Wind Towers PDF

Mehdi N.
Bahadori
Alireza Dehghani-sanij
Wind
Towers
Architecture, Climate and Sustainability
Edited by
Ali Sayigh
Wind Towers
Mehdi N. Bahadori • Alireza Dehghani-sanij
Wind Towers
Architecture, Climate and Sustainability
Edited by Ali Sayigh

Mehdi N. Bahadori Alireza Dehghani-sanij
Mechanical Engineering Tehran, Iran
Sharif University of Technology
Tehran, Iran
Ali Sayigh
World Renewable Energy Congress
Brighton, UK
ISBN 978-3-319-05875-7 ISBN 978-3-319-05876-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05876-4
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
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Abarkooh Baudgeers - Iran
Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1
References ................................................................................................... 38
2 The History of Baudgeers......................................................................... 41
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 41
2.2 Reported Knowledge and Texts of Baudgeers
in Iranian Literature ........................................................................... 41
2.2.1 History of Baudgeers in Literature of Iranians ...................... 41
2.2.2 History of Baudgeers from Foreign Travelers’ Account ....... 45
2.3 History of Baudgeers Reported in the Iranian Architecture .............. 55
2.4 Historical Account of Baudgeers in the Buildings
in the Arabic Countries ...................................................................... 58
References ................................................................................................... 61
3 The Architecture of Baudgeers ................................................................ 63
3.1 Types of Baudgeers ............................................................................ 63
3.1.1 One-Sided Baudgeers............................................................. 63
3.1.2 Two-Sided Baudgeers ............................................................ 64
3.1.3 Four, Six, Eight-Sided Baudgeers .......................................... 64
3.1.4 Cylindrical Baudgeers............................................................ 66
3.2 Unique Baudgeers .............................................................................. 67
3.2.1 Eight-Sided Baudgeer of Dowlat Abbad Garden in Yazd ...... 67
3.2.2 Cellular Baudgeers of Brojerdy’s House in Kashan .............. 67
3.2.3 Three-Story, Four-Sided Baudgeer
of Sadri Garden (Namir) in Taft............................................. 69
3.2.4 Sirjan Pipe-Like Baudgeer ..................................................... 69
3.2.5 Eight-Sided, Two-Story Baudgeer of Amir Garden
in Tabas .................................................................................. 71
3.2.6 Two-Sided, Four-Sided Baudgeer of Aghazadeh
House in Abarkuh .................................................................. 72
3.2.7 A Circular Two-Story Baudgeer in Chehel Sotoun
Palace of Sarhang Abbad ....................................................... 72
vii
viii Contents
3.3 Short Eastern, North Eastern, and South Eastern

Baudgeers of Iran ............................................................................... 73
3.4 Three-Sided Baudgeers ...................................................................... 75
3.5 Some More Points on Baudgeers ....................................................... 77
3.5.1 Classification of Baudgeers.................................................... 78
3.5.2 Method of Constructing One-Sided Baudgeers
in Ardakan and Maybod Areas .............................................. 80
3.5.3 Construction of Four-Sided Baudgeers .................................. 81
3.6 Study of the Designs of Types of Baudgeers in Yazd ........................ 85
3.6.1 Recognition of Baudgeers According
to the Blowing Direction ........................................................ 85
3.6.2 Study of Baudgeers According to Plans ................................ 86
3.6.3 Kinds of Baudgeers According to Their Cross Sections ....... 87
3.6.4 Designing of the Baudgeers ................................................... 88
3.7 Study of the Baudgeers According to Their Positions
on the Plan of the House .................................................................... 92
3.8 Baudgeers in Other Countries ............................................................ 92
3.8.1 Baudgeers in Afghanistan ...................................................... 92
3.8.2 Baudgeers in Pakistan ............................................................ 92
3.8.3 Baudgeers (Malqaf) in Egypt ................................................. 93
3.8.4 Baudgeers in Iraq ................................................................... 94
3.9 Some Other Issues Concerning Baudgeers ........................................ 96
References ................................................................................................... 99
4 An Analytical–Numerical Study of the Performance
of Conventional Wind Towers .................................................................. 101
4.1 Environmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow
and Temperature of the Air in Conventional Baudgeers .................... 102
4.1.1 The Solar Radiation ............................................................... 104
4.1.2 Ambient Temperature ............................................................ 108
4.2 Distribution of the Air Speed in a Baudgeer ...................................... 110
4.3 Assessment of the Baudgeer’s Temperature ...................................... 112
4.4 Results of the Calculations................................................................. 114
References ................................................................................................... 117
5 An Analytical–Numerical Study of the Performance
of New Designs of Wind Towers ............................................................... 119
5.1 Performance of the Baudgeers with Wetted Columns ....................... 120
5.1.1 Distribution of the Air Speed in a Baudgeer .......................... 122
5.1.2 Assessment of the Temperature and the Humidity
in Baudgeer ............................................................................ 123
5.1.3 Results of the Study ............................................................... 127
5.2 Study of the Performance of Baudgeers with Wetted Surface ........... 129
5.2.1 Air Velocity Distribution in Baudgeers.................................. 136
5.2.2 Temperature Variations in Baudgeer ...................................... 137
Contents ix
5.2.3 The Data Gained Through the Numerical

and Analytical Study .............................................................. 138
References ................................................................................................... 147
6 Performance Evaluation of New Designs
of Baudgeers Compared to the Conventional Ones ............................... 149
6.1 Conventional Baudgeers .................................................................... 149
6.1.1 Temperature of the Air Entering the Building ....................... 150
6.1.2 Mass Flow Rate of the Air Entering the Building ................. 150
6.2 Baudgeers with Wetted Columns ....................................................... 150
6.2.2 Mass Flow and Relative Humidity
of the Air Entering the Building ............................................ 151
6.3 Baudgeers with Wetted Surfaces........................................................ 152
6.3.1 Temperature of the Airflow Entering the Building ................ 152
6.3.2 Mass Flow Rate and Relative Humidity
of the Air Entering the Building ............................................ 152
6.4 Comparison of the Baudgeers Operating
Under the Same Conditions ............................................................... 153
6.4.2 Mass Flow Rate of the Air Entering the Building ................. 155
6.4.3 Relative Humidity of the Air Entering the Building .............. 159
6.4.4 The Sensible Cooling Effect of the
Air Entering the Building....................................................... 160
References ................................................................................................... 162
7 Designing, Constructing, and Testing Conventional
Baudgeers and New Designs .................................................................... 163
7.1 Designing, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers
in Asr-e-Enghelab Complex............................................................... 163
7.1.1 Construction and Testing of the Baudgeers ........................... 167
7.1.2 Test Procedure ........................................................................ 167
7.1.3 Discussion of the Conclusions Drawn ................................... 168
7.1.4 Comparison of the Performance of the Baudgeers
with Evaporative Coolers ....................................................... 168
7.2 Designing, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers
at Yazd University .............................................................................. 169
7.2.1 Plans of the Wind Catchers .................................................... 169
7.2.2 Description of the Tests and the Obtained Results ................ 171
7.2.3 Comparison of the Performance of the Baudgeers
in the Experimental Tests ....................................................... 171
References ................................................................................................... 177
8 Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................ 179
References ................................................................................................... 180
x Contents
9 Pictures of Baudgeers ............................................................................... 183

9.1 Baudgeers on Buildings in Hot and Dry Regions .............................. 207
9.2 Baudgeers on Buildings in Hot and Humid Regions ......................... 208
9.3 Baudgeers on Buildings in Egypt and the Middle East ..................... 208
9.4 Baudgeers on Aub-anbars in Iran ...................................................... 209
Index ................................................................................................................. 211

Glossary
Aub-anbar An Aub-anbar is a traditional reservoir or “cistern” of drinking water

in Persian antiquity. The Persian phrase literally means “water reservoir.” Aub-
anbars are one of the indigenous systems for passive cooling and storing of
water. They are used to store the cold drinking water in winter so that it can be
used or consumed in the hot seasons of the year. Aub-anbars are in fact covered
and isolated cisterns which were built lower than the ground surface or in the
mountains. The main function of Aub-anbars was to provide chilled water for the
towns, villages, fortresses, caravan routs, and caravanserais.
Bazaar The word “bazaar” is used to refer to several different types of market
places in the Middle East, where the word originates; it refers to a central open
market where a large number of goods can be found for sale. The word “bazaar”
comes from a Pahlavi word, baha-char, which means “place of prices.” The word
was adopted into the Persian language as “bazaar,” and then became widespread
throughout southern Asia and the Middle East.
Ice-houses or traditional ice-makers In the past, another complementary struc-
ture to the Aub-anbars used by people was ice-houses or traditional ice-makers.
Those structures used passive cooling methods that would produce ice, taking
advantage of low temperature in the freezing cold nights of the winter. The
founders and creators of those structures, using their talent and simple architec-
tural elements, developed a collection of ice-houses in the margin lands of villages
and towns. The stored ice in winter was used to make the drinking water cold and
enjoyable in summer.
Kavir Kavir is the same as desert, a hot and arid region.
Qanat (or subterranean canals) Qanat is composed of a number of vertical wells
called shaft and one or more approximately horizontal wells called corridor
underground, with a slope less than the slope of the ground surface. The structure
carries the underground water in the mountains and relatively high areas to the
low plains by means of gravity force. The vertical wells are used for the digging
of the underground tunnel, repair, and maintenance (dredging) of the Qanat.
xi
Chapter 1
Introduction
For centuries, Wind Towers, Baudgeers, were used in the past and are presently
used in some regions of Middle East and Egypt where hot and dry climate exist, for
maintaining cool air circulation and cooling inside the buildings as well. In fact, the
main purpose of Baudgeers has been to create natural ventilation and cooling by
exchanging air between the outside and the building inside at an appropriate time
during the day. Another use of Baudgeers was to maintain a natural circulation of
air in public cistern, Aub-anbars, and helping to keep the water cold.
In Iran particularly and those countries which have the use of Baudgeers con-
sider them a novel buildings of beautiful architecture in addition to their functions.
In the southern cities and marginal regions of the deserts of Iran, the people built
Baudgeers of different forms and sizes [1, 2]. Baudgeers have four-sided (Fig. 1.1),
six-sided (Fig. 1.2), or eight-sided (Fig. 1.3) cross sections and in some cases have
been circular (Fig. 1.4).
In studying the traditional architecture and the urban texture of the central, south-
ern, and desert cities and villages in Iran, they revealed that the factors influencing
their buildings design are mostly the harsh weather and climate conditions such as
hot and dry or hot and humid climate and strong seasonal winds. This had a signifi-
cant role in the construction, materials, and use of Baudgeers [3]. Harsh climate and
undesirable geographical conditions are the kinds of phenomena that man, through
centuries, has always been confronting and trying to use his expertise to control
them. The towns and villages which are located in the marginal areas of the desert
and hot dry regions have their own peculiar and architectural style. Intensive heat of
the Sun, the cold air of the night, little rain, dry air with very low humidity, strong
winds with sand storms, and considerable differences in the diurnal temperature and
between sunny and shaded areas are some of these peculiarities [4].
The opening variation used in Baudgeers in Iran is to maximize exchange of air
between them and the outside environment. Also this depends on the prevailing
wind; for example in Egypt the opening some time is single facing the sea and
called Wind Catchers.
M.N. Bahadori et al., Wind Towers: Architecture, Climate and Sustainability, 1

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05876-4_1, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
2 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.1 A four-sided

Baudgeer with rectangular
cross section in Yazd
(Baudgeer of Zargar Bashi
House)
Fig. 1.2 A view of an Aub-anbar in Yazd with six-sided Baudgeers
Figure 1.5 shows pictures from desert (Kavir) in Iran; Figs. 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9,
respectively, show topographic map, climate atlas, winds atlas, and thermal atlas of
Iran. Figure 1.10 displays some regions of Iran and other countries in the Middle
East and Egypt where Baudgeers have been used in their buildings.
1 Introduction 3
Fig. 1.3 A view of an

Aub-anbar in Yazd with two
eight-sided Baudgeers
Fig. 1.4 A view of

cylindrical Baudgeer in Yazd
The people who lived in these areas, over the centuries, perfected certain
solutions to confront the harsh climatic and geographical conditions, some of which
were by building in cluster or closer concentration of buildings in certain locations,
and digging subterranean canals for many kilometers to transfer the water from the
mountains to their desert areas. This is a thoughtful and improved technique named
digging Qanat, constructing public Aub-anbars to supply drinking water in sum-
mer and building houses with high and thick walls made of bricks and clay to ben-
efit from the concept of Thermal Mass which takes 12-h or more to let the
temperature from the outside in the summer months reach the inside of the house
4 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.5 Pictures from

desert in Iran
and hence they kept the house temperature in relative comfort. These walls were
both insolating barrier and thermal mass barrier. At night, transferring some part of
cool air due to night radiation with the sky into the buildings while replacing the
inside hot air from the daytime. The outcome of this process was the reduction of
the internal heat gain into the building [6]. Using domes and vaults for the roofs of
such buildings were another factor in reducing the internal heat gain [1, 2]. The
great distance between the domes and vaults and the floor of the rooms caused the
heat to be collected under the roof area while the lower part of the room stay rela-
tively cooler for people to carry out their daily activities [1, 2, 7]. The use of narrow
alleyways is rather narrow and in some instances covered with domed roofs, called
Sabat in Farsi (Fig. 1.11).
Another important feature of the areas in desert to achieve cooling is the use of
mud and mud-brick as the main construction material in their buildings. This prac-
tice is older than the civilization of Pars. It is worth mentioning that the main reason
for the use of mud and mud-brick in buildings was, on one hand, the lack of other
1 Introduction 5
Fig. 1.6 Topographic map of Iran
types of materials such as stone, wood, and cement, and on the other hand, the low
cost and good practice to use the indigenous materials due to its suitability in reduc-
ing the heat gain [6, 8].
Construction of Baudgeers is considered one of the most significant undertak-
ings of Iranian creative engineers and architecture. Baudgeers, while being beauti-
ful and decorative, have had an important and efficient role in the circulation of the
air inside buildings, Aub-anbars, and basements in a natural way, without consum-
ing fossil fuel or using machinery to achieve comfort.
Since seasonal and daily natural winds are one of the main characteristics of
climate conditions variation in desert region, Baudgeers were constructed in such a
way that their openings are facing the direction of the prevailing wind and prefera-
bly the wind coming from a region with pleasant odur.1 The upper portion of
Baudgeer was kept open on one, two, four, six, or eight sides in such a way that the
top was closed and the inner passage led the air into the building or the reservoir.
The inner passage was divided into four, six, or eight sectors, using partitions and
bricks (except for one-way wind towers), to align the wind direction in the entry
1
Both pleasant and unpleasant winds blow in Yazd. One of these pleasant winds blow from the
northwest of the province which is called “Isfahani Wind.” The coolness of this wind has been the
main reason for building Baudgeers in Yazd [9].
6 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.7 Climate atlas of Iran
Fig. 1.8 Wind atlas of Iran at 50 m elevation longitude in degrees, latitude in degrees
1 Introduction 7
Fig. 1.9 A thermal atlas of Iran in 2007: (a) Distribution of the average temperature in spring,
(b) Distribution of the average temperature in summer and (c) Distribution of the average tempera-
ture in autumn
8 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.9 (continued)
passage with the shaft of the Baudgeer. This would create air circulation in the
building, basements, and reservoirs.
Figure 1.12 shows a sketch of the continuous air movement in a conventional
Baudgeer when there is no wind intake from the outside as the case during the day
in hot summer time [1, 2]. At night, when there is no wind, Baudgeer acts like a
chimney. It draws in the cool surrounding air of the night inside through the doors
and windows. The entering air absorbs the heat of the walls of the building and
Baudgeer, and then the warm air is exhausted through the passages of Baudgeer.
This way, entering of the cold air into the building and Baudgeer causes them to
become cool. At daytime the Baudgeer acts in reverse. The hot air outside when
entering the Baudgeer will lose its heat to the surface and the inside walls of
Baudgeer which has became cooler from the night before. Therefore, cold air moves
downward into the building by being denser and escapes through the windows and
doors. Because of the low mass and heat of the energy in the body of Baudgeer, the
amount of energy which can be saved is limited. That is why, the natural air circula-
tion (because of chimney effect or buoyant force) is limited and it is only possible
in the early hours of the morning. In fact, Baudgeers cannot play an important role
in the absence of the wind.
Wind movement creates a pressure difference between the entry passage of
Baudgeer and the building’s doors and windows which establishes air circulation
1
Introduction
Fig. 1.10 Some of the regions in Iran, and neighboring countries of the Middle East as well as Egypt which are enjoying the
use of Baudgeers
9
10 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.11 A view of a narrow

alleyway covered with domed
roof (Sabat) in Yazd
inside the building. In most Baudgeers, the difference in pressure is so much that the
air enters through the upper passages of Baudgeer and leaves through the doors,
windows, and back passages (passages back to the wind direction) of Baudgeer.
Nevertheless, the design of Baudgeer with respect to the building and its main parts
can be in such a way that the difference of the pressure produced by the wind suck
the air in through the doors and windows and let it rush out through Baudgeer. In
this case, Baudgeers act as a ventilator.
In orchards where the greenery cools down the surroundings, Baudgeers act as
chimneys to the buildings and they can be designed in such a way that the cool air
enters the building through the doors and windows and leave the building through
Baudgeer. This type of Baudgeers is rarely used as a stack chimney.
The normal usage of the Baudgeer is when the wind movement pushes down the
air which is cooled along the channels of Baudgeers into the building. Examples of
these Baudgeers are seen in Yazd, Kashan, and Kerman, Abarkoh, Tabas, and other
cities of Kavir region of Iran which in fact are the originating place of Baudgeers.
These are the main areas where studies on Baudgeers are usually carried out.
Baudgeers are also found in the Middle East countries and Egypt as well. Appearance
and the design of Baudgeers differ due to climatic features of cities. In the areas
where favorite wind exists just in one certain direction, Baudgeers are unichannel
(one-sided) and in the areas where the wind has no certain direction, three- or
1 Introduction 11
Fig. 1.12 A common Baudgeer. Arrows show the direction of the airflow during the day and the
night when there is no wind [1, 2]
four-sided Baudgeers are used. In Ardakan and Tabas, most terraces and Baudgeers
are built facing the favorite prevailing wind of that region. Figure 1.13 indicates the
cross section of a Baudgeer facing the wind. The height of this kind of Baudgeer is
usually less. Wet leaves of the palm trees are placed in the openings to cool the air
to act like evaporative cooler.
12 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.13 Cross section of a Baudgeer in Bandar Abbas with its channel facing the favorite
prevailing wind while on the inside, wet palm leaves are used to cool the air, Wind Catcher
Figure 1.14 is a Baudgeer in Bam cooling the interior by means of an underground

tunnel crossing the courtyard which is always wet due to the watering of the green-
ery and the penetration of the water into the passage. The air passing through this
wet underground tunnel becomes due to evaporative cooling process cooler and
then enters the building (Fig. 1.15). This air first passes over a small pool and a
fountain, getting cooler, and then enters the rooms.
In case there is water running underground the building, Baudgeers can take
advantage of this cold water in cooling the air. Figure 1.16 shows the cross section
of such design. In this Baudgeer, the interior is connected to the underground water
flow by a well. Baudgeer is built in a way that the exiting air passes over the mouth
of the well. Because of the circulation of the exiting air of Baudgeer, a part of the
air, which has passed over the underground cold water and has become cold is
pulled up through the well and after mixing with the exiting air, enters the interior.
Therefore, a part of the air which enters into Baudgeer through mouth number 1
(Fig. 1.16) exits through the back mouths or parallel with the wind and the remain-
ing air flows through routes 3–4 or 3–5. If door or window 4 is closed, the entire
cold air flows through routes 3–5. In routes 5–7, the air passes through the under-
ground spaces which have been humidified by the water on the surface of the green-
ery in the neighboring house, and become relatively cooler and exit from opening
number 6. At this stage, the air is mixed with air which has passed through the route
a–b–c and gets much cooler and enters the interior. This air might be even cooler
than what is expected. Residents of the house might feel cold inside while the out-
side temperature is 40 °C. This is a real engineering masterpiece. Our ancestors
1 Introduction 13
Fig. 1.14 A Baudgeer,

