternative: From the different alternatives, best one is to be selected based

on the economic, technical and human considerations.

(ix) Installation of New Method: Implementation of the proposed method involves preparing
project report on recommendations, making oral presentation to top management, securing
approval of decision market, Assistance in installation, Arranging training workers etc.,

(x) Maintenance of New method: Proper follow up of the method is needed whenever it deviates
from the specified one
 METHOD STUDY SYMBOLS

The critical examination depends upon how precisely the facts are recorded. These are recorded with
symbols and charting convections. Graphical representation method was first introduced by
Gilbreth. He developed 40 symbols for the recording. Finally American Society of Mechanical
Engineering (ASME) and British Standard Institute (BIS) reduced them to five symbols. The basic
advantages of these symbols rather than descriptive methods are
(i) Complicated methods are difficult to narrate whereas graphical method reduces the efforts
involved in writing
(ii) Symbols and charting Conventions segregate effective and unnecessary activities
(iii) Unnecessary movements, rejection, rework etc., can be effectively recorded.
Operation (O): An operation is said to be occurred when there is any addition or substation made to
an object
Ex: Turning, boring, milling, welding, chemical reactions etc.,
Inspection ( ) An inspection is said to be done when the object is tested against predetermined
quality or quantity or both
Ex: Checking the length of a line, Checking the surface finishing of burrs etc.,
Transport ( ): Transport is said to be done when the object is moved from one place to other
Ex: Movement of the raw material from the store to the production department
Delay ( ): Delay occurs when the object is held in idle position before the next operation
Ex: Worker waiting for tools or semi-finished goods, Operator waiting for supervisor’s instruction
Storage ( ): storage occurs when the object is kept in an authorized custody and protected from
unauthorized removal
Ex: Material in stores, Tools in racks

RECORDING TECHNIQUES
CHARTS
Charts are the most popular method of recording data. The activities are represented in the form of
symbols and charting conventions. The charts are classified in to four types
(i) Operation Process Chart (ii) Flow process Chart
(iii) Multiple activity chart (iv) Two handed process chart
Operation Process Chart (Outline Process Chart)
This chart gives detailed idea of step by step conversion of material into finished product. In this only
operations and inspections performed on the materials are shown in the chart but not transportation,
delays and storage. In this the description of operations and inspections are shown in the right side
whereas the time is shown in the left hand side of symbol.
Ex: Operation Process chart of Replacement of worn out part

1 Requisition for new part

1 Worn out part to be replaced

2 New Part Issued 1 Remove the part

2 Cleaning

3 New Part Fitted

4 Part Oiled

2 Part Inspected

Flow Process Chart

It is an extension of operation process chart. This also shows the transportation, delay and storage. It is
classified as three types (i) Material type (ii) Man type (iii) Equipment type
Material type: It shows the operations carried on material
Man Type: It depicts the activities done on worker
Equipment Type: It exhibits the activities performed on equipments
Flow process chart can record simultaneous activities of two or more subjects in the same sheet to
indicate their interdependence. These charts are also of man, material and equipment type and some are
combined one also. In this colours are also used to show some particular aspects of the process
Benefits: Flow process charts are useful to explore possibilities of
(i) Reducing distance travelled by workers or material
(ii) Avoiding waiting time of workers and material, there by production losses
 (iii) Better sequence of operations
(iv) Reducing inspection process and time

Preparation of Flow Process chart:

All five symbols are used while preparing flow process chart according to sequence in vertical.
Description about the operation is written on right hand side and the corresponding time is represented on
left hand side of the symbol.
Ex: Surface finish of a part Store in the rack
(i) Parts to be brought from store 20m away from the machine (1min)
(ii) Waiting for the operator to be free from his present work (20min)
(iii) Parts loaded on the machine (3min)
(iv) One surface was machined (5min)
(v) Unloading of the parts from machine (1min)
(vi) Operations (iii) (iv) and (v) are repeated on four sides of the part
(vii) Do inspection of part 25 meters away from the machine (3min)
(viii) Parts to be transported to inspection section (2min)
(ix) Check the accuracy of the surface finish (5min)
(x) Moving of the parts towards the rack (3min)
(xi) Place the parts in racks for further use (1min)

