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Barker coded thermal wave imaging for defect detection in carbon fbre-
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Article  in  Insight - Non-Destructive Testing and Condition Monitoring · November 2011

DOI: 10.1784/insi.2011.53.11.621

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 INFRARED NDT
Barker coded thermal wave imaging for defect detection in
carbon fibre-reinforced plastics
V S Ghali, S S B Panda and R Mulaveesala
Active thermal non-destructive testing (TNDT) methods
utilise the acquired surface temperature profile over an
object and subsequently process the obtained temperature
data to detect surface or subsurface features of the object.
This process, however, demands novel processing and
excitation approaches to enhance the defect detectability
with depth analysis. This contribution is intended to exhibit
the detection capability of the recently introduced Barker
coded excitation for infrared imaging for characterisation of
carbon fibre-reinforced plastic material. Experiments have
been carried out for the proposed excitation scheme to study
its defect detection capabilities.
Keywords:
Infrared non-destructive testing (IRNDT), carbon
fibre-reinforced plastic (CFRP), Barker code, pulse
compression, Fourier transform.
1. Introduction
Recent years have witnessed a growing interest in the use of fibre-
reinforced plastics in various applications demanding high strength,
light weight and greater corrosion resistance. The unavoidable
presence of delaminations and subsurface defects, which can
develop during the manufacturing of these materials, severely
damages their in-service applicability and leads to chaos, which
demands a thorough evaluation before use in the applications.
Whole field, non-contact and non-destructive evaluation using
infrared non-destructive testing (IRNDT) has emerged as a reliable
testing procedure among NDT applications. In active thermography,
Venkata Subbarao Ghali received a BSc in Electronics in 1996, an MSc
in Electronics from Nagarjuna University in 1998 and an ME in Applied
Electronics in 2008. He is currently a doctoral student at the Infrared
Imaging Laboratory, Electronics and Communications Engineering
Research Group, PDPM – Indian Institute of Information Technology
Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India. He is involved in non-
destructive characterisation of materials, especially using thermal wave
imaging.
Soma Sekhara Balaji Panda is an undergraduate student in Electronics and
Communication Engineering at PDPM – Indian Institute of Information
Technology Design and Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India. He is associated
with the Infrared Imaging Laboratory and involved in developing signal
and image processing tools for non-destructive characterisation of solids.
Ravibabu Mulaveesala was born in Chukkavanipalem, Srungavarapu Kota,
Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India. He received a BSc in Electronics
from MR College, Andhra University, in 1996, an MSc in Electronics from
Nagarjuna University in 1998, an MTech from the National Institute of
Technology (NIT), Tiruchirappalli, in 2000 and a PhD degree from the
Centre for Applied Research in Electronics, Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi, India, in 2006. Presently, he is associated with the Infrared Imaging
Laboratory, Electronics and Communications Engineering Research
Group, PDPM – Indian Institute of Information Technology Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur, India. His research interests include thermal-
acoustical-optical imaging techniques for non-destructive characterisation
of solids.
Insight Vol 53 No 11 November 2011
Submitted 17.07.11
Accepted 28.09.11
the test object is stimulated by a known controlled excitation and
the temporal temperature map of the surface is captured using
an infrared camera. Weak thermal responses due to diffusive
thermal waves are further processed using a suitable technique
and subsurface details can be extracted. However, larger thermal
attenuation offered by substances to the propagating thermal waves
demands either more energy deposition or an improvement in
the SNR with the temporal thermal profiles to provide sufficient
thermal contrast for deeper defect detection. Significant research
has been carried out in the last few years for the invention of novel
excitation and processing approaches to accomplish this task. Pulse
thermography (PT), lock-in thermography (LT) and pulsed phase
thermography (PPT) are widely used in IRNDT applications. The
requirement for high peak powers and non-uniform emissivity
limits the applicability of PT[1], even though it is the quickest and
easiest method of detection. PPT[2] is similar to PT in providing
stimulus, but analysis can be carried out using phasegrams by
employing Fourier transform to reduce non-uniform emissivity
problems. In order to overcome the limitations of the requirement
for high peak powers of pulsed-based techniques (PT and PPT), the
long experimentation time of continuous thermal wave techniques
such as LT[3] can be overcome by the coded excitation schemes,
such as frequency modulated thermal wave imaging (FMTWI),
its digital counterpart (DFMTWI) and the recently proposed
Barker techniques, by probing a suitable band of frequencies into
the sample in a single experimentation cycle with relatively low
peak power sources[4-15]. In these processes, defect detection can
be carried out either by the recently introduced pulse compression
processing or conventional phase analysis. In the pulse compression
approach[5,7,9-15], energy was distributed over the main lobe and side
lobes after compression. A reduction in the size of the side lobes
concentrates more energy into the main lobe and leads to improved
detection performance and depth resolution. This paper exhibits the
depth resolution capability of the recently introduced 7-bit Barker
coded thermal wave imaging using phase analysis and compares it
with the analysation capability of pulse compression processing,
which can improve SNR.
2. Theory
2.1 Barker coded excitation for IRNDT
Barker code is the simplest binary code, providing minimised
compression side lobes and generated more easily than other
modulated schemes. Further, this code can give a compression
ratio proportional to the length of the code in its auto correlation.
However, selection of the code length is a compromise between
experimentation time and the side lobe reduction demanded. In
a thermographic context, too much experimentation time dilutes
the advantage of the technique, whereas a smaller experimentation
time demands high peak power heat sources. Thus, a suitable code
length and experimentation time is to be exercised for an optimum
response. The 7-bit Barker code employed here is as shown in
Figure 1.
This is a typical excitation scheme chosen from Barker
1