located in the courtyard
in Bam
Fig. 1.15 Cross section of a Baudgeer in Bam. A wet tunnel does connect the structure to the
living room [1, 2]
14 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.16 Cross sections of a Baudgeer and the use of underground running water. The circulation
of the air cools the surroundings due to evaporative cooling method [1, 2]
have been capable of creating a cool breeze in the midst of the summer with no
energy consumption. It should be pointed out that the design shown in Fig. 1.16 is
exceptional and was employed in a limited number of Baudgeers. The design in
Fig. 1.15 needs a rather big yard and locates the Baudgeer in the far most corner of
the yard facing the residential building. The Baudgeer design in Fig. 1.12 is a com-
mon design that may be found in many buildings equipped with Baudgeers. It
should be noted that before the invention of mechanical or absorbent refrigerators,
space 5 in Fig. 1.15 and spaces c and 7 in Fig. 1.16 were used to keep the foods cold.
Natural ventilation and passive cooling of the air without electrical power are the
most significant features of Baudgeers. Wind with high pressure enters the Baudgeer
from the top and exits with low pressure through the lower doors, windows, and
openings back of the building. A part of the entering cold air during the day is fur-
nished by the main structure of Baudgeer which has become cold at the night before.
The low temperature of the air at night and the radiation of heat from the outer walls
of Baudgeer are main factors in saving cool air in the body of Baudgeer.
It is for centuries that conventional Baudgeers in arid areas of Iran and some
other countries in the Middle East have been functioning as a masterpiece of Iranian
engineering artifact. Baudgeers, despite their important advantages, have some
drawbacks which are discussed briefly here [10]:
1. The wind openings of Baudgeers would let dust, insects, and even small birds get
into the structure.
2. A portion of the air admitted in the Baudgeer is lost through other openings and
never enters the building. When the tower has only one opening facing the wind
all the air entering the Baudgeer enters the house.
1 Introduction 15
3. The amount of coolness which can be stored in the Baudgeer mass is generally
limited (due to small mass and flow specific heat of the energy-storing material),
and may not be enough to meet the cooling needs of the building during a hot
summer day. Furthermore, the exposed surface area of the energy storing material
may not be sufficient enough to allow a high rate of heat exchange.
4. Even in the buildings with basements, where the air is made to flow over moist
surfaces, the evaporative cooling potential of the air is not fully utilized. In hot,
arid climates evaporative cooling is a very effective process for providing ther-
mal comfort.
5. Baudgeers are not much effective in areas with very low wind speeds.
To overcome some of the limitations of the conventional Baudgeers, two new
designs, called Baudgeers with wetted columns and Baudgeers with wetted surfaces,
are analyzed, employing flow and thermal networks [10–12].
In Baudgeers with wetted columns which consist of un-glazed ceramic conduits
stacked lengthwise on top of each other or some thick dampers, water is uniformly
sprayed on top, wetting the entire column, by some fountains. The excess water
leaving the column is collected in a sump located at the bottom of the Baudgeer.
This water may be reused by a pump. This way, the proposed design can utilize the
potential of evaporative cooling, and can deliver air to the building at much lower
temperatures [10–12].
In the areas where the speed of the wind is low, Baudgeers with wetted surfaces
may be used. The surfaces consist of a Series of Straws or cellulose called Pads
which are commonly employed in evaporative coolers. These pads are placed at the
apertures on top of the Baudgeer (tower) and are wetted by spraying water over them.
The air passing through these pads is cooled evaporatively and its density
increases. Since this air is heavier than the ambient air, there is a downward circula-
tion of the air. Figures 1.17 and 1.18 indicate the cross section of a conventional
Baudgeer, a Baudgeer with wetted column and a Baudgeer with wetted surfaces,
respectively. In Fig. 1.19, Baudgeer is combined with an air heater or solar chimney
[13]. In this design, the air through doors and windows of the rooms and solar chim-
ney is directed outside. In winter, when Baudgeers are not operating (dampers D2,
D3, and D4 are closed), the solar chimney can naturally warm the room.
To determine the coefficients of air pressure (Cp), as an effective factor in
calculating the air-velocity distribution in Baudgeers, a number of studies were
carried out in Waterloo University, Canada. In these studies, a 1/100 scale design
of a Baudgeer with yard and building was used. Coefficients were computed with
the model tested in wind tunnel, distribution of the pressure in Baudgeer and sur-
roundings [14]. Years later, more studies were carried out in Western Ontario
University to complement the previous studies [15]. There have been a number of
both analytical and experimental studies performed on the new design of Baudgeers
[9–12, 16–23].
Determining the height and other dimensions of a Baudgeer for a specific loca-
tion requires a well-thought design, considering the principles of Fluids Mechanics,
Thermal Transformation, and Thermodynamics. In the past, in hot and dry regions
16 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.17 Cross section of a

conventional Baudgeer
of Iran like Yazd, this was all done based on the experience and by expert native
architects. This way, the technology of Baudgeer construction with all its intricacies
was passed on to next generations. Regarding the drawbacks of conventional
Baudgeers which were already referred to, and the advancements achieved in sci-
ence and technology, emphasizing the scientific approach in designing, analysis,
and constructing Baudgeers is indispensable. Architects and designers of residential
and nonresidential buildings can exploit the scientific findings and guidelines of
today, and employ Baudgeers in bringing cool, enjoyable air circulation to the resi-
dents as much as possible [23].
Baudgeers of Iran are built in several cities of southern and marginal areas of
desert such as Yazd which is known as the city of Baudgeers (Fig. 1.20), Kashan
(Fig. 1.21), Tabas (Fig. 1.22) and other towns like Khoaf, Sarakhs, Herand, Sirjan,
Jahrom, Anarak, and cities of desert with hot, dry or hot, moist climate (Figs. 1.23,
1.24, 1.25, 1.26, 1.27, 1.28, 1.29, 1.30, 1.31, 1.32, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.36, 1.37, 1.38,
1.39, 1.40, 1.41, 1.42, 1.43, 1.44, 1.45, 1.46, 1.47, and 1.48). Baudgeers are found
1 Introduction 17
Fig. 1.18 Cross section of a Baudgeer with wetted column
in other Middle East countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, United Arab Emirates,
Jordan, Bahrain, Qatar, Iraq, Oman, Syria, Kuwait, and Egypt (Fig. 1.49, 1.50, 1.51,
1.52, 1.53, 1.54, 1.55, 1.56, and 1.57).
Chapter 2 gives a short history of Baudgeers. In Chap. 3 of the book,
Baudgeers are analyzed from an architectural point of view. Chapters 4–7 give
an account of analytical and experimental studies of conventional Baudgeers
with columns and wet surfaces, and Chap. 8 includes the conclusions and sug-
gestions. In Chap. 9, pictures of Baudgeers from Iran, other Middle East coun-
tries, and Egypt are shown.
18 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.19 Cross section of a Baudgeer with wetted surfaces, with a solar chimney
1 Introduction 19
Fig. 1.20 A view of Baudgeers in Yazd city

Baudgeer over the Brujerdi
mansion in Kashan
20 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.22 One-sided and domed (Kolah-farangi: Denomination of Kolah farangi (gazebo). The
first foreigners who came to Iran were often European and in some cases American and Russian
tourists. These tourists wore a special kind of hat made of cork with rims which were rather wider
in front and back and in oval shape. The thickness of the hat would be around 1.5 cm. It had an
inner layer which would let the air run through it when worn. It also had a hemispherical projec-
tion, as big as the half of a nut, on top with orifices around. Kolah farangi is the kind of structure
which resembles these hats, without its rims. Most probably the Kolah farangi type of Baudgeers
was an imitation of these hats [24].) Baudgeers in Tabas
1 Introduction 21
Fig. 1.23 The single

Baudgeer of the Haj Kazem
Aub-anbar in Qazvin
Fig. 1.24 Two short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers in Ardakan

22 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.25 A view of the tall

and unique Baudgeer of the
Rajabi Mansion (governor’s
court in the past) in Semnan
Fig. 1.26 A view of a

Baudgeer with a rectangular
cross section in Qom
1 Introduction 23
Fig. 1.27 Four-sided of an old residence in Minab [25]
Fig. 1.28 Three out of five Baudgeers of an Aub-anbar in Kish Island [24]
24 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.29 Bulky four-sided Baudgeers in Queshm Island
Fig. 1.30 A short bulky

Baudgeer in Bandar of
Lengeh
1 Introduction 25
Fig. 1.31 Four-sided

Baudgeer of Ebrahim Khan
School in Kerman

Baudgeer in Bam
26 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.33 Baudgeers of Shah-Nemat-o-lahe Vali tomb in Mahan
Fig. 1.34 Baudgeers of Ghavam-al-Dowleh mansion in Tehran

1 Introduction 27
Fig. 1.35 Short four-sided Baudgeers in Aran [8]
Fig. 1.36 Short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers in Gonabad [26]

28 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.37 A view of

Baudgeer of Mohamadieh
Aub-anbar in Naein
Fig. 1.38 Short unichannel

(one-sided) Baudgeers in
Zabul
1 Introduction 29

two-story Baudgeer in
Aghazadeh mansion in
Abarkuh
Fig. 1.40 The Baudgeer of Sadri garden (Namir) in Taft

30 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.41 Brick-Baudgeer in Sabzevar
Fig. 1.42 Bulky four-sided Baudgeers in Bandar of Kong [28]

1 Introduction 31
Fig. 1.43 Renovated

four-sided Baudgeer in
Naragh
Fig. 1.44 The Baudgeer of spinning factory in Isfahan (This picture was taken in 1937) [29]
32 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.45 Short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeer in Khosf Oasis near Birjand
Fig. 1.46 Karim Khan Zand

Chadel’s Baudgeer under
reconstruction in Shiraz
1 Introduction 33
Fig. 1.47 A tall renovated

Baudgeer in Rafsanjan,
known as Moein Baudgeer
(The house, the Baudgeer
located in, has already
collapsed.) in Rafsanjan

Baudgeer in Sheikh Castel in
Bandar of Siraf, Bushehr
(belonging to Qajar King,
Naser-al-Din Shah’s period)
34 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.49 Short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers, Harat city in Afghanistan
Fig. 1.50 Baudgeers of Heydar Abbad city in Sen province, Pakistan [8, 30]
1 Introduction 35
Fig. 1.51 A Baudgeer in a

school, Dubai in United Arab
Emirates
Fig. 1.52 A picture of a four-sided Baudgeer in Bahrain

36 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.53 Decorated brick Baudgeers in Doha, Qatar
Fig. 1.54 Baudgeers of Mirjan Khan building in Baghdad, Iraq [31]

1 Introduction 37
Fig. 1.55 A view of the Baudgeer (Malqaf) in Khalil Al Talhuni’s mansion in South Shuna,
Jordan [32]
Fig. 1.56 A view of a Baudgeer of a house in Suhar, Oman [33]

38 1 Introduction
Fig. 1.57 The Baudgeer

(Malqaf) of Al-Jawhara
house in Cairo, Egypt [33]
References
1. Bahadori MN (1978) Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture. Sci Am 283(2):

144–145
2. Bahadori MN (1977) Natural cooling in hot arid regions. In: Sayigh AAM (ed) Solar energy
application in buildings. Academic, New York, NY, pp 195–225
3. Zomorshidi H (1994) Persian architecture, constructing traditional structures. Zomorrod,
Tehran
4. Dehghani AR (2006) Study of history and evolution of wind towers, this beauty and nice phe-
nomena and desirable traditional air conditioning system. J Air Cond Refrig 19:4–13
5. Solar Energy, Wind and Waves Group (2007) Iran New Organization of Energies (SANA),
Energy Department, Ministry of Energy, IIRI
6. Bahadori MN (1986) Thermal performance of adobe structures with domed roofs and moist
internal surfaces. Sol Energy 36(4):365–375
7. Dehghani AR (2004) Experimental study of operation of wind towers and cisterns. J Air Cond
Refrig 1:36–41
8. Tavasolli M (1981) Civil engineering and architecture in dry and arid land of Iran. Payam and
Payvande No, Tehran, pp 82–92
9. Memarian G (1993) An overview of the cisterns architecture in Yazd. University of Science
and Technology, Tehran
10. Bahadori MN (1985) An improved design of wind towers for natural ventilation and passive
cooling. Sol Energy 36(2):119–129
11. Pakzad AR (1997) Analysis of two new designs of wind towers. M.S. Thesis, School of
Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran
References 39
12. Bahadori MN, Pakzad AR (2002) Performance evaluation of new designs of wind towers,
Paper no. FEDSM 2002-31247. In: Proceedings of ASME FEDSM02, ASME 2002 fluids
engineering division summer meeting, Montreal, QC, 14–18 July 2002
13. Bahadori MN (1988) A passive cooling/heating system for hot, arid regions. In: 13th national
passive solar conference, MIT, Cambridge, MA, pp 364–367, 20–24 June 1988
14. Bahadori MN (1981) Pressure coefficients to evaluate air flow patterns in wind towers. In:
International passive and hybrid cooling conferences, Miami Beach, FL, pp 206–210,
Nov 1981
15. Karakatsanis C, Bahadori MN, Vickery BJ (1986) Evaluation of air flow rates in employing
wind towers. Sol Energy 37(5):363–374
16. Javan Amoli F (1990) An analytic survey of the two types of modern drenched wind towers.
B.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University, Tehran
17. Me-marie GH (1991) An analysis of the performance and comparison of two modern designs
of wind towers. B.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University, Tehran
18. Bahadori MN (2001) An analysis of the performance of two modern wind towers and compar-
ing them with the conventional ones
19. Dehghani AR (2001) An experimental evaluation of two new designs of wind towers and a
comparison with a conventional wind tower. B.S. Thesis, Yazd University, Yazd
20. Mosavi Davar S (2002) An empirical study and performance analysis wind towers and their
feasibility of use in the buildings. B.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty
of Polytechnic, Gillan University, Gillan
21. Bahadori MN (1994) Viability of wind towers in achieving summer comfort in the hot arid
regions of the Middle East. In: Third word renewable energy congress, Reading, pp 879–892,
11–16 Sept 1994
22. Mazidi M (2005) Assessment of the efficiency of Yazd University Masque through analytical
and empirical methods. M.S. Thesis, Department of Power-plant, Shahid Abbas Pour Water
and Electricity University, Tehran
23. Bahadori MN, Yaghobi M (2006) Ventilation and natural cooling system in traditional build-
ings of Iran. University Publication Center, Tehran
24. Besharat H (2005) Yazd, my city. Talaieh, Tehran
25. Ghobadian V (1994) A climatic study of the traditional buildings in Iran. Tehran University
Publication, Tehran
26. (1974) By way of the salt desert. Farah Pahlavi Publications, Tehran
27. Amir Yeganeh H (2005) Yazd, the gem of the desert. Honarsarye Goya, Tehran
28. Kasraeian N (1993) Our land. N. Kasraeian, Tehran
29. Neurath FV (1937) Axel Von Grafe IRAN Das Neue Persian. Atlantis-verlag/, Berlin
30. Rudofsky B (1997) Architecture without architects. Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY
31. http://archnetorg/library/images/oneimage.jsp?location_id=9523&image_id=63960
32. http://www.egyptarch.com/egyptarchitect1/hasanfathi/hfprojects.htm
33. Damluji SS (1998) The architecture of Oman. Garnet Publishing, Reading
34. Rabbat N (1989) The citadel of Cairo. The Age Khan Trust for Culture, Geneva
Chapter 2
The History of Baudgeers
2.1 Introduction
There is no precise date or information about the antiquity of Baudgeers.

However, acquaintance of ancient Iranians with the characteristics of the airflow
and the use of Baudgeers undeniably indicates that the invention and develop-
ment of these structures is Iranian knowledge [1]. Based on his studies on the
emergence and development of Baudgeers, Rosenthal in his work Poetry and
Architecture: the Badhanj believes that this structure was exclusively invented
in Iran. In the early Abbasid period, the Baudgeers have been found to be of little
use in Mesopotamia and were largely built in Iran. It made the transition from
Iran or the East to Egypt, when Egypt became more and more important politi-
cally and economically [2].
2.2 Reported Knowledge and Texts of Baudgeers

in Iranian Literature
2.2.1 History of Baudgeers in Literature of Iranians
Baudgeers date back to 1,500 years ago. Their use was spread even to North Africa.
Lack of architectural documents’ proofs is basically compensated by literary texts
in which different names were used for the same structure, Baudgeer. Some of these
names mentioned in Farsi Dictionary are: Baudahanj, Baudahang, Baudkhan,
Baudkhaneh, Baudkhan, Baudkhovan, Baudkhor, Baudkhoun, Baudras, Baudghad,
Baudghar, Baudghara, Baudghard, Baudghas, Baudanj, Baudang, Baudhelj,
Baudhenj, Vautgher, Vaunghez, Khishoud, and Khishan [3–7]. In the poems of some