1 Parts Available in racks

20 meters
Bring parts to be machined
1

20 1
1 Waiting for operator

3 1 Loading of parts

Repeat for 4 sides 5 2 Machining of parts

1 3 Unloading of parts

25 meters
1
To Inspection section
Symbol Freq Time Distance 5 1 Inspect Part
(min) (m)
20 meters
1
Towards Racks
13 37 ---
1 4 Place the parts in the rack
1 5 ---
3 -- 65 m
2 Store the part in the rack
2 -- ---
1 20 ---
 Ex: Prepare flow chart for the welding of two metal pieces
S.No Activity Time Movement
1 Material in Store -- ---
2 Get material for welding 2 20 m
3 Waiting 10 ---
4 Welding 20 ---
5 To Inspection department 2 10 m
6 Inspection 5 ---
7 To Store 20 m
8 Stored 5 ---

Two Handed Process chart

In this chart the activities performed by two hands are recorded to show the relationship between them.
Recording is done by the symbols with omission of inspection symbol. The implies “ Hold” instead
of storage. It records the movements of both left and right hands individually. The chart for left hand is
drawn on left side and for right hand to the right side. The recording of both hands are useful to analyse
the work cycle.
Ex: Assembling of Washer and Nut to Bolt
Left Hand Right Hand
Move LH to bolt To Washer

Pick the bolt Pick the washer

Back to position Back to position

Hold Position washer on bolt

Hold
To Nut

Hold Pick the nut

Hold Back to position

Position nut on bolt
Hold
Thread nut
Hold
Inspect for tightness
Hold
TO dispose it
Wait LH becomes free
to assembly
Drop assembly Wait LH becomes free
into drop box
Wait LH becomes free
MULTIPLE CHART ACTIVITY
It consists of multiple columns placed against time cycle. For each resource (Men, Machine) separate
columns are allotted. All the small activities of the resources are recorded against time. In this generally
only two symbols are used towards work i.e working or not working. Working is shown in hatched bar
and not working (idle) is shown by shaded bar or plane bar.
Benefits:
(i) Reduces the idle time of men and machine
(ii) Reallocation can be done in team to optimise the work
(iii) Add or Eliminate activities according to requirement
(iv) Effective utilization of men and machine
Ex: Draw a multiple time chart for an operator—set up time 5 min and machining time is 10 min
0
5 Setup

Machine running
15
20 Setup

Machine running
35

CRITICAL EXAMINATION AND QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES

The main aim of the critical examination is to analyse the facts and information critically to provide
alternatives to the existing methods. Critical examination is carried out through a systematic questioning
process. All the questions are useful to analyse the specific aspects of the job. Generally the questioning
process consists of primary and secondary questions.
Primary Questions Secondary Questions
Consideration Basic Question Necessity Alternative The Best
Purpose What is being Why it is done What Else could be What should be done
done done
Place Where is it done Why there Where else Where it should be done
Sequence When is it done Why then When else When should it be done
Person Who does it Why that person Who Else Why should do it
Means How is it done Why that way How else How should it be done
Material Shape What is the Why is that What else could be What should be the shape
shape of material shape the shape
Equipment or What equipment Why the What other What is the best
tool or tool used in equipment is equipment can be equipment
the operation needed used

All the primary questions must be satisfied first before the secondary questions are applied. The primary
questions deals with purpose, place, sequence, Person and means. Secondary questions helps to discover
possible alternatives and selection of best alternative.
DIAGRAMS
Every business activity involves movement of the materials and machines from one place to the other. In
that certain movements are must and some may be not needed. If we identify those unnecessary
movements those can be removed and the cost of the labour can be reduced effectively.
Operation process chart indicate the sequence of events but not movements.
Flow process chart records the movements but does not give visual picture of the problem.
But the visualization of the problem can be done with diagrams.
These diagrams indicate the unnecessary material long travel, cross traffic and obstacles clearly than
charts. Diagrams are useful to
(i) Study different plant layouts and selects the best one
(ii) Study on the unnecessary movements of the men, material in the sequence
(iii) Checks the traffic in various routes in the plant
(iv)Study the relationship between the department and sections
These diagrams are classified into Flow diagrams and String diagrams

Flow Diagrams
Flow diagrams are the scale plans on which movement of the object is traced by lines. It shows the
position of various members like machines, storage, tools, inspection etc., the movements of everything is
connected and is represented by different colours.