Figure 1. 7-bit Barker coded excitation used for driving the heat
sources
codes (similar to double pulse thermography[2]), which provides
satisfactory results, even with moderate peak power heat sources
and in an optimum experimentation time. Hence, time-consuming
and high energy depositing larger code lengths have been
neglected. The duration of each bit is selected according to the
sample geometry and thermo physical properties of the material, so
that the required frequency criteria can be satisfied.
In the present context, the thermal diffusivity of the CFRP
material (90-0-90 orientation of fibres) is 0.36 × 10–6 m2/s and the
depth of the deepest defect is 2.16 mm, which demands a minimum
frequency of 0.0245 Hz for defect detection. The experimentation
duration has been selected to fulfill this frequency criterion as one
of the frequency components corresponding to the first on duration
of the code closely matches to it. As the duration of each code bit
is 14.28 s with a total experimentation time of 100 s, the duration
of 3 bits can be 42.84 s. The frequency corresponding to it is given
by 0.023 Hz, which can satisfy the probing frequency requirement.
2.1.1 Physics of coded thermal waves
Thermal waves generated by the incident excitation can be obtained
by solving the one-dimensional heat equation given by[16]:
! 2 T ( x,t ) 1 !T ( x,t )
" = 0 ........................ (1)
!x 2 ! !t
where α is the thermal diffusivity, T(x,t) is the temperature response
and P0 is the peak power of the coded flux. The proposed excitation
is considered as a combination of delayed step responses, defined
as:
4
f ( t ) = " ( !1) i u ( t ! ai! ) ..........................(2)
n
i=1
where ni = 0, 1, 2, 3 and ai = 0, 3, 5, 6.
Hence, the temperature response obtained from an error
function-based solution[14] is given by:
( ! ) P ( !1) (t " a ! )
3
4 0
4
32
_ x2
!
n 4 ! ( t!ai! )
T ( x,t ) = e .......(3)
K( ! ) x
2 i
i=1
The temperature so obtained is a function of the depth of
the subsurface anomaly and the applied flux. The integration of
energy into the main lobe with pulse compression provides better
resolution, even with low peak power sources. In addition, the
reduced side lobe level in this excitation improves the detection
sensitivity.
2.2 Pulse compression for IRNDT
Pulse compression through matched filtering is the commonly
employed detection methodology in radio detection and ranging
2 Insight Vol 53 No 11 November 2011
(RADAR) engineering, to improve range resolution and signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) in noisy environments. It is employed between
two waves of similar shape with a delay existing between them.
As a result of pulse compression, the resultant applied energy is
concentrated into a pseudo pulse, whose peak concentrates at a
delayed instant depending on the time delay between the signals
used. It facilitates probing through low peak power sources and
concentrating energy into the main lobe similar to a high peak power
pulsed excitation. In an IRNDT context, thermal responses obtained
over the test object considered at the defect locations (centre of
the defect) are not only attenuated but also delayed, depending
on the depth and thermal properties of the sample underneath the
surface. A similarity between the nature of thermal wave responses
and RADAR signal processing allowed the adoption of matched
filtering in IRNDT.
2.2.1 Correlation-based pulse compression
Correlation-based pulse compression is carried out by cross-
correlating the received signal with the impulse response h(t) of
the matched filter (which is similar to the received signal except for
a finite attenuation and delay). The cross-correlation of the chosen
reference (impulse response) and the delayed response from the
object can be represented as[7-12]:
"
g (! ) = # s (t ) h (! + t ) dt ............................(4)
!"
As the result, the long duration (T sec) signal s(t) is compressed
to a duration of 1 B , governed by the bandwidth B (Hz) of the
waveform. The ratio of the time durations of the transmitted and
compressed signals is called the compression ratio, which is equal
to T B.
The depth-dependent delay and attenuations provided by the
defect locations are used for defect detection in pulse compression-
based processing. Cross-correlation of the delayed thermal response
profiles with a chosen reference results in sinc shaped compressed
pulses, which can contribute to the contrast in a correlation image
at any chosen instant of time. This contrast at the defect locations
discriminates them from non-defective regions. An additional
reduction of side lobe energy in the compressed profiles provided
by the proposed excitation can be assessed by the metric called
peak to side lobe level, given by[12]:
! Sidelobe magnitude $
Peak sidelobe level ( PSL ) = 20log # &% ......(5)
" Peak value
= '20 log ( N )
where N is the length of the code word used. However, for a 7-bit
Barker code, theoretical PSL is equal to –16.99 dB.
3. Results and discussions
In order to study the effect of defect sizing and the detection
capability of the proposed method, experimentation has been
carried out on a CFRP sample containing flat-bottom holes, as
shown in Figure 2. The test sample contains two sets of defects of
various diameters kept at the same depth, ie set 1 a, b, c and d are at
1.6 mm and set 2 e, f, g, h and i are kept at 2.16 mm from the front
end of the CFRP sample of thickness 4.2 mm. In order to study
the effect of the backing material of the defects on the detection
performance, defects f, h and i are adhered with a metallic backing
of copper-covered steel.
Experimentation has been carried out on the sample by
energising it with the optical sources (two halogen lamps, each
of 1 kW power) kept at a distance of 1 m from the sample. The
intensity from these heat sources is modulated by the built-in power
control unit of the thermal imaging system in accordance with the
proposed coded excitation. Temporal surface infrared emission
from the stimulated sample is recorded by infrared camera. The
 In correlation analysis, normalised cross-correlation is performed
between the mean removed chosen reference temperature profiles
and the temporal temperature profiles of the remaining pixels in
the field of view. Hence, the non-uniform radiation/emissivity
observed in Figure 4 has been reduced in correlation processing as
shown in Figure 5(a). The pulse compression image (Figure 5(a)) at
3.92 s better narrates the reduction in non-uniform emissivity/
incident heat flux through correlation processing and provides
better contrast with the defects. It is observed that the attenuation
offered by the sample results in a PSL of –14.6 dB only with non-
defective compression profiles.
3.2.2 Defect detection using pulse compression
In correlation imaging, the correlation coefficients of defects
vary according to their depth and size. The delay between cross-
correlated temporal temperature profiles of different defects results
in a variation of correlation coefficient facilitating the visualisation
of defects. The correlation image extracted at a delayed instant of
3.92 s is as shown in Figure 5(a), for the sample shown in Figure 2.
All the defects at different depths and nature have been detected with
a variable contrast according to their depth and size. The flat-bottom
holes of set 1 exhibit better detectability than the deeper set 2 in the
correlation image obtained at 3.92 s.
Figure 2. CFRP sample with flat-bottom holes (all the dimensions
are in mm)