42 2 The History of Baudgeers
Iranian poets this structure has been referred to with different names. Some of those
poets are:
Roudaki-e Samarghand
He is one of the Iranian eloquent poets, born in Bonej village, one of the villages of
Roudak-e Samarghand region, in 839 ad. Bonej was one of the big villages of
Roudak and its center; because of this it was known as Bonej-of-Roudak. He died
in Roudak in 908 ad. In one the couplets of this great Iranian poet, the word
Baudghard has been used:
Great the house with Baudghard There, the life is cool and glad.
Abu Shakur Balkhi
He was a great poet and philosopher of the ninth century ad. There is not much
information about his exact date of birth and his life account. Nevertheless, some
researchers, based on some evidence and indications, guessed that he was born in
882 ad [8]. Regarding the fact that Abu shakur composed Masnavi of Afarin-Nameh
between 912 and 915 ad, it can be said for sure that he had been living in the first
half of the ninth century ad and was alive after Roudaki’s death. Abu shakur in one
of his couplets has used the word “Baudghar”: Ugly donkey! You aren’t welcome
by the townsman
Nevertheless, enter the garden and enjoy Baudghar.
Abu Taher-e Khosravani
Abu Taher-e Khosravani, Taiieb Ibn-e Mohammad, was one of the poets of Samani
era (ninth century ad), and his pen name is Khosravani. There is not much informa-
tion about his life too. According to Oufi, Abu Taher had been one of the renowned
poets of Samani Court and had a prosperous life. His died in 921 ad [9]. Not many
poems are left from him; however, he also used the word Baudghar in one of his
couplets.
When the universe turns into a dark well
Burns the Baudghar and turns into hell
Kasaee Maruzi
Kasaee Maruzi is a contemporary of Nouh Ibn-e Mansour from Samani era. He has
some odes praising Mansour and the King Mahmoud Ghaznavi. He reportedly born
in 920 ad and died in the beginning of tenth century ad. He also has used the word
Baudkhan in one of his couplets.
Days of life slips away the man
As the air leaps the Baudkhan
Farrokhi Sistani
Abu-al Hassan Ali Ibn-e Jolough bearing the pen name of Farrokhi is one of the
well-known poets of Ghaznavian era. In the beginning he was a peasant in Sistan;
later he worked his way up into Ghaznavian Court. He was literary talented and
2.2 Reported Knowledge and Texts of Baudgeers in Iranian Literature 43
created poems dexterously. He was born in 929 ad and died in 1008 ad in Ghaznein.
He has also used the word Baudkhan in one of his couplets.
He is a fire upon the mountain-chain
Others are like candle upon Baudkhan
Naser Khosrow
The philosopher Naser Khosrow was born in Ghobadian of Balkh in 973 ad. Because
he had different idea and philosophy to the people of Balkh, he was forced to flee
from this city and take refuge in the mountains of Badakhshan. He lived in a cave
called Yamgan and died in this place in 1060 ad. Naser khosrow has mentioned the
word Baudkhaneh in one of his poems, from which two following couplets are given:
If you wish to be eternal
In this feeble world of Baudkhaneh …
… You have to finally leave with wind
From this world, full of Baudkhaneh
He also in his book “Travel Account” refers to the Baudgeers of Aub-anbars of
Naein [10, 11]: “These structures (Aub-anbars) were constructed to store rain-
water and their domes and Baudgeers were seen from far distance.”
Masoud Saed Salman
Masoud Saed Salman was born in Lahore. Some have mentioned that he was born
in 1017 ad and some others in 1019 ad. He composed poems for more than 50
years. He died in 1094 ad. He is among the famous and celebrated of composers.
Masoud Saed Salman in one of his couplets refers to Baudgeer:
World has a state of a Baudgeer
Learn, learn this story from me
Sanaie Ghaznavi
Abu-al Majd Majdud Ibn-e Adam, bearing the pen name of Sanaie, was born in the
middle of the tenth century ad (about 1044 ad) in Ghaznein. In his early years of his
careers, Sanaie was a great poet of the court of Ghaznevi kings and would eulogize
them, but then suddenly he went into some spiritual transformation and changed his
way of poetry and life. His death occurred in Ghaznein in 1104 ad. In the introduc-
tory part of his great book, “Haghighat-al-haghigheh,” which was collected and
compiled under the order of King Bahram from Ghaznavi dynasty, by Mohammad
Ali-al-Rogha, he has also used the term Baudkhan.
Know well what makes your sleep deepened
From that tall building, is the wind of Baudkhan
Asir-al-Din Akhsikati
He was from the small town of Akhsikat, a part of Ferganeh, and spent most of his
life in Iraq and Azarbayjan. His date of death was sometime between 1156 and
1158 ad. In one of his couplets in a poem, he has referred to Baudkhan.
Leave the attack to Abu Ghabis Khan
Consider him a little dust in Baudkhan
Khaghani Shirvani
Afzal-al-Din Ebrahim Ibn-e Ali Najjar, with the pen name Khaghani, was born in
the township of Shirvan in 1099 ad. Some assume he died in 1171 ad but others in
1174 ad. He was buried in Tabriz. His grave is in Sorkhab neighborhood of this city
in the graveyard of poets. He also has used the term Baudkhaneh in his poems.
Wisdom, if killed with people
We give away the Baudkhaneh
Masih Kashani
Philosopher, Rokna, Masoud Rokn-ad-Din, known as Masihe Kashani, was one of
the gifted poets during Safavid dynasty. He was born in Kashan in the second half
of the seventeenth century ad. He died in his house in Kashan in the year 1645 ad.
In one of the couplets of his poems, the word Baudgeer was used too.
As soon as I made my house-heart in the fire
Aggravated my Baudgeer, my heart’s fire
Hakim Shafaie (died in 1616 ad)
The wind twists into it from all sides
What a wonderful Baudgeer that is!
Mohsen Taseer Tabrizi (died in 1710 ad)
My heart rejoices from the familiar words
Baudgeer of spirit, fills my heart with blows
Sorouri
Thou greedy, jealous, low character
Sold your soul for ever as Baudghar
Historical records have numerous reports concerning the construction of
Baudgeers. For instance, in the book, “The Contemporary History of Yazd” [12,
13], written in the fifteenth century ad, construction of a Baudgeer at Shah Yahya
Building has been documented as follows: “He built a four-story terrace on one side
of the castle and erected four Baudgeers on four sides of it.”
There are more reports on the construction of the Baudgeers in this book: “He
built a superb house and two lofty Baudgeers and constructed an excellent edifice
and a ‘Baudgeer’, known as the Baudgeer of Sheikh Mobarak Shah and a nice
garden.”
“Khajeh Shahab-al-Din Ghasem built a superb house, a ‘Baudgeer’, a big lobby,
and a small garden in Narsou-baud neighborhood; He also made a big pool and let
the water of Narsou Abbad Qanat run into it and through the garden.”
The same book contains several poems referring to Baudgeers as well.
Mohammad Mofid Mostoufi Bafghi (died in 1670 ad) author of the book “Jame
Mofidy,” written in the seventeenth century ad which includes the construction
account of a Baudgeer for a building in Taft [15]: “and also in ‘the neighborhood of
the school’ near the school of Amir Akhorieh, built a superb royal house including
Tonbi, terrace and a colorful dais and erected a Baudgeer as well.”
A point which is worth mentioning is that in the old works and books of the past
in Iran, there is not any direct mention of the word Baudgeer or its variants; but
there is a lot of reference to the wind and its applications as the agent of comfort and
well-being. Zoroaster, the Iranian prophet, whose birth according to a number of
historians was 600 years before the birth of Christ [16], and according to many
others and based on the writings of Avesta (the holy book of Zoroastrians) was
about 583–660 years before Christ, says:
The earth and the moon
And the God created brisk wind
And the crest of the Alborz mountain
Soil and all good things, I praise
The late Mohammad Karim-e Pirnia, one of the most prominent contemporary
architects, describes the usage of the wind by our ancestors, as follows [17]:
“Iranians coming from the lands with rivers, clean air and pastures, when arrived
in Iranshaher, settled there and tried to create, whatever they had before, in their
new land as well … they did not abandon the God given fine wind and as they
brought the clean water to their hands with the help of Kahriz, they did brought the
cool air into the houses with the help of Vatghar.”
His ideas about the antiquity of Baudgeers are as follows [17]: “Baudgeer has
been used in Iran, from the very remote old days and the various ancient names of
it, such as ‘Vatgher’, ‘Baudhanj’, ‘Khishoud’ and ‘Khishkhan’, implies that
Baudgeer is not a recent phenomenon.”
2.2.2 History of Baudgeers from Foreign Travelers’ Account
There are reports from European tourists and some Americans visiting Iran that deal
with the construction and the use of “Baudgeers.” Some of these accounts are very
detailed. After studying and investigating all the travel accounts written by foreign-
ers, the ones which had some information about Baudgeers are presented here.
Marco Polo’s travel account
Marco Polo was born in a merchant family in Venice, in the north of Italy, in
1254 ad. In 1260, Nicolo, his father, and Mateo, one of his uncles, in order to expand
their business and help their older brother, Andrea, traveled to Constantine. After
arriving in Constantine, they were encouraged by Andrea to take their goods to the
East and make business with Easterners [18].
While traveling to East, Marco passed through Iran twice. And in 1292 ad, on his
way back home, once again he came to Iran and visited Bandar-e-Hormoz. He died
at 70 years of age in Venice in 1324 ad.
Marco Polo in some part of his travel account says [18]: “There are many small
and big good cities in there (Iran) that Hormoz with its Arabic-speaking people is
one of them. It is terribly hot here and that is why, people have built ventilating
structures on their roofs facing the wind. These structures can bring in the air out-
side into the houses to cool them.”
Alfons Gabriel in his book titled “Marco Polo in Iran” comments on the Baudgeers
of southern coasts of Iran [19]: “To fight against scourging heat prevailing the region,
all houses are equipped with Baudgeers in order to harness the wind. A Baudgeer
face the wind flow and the wind are led into the house or wherever is needed.”
Gabriel, elsewhere in the book says that: “We learned about Baudgeers on the
same route taken by Marco Polo, in the marginal areas of Yazd dessert.”
Garcia de Silva Figueroa’s travel account
Garcia Figueroa was a Spanish nobleman from Ferria dynasty, born in Badojos of
Spain. He was sent as the ambassador of Fillip III, the king of Spain, to the Court of
Iranian King, Abbas the Great, in 1614 ad at the age of 44. His journey to Iran and
India lasted 10 years, of which, 2 years and 7 days he was in Iran. He visited some
cities including Lar, Shiraz, Isfahan, Kashan, and Qom, Qazvin, and many other
towns and villages [20].
In his travel account, he gives the following description of Baudgeers: “As I said
before, there are tall buildings in the city; though, they seem taller than what they
are. It is because of the Baudgeers resembling small towers on the roofs. Since
necessity is the mother of invention, along with numerous inventions in the west,
Iranians also sought the remedy in order to get rid of the sweltering heat of summer
through devising a structure to carry the air-even warm air-into their homes round
the clock. Their need is inevitable. They are Baudgeers working like fans and their
structures are like fire-places in our homes. Their length is much more than their
width, open from every side. They have a vertical column and considering the size
of the rooms they are built on, they are big or small. Each part of the main body of
the Baudgeer is built opposite to the other part so that if one part faces north, the
other faces south and likewise, if one faces west, the other faces east. The vertical
column, considering the size and the height of the Baudgeer, is divided to three, four
or five parts. Each of these parts, considering the size and the height of the structure
which is usually around 4 m or more has chambers with the size of 1, 2 or 3 square
feet. The roof of this ventilation system is entirely covered. As, it was mentioned
before, and Baudgeer is open on four sides, with a hollow shaft [12–16]. There are
just chambers inside the structure. Two of the sides of the Baudgeer, which are very
wide and are back to back, facing east and west, are divided just with one partition.
Therefore, the entire part of these two parts forms two very big chambers, 2 or 3 ft
square (as said before). This way, all sides of Baudgeer are open in front but closed
at the back. Wind flow enters through each of these parts, having no way to pass
through up or back, has to move down into the house with much pressure. The struc-
ture is built for the very same purpose. Typically, Baudgeers with internal parts
explained, are extended downward, along the walls of the rooms—of course, half
way up to the narrow portion. The taller the Baudgeers, the more rooms are cooled
by them; and the lowest room becomes cooler than any other room. The whole sys-
tem is really surprising, because, even at times, when the airflow is really low, the
rooms which are connected to the system are comfortably cool; and makes the life
easier for the residents. Without these Baudgeers, life is rather impossible in
Hormoz. The structure is effective during the day but for the extreme heat which
prevails the nights of mid May to the end of September, or the early November,
people have to take refuge on the roofs.”
Pietro Della Valle’s travel account

Pietro Della Valla was born in Rome in 1586. His father was called Pompeo. His
family was one of the oldest and noblest families of the Rome. After getting mar-
ried, Pietro with his wife, some attendants and servants, with a caravan, set out for
Iran in January, 1617 ad. Through Hamedan and Golpaygan, he went to Isfahan. He
explains in details all about his journey to Isfahan in his first letter from this city in
March 1617 ad. He died in April 1652 and was buried in Aracheli Church on the
famous Hill of Campidoulio in downtown of the Rome [21].
Piero, in his travel account, refers to an Aub-anbar, which, according to the fea-
tures of the Aub-anbars in desert areas and the existing documents, had had a
Baudgeer. He says the following about the Aub-anbar: “On the sixth day, we walked
24 kilometers and it was in the third kilometer that we reached an Aub-anbar which
was built under the ground and many stairs led to it. Since the lands adjacent to the
Aub-anbar were barren and no spring of water was nearby, it was just constructed
for the passengers to have access to water.”
John Chardin’s travel account
John Chardin, a French tourist, was born in Paris in 1623 ad. In 1664, in order to
visit and trade diamond, he went to India. On his way to India, he passed through
Iran and visited many cities of this country. He stayed in Isfahan for six years when
King Abbas II was ruling the country. He returned to Paris in 1670 ad and once
again, taking an expensive cargo of jewelries with him, he went back to Isfahan. He
stayed there for three more years. He left Isfahan for India and returned to Europe
in 1677 and resided in England. Chardin died in 1713 and was buried in West
Minister [22].
Chardin has described a house in Isfahan with a Baudgeer and has supplied his
remarks with a picture of that Baudgeer (Fig. 2.1); his account is an indication of the
common use of Baudgeer in that period of time.
Cornelis de Bruyn’s travel account
Cornelis de Bruyn was born in 1652 in the city of Lahe. He was very interested in
doing research since childhood. He was interested in drawing and thought it was
something essential for his studies. He thought that if he were to be a real researcher,
he should be able to draw the picture of whatever he sees. In June, 28, 1701, he
started his long journey from Moscow. Initially, he draws a portrait of Peter the
Great and later from the northern borders came to Iran and arrived in Isfahan in
April, 1703 [23].
After staying a while in Isfahan, Bruyn set out for Shiraz and on his way visited
Persepolis (Takht-e-Jamshid) and engraved his name on a big piece of stone. His
next stops were Bandar Abbas in September 1705 and Batavia in February 1706.
Then, in 1708, through Iran he went back to Europe. He died in 1726 or 1727 in his
country house in Utrecht, the Netherlands.
A pencil sketch of Chahar-Bagh Street in Isfahan is left by him, which was drawn
in 1703. In this drawing, a view of a double-story Baudgeer is seen which is an
indication of the use of that kind of Baudgeer in those days in Iran.
Fig. 2.1 Picture of a

Baudgeer by John Chardin
[22]
Jean Baptiste Tavernier’s travel account

Tavernier was a French tourist born in Paris in 1605 ad. There is not much informa-
tion about his early years of life [24]. He is considered one of the greatest travelers
and Iranologists of the seventeenth century, who had been very meticulous in inves-
tigating everything; he had honestly and explicitly written about what he had seen
and happened in his surroundings. Between 1632 and 1668, he travelled to East six
times during which he visited Iran nine times.
In his travel accounts, Tavernier writes about Baudgeers as follows: “From La’ar
to Hormoz, all the houses have identical plans. All have a Baudgeer which are
stretched from the basement of the house to the roof to cool the interior. Though, for
strangers who are not accustomed to the climate of this country, sleeping indoors,
next to these structures, is unhealthy.”
J.S. Buckingham’s travel account
Buckingham made a trip to Iran in 1802 [25]. There is a picture of the city of
Bushehr in his travel account exhibiting nine Baudgeers (Fig. 2.2). These structures
were seen in that city until some years ago; but there is none left today. The last one
located in the inherited land of a person named Fath Ali Ghannad was demolished
entirely. He claimed that: “Continual coming of the people for taking pictures, mak-
ing films or visiting the structure, had caused a lot of inconveniencies for the resi-
dents of the house, therefore I had it completely destroyed.”
Fig. 2.2 Baudgeers, the erected towers of Bushehr [25]
Eugene Flanden and Pascal Coust’s travel account

On October 30th, 1839, a delegation headed by Kont Dosersi was dispatched to Iran
from the Tolon port of the Mediterranean Sea to study the potentialities of Iran for
political and business relationships. They came to Tehran via Turkey and the Black
sea. Meanwhile, the French Academy of Fine Arts dispatched a painter and an
architect to accompany the delegation [26].
The delegation enters the borderlines in 1840 and that is the time the two French
artists, Eugene Flanden and Pascal Coust, begin drawing pictures and documenting
the historical monuments of Iran. The delegation being unsuccessful in their mis-
sion left Iran in August 1840; but the two artists stayed to finish their work. To
complete their inventory of the ancient and historical structures, they even traveled
as far as Bushehr and the Persian Gulf. Then on the return journey, they crossed
Iraq, Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon, and sailed from Beirut to France on December 1,
1841. The collections of these two artists including the diaries, notes on the archeo-
logical investigations, lithographs, and drawings were published 9 years later in
December of 1850.
Flanden was born in Naples in 1803. In the beginning, he had no teacher and did
painting on his own; later, he attended the classes of the well-known painter and
designer, Horace Verner, who was a master of drawing the historical scenes. He died
in Paris in 1876.
Flanden illustrated a Baudgeer in Bushehr in his sixtieth painting (Fig. 2.3). He
comments on the Baudgeers of Bushehr as follows: “The city like other Iranian cit-
ies does not enjoy a considerable importance. It is located on a small bulge on the
tip of a jut into the sea and forms a sort of triangular peninsula whose two sides are
Fig. 2.3 A painting by Flanden from Bushehr port including a Baudgeer
facing the sea and the third side facing the land, encompassing a rampart. The view
of the city differs from the other cities due to the Palm Orchards. Considerable num-
bers of Baudgeers on roofs are of the exclusive features of this city. The Baudgeers
resemble chimneys but somewhat taller and wider. Their upper part includes the
channels. These structures are witnessed in other cities of Iran as well. However, in
southern areas, they are more prevalent due to the scorching weather. These
Baudgeers can be seen on a roof, at the end of the port, near a fortress, said to be
created by the Dutch.”
Erneste Orsolle’s travel account
Erneste Orsollehe was born in Mons (Belgium) in 1858 ad. He studied law and
obtained his Ph.D. in this field [27]. Through Baku and Anzali port, he arrived in
Iran in 1882. His purpose of this journey was just to visit this country as a tourist. In
his travel account, he wrote that: “Baudgeers were small towers to lead the cool
winds through houses.”
Edward Jakob Polak’s travel account
Edward Jakob Polak, an Austrian tourist, was born in one of the districts of Bohem,
in 1818 ad. He lived in Iran from 1851 to 1860 and became Naser-al-Din Shah’s
special physician since 1855. He made his second trip to Iran in 1882 and died on
October 8, 1891 in Vienna [28]. He wrote about Baudgeers as follows: “To cool the
interior, Iranians have devised something named ‘Baudgeer’. It is a tall structure
which starts from the basement and extends from 8 to 20 feet high on the roof.
Inside, it’s hollow column is divided into four equal parts by thin walls. Since there
is no side-walls on the top, wind is trapped from every side it blows and circulated
through the interior. The circulation of the air is so, that if we put a pitcher full of
water exposed to it, the water cools. On the air passage on the floor of the parlor, a
metal network is set up to accelerate the air circulation in order to take advantage
of cooler conditions. Another remedy sought in wealthy people’s mansions was
leading the air to blow on running qanat water and cooling the area in cellars
(Sardab). This way, Sardabs were comfortable rooms to stay in summer time.”
Colonel C. Macgregor’s travel account
Macgregor was a British army officer of the Victorian period; he travelled to
Mashhad, Sarakhs, Daregaz, Shahrood, and some other parts of Iran in 1875 ad and
then returned to Europe via Russia [29]. He gives the following comments on the
Baudgeers in the township of Taft: “There are eye-catching orchards in this valley
including the Saed Garden benefiting from a mansion with tall Baudgeers, the struc-
tures which are seen on the roofs of many other houses.”
He also comments on the Baudgeers of the city of Yazd: “Of the conspicuous
features of Yazd are the Baudgeers, cellars and basements which are in perfect har-
mony, indicating that Yazd is hotter than other cities.”
Sven A.F. Hedin’s travel account
Sven A.F. Hedin was born in Stockholm (Sweden) in the February of 1865 ad. He
took his first trip to Iran in November 1886. He died in Sweden (Stockholm) on
February 26, 1952 [30].
Hedin wrote a book by the name of “Deserts of Iran” describing the Baudgeers
of a caravansary near the city of Tabas: “On every roof there is a square chamber
leading down to the interior where the sunlight cannot penetrate and the spot is cool
even in summer. There are two Baudgeers on the roof to circulate the air inside the
house.”
General Sir Percy Sykes’ travel account
General Sir Percy Sykes, the commander of well-known regiments of the British
army, started his journey to the Middle East, Iran, and Baluchistan. In 1894, he
established the consulates of England in Kerman and in 1899, in Sistan. He was the
British Council General in the province of Khorasan from 1905 to 1913. Since he
made several trips to Iran between 1892 and 1918, he wrote his travel account enti-
tled Ten Thousand Miles in Iran in which he writes the followings about Baudgeers
in Yazd [31]: “Minarets and Baudgeers of Yazd remind us of the story of a thousand
and one nights.”
He also describes the Baudgeers of Kerman as: “There is one old Baudgeer left,
just in the alley, next to Zia-eieh-Theological School which once was the Office for
Endowments in Pahlavi period. A structure of harmony among non-harmonious
buildings. Architecture plays an important role among the factors forming the cul-
ture of a city. When this item is ignored, all the other elements lose their significance
as well. Kerman is the city of forgotten Baudgeers. A jewel in the desert of Iran
which is undergoing an unfortunate transformation because of the mis-management
of the authorities.”
G.N. Curzon’s travel account
G.N. Curzon, known as Lord Curzon, was born in 1859 ad. He graduated from the
University of Oxford. Then he initiated his tour around the world to acquire first-
hand experience and knowledge. He came to Iran as a reporter for the Times news-
paper during Naser Addin Shah’s period for 6 months [32]. Besides Iran, he also
made trips to India, Afghanistan, China, Korea, and central Asia. He died in London
in 1925 due to health problems.
He wrote about Baudgeers of Yazd as follows: “Winds and storms carrying sands
to the city are witnessed in the east. In town and the central-fort, which is eye-
catching, we encounter huge buildings. Tower-like Baudgeers, minarets and the
entrance of the Jame Mosque are exhilarating.”
Edward Gronville Brown’s travel account
Edward Gronville Brown was a famous British Iranologist, born in 1862, and died
in 1925 ad. He studied medicine and the eastern languages simultaneously [33]. He
loved Persian literature and mysticism in particular. His great wishes were to see the
hometown of Hafiz and step onto the soil of Shiraz. Through Tabriz, he entered Iran
in 1887 or 1888 and went to Tehran and then visited Qom, Isfahan, Shiraz, Yazd,
and Kerman. He documented interested customs of the people in the cities he stayed
in. The following is his comments on Yazd: “Approaching Yazd, I witnessed tall and
rectangular structures. I was at first surprised and did not know what they were. I
had never seen like them before. Since Yazd was famous as the house of pray, I
thought they were minarets, however, I soon found out that they were Baudgeers on
the roofs of the houses of the rich for the conveyance of the source winds to cool the
indoors.”
A.V. Williams Jackson’s travel account
William Jackson was born in a noble family in New York in the 1862 ad. He got his
Ph.D. from Colombia University in 1887. He taught Indian and Persian languages
at the same university for 40 years [34]. He went to India in 1901 and had a trip to
the Middle East including Iran for the first time. He made numerous trips to the East
so that he went to India in 1911, Iran in 1919, and again in 1926 he visited India,
Iran, and Afghanistan. He finally died of illness in 1937. He wrote about Baudgeers
of Yazd that: “Attraction of Yazd is not because of its views for it has no natural
scenery. Hours and hours on a horse, one only witness’s narrow allies and streets
twisted together, a narrow part of sky which throws fire onto the ground as soon as
the summer arrives as well as lofty Baudgeers on the roofs of the wealthy people,
resembling chimneys which are very urgent in summer.”
C. Colliver Rice’s travel account
Ms. Rice was British and married to a member of the missionaries living in Jolfa of
Isfahan. She had four trips to Iran after World War I dating back 70–80 years ago
[35]. She wrote about Baudgeers of Yazd that: “Yazd which is well-known as the city
of dessert has basements which are very convenient spots for the residents to escape
the scorching heat of summers. Many of the houses are equipped with Baudgeers
which look like towers and collect the blowing breeze in order to cool the indoors.”
Fredrick Charles Richards’ travel account
Fredrick Charles Richards, a member of the England’s Royal Association of
Painters, was born in 1878 in Monmouth Shire and died at the age of 54 in 1932
[36]. He took a trip to Iran in the early nineteenth century during King Reza Pahlavi
period. There are 48 beautiful paintings of different cities of Iran in his travel
Fig. 2.4 A view of Yazd with its Baudgeers and Qanats from the roof of a house [36]
Fig. 2.5 The big pool of Yazd (a view of building and Baudgeers in Yazd) [36]
account in three of which two Baudgeers of Yazd (Figs. 2.4 and 2.5) and one in
Kerman (Fig. 2.6) can be traced.
Oskar F. Neidermayer’s travel account
Oskar F. Neidermayer was a German and a military commander in Iran in World
War II. He documented his memories of Iran in a book titled “In the Sweltering Sun
of Iran” [37]. He talked about Baudgeers of Yazd as follows: “Numerous Baudgeers
have bulged out resembling towers to convey cool air through the interior in
summer.”
Fig. 2.6 A view of two Baudgeers in Kerman (Baudgeers of the complex of Ebrahim Khan
School) [36]
Susan Clare Roaf