Station B Station A

Station C

Storage

Station D

In this Raw material moves from storage to the station A where one operation is performed in that.
Similarly semi-finished good moves from station A to Station B and further to Station C for Inspection
and station D for short halt and finally for the dispatch.

String Diagrams
In string diagrams the movements of the object (men or material) are traced by the string. The main
advantage of string diagram over flow diagram is that the respective movement of the materials between
the stations can be easily recorded and shown than the flow diagrams
Preparation of diagram
(i)The layout of the working place is prepared on soft wooden board
(ii) Pins are marked on the board to locate exact location of the work stations.
(iii) A strong thread is tied to the starting point pin. Then the movement of the material between each
centre or the work stations are indicated by the thread moving round the pins.
(iv) The length of the thread is obtained by the total length of the thread.

Stock room

Machine 2
Machine 4

Machine 6
Machine 1

Machine 3 Machine 5

Store

Uses:
(i) It is very useful in dealing with the complex movement, plant layout and design problems
(ii) It also indicates the over rush and bottle necks in the process
(iii) It trances the existing path clearly for the modifications

The major problem with the string diagram is if the movement of the material is curvilinear, then it is not
possible to estimate.

Templets and Models

Flow diagrams and string diagrams shows the movements of men and machines between workstations
but not with in workstations. Templets and Models are those which represents these things
Templets:
These are two dimensional cut outs which represents exactly the facilities drawn in colour papers or
cupboards. Templets shows various facilities like machine tools, fitting, storage racks etc.,
Advantages:
(i) Bottle necks can be easily visualized
(ii) They can be moved on the papers and hence one can provide more number of options
(iii) It saves more time of preparing layouts
Disadvantages:
(i) Overhead facilities cann’t be visualized
(ii) It is difficult to understand by the non-technical person

Models:
These are the scale models of the facilities resembling the actual in three dimensions and are made up of
wood or plastics. Models are commonly used for the preparation of floor plans and elevation and are very
useful in this. These are also useful for the preparation of alternative plans also.
Ex: Three dimensional models of the chemical factories, refineries etc.,
Advantages:
(i) Even non-technical person also understands the plans
(ii) Overhead and service facilities (lights, fans etc., ) can also be shown
(iii) They represent real situations and hence comparisons are very easy
Limitations:
(i) They are expensive and difficult to carry to the reference site

Photographic Aids:
In case of detail investigations where the operation duration is very fast and short, simultaneous
operations of two or more, the observer will not able to visualize properly, in such cases they are
recorded by photographs or videos for the analysis.
Advantages:
(i) Recorded permanently and can be used any time, any place and any number of times
(ii) Differences can be easily shown without disturbing workers
(iii) videos can be projected at required speed and can be stopped at convenient place for the analysis
(iv) These are more convenient
MICROMOTION STUDY
Many repetitive operations like packing, assembly, inspection etc., involves quick movement of two
hands of the operators. For the detailed study these operations are to be recorded to find the best
movement in which the operator feels less fatigue. For the analysis every micro movement of the system
is to be studied.

Steps involved in Micro motion study

Filming the operations to be analysed: This involves in taking picture of operations in motion while the
operator is in working condition.
Using the data from the film: Once operation of filming is completed the film will be available for the
visualization with projector. First the film is viewed at normal speed for the familiarization of the process
of movements. After that the work cycle which is to be analysed is projected at slow speed and can be
reversed depending on requirements. Therblings used are recorded in the analysis sheet.