experimental set-up for the Barker coded thermal wave imaging

is shown in Figure 3. Acquisition of the transient thermal response
over the sample has been carried out with a frame rate of 20 Hz
during the experimentation time of 100 s. A further mean raise in
temperature during active heating has been removed by fitting the
data to the temporal thermal profile of each pixel using a linear
fitting routine. These mean removed thermal profiles due to the
response of coded stimulation have been further processed using
both pulse compression and phase-based analysis methods.

Figure 3. Experimental arrangement for Barker coded thermal

wave imaging
Figure 4. Thermal contrast image at 82 s

3.1 Effect of non-uniform illumination and emissivity

variations over the test specimen
Non-uniform illumination and emissivity variations over the
sample surface are the problems generally encountered with raw
thermal images, which directly influence the defect detection from
unprocessed thermograms directly. A thermogram obtained at
82 s, close to the instant of maximum temperature response
observed over the thermal profile, better explains the effect of non-
uniform irradiation dominating the detection of defect signatures.

3.2 Pulse compression approach

3.2.1 Processing methodology
Pulse compression is performed by the cross-correlation of the mean
removed resultant temporal thermal profile of each pixel with that
of a chosen reference profile. Correlation images are extracted from Figure 5. (a) Correlation image at 3.92 s; (b) Phase image at
coefficients of the delayed cross-correlation profiles of each pixel. 0.02 Hz

Insight Vol 53 No 11 November 2011 3

 Defects of larger diameters provide better contrast, as observed
from the graph providing details of the SNR of defects (Figure 6).
Defects with metallic backing exhibit better detectability in Figure
5(a) than in the phase image of Figure 5(b).
3.3 Phase approach
In the phase approach, phase information is extracted using the
one-dimensional fast Fourier transform (FFT) applied over a
temporal thermal profile of each pixel of the thermogram. This is
repeated for all the pixels in the field of view in order to obtain the
phasegrams at various frequencies. The phase image obtained at
0.02 Hz (Figure 5(b)) exhibits comparably lower contrast than the
correlation image as analysed from Figure 6.
Figure 6. SNR of the defects in correlation and phase images
Figure 6 illustrates the contrast of the analysis parameter for
visualisation of defects using the formula given by:
" Mean of the defective region ! mean of the non-defective region %
SNR = 20log $
# standard deviation of the non-defective region '&
4. Conclusion
The validity of the Barker coded thermal wave imaging has been
carried out on a CFRP sample. Experimental results showed that
the concentrated energy (from different frequency components
used in experimentation) in the main lobe forms a pseudo pulse
by correlation, which enhances the defect detectability in the
correlation image. It has also been observed that the effect of non-
uniform illumination/surface emissivity variations over the sample
was reduced in correlation-based processing in addition to a defect
shape preserving capability.
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