Ms. Susan Clare Roaf, a British researcher, completed her doctorate thesis under the
title Baudgeers of Yazd in 1988 [38]. In her book, “Baudgeer, Living with the
Desert” [39], she has quoted some points regarding the history of Baudgeers in Iran
from the tourists named Frayer, Morier, Malcholm, and Tevenut as follows:
John Frayer, who travelled to Iran and east of India from 1672 to 1681, has
referred to Baudgeers of Bandar Abbas which is an indication of its commonality in
that city. He talks about the great number of Baudgeers in the sky of Bandar Abbas,
no trace of which can be found today [38, 40]: “Baudgeers are simple and funnel
like at the top created for the conveyance of air downward to seek the remedy for
intolerable heat in Bandar Abbas. All the houses have Baudgeers which give an
exhilarating view of the city while one is on a ship from a distance.”
James Morier visited Iran from 1808 to 1809 and commented on the Baudgeers of
the city of Bushehr as follows [38, 41]: “Some 9 kilometers from Bushehr, there is a
place well-known just for its Baudgeers. These pyramid-shape structures enjoy square
cross-section enjoying vertical holes on the four sides whose insides are divided by
intersecting walls. The structure circulates the air inside the house and brings com-
fort for the residents. Nevertheless, the comfort has its dangers as well. A few years
ago, because of an earthquake, all Baudgeers were ruined and fell on the roofs.”
2.3 History of Baudgeers Reported in the Iranian Architecture 55
Fig. 2.7 Baudgeers of Bushehr [38, 42, 44]
Sir John Malcolm, who came to Iran in 1815, wrote about the Baudgeers in
Shiraz that [38, 42]: “Each house in this city enjoys a tall prism-like structure on the
roof to ventilate the house. Iranians name such phenomenon Baudgeer.”
In Sir John Malcolm’s diary there is a painting of a Baudgeer in Bushehr, too
(Fig. 2.7).
Roaf, also names another person, Thevenot, who travelled to Iran in the period
1633–1667. He describes the Baudgeers he had seen in Iran as follows [38, 43]: “In
Shiraz, Lar and other hot cities, people have devised a special structure on the roofs
of their houses. The walls of this structure are perpendicularly connected to each
other and together make the supports for a roof which covers the walls. Wind from
any direction, can pass through the walls and flows downward through the holes in
the rooms and circulates the air.”
2.3 History of Baudgeers Reported

in the Iranian Architecture
In this part, the history of the buildings which contained some materials about the
Baudgeers is discussed.
The oldest building with Baudgeers is a citadel on the northeast slopes of Bam
city, up on a massive boulder, once used as a fortress. In fact this immense building
is the old city of Bam (Fig. 2.8).
This citadel is a perfect example of Iranian diverse architecture of many centu-
ries. It is the biggest mud-brick complex of the world; a magnificent fortress on a
hill with 61 m in height, possessing an everlasting glory. Historical records which
Fig. 2.8 View of the Baudgeers of the citadel in Bam (before the earthquake of 2003)
included those of the Vaziri History [45] and Hodud-al-Alam [46] explained the
antiquity of this place some 2,000 years ago. The available plans and the number
of mud-bricks of the house of the citadel date back to Sassanid or Parthian era, long
before Islam in Iran. People used to live in Bam citadel until 180 years ago.
This ancient town has four divisions: the moat stretched all round; the walls; the
observation posts; entrance, allies, and houses.
A wall in the east north, and four more in the south and 38 observation posts are
of the portions of this complex. Construction of this huge landmark must have
enjoyed an important strategic situation. The mansion of the ruler is a five-story
building on a natural rock. The other divisions are the entrance, the residential of the
common people, the second gate and the stable, the third gate, barrack, and the
central building which was the rulers’ living place. The quarter for the folks includes
a main passage way (Bazzar), Friday Mosque, Prayer’s hall, Islamic Theater, cara-
vansary, water reservoir, square, school, archway, bath house, Islamic gym (the
house of power), and some old houses.
Some of these houses include the interior and the exterior, Baudgeer, veranda,
rooms for winter and summer, and stable. There was water well in each courtyard.
Most of the old houses had access to each other through corridors. There is no pre-
cise information regarding the Baudgeers of the citadel; however, the available
records indicate they date back to Safavid era.
Another building which enjoyed Baudgeers is the Ghiasieh School in Khargard,
a village near the town of Khaf created after Islam (Fig. 2.9).
This school is the only remaining building of the old Khargard city. It was built
almost 550 years ago [47, 48]. This building includes 2 stories, 32 chambers, 8
auditoriums on the corners as well as 2 big ones on each side used as a mosque, and
theological school.
2.3 History of Baudgeers Reported in the Iranian Architecture 57
Fig. 2.9 A pictures of the Baudgeer of Ghiasieh School, Khargard in Khaf
Fig. 2.10 Complex

architecture of Omrani Oasis,
Gonabad
Aub-anbars of Jennok (1457 ad), Amir Chaghmagh in Yazd (sixteenth century

ad), Firuz Abbad in the Meybod city (1519 ad), Mossallah neighborhood of Yazd
(1536 ad), Bagh-e-Gandom of Yazd (1550 ad), Khanaghah of Meybod (1553 ad).
Also, Aub-anbars of Shah-vali of Taft (1560 ad), Borse of Taft (1568 ad), Khajeh of
Yazd (1576 ad), Malmir of Yazd (sixteenth century ad), Darvazeh Mehriz (seven-
teenth century ad), Darvazeh Shahi of Yazd (seventeenth century ad), Chahar sough
of Yazd (1612 ad), Toodeh Rokn Abbad of Yazd (1618 ad), Pay-e-borj of Yazd
(1624 ad), and Abol-Maali of Yazd (1626 ad) are charitable structures which enjoy
one to five Baudgeers [49].
Near of the city of Gonabad, there is a huge complex architecture, encircled by
towers and fortress which is well known as Omrani. The Omrani oasis dates back to
the seventeenth century ad and was populous up to 30 years ago. The historical
texture of the place is now intact; the Baudgeers and defense facilities are still fixed
(Fig. 2.10). It benefits from a mosque, bath house, caravansary, and two Aub-anbars
belonging to Seljuk to Safavid periods. What are very interesting in this village are
the elements and the spaces which the residents had created to coexist with the hot,
arid climate of this part of the land.
Complex of Golestan Palace, left from the historical citadel of Tehran, was a
residential palace for the Qajar kings and is considered the oldest and most beautiful
buildings of the capital within last 200 years. This palace has several magnificent
Baudgeers covered with tiles.
The citadel dates back to Safavid period. King Abbas of Safavid had the northern
part of this area planted with trees and later a tall wall was built around it. Within
the walls, the palace was built and he called this place, citadel. In the late Safavid
period, Tehran was used as the temporary place for the kings of Safavid. Even, King
Silliman (1684–1756) built a palace for himself. Today, there is no sign of these
architects that can be traced.
The late Yahia Zoka comments that [50]: “The oldest available buildings are
Golestan Complex, Marble Thrown Palace belonging to Karim Khan-e-Zand
period. By his order, the walls of citadel were renovated and Harem, Private House
and Capitol Building were constructed inside. The next summer, he had a special
building and a big tribunal house, based on Sassanid style, plus a garden built. In
the period of King Fath-e-Ali and King Naser-al-Din of Qajar, several more build-
ings were added to the previous ones.”
During King Reza Pahlavi period, a great part of Tehran citadel such as the sur-
rounding wall, the gateway, Telegraph Office, Naren-jestan, Golshan Garden, and
some interior structures was demolished and the King moved to Saad Abbad Palace.
Another move was made also in the period of King Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to
Niavaran Palace. Golestan Complex was used for the reception of the foreign guests.
The Baudgeer of Golestan Palace
The Baudgeer of Golestan Palace, which belongs to King Fath-Ali period, under-
went major changes in the period of King Nassar-Al-Din. This edifice includes a big
parlor, of which doors, pillars, walls, and the ceiling are covered with paintings,
gold inlaid, mirror-work, plastic-work, wood-work, and marble. This palace is
extremely beautiful and quite useful in terms of administrative activities. Under the
parlor, there is a big special room with a small pool inside, called pool-hall with four
tall Baudgeers on its four corners decorated with blue, yellow, and black tiles having
golden cupola. The air of pool-room cools well enough the parlor, the rooms, and
other areas of the palace (Fig. 2.11).
2.4 Historical Account of Baudgeers in the Buildings

in the Arabic Countries
The Arabs in various countries have known Baudgeers and they are still using them.
In fact, it seems that structures similar to Baudgeers had been used since the times
of pharaohs and Babylonians in the ancient buildings of Egypt and Iraq [51]. The
2.4 Historical Account of Baudgeers in the Buildings in the Arabic Countries 59
Fig. 2.11 The tiled Baudgeer

of Golestan Palace in Tehran
wide application of the Persian terms Baudhanj and Baudanj (Bauda-hang) in the
literature of Arab and widespread use of this structure in the Arabic lands, particu-
larly Egypt, indicates that Baudgeers as well as many other architectural provisions
of Iranian had gone too far afield [2]. There are square Baudgeers in the walls of
Ukhaider Palace, belonging to the times of Abbasids in Iraq (built in the second half
of the fourteenth century). In Iraq, this term is used as Baudjeer. It is probable that
the transfer and development of Baudgeers in Syria and Egypt occurred after the
emergence of Islam [52].
The oldest Arab poet, whose poems include the term Badhanj, is Abu Abdollah
Mohammad Ibn-e al-Hassan Ibn-e at-Tubi (known as Tubi) who lived in the first
half of the eleventh century [2, 53, 54]. Ibn-e Tubi made a number of trips to East
part of Islamic lands and has a divan (a collection of poems), in which the term
Badhanj has been used for Baudgeer. The following are some of the verses from his
divan [2].
I came to him on a hot summer day,
And he gave me a frosty welcome.
I said: I do not have a badahang in my house,
But the face of that fellow is my badahang
Nevertheless, earlier than eleventh century, the construction of Baudgeer (with
the Persian name) had been common in Egypt. Among the writings of Ibn Yunus,
an astronomer (died in 978 ad), there are references to the cool breeze of north and
northeast in Egypt which in fact had been the main directions of the wind in the
Baudgeers of Cairo [47].
Ibn Abi Hajalah at-Tilimsani (1304–1355) is another Arab poet who has used the
term badahanj in his verses like the one below [2]:
A badahanj, may our mansion never be without its pleasant company!
As if it was an object lover confronting passion (air)
Burhan-ad-Din al-Qirati (1305–1360) is a well-known Egyptian poet whose
divan is called Matla an-Nayyirayn. In some of the verses, he has referred to
Baudgeer as Baudahanj [2]:
I am a badahanj all filled
With emotion, joy, and happiness.
High on top of me, the pigeons sing,
Inside me, the winds recite love poems.
A mansion where our badhanj stretches up high,
Love-sick, curing the thirst of violent passion
If, when it is hot, a grating there is opened,
Love for her came to me, before I knew what love was
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, there was hardly a house in Cairo with-
out a Baudgeer. Some were extremely large and expensive, costing from one
hundred to five hundred dinars. Something of them was decorated artistically to
show off [2]. It seems that the oldest Baudgeer remained in Cairo is the Baudgeer
of Al-Saleh Tala’ai Mosque [55]. The term badhanj has been referred to in the
stories of One-thousand and One night, and Al-Ghuzuli (died in 1394 ad) has
devoted a chapter of his book, “Matali al-Budur,” both in prose and verse, to the
badhanj [2].
In modern Egypt, this structure is usually named Malqaf (grabber of air). The use
of the term Malqaf in the customs of Egyptians of today is confirmed by Lane [56].
At present, the term is still in use in Egypt [51]. Houses of the country,
exterior rooms, Ghaeh or Mandareh, and bedrooms are usually equipped with the
Baudgeer [57].
More than 120 years ago, some people from Bastak (one of the cities in
Hormozgan province, Iran) immigrated to Dubai as merchants to do business in the
United Arab Emirates, a colony of England by then. They are now considered
natives in that country.
When the first group of Bastakies arrived in Dubai, they created a neighborhood
for them and called it Bastakieh. The architecture of this place bears Iranian style,
which is derived from the ancient architecture of Yazd. At present, Bastakies are
using Baudgeers and their neighborhood has turned into a tourist spot, an open
museum, in Dubai (Fig. 2.12).
References 61

Baudgeer in Dubai, UAE
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26. Flanden O (1945) Travel account of Osuen Felande in Iran, 2nd edn. Naghsh-Jahan Newspaper,
Tehran
27. Orsell E (1974) Travel account of Orsell. Zavar, Tehran, p 157
28. Polak EJ (1982) Iran and Iranians. Kharazmi, Tehran, pp 50–55
29. Macgregor C (1987) A trip to Khorasan Province. Astane-Qudes Razavi, Mashhad
30. Fon Hedin SA (1976) Deserts of Iran. Touka, Tehran
31. Sykes P (1984) Ten thousand miles in Iran, 1st edn. Loheh, Tehran
32. Curzon GN (1961) Iran and its tales. Tarjomeh & Nashre Ketab, Tehran
33. Brown EG (1997) One year with Iranians. Saffar, Tehran
34. Jackson AVW (1973) Iran in the past and present. Kharazmi, Tehran, p 399
35. Rice CC (1987) Iranian Women and their customs. Astane-Qudse-Razavi, Mashhad, p 133
36. Richards FC (1964) Travel account of Fred Richards. Tarjomeh & Nashre Ketab, Tehran
37. Nidermayer OF (1984) Burning Sun of Iran, 1st edn. Tarikh-e-Iran, Tehran
38. Roaf S (1988) The wind catchers of Yazd. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Architecture, Oxford
Polytechnic
39. Roaf S (1982) Wind catchers, living with the desert. In: Beazley E (ed) Airs & Philips, London
40. Fryer J (1698) A new account of East-India and Persia in eight letters, being nine years travels,
begun in 1672, and finished in 1681, London
41. Morier J (1812) Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia minor to constantinople in the
years 1808 and 1809, London
42. Malcolm J (1815) The history of Persia, vol 2, London
43. Thevenot M (1686) The Travels of Mons. De Thevenot into the Lavant, London
44. Dubeux L (1841) Historic et Description de Tous les Peuples Perse, Paris
45. Ali Khan Vaziri A (1996) The history of Kerman, 4th edn. Elmi, Tehran
46. Author unknown (written in 951 ad) (1983) Bounderies of the World from the East to the West,
Tahouri, Tehran
47. O’Kane B (1976) The Madrasa Al-Ghiyasiyya at Khargird, Iran, vol XVI, London, p 85
48. Semsar MH (2002) The comprehensive Islamic encyclopedia, vol 11. The Center for the Great
Islamic Encyclopedia, Tehran, pp 67–71
49. Mollazadeh K, Mohammadi M (2000) The encyclopedia of Iranian historical architects in the
Islamic Era/4- public buildings, 1st edn. Sazeman Tablighate Eslami, Art Department, Tehran,
p 243
50. Zoka Y (1970) The history of the imperial citadel of Tehran, Tehran, pp 278–281
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Tehran, p 162
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Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales (Damas) 24:122–128
Chapter 3
The Architecture of Baudgeers
3.1 Types of Baudgeers
Baudgeers of Iran are divided into four general types:

–– One-sided Baudgeers
–– Two-sided Baudgeers
–– Four, six, eight-sided Baudgeers
–– Cylindrical Baudgeers
3.1.1 One-Sided Baudgeers
This type of Baudgeer is mostly found in the cities of Ardakan and Meybod in Yazd
province. The air openings of this type of Baudgeer are in the direction of the
Isfahani pleasant wind. There is no opening in the west, east, and south direction
(Fig. 3.1) [1–3].
It is also called “one-sided” Baudgeers. Generally, this type of structure is shorter
than other types, particularly in the dusty areas.
Design of one-sided Baudgeers, compared to other types, is somewhat simpler
and is more cost effective. Therefore, it is possible to have a separate Baudgeer for
each room. It should be noted that this kind of Baudgeer is found in cities of Tabas
and Aghda too, where the wind blows in a certain direction (Fig. 3.2).
In some of the southern cities of Iran which are located in the vicinity of the sea,
one-sided Baudgeers are facing the sea to transfer the cold wind to the houses [4–6].
In some of the southern ports of Iran such as Lengeh and Kong, Baudgeers are four-
sided, bulky, and short so that cooling is achieved through large amount of air move-
ment (Figs. 1.30 and 1.42).

64 3 The Architecture of Baudgeers

one-sided Baudgeer
in Ardakan
Fig. 3.2 One-sided
Baudgeer of a house
in Tabas
3.1.2 Two-Sided Baudgeers
These types of Baudgeers are simple and rather small from architectural point of
view and since they are two-sided, they are called twins Baudgeers. Compared to
one-sided Baudgeers, they are more efficient and more ideal. Most Aub-anbars pos-
sess two-sided type of Baudgeers. Figure 3.3 exhibits one of these types of Baudgeers.
3.1.3 Four, Six, Eight-Sided Baudgeers
Four, six, eight-sided Baudgeers are bigger than the other Baudgeers and are mostly
seen in the cities of the desert regions like Yazd. The height of these Baudgeers is
usually taller than the rest.
Of course, the height and the structure of each opening of them depend directly
on the climate condition of the location where it is built. Four, six, eight-sided
3.1 Types of Baudgeers 65

two-sided (bilateral)
Baudgeers of the Aub-anbar
in Dowlat Abbad Garden
Fig. 3.4 Lofty Baudgeer of

Dowlat Abbad Garden
Baudgeers, in terms of architecture, are more difficult and more sophisticated to

build; nevertheless, they are more beautiful than the other types.
An example of the most beautiful and fairly tall four-sided Baudgeer, which has
evolved architecturally through the years, can be found in Dowlat Abbad Garden in
Yazd (Fig. 3.4).
Fig. 3.5 Double-story
Baudgeer of the Haj
Abo-Al-Ghasem Rashti.
Caravansary in Kharanagh
near Ardakan
Double-story Baudgeers are more common having four, six, eight-sided

Baudgeers. In the construction of double-story Baudgeers, usually, normal air
openings are built with four, six, or eight sides. The center part of the Baudgeer is
separately erected to the highest level. In fact, a narrow separate Baudgeer is con-
structed on the center part of the main Baudgeer, usually 1 or 2 m higher than the
main one. Since the second Baudgeer is independent from the main Baudgeer, any
damage to the main Baudgeer is limited to that part and does not affect the second-
ary part. In this way it will continue its function [7]. An advantage of this type of
Baudgeer relates to the air openings (mouths). The air openings could convey the
air into the building at different heights. An example of this type of Baudgeer is
shown in Fig. 3.5.
3.1.4 Cylindrical Baudgeers
Cylindrical Baudgeers are the latest development of the Baudgeer type structures.
Since their performance is more aerodynamically effective and therefore they are
more efficient than the others. Nevertheless, they were rarely built because their
construction was complicated and needed much expertise architects. That is why a
few of them can be found in some parts of Iran.
3.2 Unique Baudgeers 67
3.2 Unique Baudgeers
There are some unique Baudgeers built in different parts of Iran and they are dis-
cussed in the following chapters.
3.2.1 Eight-Sided Baudgeer of Dowlat Abbad Garden in Yazd
Dowlat Abbad Garden is one of the well-known gardens in Iran, which was
designed and built by Mohamad Taghi Khan Bafghy a contemporary of Karim
Khan-e-Zand in 1739 ad [8]. A great part of the buildings including the vestibule1
and Baudgeer was ruined. But, they have been repaired and renovated by the
National Organization of the Preservation of Ancient Buildings. There used to be
a Qanat running through this garden and the garden was built because of this sub-
terranean water. There were a number of buildings in this garden where the ruler
of the day would live there. Main buildings included Southern portal, Stables,
Seraglio, Vestibule, Octagonal Baudgeer, Kitchen, Servant rooms, Mirror Hall,
Main portal, and Water reservoir. The most noticeable buildings are Vestibule and
Baudgeer in which the blending of airflow and water had been so cleverly carried
out. The netted door with colorful glasses, which have recently been added to the
building of vestibule in the course of repair and renovation, have added more
beauty to it. The most noticeable part of the design of the building lies in the fact
that the architect has chosen the kind of angles which give the most beautiful views
to the viewer from inside the building. This eight-sided Baudgeer with the height
of 33.80 m from the grounds is one of the masterpieces of Yazd which demon-
strates the genius and knowledge of Yazd’s engineers and architects (Fig. 3.6).
There are different kinds of trees in the garden such as cypress and pine trees. Lots
of red roses give a special beauty to the garden. A part of the garden is filled with
fruit trees like grapes and pomegranate.
3.2.2 Cellular Baudgeers of Brojerdy’s House in Kashan
Brojerdy’s house (located in Soltan Mir Ahmad Place) is an example of a fully

developed building in Kashan. The shape, size, and view of this building are quite
distinctive among others. This house was built by Haj Seid Jafar Natanzi (the family
1
Vestibule is a space as big as a large room which is located right after the entrance of the building.
It links the internal and external parts of the house or any other building. This space is usually
square, six-sided, or eight-sided. It may be one-story or two-story building. Its ceiling is dome-like
and there is a window in the center to illuminate the room.
Fig. 3.6 A different view of

the tall eight-sided Baudgeer
of Dowlat Abbad Garden in
Yazd
became known as Brojerdy in later years) in 1824 ad. He was a famous merchant

and land owner of Kashan. He built the house as his dwelling place for the family
[9]. From an architectural perspective, Brojerdy’s house is known as one of the best
houses built within last two centuries. Scientific and technical investigations and
studies carried out by Iranian and foreign institutions on this house have made
everyone to admire this building.
To get to the yard of this valuable building, one should pass through several spe-
cial arched polygonal passageways. The front section of the building adjacent to the
entrance door includes a room with five doors and a veranda without ceiling. At
both sides of the veranda, some small rooms are seen. Alongside the yard, there are
several rooms with covered veranda about 1 m high, all around the yard and in front
of the rooms. The main building is in the eastern part of the house which is opposite
to the building entrance. There are wide stairs, seen in the yard, in front of the main
building. The first portion confronted when entering the basement is a huge room
with uneven floor. Down some of the walls in the basement, under the shelves, are
built netted dampers which are routed to the Baudgeers and make the air cool in the
basement. Entrance stairs are started from both sides of the main building and
extend to a larger veranda with a high ceiling. The veranda overlooks an octagonal
little pool. In the eastern part of the area having pool, there is a dining room. The
roof of this part of the building is domed-like with a skylight on the top which
enjoys a distinctive design. The inner wall of the dome is decorated with plaster-
work painted in various colors.
The cellular Baudgeers of Brojerdy house in Kashan (Fig. 3.7) are quite unique
among Baudgeers.
Fig. 3.7 A view of cellular