Making Graphic presentation of the facts [SIMO sheet] : SIMO means simultaneous motion
chart
SIMO chart is the graphical representation of the micro motion of the limbs of the operator. For the
analysis different parts of the body of one or more workers are used. Generally this chart is used for rapid
movement of short duration. Generally therblings are used in the preparation of chart
SIMO chart have two columns one for left hand and other for right hand. Cumulative time scale is placed
for both the hands for comparison.
Ex: Assembly of bolt and nut
Operation: Nut to Bolt Film Number
Name of the Operator Operator Number
Part Name Date:
Method: Present / Proposed Charted By

Left Hand Symbol Time Total Time Time Symbol Right Hand
To Bolt TE 12 12 12 TE To nut
Grasp Bolt G 10 22 10 G Grasp Nut
Move to Assembly TL 10 32 10 TL Move to Assembly Position
Hold Bolt H 8 42 10 P Position Nut over bolt

(i) These are used to eliminate unproductive operations like search, select, hold etc.,
(ii) Resequencing the productive therblings to reduce cycle time
(iii) Using of laws of motion to improve existing methods
CYCLEGRAPH AND CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH
These methods are developed by Gilberth to study the movements of the operators hand, fingers or other
part of the body. These are photographic methods and are used to trace those movements which are very
fast and difficult to analyse with open eyes.

Cyclegraph

In this method, a small bulb is attached to the hand, finger or other parts of the body performing the
operations with a small camera which records the motion of the fingers or hands. The path of the light
photographed is called Cyclegraph. But Cyclegraph neither indicates direction nor the speed of the
movement.

Chronocylcegraph:

It overcomes the difficulties of cyclegraph. It consists of interrupter in the electric circuit which interrupts
(10 to 30 times per second) the light source. This makes the path of the bulb in the photograph in the
form of dotted lines which are in the form of pear shape. In this pointed shape of the pear indicates the
direction of the movement. The spacing between the dots tells about speed. By knowing the rate at which
light source is being interrupted and by counting the number of dots, the time taken for a movement can
be determined.
THERBLINGS

Therblings are the diagrammatic representations of movements of human body at the work place and the
activities associated with it. They provide detailed description of the work than any other recording
techniques. 17 number of Therblings are suggested by Frank B Gillberth. Each therblings has a specific
color, symbol and letter for recording purpose.

Usages:

(i) To study the activities of two or more persons on a group work

(ii) Shows the relationship between operator and machine

(iii) Provides motion time data for the time standards

MEMOMOTION STUDY
Memo motion or Spaced-shot photography is a tool of time and motion study that analyses long
operations using a camera. It was first developed by Marvin E Mundel.
 It is a special type of micro-motion study in which activities are filmed at much slower speed (60
to 100 frames per min) longer intervals than normal (Intervals being between 0.5 to 4 sec)
 General pattern of movements can be obtained and unnecessary motions can be identified
 In addition to its use in industrial operations, it is used to study many other operations such as
check-in operations at airline counters
 It costs less than micro motion study
WORK MEASUREMENT
“Work measurement is the application of a set of techniques intended to establish quantum of work to be
done by an operator in a given time of a specified task under specified conditions and at the defined level
of performance”

Benefits or Objectives of Work Measurement

Planning: Work measurement data enables management to determine man power, equipment and
machine requirements for the present and future. It also helps to decide about number of machines an
operator can handle conveniently.

Estimation of Cost: manufacturing time is needed to determine the cost of labour. All direct and indirect
costs like depreciation, rent, power consumption and salaries all depends on the manufacturing time

Cost Reduction: Work measurement data is helpful in reducing the cost

Basis for Incentives: Work measurement data acts as a basis for incentives by setting standard time

Improvement in existing methods: It eliminates the unnecessary activities and there by helps in the
improvement of existing methods and also useful for selecting the best alternative one
TECHNIQUES FOR WORK MEASUREMENTS
Various techniques for work measurements are
(i) Time study (ii) Production study (iii) Work Sampling (iv) Analytically sampling (v) Synthetic data
(vi) Pre determined motion and time study (PMTS)

TIME STUDY
Time study was first originated by Taylor and later it was supplemented by Bedaux. Today Time study is
one of the popular method for the work measurement. It is most useful for the short and repetitive cycles
and is represented in centiminutes.
“Time study is the technique of work measurement to establish time for a qualified worker to carry out
specified task under specified conditions and at the defined level of performance”

Procedure:
Time study procedure consists of following steps
Selection of Job: The job to be studied should be selected based on the following
(i) Bottleneck operations (ii) Jobs involving more manual works (iii) Job with long cycle duration
(iv) Repetitive jobs involving longer runs, (v) Departments needs more overtime for the completion of
the jobs
Standardization of Methods: The accuracy and performance of the operator is to be measured with
standard procedure without disturbing him.
Selection of the Operator: Different workers may be working with different speeds. Hence the operator
is to be selected who is having skills in the work with average work speed in terms of safety, quality and
quantity.

 Recording the data: For the analysis following data is to be recorded

 Identification details like operator name and number, material used, type of machine used and
observer name etc
 Area of Variations like hardness, shape of the material which effects the workers efficiency
 Working Conditions like presence of dust, gases, fumes, heat, vibration, noise etc.,
 Working position like worker sitting, standing or bending with or without weight etc.,

Measure the duration of each element: In this operator speed of working will be measured with stop
watch in cumulative and flyback methods. These are recorded in observation sheet for the purpose of
rating the worker. Rating is used as levelling factor to convert observed time into normal time.
(Normal time is the time taken by the worker if he works at normal pace.)
Calculating representative time of each element: The time taken by the operator to perform on same
jobs will vary from piece to piece. The following are the reasons
(i) Variation of material, tools and equipment
(ii) Variation in the pace of performance by the operator
(iii) Manual error in recording
All of these can be reduced by using standard tools, materials and equipment
Conversion of observer time into normal time: The recorded time of operator is to be converted into
normal time. (Normal time is the time taken by the operator when he is working at normal pace)
Normal Time = Observed time x Performance rating / 100
Calculation of relax and other allowances: Generally normal time cannot be considered as standard
time because no operator can work with the same pace continuously. Hence some time is to be added to
arrive at standard time. The basic reason of adding time is
(i) Personal needs and overtime fatigue (Relaxation Allowance)
(ii) Time lost due to the operation more than one machine (Interference Allowance)
(iii) The compensation loss due to the unavoidable delay and Interruption (Contingency Allowance)
(iv) To increase their earning through increased production (Policy Allowance)
(v) Calculate standard time from observed time and other allowance as
Standard Time = Observed Time + Different Allowance

METHODS OF TIME STUDY

The following are the methods of time study depending on accuracy needed.
(i) Stop Watch method (ii) Time Recording Machine (iii) Motion Picture Camera

Stop Watch Method: Generally decimal watch is commonly used to measure the time needed by an
operator for operating specified task in specified machines. It has two hands. The smaller hand represents
minutes on dial and completes one revolution in 30 min. The large hand represents centiminutes and
completes one revolution in one minute. Each division on large hand represents 0.01 min. The stop
watches are commonly two types
(a) Cumulative stop watch: It consists of a winding knob on the head of the watch. Movement hand is
started by pressing winding knob and can be stopped by pressing the knob second time and if we press
the knob third time the hand will be back to zero. It is generally used to run the continuously till the
required number of cycles have been reached.
(b) Flyback Stop watch: The movement of the hand of the stop watch is started or stopped by pressing
the knobs. When we press the knob on the third time the watch starts further.
Generally for measuring the time required for each element time study man records the time. In the
cumulative method all the elements time is continuously recorded and the time required for each elements
are recorded by subtracting previous reading from the next reading whereas, in fly back method each
elements time is recorded individually.
Time Recording Machine: This type of machine consists of a graduated paper which rotates on two
rollers on casting equipment’s at uniform speed. This provides the time taken for each element.
Motion Picture Camera: This is used for the motion study purpose. This runs at constant speed. Due to
constant speed the time taken for each film can be calculated with number of films taken. This method is
accurate but costly. Hence it is to be used only for precision works.
Ex: Suppose a camera runs 1000 films per minute, the time taken for one film is 1/1000= 0.001 min.
If 100 films are taken for an operation, the total time taken for the operation are = 0.001 x 100=0.1 min.
PERFORMANCE RATING:
It is the process during which time study engineer compares the performance of the operator under
observation with normal time. Generally the operator time will be varied based on the speed of workers.
If the time taken by worker, who works at high speed is kept as standard, no one can attain the speed,
where as if the speed of slow speed worker is kept as standard, everyone will achieve that. Therefore for
levelling the performance rating, a levelling factor is used to convert observed time into normal time.