Baudgeer in Brojerdy’s house
in Kashan
3.2.3 T
hree-Story, Four-Sided Baudgeer of Sadri Garden
(Namir) in Taft
Sadri Garden was built by the orders of “Sadrol Olama” one of the rulers of Zand
dynasty in the city of Taft. Its area is 10,000 m2 and there is a building with a huge
parlor with 10 × 12 m in dimension, in the northwest part of the garden. The upper
portion of the parlor is decorated with arched roof. There is a room behind the parlor
which is connected to the Baudgeer and because of that produces a pleasant airflow
in the parlor. On both sides of the parlor, there are wide corridors which connect the
rooms to the parlor. There is also a basement built with bricks. The entire floor of
the building is brick-paved. In front of the building, there is a stone-made pool
around 500 m2 and in the far end of the southwest part of the garden, a water mill
stands. The three-story Baudgeer is well functioning in the ventilation of the build-
ing. No matter which direction the wind is flowing from, Baudgeer can easily catch
the windflow by its air openings in one of the stories (Fig. 3.8).
3.2.4 Sirjan Pipe-Like Baudgeer
This old building which is today called pipe-like Baudgeer, in fact, is the remainder
of an old house that belonged to Seyed Ali Asghar-e-Razavi in Sirjan (Fig. 3.9). The
Baudgeer is left from Pahlavi period and one reason for building it was to demon-
strate the cultural and artistic values combined with architectural and industrial
ingenuity. This famous Baudgeer, with orderly set geometrical meshes under the
Fig. 3.8 A view of the

three-story, four-sided
Baudgeer in Sadri Garden in
Taft. The air openings of the
middle story are covered with
plaster
Fig. 3.9 A view of pipe-loke

Baudgeer of Seid Ali
Asghar-e-Razvai’s house
Baudgeer, is located on a rectangular piece of land in a northeast direction. The

Baudgeer would transfer the surrounding air into the part of the building which usu-
ally was used in summer. This Baudgeer is quite unique and its design was inspired
by the funnels of old ships. It is said that the architect of the Baudgeer after having
Fig. 3.10 Eight-sided,
two-story Baudgeer of Amir
Garden in Tabas
a trip on a ship and based on his observations built the structure in its unique design.
The funnels are open on all directions. The outer wall of the Baudgeer is decorated
with small six-sided bricks.
3.2.5 E
ight-Sided, Two-Story Baudgeer of Amir
Garden in Tabas
Amir Garden (Amir Ghaen) is located in Tabas and is one of the important and well-
known buildings in town. It has lots of peculiarities and varieties on the outside
which quickly draws the attention of the viewers [10]. The building in this garden is
made up of two sections of private quarters and external. Normally, in old buildings
in Iran, the external section of the house was smaller in size and was used for recep-
tion of guests and the main and bigger part was the private quarter. Kitchen was
located in the private quarter. But, in this building, the external section was bigger
with an independent kitchen. The reason for this was that the external section was
used for ceremonial or administrative activities. The time ruler of Tabas, Amir
Asadolah Khan, used the external for employees or state guests. In fact, private
quarter and external were used separately and independently. Historical records
show that this building was used as the residential place for Hessamol-al-Dowlah in
the first half of the twentieth century ad. One of the glorious and magnificent parts
of the building is its two-story Baudgeer which is located in the northern side of the
yard, decorated with artistic plasterwork (Fig. 3.10). The performance of this
Baudgeer with 14 m height, as the cooler of the rooms, is the sign of its peculiar
architecture. This complex is quite famous in terms of beauty and glory. An
interesting point about this Baudgeer which has a design of eight and half2 in the
first floor and a regular eight-sided geometry in the second story, it can act on all
sides and convey the air to the building. Despite the variety in the size of the parts
of the building and the multitude exterior decorations, there is a well-balanced har-
mony between the different parts of the building and its yard and the entire complex
is eye-catching.
What is surprising in this and other buildings of Tabas is the beautiful covering
of the building which is created just by using mud and mud-bricks. In this building,
there is nothing else used except a layer of plaster. This simplicity and avoidance of
the use of other materials has given it a peculiar authenticity. In fact, it is a palace
made just of mud.
3.2.6 T
wo-Sided, Four-Sided Baudgeer of Aghazadeh
House in Abarkuh
One of the old buildings in Abarkuh is Aghazadeh’s. This house is located in the old
quarter of the town and is a conspicuous building in terms of architectural elements.
The area of the building is over 851 m and has three parts with a central yard for
different seasons of the year. The room in the southern part is like a cross. There is
a little stone pool in the pool which gives it some air of freshness. The distinctive
part of the building is its two-story Baudgeer with a domed ceiling which is quite
rare. Second Baudgeer is linked to the one underneath and there is a decorated
domed roof next to it (Fig. 3.11) which would illuminate the hall while cooling it.
The antiquity of this building reaches to the Qajar Dynasty.
The lofty and beautiful two-story Baudgeer of Aghazade’s house in Abarkuh is
located at the top of the hall’s dais. The connection of the Baudgeer with the hall is
through the square windows which every one of them is exactly located under the
air openings of the Baudgeer. The windows can be adjusted to let the favorable air
get into the hall. Windows can be closed in bad weather or when there is no wind.
Once in a while windows are cleaned and dusted [7].
3.2.7 A
Circular Two-Story Baudgeer in Chehel Sotoun
Palace of Sarhang Abbad
Chehel Sotoun Palace was built in Qajar era to receive Qajar princesses [11]. This
palace resembles Chehel Sotoune of Esfahan and Afif Abbad Garden in Shiraz. It’s
a complex with majestic elements and design. This magnificent structure, located in
2
Eight and half is an expression used in architecture. In this design some of the sides are smaller
than the others.
3.3 Short Eastern, Northeastern and Southeastern Baudgeers of Iran 73
Fig. 3.11 The four-sided,

two-story Baudgeer of
Aghazadeh’s house in
Abarkuh
mountainous slopes, was an attractive place to reside as a hunting ground. Sarhan

Abbad countryside is located within 76 km of the east of Ardestan.
The palace includes the hall (decorated with bricks, mud, wood works, paintings,
mirror ware and glass painting, guard house, bath house, observation posts, stable,
mill and ice house (ice maker)). On the roof of the building which was used as the
resting place by Khan, there is two circular two-story Baudgeers with a height of
10 m from the ground. One of the Baudgeers has been ruined (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13).
3.3 S
hort Eastern, North Eastern, and South Eastern
Baudgeers of Iran
On the way from Torbat-e-Heidarieh to Gonabad, in the mountainous spots of

Ghaenat and southern mountains of Bakhazar in Khorasan province, in most vil-
lages, Baudgeers are short. One of these villages is known as Mahneh (Fig. 3.14).
This kind of Baudgeer is seen in the entire region because of the micro climatic
condition to zabul (Fig. 3.15). In Mahneh village, favorable wind blows at lower
altitude and it is conveyed by the short Baudgeers to small rooms and residential
places. Usually, each house has several simple rooms which are built around the
yard. In Fig. 3.14, one example of these rooms is shown. Generally, the rooms
which are used more in daytime have Baudgeers. In winter, to prevent the penetra-
tion of cold wind into the rooms, the air opening of the Baudgeer is closed. Despite
circular two-story Baudgeer
in Chehel Sotoun. Palace in
Sarhang Abbad countryside,
Ardestan
Fig. 3.13 An old picture of

two circular two-story
Baudgeers in Chehel Sotoun
Palace in Sarhang Abbad
countryside, Ardestan
Fig. 3.14 Short one-sided Baudgeers of Mahneh village

3.4 Three-Sided Baudgeers 75
Fig. 3.15 A view of two

short one-sided Baudgeers in
Zabul
Fig. 3.16 Plan of a room, its door, and the position of the Baudgeer on the roof and the direction
of the airflow [6]
the changes in the texture of this and similar villages, still, the Baudgeers and their
domes which are built just a little above the roof are a great help to people to have a
thermal comfort in summer (Fig. 3.16) [6].
3.4 Three-Sided Baudgeers
Baudgeer of Imamzadeh Hossein in Tabas and three Baudgeers in Sirjan, Arg-

e-
Bam, and Hossein Abbad village in Yazd are examples of three-sided
Baudgeers [12, 16]. In this type of Baudgeer, the wall, which is facing the pleas-
ant wind, is larger with more air openings (Figs. 3.17 and 3.18). The two other
Fig. 3.17 A simple design of

a three-sided Baudgeer of
Imamzadeh Hossein in Tabas
[6]
Fig. 3.18 A simple design of a three-sided Baudgeer in the commander’s house of Arg-e-Bam
sides of the Baudgeer may convey the cool air into the interior in case the wind
changes its direction.
In Imamzadeh Hossein Baudgeer in Tabas, once the air reaches the openings of
the Baudgeer, because of the curved openings, it easily flows down into the lower
parts. Partitioning of the openings not only makes the Baudgeer strong and resis-
tant to the wind, but also enhances the speed of the wind which is flowing to the
lower parts.
Three-sided Baudgeer with the western or southern side closed (in Kerman
region) enjoys two designs: (a) joined, three-sided; (b) separate, three-sided [12].
The joined type in Sirjan is found in a house adjacent to Dr. Sadeghi Boulevard and
also in Hossein Abbad village in Yazd (Figs 3.19 and 3.20). The separate kind is in
the commander’s house of Arg-e-Bam (Fig. 3.21).
3.5 Some More Points on Baudgeers 77
Fig. 3.19 Joined Baudgeer

of an old house adjacent to
Dr. Sadeghi Boulevard in
Sirjan
Fig. 3.20 Joined Baudgeer

of an old house in Hossein
Abbad village in Yazd
3.5 Some More Points on Baudgeers
Location of the Baudgeer, the height of the column, the proportion of Baudgeer
with the area, intended to become cool and the direction and the number of the air
openings is a very careful task and needs a lot of architectural expertise. Any mis-
take on the side of the architect meant the conveying of the warm air and dust
instead of cool air into the interior part of the house. Skillful and experienced
Fig. 3.21 Separate three-

sided Baudgeer of the
Commander’s house in
Arg-e-Bam
architects, in order to find a suitable location for the Baudgeer on the roof, would
climb tall ladders and using their sensitive ears, determined the direction of the
windblow and the height of the Baudgeer [7].
The materials usually used in the construction of Baudgeers included mud, mud-
bricks, plaster, and Shorouneh wood. This kind of wood is extremely sturdy and
resistant to termites.
Baudgeers are made up of four main parts (Fig. 3.22) [2]:
1 . Column, body, canal, tube, or stem
2. Mouth (air openings), chest, chimney, or spring
3. Partitions
4. Roof
Generally, columns of Baudgeers were made in the shape of cube, rectangle-
cube, or prism. Their base was in geometrical shapes of square, rectangle, six-sided
(hexagon), or eight-sided (octagon) too. To add to the strength of the tall Baudgeers
during construction, they were hanked by small beams of Shorouneh wood and the
bulging of the beams was used as scaffold for the external repairs of Baudgeer [6].
3.5.1 Classification of Baudgeers
Baudgeers may be classified into three following types:

1. Operational Baudgeers:
Most of the Baudgeers are operational type. They are practically used to cool off
the air in the buildings and Aub-anbars.
2. Decorative Baudgeers:
These types of Baudgeers are merely used for decorative purposes and have little
or no practical function. Baudgeer of the Ghavam-al-Dowleh’s mansion in
Fig. 3.22 A plan of

Baudgeer with main parts
shown
Tehran (Fig. 1.34) is of this type. Decorative-type Baudgeers are closed at the
end of their columns and there is connection between them and the building.
3 . Operational-decorative Baudgeers:
This type of Baudgeers is both operational and decorative. Baudgeer of Dowlat
Abbad Garden in Yazd belongs to this type.
Baudgeers may also be classified according to the following features [13]:
–– The shape of column
–– Number and kinds of air openings
–– Number of the stories
–– The structure inside the column
3.5.2 M
ethod of Constructing One-Sided Baudgeers
in Ardakan and Maybod Areas
To build a one-sided Baudgeer, architect, on the roof, from the location which over-
looks a small room, allocated to the Baudgeer, starts erecting the column by using
mud and bricks with a rectangular cross section. He brings up the walls to a certain
height [2] and then two wooden beams are crossed on the top of the four-walled
column in such a way that the two ends of the beams make the crossing angles.
Next, the walls on the east and south of the Baudgeer are continued to about 2–2.5 m
height and on the north side which faces the Esfahani wind, a wall is erected with
6 cm width using half-bricks on the column to a certain height. Usually, these parti-
tions are 40 cm higher than other walls and they are called pillars. The pillars are a
kind of wind-breaker, and from an architectural point have some advantages which
are pointed out here:
1 . They add a special effect to the appearance of the Baudgeer.
2. They add to the strength of the Baudgeer. In Ardakan and its proximity, some-
times, there are whirl winds, known as pichak, which carry a lot of dust and can
heavily damage Baudgeers if they do not have air openings (mouths).
3. Baudgeer was built on the south side overlooking the ally. If there was not any
pillar, particularly in the old days when the city was not safe enough, thieves
would get into the houses through the air openings.
The distance between two partitions, called mouth or spring, is 40 and 60 cm.
The number of air openings depends on the width of the room. For rooms with the
width of 3, 5, and 7 m, the number of openings is 5, 7, and 11, respectively.
According to an old tradition in this region, the number of Baudgeer’s openings
should not be an even number, because it brings bad luck for the owner of the house.
The depth of the Baudgeer is 1–2.5 m and in most Baudgeers, for each 0.5 m, a
piece of wood is placed between the walls.
The roof with two pillars is covered with a kind of light ceiling which was used
in the old days, called Chapileh. This ceiling is built this way: Two oblique bricks
in upward position are held with hands and another brick is placed between them.
The roof of the Baudgeer is built in a dome-like shape to help in the outside air or
to help out the inside air. The roof of the Baudgeer is covered with straws for 3 cm.
Sometimes the distance between the two pillars is flattened with mud and straws
and then two or three rows of bricks are placed around the roof in such a way that
bricks are projected out for 3–5 cm. This way, rain cannot damage the walls of the
Baudgeer. Situating the bricks this way not only adds to the strength of the Baudgeer,
but also makes it somewhat beautiful. Sometimes, the entire roof is covered with
clay and straws mixed together and then covered with a layer of bricks and the gaps
between the bricks are filled with plaster and soil. Those who can afford do some
plasterworks on the walls of the openings of Baudgeer.
The number of the air openings (mouths) of a Baudgeer is directly related to its
size. Moreover, the number of openings on each side of Baudgeer depends on the
strength of the wind on that direction and altogether with the condition of the air
Fig. 3.23 A profile of a

rectangle Baudgeer
construction details
in the region. In some houses, in winter, when there is no need for Baudgeer, the
air openings of the Baudgeer are covered with bricks or mud. Or, the small door in
the lower part of Baudgeer (if there is one) is closed. Usually, this is done at the
end of fall.
In summer, when Baudgeers are functioning, the mouth of Baudgeer is covered
with a thin metal or wooden mesh to keep away the birds.
3.5.3 Construction of Four-Sided Baudgeers
We have benefited from the remarks by the late Ali Akbar Khorami [14] one of the
most prominent masons dealing with this structure. “Southwest of the building is
the best spot for a Baudgeer due to the least sun heat in summer and the long shade
of the daytime. Baudgeers can rush the interior heat out permanently.”
3.5.3.1 Plan of the Baudgeer
Rectangle systems, built alongside the southwest axis of the house, are the most
favorable ones even though there is some enjoying square or eight-sided structure
(Fig. 3.23).
3.5.3.2 Construction and Details
The thickness of a Baudgeer column from the base to the roof is 45 cm. Then it
is 30 cm up to the mouths. It is to be reminded that some enjoyed different
thicknesses too. Nevertheless, under present circumstances, the above-mentioned
Fig. 3.24 A profile of a