Performance rating = (Normal Time / Observed time) x 100.

Generally the performance rating is classified into speed rating, Westing house system of rating,
Synthetic rating and Objective rating.

(i) Speed Rating: In this method the performance rating is fixed by observer based on standard speed. If
any worker’s rating is more than standard, it is considered as higher rating or else lower rating.
Ex: If a standard rating is fixed as 100 and if an operator’s speed is more than 100, he is called as high
speed worker otherwise low speed worker
(ii) Westinghouse System of rating: This method uses four factors for the performance rating which are
as : Skill, Effort, Consistency and Conditions.

Skill: It indicates the operator’s proficiency in terms of adhering (Practicing) to the method. The skill of
an operator will be more if he offers proper coordination between eye, hand and rhythm of the
movements. Generally it has been classified into six groups’ i.e
Super Skill (A1-0.15, A2-0.13), Excellent (B1-0.11, B2-0.08), Good (C1-0.06, C2-0.03),
Average (D-0.00), Fair (E1- -0.05, E2- -0.1), Poor (F1- -0.16, F2 - -0.22)
Effort: It indicates how much hard work the operator is taking in finishing off the work. It also classified
into six groups’ i.e
Super (A1-0.13, A2-0.12), Excellent (B1-0.10, B2-0.08), Good (C1-0.05, C2-0.02), Average (D-0.00),
Fair (E1- -0.04, E2- -0.08), Poor (F1- -0.12, F2 - -0.17)
Consistency and Conditions: It measures the presence of the factors which affect the operator’s
performance consistently for repeated work cycle. The factors which affect the consistency are raw
material, wear and tear of the machine and tools etc., It is also divided into six groups i.e
Perfect (A- 0.04), Excellent (B-0.03), Good (C-0.01), Average (D-0.00), Fair (E-0.02), Poor (F- 0.04)
For Conditions Perfect (A- 0.05), Excellent (B-0.04), Good (C-0.02), Average (D-0.00), Fair (E-0.03),
Poor (F- 0.07)
Ex: The observer has given the following performance rating to an operator for a particular work are
Skill- Excellent (B2), Effort – Excellent (B2), Consistency- Good (C), Conditions- Average (D).
Establish performance rating, if the cycle time of the job is 5 min. Calculate the normal time.
The numerical values for the performance rating are

Skill- Excellent (B2) = 0.08 Performance rating factor = 1+ 0.17=1.17

Effort – Excellent (B2) = 0.08 Performance rating factor = 117%
Consistency- Good (C) = 0.01 Normal Time = Observer time x Performance rating
Conditions- Average (D) = 0.00 = 5 x 1.17 = 5.85 min
0.17

(iii) Synthetic Rating: In this the performance of the operator is rated from the values which are
already known (Predetermined time study (PMTS)). In this the rating factor is calculated as the ratio of
standard time (PMTS) value and observed time.
Performance rating = Standard time (PMTS) / Observed time
Ex: The standard times and observed times of a particular element has been given in the following table.
Calculate the performance rating for 5 manual elements
S. No Avg. Value of Element in min Predetermined value of Element in Rating Factor of an
(Observed) min (PMTS) Element
1 0.30 0.31 1.03 (0.31/0.3)
2 0.32 0.30 0.93
3 0.34 0.31 0.91
4 0.28 0.30 1.07
5 020 0.18 0.90
Total 4.84

Average rating Factor = 4.84/5 =0.968

Performance rating factor of the study = 96.8%
(iv) Objective Rating: The performance of the operator is calculated as follows
 Operator’s speed is measured against the standard time
 An allowance equal to extent difficulties affects the operator’s speed (Amount of body used,
Foot pedals, Bi-manualness, Eye-hand coordination, handling requirements, weight)
Ex: Measurement given by standard stop watch is 0.30 min. The speed rating and adjustments due
to job difficulties are 115% and 25% respectively. Calculate the performance rating to be
considered to normalise the observed time of an operator.
Performance rating = Speed rating x Adjustment due to job difficulties
= 115 x 1.25 = 143.75
Normal time of an Element = 0.3x143.75 /100 = 0.43 min