Baudgeer
measurements are the most favorable ones. The taller the Baudgeer is, the more air
is conveyed (Fig. 3.24). The height of a Baudgeer is directly related to the amount
of the money spent for it.
3.5.3.3 Mouth of the Baudgeer (Ventilating Part)
On top of the column, the walls are divided into 20 cm distances for each mouth (air
opening) and 8–10 cm for the separating partitions of the ventilating part. This way,
the numbers of air openings are specified. However, these distances are amended
considering the length and width of the walls. To give a decorative view to the upper
part of the Baudgeer, some plasterworks are done.
There are crossed wooden poles mounted each 2–2¼ meters in the mouth of the
Baudgeer. These poles are projected out and can be seen in the outer walls. Wooden
poles around the mouths are used as scaffoldings and support the partitioning walls.
They are also used as stands (Fig. 3.25).
3.5.3.4 Constructing the Roof of the Baudgeer’s Head
When the mouths are constructed, a coiled wooden (today, a coiled metal can be
used too) frame is placed on the top of the Baudgeer, then the roof of each opening
is covered with Chapileh and with a raw of Paloumeh (a supportive wall). Then the
sloping of the roof is carried out. Usually, in big Baudgeers a few ceramic bowls
(called Soucheh) are installed on the roof to collect the rain water so that it can be
evaporated (Fig. 3.26). Today, rain water can be drained through the pipes. Some
decorative brickwork is also done on the roof. The corner of the square and rectan-
gle Baudgeers are made beveled or round inward, to reduce the friction of the wind
Fig. 3.25 A profile of the

mouth covering the roof
Fig. 3.26 A view of some

Soucheh on the roof in
Ardakan. The method for
partitioning the column
when hitting the walls and letting the air pass through the round corners to the other
wall. This arrangement makes the ceiling of the openings more resistant against
roof sliding.
In cases where the column is very tall, to reduce the load, the wall thickness of
the column is reduced half a brick each 1 m towards the top.
Fig. 3.27 (a) Cross-wise

dividing method; (b)
Dividing method parallel to
the outer surface
3.5.3.5 Partitioning the Column
To divide the column, coiled wooden mesh or Toizeh (coiled plaster to create con-
vex ceiling) with a plaster frame is used. Partitions are built on these frames. If the
column is relatively tall, it is advisable to use wooden frame each 2 m. The parti-
tioning is best done if the dividing of the height to be done at the lowest possible
height (maximum 2 m or the height of an average person). Otherwise, the driven
wind into the Baudgeer would leave it from the opposite side. Shorouneh is the best
wood for making the mesh or other parts of the Baudgeer. Dividing of the column
is done parallel to the external walls. The corners of the inner side of walls are
divided in a cross shape (Fig. 3.27).
If the wind in the Baudgeer reaches the pool, or the construction of a pool under
the Baudgeer is possible, the wind passing over the cool water produces a more
pleasant air. In buildings where there is a basement, the remainder of the wind can
be conducted to that area. In this situation, since the air passes the cool shaded areas,
it loses some of its temperature and the air becomes cooler than the air in the first
floor of the building.
There is a point worth noting. The elegance plasterwork should be done at the low-
est point of Baudgeer which is located in the inner space, but plaster does not adhere
to the wood. To solve this problem, some kind of thread, called Sazou, is wrapped
around the far end of the last wood to produce enough adherences [15] (Fig. 3.28).
3.6 Study of the Designs of Types of Baudgeers in Yazd 85
Fig. 3.28 A sample of

delicate plasterwork at the
lower part of Baudgeer [15]
3.6 Study of the Designs of Types of Baudgeers in Yazd
Ms. Mahmudi, a researcher on Baudgeers, has classified Baudgeers [16, 17], con-
sidering the direction of the windblow, building’s exterior, and location of the struc-
ture on the roof and cross sections. Last counting, a few years ago, revealed that
there are 180 Baudgeers in the city of Yazd.
Since variety is one of the features of architecture in Yazd, no doubt that
Baudgeers have affected the case considerably. More than 90 % of the structures
face the southwest blow (Isfahani wind). Considering the number and their direc-
tion, it seems that the city is built facing a certain direction. Recognition of the types
of Baudgeers in Yazd directly depends on certain factors and taste and the skillful
architect who does the construction, including the following features:
1. Blow
2. Plans
3. Cross section
4. Exterior features
5. Location
3.6.1 R
ecognition of Baudgeers According to the Blowing
Direction
Susan Roaf, the British researcher [18], has divided these structures into four cate-
gories: one-sided, two-sided, four-sided, and diagonal. However, three-sided ones
have been devised at the Hossein Shrine (offspring of Imam) in the township of
Tabas, Citadel of Bam and an old house in Sirjan (Figs. 3.17, 3.19, and 3.21).
3.6.1.1 Two-Sided Baudgeers
This type of structure is well known as Kermani Baudgeers and faces the north
wind. Three out of 60 ones picked up for the review were three-sided. In other
words, just 5 % of Baudgeers in Yazd are of this kind.
Fig. 3.29 Four types of Baudgeers with square plans [18]
3.6.1.2 Four-Sided Baudgeers
These structures are in abundance in Yazd. All direction blows are the most
important reason for the creation of such constructions. Some 56 Baudgeers out of
60 were of this type comprising a percentage of 93.
3.6.1.3 Six, Eight-Sided Baudgeers
These structures which can convey more air are usually built on Aub-anbars. The
only eight-sided Baudgeer on top of a residential building is of the Dowlat Abbad
Garden.
3.6.2 Study of Baudgeers According to Plans
Construction plans play an important role in the formation of Baudgeers and the city
view. Yazd is unique concerning this issue all over the Middle East, indicating the
dweller’s talent and creativity. Baudgeers in Iran come in square, rectangle, hexa-
gon, octagon, and circle plans. Triangle Baudgeers have never been witnessed in
Iran, the Middle East, or Egypt. Circular structures are very rare in Iran and just one
example of them is located in suburban Yazd (Fig. 1.4).
Baudgeers vary not only by appearance, but because of the channel divisions as
well. Dividing walls inside the channels are of bricks and mud-bricks. The divisions
are the main and the complementary ones. The main divisions are stretched from the
base to the top. The subdivisions affect the urban view for they are seen. Baudgeers
enjoy the following geometric features:
1. Square Baudgeers
Figure 3.29 indicates such structures and their divisions.
2. Six, Eight-sided Baudgeers
These structures are mainly constructed on Aub-anbars. The tallest eight-sided
one in Yazd is the Baudgeer of the Dowlat Abbad Garden (Fig. 3.30).
Fig. 3.30 The plan of six- and eight-sided Baudgeers [16]
Fig. 3.31 Different types of rectangular plans in X-shaped blades [16]
3. Rectangle Baudgeers
This is the most usual form of these structures. Some 53 Baudgeers out of 60
ones picked up for review were rectangle. The main blades making the Baudgeer
with the rectangle cross sections have more varieties compared to the other types
of plans. Some varieties are mentioned below:
(a) X-shape blades—The number of plans with this type of blades is just a few
in Yazd. The proportions of the plan are 1–1.5 (Fig. 3.31).
(b) Vertical blades—Vertical blades or crossed blades are the most frequent ones
in Baudgeers of Yazd. The blades are used in different proportions (Fig. 3.32).
(c) H-shape vertical blades—(Fig. 3.33).
3.6.3 Kinds of Baudgeers According to Their Cross Sections
Baudgeers of the residential buildings can be classified according to their functions.

Evaporation cooling of the Baudgeers, which is an important aspect of their func-
tion, is done in two ways. Using clay pitchers or building a water pool in the room
Fig. 3.32 Different types of Baudgeers with vertical blades [16]
Fig. 3.33 Different types of Baudgeers with H-shape vertical blade [16]
connected to the Baudgeer. In Baudgeers with the water pool, there is an opening
with 1–1.5 m diameter which is often seen from far away. All in all, considering the
variety in cross sections, Baudgeers are divided into four groups:
1. Simple and without dome-like roofs just for the ground floor (no circulation of
the air in the basement)
2. Simple ones stretched to the underground (basement)
3. Baudgeers with dome-like roofs for both ground and underground floors
4. Those with dome-like roofs just for the ground floor
3.6.4 Designing of the Baudgeers
Exterior (view) of Baudgeers affects the beauty of a city. Some 90 % of Baudgeers
in Yazd are rectangular with two views. Generally, the main view is facing north-
west direction. In discussing this part, longitudinal and main views are more in
mind. The main elements which have great effects on the external view of Baudgeers
include height, shape of the roof, shape of the mouth and column, decorations, con-
struction materials, and colors which are briefly dealt with in here.
Fig. 3.34 Some Baudgeers with square mouth [16]
Fig. 3.35 Some Baudgeers with vertical rectangle mouth [16]
3.6.4.1 Shape of the Mouth
Mouth is the top of the Baudgeer which includes blades and air conveying channels.
Two Baudgeers might seem similar in their plans, but they can be different in the
forming of the height, shape, and the proportions of the mouth. The general shapes
of the mouths are square (Fig. 3.34), vertical rectangle (Fig. 3.35), and horizontal
Fig. 3.36 Some Baudgeers with horizontal rectangle mouth [16]
rectangle (Fig. 3.36). In the old Baudgeers of Yazd, the mouth of the structure was
divided with vertical blades which would enhance the strength of the mouth, add to
the beauty of the Baudgeer, and prevent the birds from entering into the channels.
Blades divide the internal space of the column. The openings between the blades do
not have the same shape. Some of them are open and some of them which were at
the ends were closed with mud and bricks in order to make the circulation of the air
in the width of the structure possible. The most common method for planning the
mouth in Yazd is parting the mouth with five blades and dividing it to six openings
with two middle ones open and four side ones closed. Shading of the blades and
openings and arranging the vertical lines of the blades beside the curved lines of the
ceiling gives a unique spectacular view to the city.
3.6.4.2 Height
Baudgeers of Yazd are rather taller than other cities in hot and arid regions of Iran.
The higher these structures are, the more attractive the view seems. They are usually
5 m high on the roofs.
3.6.4.3 Roofs of the Baudgeers
Roofs of the Baudgeers are of plane (flat) surface in Yazd. Slopes are exclusively
used for one- or two-sided Baudgeers.
3.6.4.4 Decorations
Some of the decorations used are plasterworks on the top of the Baudgeer and rows
of brick decorations which are observed both on top and bottom of the mouth. The
plasterworks of mouth are just exhilarating in different forms according to the build-
er’s taste. Most probably, every architect would have used his own style and taste in
decorating the Baudgeer and his style was a kind of identity of his work in the
Fig. 3.37 Plasterworks of the

Baudgeers’ mouth, Yazd.
Location of Baudgeers on
mansions [16]
Baudgeer [19]. The brick work cast shadows on the structure and affected the view
considerably [20]. The usual materials used for the decoration are mainly plaster;
brick and adobe (Fig. 3.37). The use of plaster with its white color in some Baudgeers
has give an extraordinary view to the city looked upon from a far distance.
3.7 S
tudy of the Baudgeers According to Their Positions
on the Plan of the House
Location of Baudgeers is not the same, giving the buildings different outlooks. This
variety has much effect on the landscape. Baudgeers are in operation in summer at
the southern portion of the house. They can be divided into three categories regard-
ing their location:
1 . Placing the structure behind the parlor adjacent to the court yard
2. Placing it on the northern portion of the parlor
3. Constructing it at one corner of the courtyard having no direct relation with the
parlor
3.8 Baudgeers in Other Countries
3.8.1 Baudgeers in Afghanistan
Afghan Baudgeers (wind scoops) are simple and usually are located on the dome-
shaped roofs of all the rooms with 1.5 m height [19, 21] (Fig. 9.238). The scoops
enjoy a mouth facing the northern blow. They are square (1 × 1 m) having tops with
slopes of 30° (Fig. 3.38). They resemble the short one-sided structures in north,
northeast, and southeast of Iran.
3.8.2 Baudgeers in Pakistan
In old neighborhood of Heydar Abbad, there are wind scoops on every house. Ms.
Roaf says that [18]: “There is a jungle of Baudgeers on old houses.” Wind scoops in
Pakistan have 500 years of antiquity. Pottinger, a British tourist, wrote in 1815 ad
about Heydar Abbad that [22]: “All houses from the ruler’s palace to pig-sties have
Baudgeers.” They mostly carry the afternoon air inside different rooms of the
Fig. 3.38 Design of a

Baudgeer on the dome-
shaped roof, Harat [19]
3.8 Baudgeers in Other Countries 93
Fig. 3.39 An example of a

one-sided Baudgeer enjoying
a slope of 45° in Pakistan
[19]
Fig. 3.40 Example
of a Baudgeer with 30°
slopes perpendicular
to the wind blowing
direction in Egypt [19]
b uildings of many stories [17, 18]. Even though these structures differ from the
same ones in other countries, they are convenient remedies to fulfill the need across
the region [23].
Wind scoops in Pakistan are the same as the Afghan square ones (Fig. 3.39). The
roof enjoys a slope of 45°. They include wood and plaster on which metal plates
have been coated recently (Fig. 9.240). The mouths are usually one square meter
and their height is more than 5 m. In multi-story houses there is a subsidiary trunk
from the main one.
3.8.3 Baudgeers (Malqaf) in Egypt
An Egyptian Baudgeer includes a lofty column and a mouth facing the northwestern
blow [19] (Fig. 9.246). The upper part includes a 30° slope in order to convey the air
inside (Fig. 3.40). The plan is rectangle. Numerous Baudgeers are over the houses
in Cairo. They are sometimes stretched to the underground some of which date back
to the nineteenth century ad. One of the well-known Baudgeers is Moheb-al-Din
Shafie constructed in 1350 Lunar year (Figs. 3.41, 3.42, 9.244, and 9.245) [23].
Fig. 3.41 An example of a Baudgeer built by Qaaof Muhib Al-Din Ash-Shfi Al-Muwaqqi on
Al-Suhaymi mansion, Cairo in Egypt [24]
Fig. 3.42 A picture of the main Baudgeer on Al Suhaymi mansion, Cairo in Egypt
3.8.4 Baudgeers in Iraq
These structures are merely built out of thick mud-brick on the roofs of the sum-
mer rooms facing northwestern blows (Fig. 9.236) [19]. Vertical columns convey
the air through the underground (Figs. 3.43 and 3.44) [19]. Iraq Baudgeers are
3.8 Baudgeers in Other Countries 95
Fig. 3.43 A house with

a Baudgeer in Baghdad
[19, 25]
Fig. 3.44 Circulation of the air in Baudgeers of Iraq [19, 25]
rectangle; the width of the column is from 15 to 60 cm. The columns are never
higher than the roofs. They begin from the roof. The height of Baudgeers in Iraq
is about 2 m. The top is of a 45° gradient. Columns usually end in some shelves
in the underground. The air rushes out through some small metal windows under-
ground [17].
Various mouths of Baudgeers in Iraq are illustrated in Fig. 3.45. There is a brief
review of this chapter and features of different kinds of Baudgeers, followed by
some explanations and the functions of them, are presented in Table 3.1.
Fig. 3.45 Openings of the Baudgeers seen on the roof in Iraqi structures [19, 25]
3.9 Some Other Issues Concerning Baudgeers
Another structure used in ancient Iran and imitated in other countries was Khish or
Khishkhan. The evaporative coolers of today are alternatives to Khish. Khishkhan
was a hut surrounded by mat, earthenware, or teasels. The water was sprayed onto
it to cool the interior [5].
In cities where the wind is accompanied with dust, such as Ghonabad in Khorasan
province, there is a portion under the mouth, which is devised to collect the dust.
3.9 Some Other Issues Concerning Baudgeers 97
Table 3.1 Comparing various Baudgeers in the Middle East according to different climatic
zones [19]
Iran’s arid Persian

zone gulf Iraq Egypt Pakistan Afghanistan
Climatic zone Hot and dry Hot and Hot and dry Hot and Hot and Dry and
humid dry humid semi hot
Air direction Northeast Breeze Northwest Northwest Southwest North
Shape of cross Square/ Square Rectangle Rectangle Square Square
section rectangle
Six-,
eight-sided
Average 0.5 × 0.8 1 × 1 0.5 × 0.15 – 1 × 1 1 × 1
dimensions 0.7 × 1.1 1.20 × 0.60
(m)
Height (m) 3–5 3–5 1.80–2.10 One story 5 and 1.5 from
above above roof
roof
Direction Diagonal Diagonal Ordinary Ordinary Diagonal Ordinary
according
to the
airblow
Ceiling of the 45° slope 30° slope 45° slope 30° slope 45° slope 30° slope
Baudgeer
Ventilated Dinning plus Dinning Only Dinning All rooms All rooms
spaces basement plus basement plus
others one
room
Airblow Multi-sided Multi- One-, One-sided One-sided One-sided
sided two-sided
Evaporative Sometimes Never Sometimes Sometimes Never Never
cooling
The cross section at this portion is rather wider to reduce the speed of the entering
dust. This way cleaner air enters the building [26].
To preserve the food stuff, Baudgeers were used in different ways [1, 2]. On the
paths of the Baudgeers, connected to the basement (cellar), small shelves or a pantry
was built into the wall with a wooden door for keeping the food, particularly in hoe
cities like Yazd. In winter the doors of the shelves were closed to disconnect the
inside and outside spaces. This was a good substitute for today’s refrigerators.
Another remedy sought to preserve perishable stuff was a netted square wooden
frame whose four side angles were connected to four ropes joined to a long rope
curling around a reel tied onto a pole inside the Baudgeer column and stretched to
the ground in order to pull the loaded frame from up. Then they tied the rope to a
nail. In winter they blocked the lower hatch with bricks to prevent the chill.
Fig. 3.46 A view of the multi-duct Baudgeer and the branching of its ducts in Abb Mahi House,
Kashan [27]
Branching Baudgeers are another interesting type of Baudgeers seen in some

cities of Iran like Kashan. In Branching Baudgeers, that part of the structure which
is built on the roof is similar to the other types of Baudgeers, but the part below the
roof, unlike the other types which have only one duct that leads to just one space
inside the building, has several ducts each of which may lead to a separate space or
even another house. Another noticeable difference of Branching type compared to
the other Baudgeers relates to its location in the building. Independent Baudgeers
are located in the areas which are usually used in summer such as hall, pool house,
and basement. While Branching Baudgeers are built on the border line of two adja-
cent houses. A good example of this type Baudgeer is seen in Abb Mahi House in
Kashan (Fig. 3.46) [27].
The Branching Baudgeers in Kashan are of two types themselves:
1. The one which cools off several spaces of the same house, like the one in Attars’
house.
2. The one which ventilates the adjacent house apart from the house which it
belongs to. In fact, there is just one Baudgeer for two houses, like the one in Abb
Mahi House.
Regarding the Branching Baudgeers it should be mentioned that:
1. Since the adjacent houses were connected through the ducts, most probably the
residents of the building had been relatives.
2. Branching Baudgeers were built in the houses of the farmers and workers who
were not rich. Because the erecting of the structure would cost more than what
just one family could afford; the neighbors, therefore, shared the cost of the
Baudgeer.
3. This type of Baudgeers had been asking of friendly relationships between two
neighbors as well as their sense of cooperation.
4. Unlike the independent Baudgeers, Branching Baudgeers were built on the bor-
der line of two adjacent houses to make the cost of the structure affordable for
the two families.
References 99
Fig. 3.47 A view of a new and decorated Baudgeer in Yazd
Regretfully, Baudgeers are no longer utilized in Iran. The newly constructed

ones are merely decorative (Fig. 3.47). These invaluable monuments are gradually
being forgotten.
References
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Proceedings of architectural and environmental design history of Iran, vol 2, Iranian Cultural
Heritage, Tehran, pp 220–226
2. Shariat zadeh AA (1966) Baudgeers of Yazd and the construction methods of them (published
in the book of Yazdnameh), vol 1, Jodaganeh, Tehran, pp 300–345
comparison with a conventional wind tower, BS Thesis, Yazd University, Yazd
4. Zomorshidi H (1994) Persiab architecture, constructing traditional structures. Zomorrod,
Tehran
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Payvande No, Tehran, pp 82–92
7. Mostafavi (1992) Baudgeers, easy, difficult, beautiful phenomena in the original Iranian archi-
tecture (published in the book of Yazdnameh), Jodaganeh, vol 1. Tehran, pp 337–344
8. Mashkoti N (1970) A list of historical and ancient buildings in Iran. National Organization of
Preservation of Ancient Architectures, Tehran, p 78
9. Naraghi H (1969) Historical architecture of Kashan and Natanz, Tehran
10. Daneshdoust Y (1990) Tabas, the city which once existed. Soroush, Tehran
11. Rafiee Mehrabadi A (1988) The history of Ardestan. Deh-khoda, Tehran
12. Taj-al-Dinee H (1999) Baudgeer and its role in the desert and conventional architecture of Iran.
In: Proceedings of architectural and environmental design history of Iran, vol 2. Iranian
Cultural Heritage, Tehran, pp 220–-226
13. Varjavand P (1993) The shiite encyclopedia, vol 3, 2nd edn. Shiite Encyclopedia Institution,
Tehran
14. Shahrom GH (1991) Yazd and its Baudgeers. J Hamahang 21:26–35
15. Tahmasbi A (2007) Baudgeers of Yazd: a survey of construction and performance of Baudgeers
in the houses of Yazd (structure and conventional materials). School of Architecture and
Environmental Design, University of Shahid Behshti, Tehran
16. Mahmoudi M (2006) Baudgeer, the attraction and view of Yazd City. J Bagh-e Nazar