ALLOWANCES
Continuous working is not possible for a worker and needs some rest. Hence it needs to add proper
allowances to the observer time to attain standard time. Basically there are four types of allowances
needed to the operator. Those are Relaxation allowance, Interference allowance, Contingency
allowance and policy allowance.
(i) Relaxation Allowance: These allowances are necessary to the worker to fulfil his personal needs.
These are further classified into
 Personal need allowance (Ex: To have glass of water, smoking, wash hands and natural
calls) for men it is 24 min and women 34 min in 8 hrs duty.
 Fatigue Allowance: This allowance is to provide to recover a worker from physical and
psychological effect to carryout work.
This is classified into constant allowance (worker who do work in sitting position) and
variable allowance (worker who work in variable position like bending, standing, heavy
loads etc.,) needs extra time as an allowance. Normally this will be 10 min.
(ii) Interference Allowance: This is the time to be considered for the loss of production time of
a worker due to simultaneous stoppage of two or more machines handled by him. This normally
depend on the number of machines handled by an operator.
(iii) Contingency Allowance: This is an allowance of time to be added due to unavoidable delays or
interruptions like tool breakage, filling of coolant in the m/c, discussing with manager on work,
power failure etc.,
(iv) Policy Allowance: This is an addition to the standard time intended to provide a worker an
Opportunity to earn a specified level of earning at specified level of his performance. This is
Management’s decision and worker cannot demand policy allowance.
Ex: Giving an option for over time.
STANDARD TIME CALCULATIONS:
Standard time is the time allowed to an operator to carry out a specified task under specified conditions
and at the defined level of performance. Generally the basic elements of the standard time are observed
time, performance rating, relaxation allowance, Contingency allowance and policy allowance.

Problem 1:
The worker in an engineering company is expected to work for 420 min in a shift of 8 hrs. The remaining
time is allows for rest and personal needs etc.
(i) Determine the standard time per piece of a job whose normal time is 4 min
(ii) Calculate the number of pieces produced per day
(iii) If the worker produced 100 pieces in his shift what is his efficiency.
Standard time per piece
Normal time per piece = 4 min
Allowance per shift = 480-420=60 min
Allowance percentage = 60/420 x100 = 14.28%
Standard time per piece = Normal time + Allowance % x Normal time = 4 + 14.28/100 x 4 = 4.57 min
Quantity to be produced:
Total time available = 480 min
Time taken for each piece = 4.57 min
Number of pieces produced = 480 / 4.57= 105
Operator’s Efficiency:
Number of pieces to be produced by an operator = 105
Number of pieces produced by an operator = 100
Operator’s efficiency = 100/105 x 100 = 95.23%
Problem 2:
An operator consists of six elements whose observed time and performance ratings are as Consider
personal allowance and contingency allowances as 10% and 5% respectively. Fond standard time per
piece.
Element Observed Performance Normal Time
No Time (min) Rating (%) (Basic Time) in min
1 2.0 80 2.0 x 80/100 = 1.6
2 3.2 85 2.72
3 2.8 90 2.52
4 4.0 80 3.20
5 5.2 95 4.94
6 8.3 90 7.47
Total Time 22.45

Normal (basic) time per piece = 22.45 min

Personal Allowance = 22.45 x 10/100 = 2.245 min
Contingency Allowance = 22.45 x 5/100 = 1.122 min
Standard Time per piece = 22.45 + 2.245 + 1.122 = 25.817 min
WORK SAMPLING
It was first proposed by L H C Tippet in a British Textile Mills. Work Sampling is a technique in which large
numbers of observations are taken in which whether machines or men is working or non-working is studies. For
getting accurate and clear productive and idle time of each machine, every machine is to be observed continuously.
But it needs large number of man power. Hence for getting productive and idle time of the machine, the
observations are taken randomly and noting whether the machine is working or not. Based on that true
phenomenon of the machines are to be analysed.

ADVANTAGES OF WORK SAMPLING OVER TIME STUDY

1. Many activities which are costly and time consuming to measure by Time study can be measured by work
Sampling
2. Simultaneous work sampling of several operators or machines can be made by single observers whereas for time
Study an analyst is needed for each operator or machine
3. Requires lesser man powers
4. It takes 5 to 50% of the cost of continuous time study
5. Observations will be taken over a period of time but not continuously
6. Work sampling can be interrupted at any time without affecting the results
7. This process is less fatigue and less tedious
8. Stop watch is not needed for measuring in work sampling

DISADVANTAGES OF WORK SAMPLING

1. Not suitable for a machine shop which spread over a long area
2. Not economical for single operators
3. Time study provides breakdown of activities and delay than work sampling
4. The operator may change his activities
WORK SAMPLING PROCEDURE
The procedure consists of the following steps
(i) Decide Objectives of the study: The objective of the study is to be defined well in advance which
decides the duration of the study, Number of observations, design of the study sheet and breakdown
information.
(ii) Explain the objectives to related persons: For the work sampling cooperation of operators and
supervisors are needed. Hence before starting the process, the basic objectives of the sampling is to be
explained thoroughly to the stake holders.
(iii) Fix up the Work and Delay Elements: The work to be done are to be fixed up by defining the delay
period elements like machine breakdown, tool breakage, Inspection etc.,
(iv) Decide the duration of the study: It depends on the following parameters
 The objective of the study
 Accuracy- for higher accuracy it needs more number of observations
 Number of observers – If more number of observations are needed, it needs more observers
(v) Determining desired accuracy and confidence level of final result: Accuracy of the result indicates
the permissible level of deviation from the mean. Confidence level indicates the probability of the results
within the desired level of accuracy.
(vi)Percentage of Occurrence of activity or Delay to be measured: It is also called as activity
percentage and is denoted by ‘P’.
Activity Percentage (P) = (Observations of Idle Activity / Number of Observations) x 100
Ex: In an activity number of idle observations is 25 out of 100 observations. Then find the Activity
percentage
Activity Percentage = (25/100) x 100 = 25%
(vii) Design Actual Study: It consists of seven steps. Those are
 Determination of Number of Observations (N) = C2 (1-P)/ A2P
Where N -No. of Observations; P-Activity percentage; A- Limits of Accuracy; C- Confidence level
 Determination of Number of Rounds (R) = N / m
Where N= No. of Observations m = No. of Subjects (Men or Machines)
Further if S is the total duration of the study i.e rounds per day can be calculated as
r= total rounds/Duration of the day = R/S
Average Time between rounds (T) = Time available per day/ No. of rounds per day
= (Time of a shift – Time for Lunch and Tea) / No. of Rounds per day
 Fixation of Time Required for One Round (Tr): The total time required for the cycle depends
on the average time between two consecutive rounds. The total time required for one round
should be fixed by observer by making pilot study of one or two observations before fixing time
schedule.
  Preparation of Schedule for the Round: The observations should be carried out at random
interval of time and should spread all hours of study.
 Design of Observation data Sheet: The design of the observation data sheet depends on the
objective of the study. It should be sufficient enough to record day’s observations.
 Record the observations: This is used for the recording of observations at the scheduled timing
 Check the Accuracy of the data: The accuracy of the result can be checked with the following
formula
N = 4 (1-P)/ A2P
Where N= Number of observations
P= Activity Percentage
A= Limits of Accuracy

PREDETERMINED MOTION TIME STUDY (PMTS)

Predetermined Motion Time study is also referred as predetermined Time standards (PTS). These are
advanced techniques defining the time needed for the performance of various motions.
Definition: It is a work measurement technique where by time established for the basic human motions
are used to build up the time for a job at a defined level of performance.
Advantages of PMTS over Time study:
(i) For a given motion, only one time is introduced irrespective to the place of motion
(ii) It provides consistency in setting standard time
(iii) This allows changing the layout and design of work place to get optimum production time
(iv) This requires less time
(v) They are very useful for the repetitive cycle jobs
Disadvantages:
(i) It is little bit complicated to understand
(ii) It doesn’t eliminate the need of stop watch completely
(iii) Machine time, process time and waiting time are not measureable with PTS system
(iv) Using of PTS system in batch production and non-repetitive jobs are expensive