5:91–99
17. Mahmoudi M (2006) Understanding the effect of baudgeers features on thermal behavior of
them, Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Architecture, Science and Research University, Islamic
Azad University, Tehran
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Polytechnic
19. Mahyari A (1996) The wind catcher: a passive cooling device for hot arid climate, Ph.D.
Thesis, Dept. of Architectural and Design Science, University of Sydney, Sydney
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University of Science and Technology, Tehran
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22. Pottinger LH (1816) Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde (traveled in 1810), with an appendix of
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Chapter 4
An Analytical–Numerical Study
of the Performance of Conventional
Wind Towers
Figure 4.1 indicates the cross section of a conventional wind tower or Baudgeer
which has been chosen for study and analysis. The Baudgeer consists of three parts:
mouth (head of Baudgeer), column, and blow conveying hatch.
When wind blows, the air enters through the openings on the top of the Baudgeer
is directed to inside the column in the middle of which there is a retaining wall in
order to cause loss of pressure so that the air cannot escape from the opposite side.
The retaining wall is stretched from the top to the bottom. The cross section of the
column in traditional Baudgeers can be chosen as (a–a), as it is shown in Fig. 4.1.
Because of the heat transfer between the entering air and the internal walls of the
column, the temperature of the entering air changes. Generally, the performance of
Baudgeers is studied under two conditions:
1. Wind speed is zero. At night, because the ambient temperature is low and because
heat from the external walls of Baudgeer is radiated into the sky, some amount
of cold energy is saved in the mass of the Baudgeer. Early mornings, outside air
slips over the cold surfaces of the Baudgeer and is pulled down the structure.
This way some cold air gets into the building. In the evenings, since the walls of
Baudgeer are warm and the density of the air in the column of Baudgeer is less
than that of the air outside, the air rushes out through the column. This way, there
is an air circulation from the yard into the room and then into the Baudgeer, caus-
ing the walls of the room and Baudgeer become somewhat cool.
2. Wind speed is favorable. In this case, different wind pressure coefficients are
produced at the various mouths of the Baudgeer and the doors and windows of
the room; the amount of the pressure depends upon the direction of the wind.
Air, through the openings, with positive pressure coefficient, enters the Baudgeer
and forced out, through the doors and windows with negative pressure coeffi-
cient. Generally, considering the size and the condition of the house, Baudgeers
are constructed at the spot where they can keep the summer-living part of the
house cool.
102 4 An Analytical–Numerical Study of the Performance of Conventional Wind Towers
Fig. 4.1 Cross section of a

conventional Baudgeer
4.1 E
nvironmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow
and Temperature of the Air in Conventional Baudgeers
When there is an air flow, the wind pressure on the Baudgeer surfaces facing the air
stream is more than the pressure on the surfaces parallel to the air flow. Generally,
the pressure of the wind can be shown through the following equation:
1 2
p w = Cp ρV0 (4.1)
2
where V0 wind speed, ρ density, Cp wind pressure coefficient.
Cp coefficients for a Baudgeer and the adjoining houses are shown in Table 4.1.
These measurements were gained by assessments of the Baudgeer model, adjoining
building, and the joining courtyard to a wind tunnel [1, 2].
To access the speed and direction of the wind with regard to the Baudgeer and
adjoining building one may define the wind pressure coefficients Cp for the upper
hatches and the other openings by using Table 4.1. By devising a flow network as
well as a thermal one, documenting the concerned equations, knowing the pressure
loss coefficient between the air flow at different levels, and taking into consideration
the sun heat on the outer walls of the structure one can obtain the mass flow and the
temperature of the escaping air from the Baudgeer [3–5].
Table 4.1 Coefficients of wind pressure Cp at the top mouths of the Baudgeer (levels 1–4) and the doors and the windows of the adjacent building (levels 5–7)
Type α, Angle of the wind

of area Location 0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Rural 1 0.86 0.91 0.70 0.41 0.03 −0.49 −0.74 −0.68 −0.65 −0.61 −0.52 −0.42 −0.39
area 2 −0.49 −0.44 −0.39 −0.35 −0.35 −0.36 −0.35 −0.38 −0.42 −0.46 −0.49 −0.55 −0.61
3 −0.30 −0.30 −0.28 −0.29 −0.36 −0.49 −0.70 −0.52 0.11 0.48 0.72 0.83 0.83
4 −0.47 −0.35 0.26 0.67 0.83 0.86 0.88 0.91 0.85 0.61 0.04 −0.57 −0.64
5 0.05 0.03 0.03 −0.13 −0.23 −0.30 −0.35 −0.36 −0.31 −0.28 −0.22 −0.12 −0.13
6 0.08 0.06 0.03 −0.08 −0.16 −0.23 −0.28 −0.35 −0.43 −0.46 −0.41 −0.32 −0.30
7 −0.01 0.00 −0.05 −0.17 −0.28 −0.37 −0.43 −0.47 −0.33 −0.18 −0.15 −0.30 −0.34
Open 1 0.84 0.90 0.69 0.38 0.01 −0.64 −0.85 −0.70 −0.67 −0.61 −0.56 −0.44 −0.43
area 2 −0.52 −0.46 −0.43 −0.36 −0.35 −0.41 −0.42 −0.44 −0.48 −0.50 −0.53 −0.59 −0.63
3 −0.30 −0.30 −0.29 −0.32 −0.35 −0.51 −0.75 −0.70 0.07 0.46 0.72 0.78 0.77
4 −0.51 −0.43 0.26 0.66 0.79 0.83 0.85 0.88 0.93 0.64 0.01 −0.66 −0.64
5 −0.07 −0.12 0.01 −0.20 −0.34 −0.40 −0.45 −0.48 −0.39 −0.37 −0.31 −0.18 −0.20
6 0.02 0.00 0.06 −0.11 −0.22 −0.32 −0.37 −0.44 −0.51 −0.54 −0.49 −0.37 −0.37
7 −0.03 −0.03 −0.10 −0.24 −0.38 −0.48 −0.53 −0.58 −0.40 −0.24 −0.21 −0.37 −0.39
4.1 Environmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow and Temperature…
103
The temperature and mass flow of the entering air into the building depend on
different elements that can be divided into two main categories:
1. Climate and environmental conditions. Including the temperature of the sur-
rounding (ambient temperature), radiation of the sun, the maximum difference
between the day and night temperatures, speed and the direction of the air
movement.
2. Geometrical elements. Including the height, section’s measurements, divisions
of the channels, number of the channels, and resistance against the flow.
With regard to the above factors in the form of parameters in connecting equa-
tions, energy, and momentum we can calculate the temperature and the escaping
and entering air flows after defining the speed distribution and the temperature in
different parts of the structure [3–5]. To calculate the temperature changes in a
Baudgeer, the wind speed should be assigned which is mainly depended on the
temperature of the inner walls of the Baudgeer. So, the equations of thermal func-
tion of it are to be considered simultaneously.
The procedure is partly estimated considering the temperature inside the structure.
Then, solving the energy and momentum equations, one gets access to the velocity
and temperature of the air to be compared with the estimated rate. If the differences
are less than the minimum acceptable rate previously dealt with, the expected
answer is consented. Otherwise, the procedure has to be repeated until the differ-
ences are lowered enough.
Initially, the environmental parameters (such as solar radiation and ambient
temperature) which are detrimental in specifying the temperature and airflow are
reviewed.
4.1.1 The Solar Radiation
Since the external walls of Baudgeers are exposed to the radiation of the Sun and
also taking into consideration the rate of the solar radiation varies at different hours
of the day, therefore one has to use some fixed parameters to assess the baudgeer
behaviour. Also to calculate the length of the day, one has to decide on the noon and
the sunrise and the sunset. Time is based on the longitude in every country. All
across Iran it is three and a half hours before the Greenwich Mean Time which
15
is: 3.5 × = 52.5°
360
To calculate the solar time compared with the area time zone, the following equa-
tion can be used [6]:

( Solar Time – Standard Time ) = ± 4 ( Lst – L loc ) + E (4.2)
for the countries located on the east of the Greenwich (like Iran); the equation is
considered with minus sign. Lst and Lloc are the standard and the local longitudes.
In Iran, because the time zone from the farthest east and west does not exceed 1 h,
4.1 Environmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow and Temperature… 105
the time is considered the same for the whole country. The rate of E (time equation)
is obtained as follows [6]:
E = 9.87 sin 2β′ − 7.53 cos β′ − 1.5 sin β′ (4.3)

360 n
β′ = (4.4)
365
n is the day of the year, e.g., for the first day of the third month (April) n = 1 and
the first day of the ninth month (August) n = 187.
The sunlight is divided to the direct and diffused radiation after crossing the
atmosphere. The direct light reaches the ground with no deviations leaving a recog-
nizable shadow. Diffused radiation is the deviated one with no shadows. These two
divisions together are called the total radiation.
The angle of the direct radiation shown by θ depends on the latitude, day of the
year, hour, and gradient, and the angle perpendicular to the surface relative to the
south is shown by the following equation [6]:
Cosθ = Sin δ Sinφ Cosβ – Sin δ Cosφ Sinβ Cosγ + Cosδ Cosφ Cosβ Cosω
(4.5)
+ Cosδ Sinφ Sinβ Cosγ Cosω + Cosδ Sin β Sin γ Sinω

So, different angles are defined as follows:
1. The deviated angle of δ indicates the angle of the sunlight at solar noon com-
pared with the equator and changes from 23.45 to −23.45 annually. δ can be
gained through the following equation:
 360 n 
δ = 23.45 Sin   (4.6)
 365 
for the first of April (n = 1) and δ equals zero.

2. The solar hour angle ω is defined according to solar noon. The earth rotates 15°
per hour. So the noon at a spot located on the West of a place with 15° of latitude
lasts 1 h. In this regard, the angle of the solar noon is negative for solar morning
and positive for solar afternoon.
For instance at 08:00 Solar Time:
ω = ( 8 − 12 )15 = −60°

And at 21:00:
ω = ( 21 − 12 )15 = 135°

3.
The angle of slope β is the angle between the surface considered and the horizon.
For the walls of the Baudgeer, for example, β = 90°.
The angle γ equals the deviated perpendicular image to the southern side
when γ = 0, the surface thoroughly faces south and when it is East of the South γ
is negative and whenever it is west of south γ is positive. Angle γ generally
changes from −180° up to +180°.
4 . Φ is equal to the area’s latitude, e.g., it is 35.5° for Tehran.
For horizontal surfaces β = 0°, the radiation angle θ and θz are equal. So, the
following Eq. (4.5) becomes
Cosθz = Sin δ Sinφ + Cos δ Cosφ Cos ω (4.7)

the angle θz is between the directions of the direct sunlight and perpendicular to a
horizontal surface. When θz = 90°, the ω indicates the sunrise and sunset. Using the
Eq. (4.7) the angles of the rise and set ωs as well as the length of the day are gained:
Cos ωs = − tan δ tan φ (4.8)

2
N= arc Cos ( − tan δ tan φ ) (4.9)
15
with regard to the Eqs. (4.5) and (4.7) one can calculate the intensity of the solar
radiation on a slope surface (Gbt) and the horizontal one (Gbh) per moment [6]:
G bt Cosθ
G bt = G bn Cosθ, G bh = G bn Cosθz and R b = = (4.10)
G bh Cosθz

Gbn is the direct sunshine onto a surface perpendicular to it; Gbh, Gbn, and Gbt are
calculated according to W/m2.
There are numerous methods for this assessment one of which is using ( K T )
gained empirically. Coefficient of the clear sky is the monthly average radiation of
the sun on a horizontal surface per day somewhere (enjoying definite longitude and
latitude) to the monthly radiation of the sun onto a horizontal surface per day some-
where beyond the atmosphere (with the same longitude and altitude). So,
H
KT = (4.11)
H oh

A coefficient of a clear sky has also been defined with a similar procedure
and that is the proportion of the solar radiation per day on a horizontal surface on
the earth, to the same radiation of the sun onto a horizontal surface beyond atmo-
sphere [6].
H
KT = (4.12)
H oh

4.1 Environmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow and Temperature… 107
The rate of H, H , Hoh, and H oh is presented according to MJ/m2d. Likewise, an

hour coefficient of clear sky is defined as follows [6]:
Ih
kT = (4.13)
I oh

kT and K T are linked through the following equation [7]:
 o

k T = a + b Cos ω ( t − 12 )  K T (4.14)
 
o
Where, t means time (12 for solar noon) and ω , a and b can then be calculated
through:
o 2π
ω= (4.15)
24
a = 0.409 + 0.5016 Sin ( ωs − 60 ) (4.16)

b = 0.6609 − 0.4767 Sin ( ωs − 60 ) (4.17)

K T has been decided on for some cities in Iran through meteorological data [8, 9].
Ioh is obtained using the following equation [6]:
12 × 3600  360 ( n + 81) 

I oh = G sc  1 + 0.033 Cos 
π  365 
 π ( ω2 − ω1 ) 
× Cosφ Cosδ ( Sinω2 − Sinω1 ) + Sinφ Sinδ  (4.18)
 180 

Here, GSC, solar constant, equals 1,353 W/m2 and n is the day of the year (n = 1
for the first of April).
The proportion of dispersed radiation to total radiation (hourly radiation) is
calculated through the following rules and in kT [6]:
I dh
= 1 – 0.249 k T , if k T < 0.35 (4.19a)
Ih

I dh
= 1.557 1.84 k T , if 0.35 < k T < 0.75 (4.19b)
Ih

I dh
= 0.177, if k T > 0.75 (4.19c)
Ih

Also
I h = k T I oh (4.20)

I dh = I h – I bh (4.21)

The total radiation received by a slope surface enjoying the β gradient in propor-
tion to a horizontal surface may be obtained through the following equation:
 1 + Cosβ   1 − Cosβ 
I t = I bh R b + I dh   + ρgr I h   (4.22)
 2   2 
This equation for a vertical wall (β = 90°) is in the following simple form:
1 1
I j = I bh R bj + I dh + ρgr I h (4.23)
2 2
where ρgr is the ground surface reflection coefficient, Subscript j is related to a spe-
cific wall j (e.g., eastern, northern etc.).
4.1.2 Ambient Temperature
One way to determine the ambient temperature is by using the average of

monthly maximum of Tx and the average of monthly minimum of Tn for a
region. These averages (mean) statistical calculations are carried out for many
years for that region. Table 4.2 shows Tx, Tn, and K T for some cities in Iran in
different months. Temperature for each day can be found through the following
equation [5, 7]:
1 o
T = T + A t Cos ω ( t − 15 ) (4.24)
2
o2π
where ω = , t = time (12 o’clock in solar noon), and T and At are obtained
24
through the following equation:
1
T= ( Tx + Tn ) (4.25)
2
A t = Tx − Tn (4.26)

Table 4.2 Meteorological data of some cities in Iran
September August July June May April Month
KT Tn Tx KT Tn Tx KT Tn Tx KT Tn Tx KT Tn Tx KT Tn Tx City
0.67 13.9 31.8 0.67 18.3 35.5 0.66 20.3 36.3 0.66 17.7 34.3 0.63 13.1 28.1 0.61 8.4 22.1 Isfahan
064 21.9 42.3 0.63 25.9 45.5 0.63 26.8 45.9 0.65 24.7 44.2 0.54 21.7 38.6 0.54 16.4 31.5 Ahwaz
0.68 13.6 27.8 0.70 18.2 32.3 0.48 18.3 32.3 0.64 14.4 28.4 0.56 10.1 22.7 0.50 5.3 16.2 Tabriz
0.65 18 31.3 0.65 22.1 35.3 0.64 22.8 36.4 06.4 9.19 33.8 0.58 15.3 28 0.55 9.8 21.5 Tehran
0.65 12.5 32.3 0.65 16.9 35.6 0.64 19 36.9 06.4 18.3 36 0.63 15.6 32.3 0.62 11.8 27.2 Zahedan
0.62 9.9 27.9 0.61 14.2 31.9 0.60 14.6 32 0.60 11.2 29 0.54 7.6 23.5 0.51 3.5 16.7 Zanjan
0.68 11. 8 31.1 0.68 17.4 35.7 0.67 18 36.3 0.68 21.1 31.9 0.60 8.8 24.9 0.58 4.7 18.1 Sanandaj
0.68 14.2 33.4 0.67 18.3 36.4 0.65 19.6 37.3 0.68 16.6 35.5 0.64 12.7 30.1 0.60 7.9 23.5 Shiraz
0.70 11 31.4 0.71 15.1 34.2 0.70 17.7 35.7 0.67 16.2 34.8 06.4 12.2 29.6 0.61 8.1 23.8 Kerman
0.70 10.6 28.3 0.70 15.3 32.6 0.69 17.7 23.9 0.69 15.2 31.7 0.61 11.7 26.4 0.58 7.6 19.7 Mashhad
0.60 8.7 29.1 0.60 13.7 33.5 0.59 14.6 33.8 0.58 10.9 29.8 05.2 7.4 23.1 0.50 3.7 17 Hamadar
0.76 13.7 33 0.77 20.9 38.2 0.73 23.2 38.8 0.74 21.4 36.1 06.8 17.7 32.9 0.61 13.7 28.2 Yazd
0.59 4 17.4 0.62 −0.6 12.4 0.59 −2.9 9 0.60 −1.8 10.4 0.63 2.6 16.9 0.66 8.1 25.1 Isfahan
0.53 11.9 25.4 0.53 7.9 20.3 0.48 6.3 17.6 0.52 7.3 19 0.54 12 26.4 06.3 17.2 36.1 Ahwaz
0.47 0.1 10 0.48 −4.8 4.2 0.41 −6.3 1.9 0.47 −3.6 4.6 0.57 1.7 11.8 0.64 7.8 20.4 Tabriz
0.53 4.6 15.5 0.53 0.4 10.5 0.51 −1.5 7.7 0.5 0.3 9.7 0.55 5.4 16 06.1 12.2 24.5 Tehran
0.61 7.9 22.6 0.61 2.9 17.4 06.1 −0.4 14.2 06.2 0.2 16.5 0.64 2.8 21.7 0.64 7.6 27.8 Zahedan
0.49 −1.1 10.9 0.49 −6.2 5.2 0.51 −7.8 2.8 0.49 −4.5 6 0.52 0.5 13 0.56 5.2 21.2 Zanjan
0.56 0.4 13.1 0.55 −4.5 6.7 0.53 −6.1 4.4 0.53 −3 8 0.58 1.6 15.4 0.65 6.6 24.2 Sanandaj
4.1 Environmental Elements Used to Estimate the Flow and Temperature…
0.59 4.5 19 0.60 1.2 14.8 0.59 −0.4 12 0.62 0.4 13.9 0.63 3.5 20.2 0.67 85 27.7 Shizar
0.57 4.1 19.1 0.59 −0.4 14.8 0.56 −3.2 11.8 0.61 −3.3 13.8 0.65 −0.1 19.4 0.68 5.2 26.1 Kerman
0.55 2.5 13.6 0.57 −2.5 8.9 0.51 −4.7 6.9 0.56 −3 9.1 0.58 0.6 14.9 0.66 5.2 22 Mashhad
0.49 −0.7 11.5 05.1 −6.2 5.3 0.52 −8.6 2.8 0.46 −5.6 5.9 0.50 −1.1 12.8 0.56 4.1 21.7 Hamadan
0.59 8.6 32.1 0.62 2.8 16 0.60 0.8 14.5 0.64 1.0 18.3 0.65 4.1 22.9 0.74 9.8 26.1 Yazd
109
4.2 Distribution of the Air Speed in a Baudgeer
To distinguish the mass flow of entering wind into the building as well as the assess-
ment of the transmission coefficient of heat displacement (h) inside the column, one
has to know the velocity and the course of the air all across the tunnel. First, we
calculate the potential thrust of the air and then the loss of air pressure in the
Baudgeer. Considering these two factors as well as the cohesion rule, we can com-
pute the speed of the air in different spots [3–5].
Air thrust potential across the tunnel is originated by the pressure difference
between the inlet on the top and the outlet via the doors and windows. This differ-
ence can be demonstrated through the following equation [10]:
1
∆Pa = ( Cpi − C pe ) ρV02 (4.27)
2
where Cpi and Cpe are the flow pressure coefficients at the mouth and the escaping
air from the doors and windows, while ρ and V0 denote the specific gravity and the
velocity of the airflow. Cp is positive in the direction of the flow and negative at the
back of the building. Shift of the current brings about the inlet and outlet Cp which
is as follows [1, 2]:
P − Ps
CP = (4.28)
1 2
ρ V0
2
In this equation, P and Ps are the assessed and the static pressures respectively.
The average Cp is demonstrated in Table 4.1 including two parts. One dealing with
a building at Suburban Terrain and the Baudgeer and the other is when Baudgeer,
building, and the courtyard are located in an Open Country Terrain [1, 2]. The wind
pressure coefficient of the inlets of the house like doors and windows is highly
affected by the wind shadow by the wall or the surroundings so that when walls are
away from the mouth of the Baudgeer eight times more than their height, the impact
of the wind shadow on the inlet may be ignored [11]. Thus, the coefficient of Cp
mainly depends on the walls distance, neighboring houses, trees, and the other
available home accessories. So, a designer should rely on his own knowledge and
experience and pay attention to the coefficients closely. Creation of the wind shadow
can abate the negative Cpe.
Pressure loss occurs in different parts of the tunnel including the mouth, column,
bends, and elbows conveying the air inside as well as the outlets. It can be assessed
by using the rules and mechanical connection of the fluids dynamically and by
friction.
The loss of air pressure occurs in different parts of the Baudgeer: at the openings,
top and column, curves and elbows, shutters, or air escaping windows. Using the
rules and equations of Fluid Mechanics one is able to calculate all pressure losses.
The loss of pressure can be differentiated to (1) dynamic and (2) friction ones.
4.2 Distribution of the Air Speed in a Baudgeer 111
The dynamic losses may be calculated through the following equation:
1
∆Pid = K i ρ Vi2 (4.29)
2
where ΔPid is the dynamic pressure loss of the elbow or the inlet, outlet hatchways.
Ki is the dynamic pressure loss coefficient, accessed via the tables and curves. The
books HVAC, ASHRAE are reliable sources in this regard [12, 13]. ρ and Vi are the
mass flow index of the air and average velocity through the elbows or the hatch-
ways. Loss by friction is gained by the following equation:
L V2
∆Pf = f ρ (4.30)
de 2

In the equation for calculating the friction loss, f is the friction coefficient, L and
de, respectively, are the hydraulic length and diameter of the tunnel, and V is the
average velocity of the air. Friction loss in Baudgeers is not much due to the low
speed of the wind. So, the air pressure loss in the trunk is mainly considered. In the
above mentioned Eq. (4.30) the length of L equals the height of the structure’s
column.
Assuming the equality of the pressure loss all across the column with the
Baudgeer’s thrust potential, one may calculate the velocity of the inlet or the trunk.
Knowing the section level and the connection rules the speed distribution is acces-
sible. Wind is conveyed in from inlets (one or two) in conventional Baudgeers and
goes out from the other hatches (two or three) as well as the doors and windows. To
calculate the mass flow of the input air and its rate inside the tunnel, we can create
a flow network. To solve network problems, overlapping rings are applied (using
trial and error method). Figure 4.2 illustrates a section of a conventional Baudgeer
and the related flow network [3–5]. The measurements are considered for a typical
conventional Baudgeer.
In this figure, the effective height of the Baudgeer is 6 m, the cross section
1 × 2 m, the wind velocity is 5 m/s, and the angle is 45°. The dimension profile of
the dividing walls of the inlets inside the Baudgeer is according to Fig. 4.2. The
height of the inlets is 1.5 m and the dimensions are 2 × 0.6 m.
Points 1 through 5 are the inner points of the top inlets, the first portion of the
column, the end portion of the column, the elbow middle point at the bottom, and
the window for entering air. As it was mentioned before, wind pressure coefficient
at the inlets (windows or doors) of the residential and nonresidential buildings
depends on the position of surrounding walls, adjacent buildings, trees, the type of
the windows, and similar factors. Determining the dimensions of the Baudgeer and
the velocity and the direction of the wind and considering the wind pressure coef-
ficient at different inlets and using Table 4.1, we can calculate the speed and the
mass flow of the air which is entering the building or the room [3–5].
Fig. 4.2 Cross section of a conventional Baudgeer and its flow network
4.3 Assessment of the Baudgeer’s Temperature
By this, we mean the temperature of the entering air into the building. The entering
air passes through the Baudgeer’s conduits. Therefore, for determining the tempera-
ture at the bottom portion of the column, specifying the temperature of the internal
walls of the Baudgeer is necessary.
Temperature of these walls depends on the solar radiation, the amount of energy
stored in the walls, the speed of the air inside the conduit, and the heat transfer
between inner walls and middle dividing walls of the Baudgeer. We divide the col-
umn into n equal sections and by specifying the thermal network and considering
the energy equations, determine the temperature of the air and the walls [3–5].
Regarding Fig. 4.3, at any cross section of Baudgeer (for any conduit) we face at
least five thermal nodes, which include ambient temperature (Tamb), temperature of
the outer surface of Baudgeer’s wall (Two), temperature of the inner surface of
Baudgeer’s wall (Twi), average temperature of the air in the conduit (Ta), and tem-
perature of the surface of the inner dividing walls (Tc).
The thermal network of this Baudgeer can be drawn as Fig. 4.5 [3–5]. The outer
surface of the walls exchanges heat through radiation and convection to the ambient
air. It is heated in daytime because of solar radiation. Heat exchange inside the con-
duit and inner walls (interior surface of the walls and dividing walls) is done through
4.3 Assessment of the Baudgeer’s Temperature 113
Fig. 4.3 Part of a longitudinal section of a conventional Baudgeer
convection. The wall at Twi temperature with the wall at Two temperature and Tc
exchanges heat through convection and radiation respectively.
The parameters of this figure are defined as follows:
Hr,wo-sk: radiant heat transfer coefficient between the solar and the external wall of
the Baudgeer.
Hr,wo-gr: radiant heat transfer coefficient between the ground and the exterior of the
Baudgeer.
Hwo: convection heat coefficient between the surroundings and the exterior of a
Baudgeer.
Kwo-wi: conductive heat transfer coefficient between the external and internal walls
of the structure.
Hr,wi-c: radiant heat transfer coefficient between the interior dividing wall and the
internal surface.
Hwi and hc are convection heat transfer coefficient between the air inside the tunnel
and the inner walls and dividing walls respectively. These two coefficients are
usually the same.
S: the absorbed radiation by the walls.
Xc and xw are the thicknesses of the inner dividing wall and wall of Baudgeer.
By considering the maximum and minimum outside temperature and the clear sky
K T coefficient, one may use the equations given in Sects. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2, to find out
the intensity of sunlight, in each hour, on external sides of the Baudgeer’s column.
We can also calculate the air temperature, at any time of the day and night.
Selecting the velocity and direction of the airblow, we can use the flow network to
determine the air speed in any one of the Baudgeer’s conduits and then using the
thermal network and knowing the convection/radiant heat transfer coefficients, it is
possible then to determine the exiting air temperature from the Baudgeer and enter-
ing air temperature into the building or the rooms [3–5]. It should be noted that in
Fig. 4.4, the resistances illustrated possess the inverse amount of the heat transfer
coefficients documented on them.
Fig. 4.4 Thermal network of a conventional Baudgeer
4.4 Results of the Calculations
Figures 4.5, 4.6, and 4.7 indicate the gained data concerning a typical Baudgeer
with the maximum and minimum outside temperature of 35.7 and 17.7 °C while the
coefficient of clear sky is K T = 0.71 [3–5].
As shown in Fig. 4.5 the temperature of the entering air in a conventional
Baudgeer for the wind velocity of 5 and 10 m/s and the different directions of the
flow are almost equal to the external air temperature. Figures 4.6 and 4.7 show
the mass flow from the Baudgeer into the building in relation to the speed and
different directions of the blowing air. When the wind speed is zero, the internal
mass flow is scarce. From 8 a.m. until 2 p.m. of the next morning, the flow is
ascending while from 2 a.m. to 8 a.m. of the day after, it is descending. This
phenomenon occurs due to the buoyancy. Besides, the figures indicate that the
more the speed of the wind is, the more the building mass flow is. If the velocity
doubles, the mass flow doubles too. When the airblow is 45° to the structure’s
main side, mass flow is more than the time the airblow is 0°. When the airblow is
90°, when it is perpendicular to the smaller openings of the Baudgeer, the air
blows reversely so that the Baudgeer acts as a vent. Thus, the interior air rushes
into the column. In this case, if the velocity of the wind doubles, the mass flow of
the air doubles too [3–5].
4.4 Results of the Calculations 115
Fig. 4.5 Entering air temperature at different times of the day and night in a conventional Baudgeer
Fig. 4.6 Mass flow of the air entering a building at different times of the day and night in a con-
ventional Baudgeer (with wind speed of 0 and 5 m/s)
References 117
Fig. 4.7 Mass flow of the air

entering a building at
different times of the day and
night in a conventional
Baudgeer (with wind speed
of 0 and 10 m/s)
References
1. Karakasanis C, Bahadori MN, Vickerly BJ (1984) A study of the external wind pressure distri-
bution and the estimation of internal ventilation flows in buildings employing wind towers,
University of Western Ontario Research Report BLWT–ss 25
2. Karakasanis C, Bahadori MN, Vickery BJ (1986) Evaluation of pressure coefficients and esti-
mation of air flow rates in buildings employing wind towers. Sol Energy 37(5):363–374
Paper No. FEDSM2002-31247. In: Proceedings of ASME FEDSM 02, ASME 2002 fluids
5. Bahadori MN, Yaghubi M (2006) Ventilation and natural cooling system in traditional build-
ings of Iran. University Publication Center, Tehran
6. Duffie JA, Beckman WA (2006) Solar engineering of thermal processes. Wiley, New York, NY
7. Bahadori MN, Chamberlain MS (1986) A simplification of weather data to evaluate daily and
monthly energy needs of residential buildings. Sol Energy 36(6):499–507
8. Mirhosseini SA (2003) Determining the clear air coefficient for different cities of Iran. M.S.
Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran
9. Bahadori MN, Mirhosseini SA (2004) Clear air coefficients for different cities of Iran. In:
Third seminar for optimization of fuel consumption in buildings, pp 603–611
10. Vickery BJ (1981) The use of wind tunnels in the analysis of naturally ventilated structures. In:
American section of the international solar energy society, Miami Beach, Florida, pp 728–742
11. Bahadorinejad MN (1981) Pressure coefficients to evaluate air flow patterns in wind towers.
In: International passive and hybrid cooling conference, Miami Beach, Florida, pp.206–210
12. ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, American Society of Heating, Refringerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA (1981)
13. Porges F (1994) HVAC engineers handbook, 10th edn. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford
Chapter 5
An Analytical–Numerical Study
of the Performance of New Designs
of Wind Towers
As mentioned in Chap. 1, conventional wind towers or Baudgeers suffer from

inadequacies, some of which are pointed out here:
1. The entering air is almost of the same heat of the surroundings. For example, at
3 pm, in a hot summer day of 36 °C, the conveyed flow is a little hotter; therefore
it cannot bring about the thermal comfort for the residents of the building. The
only cause to alleviate the heat in the conventional Baudgeers is the low tempera-
ture of the night and the radiative cooling of the outer walls into the sky. This
coolness of the walls which is stored from the night brings about the change of
the temperature in the next day. Because of the low mass of the construction
materials, the storing of the energy is limited. The stored energy is useful just for
1–2 h. With the rise in the ambient temperature and the heat of the sun, in the
early hours of the day, the temperature of the Baudgeer’s body increases so that
most of the time during the day, and early at night, it is higher than the ambient
temperature. Therefore, it is improbable to have cooler flow inside than outside,
during most time of the day.
2. When the speed of the wind is low (less than 2 m/s), Baudgeers cannot function
properly. When there is no airflow, which is rare because normally in the early
morning there is some air (due to buoyancy) enters the building. In this situation
during the rest of the day, the structure does not function as baudgeer but it acts
like a chimney.
3. In places where the prevailing winds have no definite directions, three or four-
sided Baudgeers are preferable. In these structures wind enters Baudgeers from
a channel and escapes from the next one. So, most of the flow is wasted.
4. In spite of the air movement over wet pools in the underground, considerable
evaporation and heat removal does not occur.
5. In areas where the air moves too slowly or very low air movement, one may
generate a descending flow by means of buoyancy inside the tunnel. This buoy-
ancy or pressure difference is (Δρghe). In which, Δρ is the density difference of
the inner channel and the surrounding air, (he) the effective elevation of the col-
umn and g is the gravity acceleration. Since the wet zones are lower than the
120 5 An Analytical–Numerical Study of the Performance of New Designs…
column in traditional structures, the effective height (he) where the air density
differs, is some 1 m, no considerable buoyancy efficiency is expected inside the
tunnel. However, if the wet zone is placed inside the column or at the top,
increase of he and buoyancy brings about fast flow from top to bottom.
Two kinds of the modern Baudgeers which have ameliorated the insufficiencies
to a great extent are to be reviewed Baudgeers with wetted column and the Baudgeers
with wetted surface.
5.1 Performance of the Baudgeers with Wetted Columns
Many of the insufficiencies of the conventional Baudgeers are alleviated by this

innovation: some changes have been carried out for the inlet as well as adding some
extra ceramic or thick fabric along the column. To sprinkle water on such surfaces
causes the evaporative cooling [1–5]. Figure 5.1 shows the cross-section of a
Baudgeer with wetted column [1]. In this figure, it is assumed that the wetted column
is made of ceramic gutters (10 × 10 cm and thickness of 10 mm) installed upon each
other forming a pillar. Water is poured onto them from the top. This way the surface
for the transfer of heat and the mass (for evaporation) increases considerably.
Fig. 5.1 Cross-section of a Baudgeer with wetted column

5.1 Performance of the Baudgeers with Wetted Columns 121
Modern Baudgeers have changed a lot compared with the conventional ones as
follows:
1. Head: In some regions where wind blows from different sides, we may use
dampers or one-sided curtains as shown in Figs. 1.18 and 5.1. The inlets with
positive flow pressure coefficient (Cp) enjoy damper or stretched curtains while
the inlets with negative flow pressure coefficient are blocked. So, the air cannot
escape. To prevent the pressure loss, curtains should be made of light stuff. The
inner dividing wall is omitted in modern structures because the flow is perma-
nently rushing downward.
2. Extension of the thermal conveyance surface: In modern Baudgeers the flow
cools sensibly. Evaporation cools the inner walls considerably. So, the increase
of the conveyance of heat and storage of the cool, the heat conveying level should
be high. For this reason, a clay conduit whose conduits are of square section has
been chosen in order to carry out the study (Fig. 5.1).
3. Evaporation cooling system: The clay conduit is wetted by the spouts installed at
the top of the column (Fig. 5.1). The surfaces are thoroughly and evenly wetted.
The excess water is collected in a pool at the bottom to be reused by pumping up.
So, the flow is cooled through evaporation. Thus, the cooling process is carried
out much more perfectly compared with the traditional systems.
The flow density increases along the channel. So, the air inside is different from
that of outside generating a pressure difference at the top and the bottom of the
column (equal to Δρ gh). So, temperature decreases and an efficient flow are avail-
able due to buoyancy.
The objective followed by the analytical survey of the new Baudgeers is the rec-
ognition of the temperature change, relative humidity, and the airflow to the build-
ing. Temperature, relative humidity, and the conveyed flow depend on various
factors which can be divided into two main groups [1–5]:
(a) Climatic and environmental conditions including the ambient temperature,
radiation, diurnal temperature, relative humidity, velocity and direction of the
airflow, air pressure, and equivalent temperature of sky.
(b) Geometric and technical factors including the elevation of the Baudgeer, num-
ber of the upper inlets, curtain type, and measurements of the clay conduits,
thickness, and kind of the ceramic walls as well as the amount of the water
sprinkled.
Carrying out the equations of continuity, energy, and momentum simultaneously,
one can gain the velocity distribution and temperature all along the channel. We
have to know the inner-flow speed just like the conventional Baudgeers in order to
calculate the inner temperature changes. The flow speed is mainly dependent on the
ceramic walls’ temperature and the concerned relative humidity. The task is carried
out by a process of trial and error. To get access to the temperature of the middle of
the inner structure, one has to initially estimate and then get the speed rate. Having
the flow speed and processing the energy equation, the temperature has to be com-
pared with the rate estimated at first. If the difference is less than an acceptable rate,
the answer is correct. Otherwise, the trials are repeated [1, 3, 5].
5.1.1 Distribution of the Air Speed in a Baudgeer
To assess the mass flow of the air conveyed into the building, along with the
computation of the rate of thermal conveyance coefficient (h) across the inner clay
conduits, the airflow velocity should be clear at different points of the Baudgeer. For
this reason, we initially should gain the air thrust, then the pressure drop, with the
application of these two and the connection rule, we can decide on the velocity.
5.1.1.1 Thrust Potential and Pressure Drop
This part of the issue resembles the points 4.2 and 4.3 concerning the conventional
Baudgeers. However, in Baudgeers with wetted column, the air enters the structure
through one or two openings and cannot escape the other openings because of the
screens or damoers used. Therefore, it can be anticipated that the flow mass entering
the building (under similar conditions) in this type of structure is more than the
conventional ones. In these systems, since there is no escape of the entering flow
and since the air blows downward, no need of solving the problem through the flow
network is felt. We can calculate the air speed in the openings or the column by
using the equations of thrust potential and pressure drop and matching those [3–5].
Determining the cross-section of the different parts of the Baudgeer and using the
equations of continuity, one can access the distribution of the air speed.
If we imagine a Baudgeer according to Fig. 5.1, the effective length of the col-
umn is 6 m and its section dimensions are 2 × 1. The flow velocity is 5 m/s and its
direction relative to the structure is 0°. The thicknesses of the clay conduits are
10 mm. with the inlets are 10 × 10 cm. The height of the entering flow window is
1.5 m with dimensions of 2 × 0.6 m; the points 1–5 will be the middle of the opening
of the capital of the column, top and bottom of the clay conduits, middle of the
lower elbow and the middle of the flow entering windows. The following equation
is used for the airflow considering the Table 4.1.
Cpw1 = 0.83, Cpn1 = −0.61, Cpe1 = −0.39, Cps1 = −0.64

Where, n, e, w, and s subscripts are the northern, eastern, western, and southern
windows. Since the flow pressure coefficient is positive in western window and
negative in the others, airflows just through this inlet. The other openings are
equipped with curtains to prevent the flow escape. If we consider a pressure coeffi-
cient equal to −0.25 for the point No. 5 (entering inlet to the building), the thrust
potential according to Eq. (4.27) will be:
1
∆Pa = ( 0 / 83 − ( −0 / 25 ) ) (1 / 14 )( 5) = 15 / 39( Pa )
2
(5.1)
2
In this equation the specific gravity of the flow (ρa) has been calculated at a tem-
perature of 35.7 °C. The coefficients of K have been assessed in the Eq. (4.29) in
Fig. 5.2 A part of longitudinal section of a Baudgeer with wetted column
dynamic pressure drop coefficient. Considering a definite speed of the entering flow,
the pressure drop can be decided on. In case the total rate is less than ΔPa of
Eq. (5.1), the upper velocity is selected while the trial and error process is repeated
until the pressure loss equals ΔPa. Then, the structure’s output velocity is 2 m/s and
its mass flow can be 3.74 kg per second [3].
5.1.2 A
ssessment of the Temperature and the Humidity
in Baudgeer
Here, we mean the temperature, relative humidity, and the flow to the building. The
entering flow passes through the clay conduits or the installed curtains. So, we need
the temperature of the network wall and the humidity to calculate the output air
temperature. The network temperature depends on the rate of radiation, the stored
heat or cools in the walls of the Baudgeer, the inner velocity, relative humidity of the
flow as well as the radiative heat exchange between the inner surface and the walls.
The column is divided into n equal patterns. The temperature of the walls and the
surroundings is gained by distinguishing each division’s thermal network and docu-
mentation of the energy equations [3–5].
5.1.2.1 Thermal Network and Assessment of the Air Temperature
One may consider five kinds of ducts (conduits) concerning the analysis of tem-
perature in a Baudgeer’s section shown in Fig. 5.2. The middle ones (dm) northern
(dn) southern (ds) eastern (de) and western (dw). The northern, southern, eastern,
and western ducts include at least five thermal nodes (Fig. 5.2) including the ambi-
ent temperature (Ta), temperature of the outer walls, (Two), temperature of the inner
Fig. 5.3 Thermal networks for Baudgeer’s inlets
Fig. 5.4 (a) Lateral section for side inlets (northern, southern) (b) Lateral section for middle inlets
walls (Twi), the average temperature of the conduit (Ta) and finally, of the clay
conduits (Tc).
Heat exchange between the surface of the outer walls and ground and the sky
occurs through radiation and with surrounding air, through convection and it gets
warm by absorbing solar radiation in daytime. The heat exchange between the air
inside conduits with the internal surface of the conduit (the surface of the clay con-
duits and the inner surface of the outer walls happens by convection. This exchange
of the exterior and the interior is also caused by circulation, cooled by the evaporat-
ing process. The wall Twi exchanges heat with Two and Tc through radiation and
conductivity. That is why their thermal networks can be demonstrated according to
Fig. 5.3 [3–5].
The temperature Tc may be considered the same for the sides surrounding the
inlets (dm), according to Figs. 5.2 and 5.4 and with regards to the geometric sym-
metry. So, the thermal network for these is simpler compared with the other inlets.
The parameters used in the Fig. 5.3 are defined as follows:
w subscript, stands for wall in all parameters (eastern, western, northern, and
southern)
hr,wo-sk is the radiation thermal transfer coefficient between the sky and the surfaces
of the external wall
hr,wo-gr is the radiative thermal transfer coefficient between the ground and the
surfaces of the external walls.
hwo convective thermal coefficient between the surroundings and the external sur-
face of the Baudgeer wall
Kwo-wi conductive thermal transfer coefficient between the external and internal
walls of the Baudgeer
hr,wi-c radiative thermal transfer coefficient between the clay conduits surface and the
inner wall of the structure
hc and hwi are the convective thermal transfer coefficients between the entering flow,
the inner walls and the clay conduits surface
S is the absorbed radiation by the structure’s wall
Xc and Xw the thickness of the clay conduits and the wall
It is to be reminded that the illustrated resistances in Fig. 5.3 are equal the inver-
sion of the heat transfer coefficients.
To get access to energy equations we suppose that the temperature of the water
running on the surface of the clay conduits is the same as the surface itself. We
divide the column into n equal parts supposing that the temperature all along the
wall during a specific time interval, t, does not vary.
In writing energy equations, we overlook the conductive thermal transfer along
the Baudgeer height, since the temperature differences are too low to be taken into
consideration. The sky temperature is gained through the following equation [8]:
Tsk = Tamb ( 0.8 + 0.004 Tdp )

0.25
(5.2)

Tsk and Tamb are the absolute temperature (according to Kelvin degree) and Tdp is
the dew-point temperature according to Celsius scale.
5.1.2.2 Humidity Ratio
To define the humidity we suppose that the whole clay conduits are evenly wetted.
For the turbulent current inside the conduits (with regards to scarce mass flow) and
for the air and water inside the column, we have to use Lewis’s equation [6]:
h
hD = (5.3)
Cpm

h and hD are the coefficients of thermal transfer and mass respectively. Cpm is the
specific heat (in terms of J/Kg°C) of the humid air. The specific heat of the humid air
is obtained, based on one kilogram of dry air. So, the following equation can be used:
Cpm = C p + ωa C ps (5.4)

Cps and Cp indicate the specific heat of the vapor and the dry air, respectively.
The rate of the evaporated water is available by means of the following equation:
o
m v = h D A m ( ωc − ωa ) (5.5)

Am, mass transfer surface and ωc is the humidity ratio in heat-saturated walls, ωa
indicates the inner-flow humidity [9].
While the air flows in the conduit, water is evaporated adiabatically, permanently
increasing the moisture. In case we divide the column into equal parts and consider
a fixed rate of moisture for every division, the humidity rate for the left portions is
accessible through the following equation [1, 3–5]:
o
mv
ωa ( i +1) = ωa ( i ) + o
(5.6)
ma
o
In this equation, i indicate the number of part and m a the mass flow of the dry air
blowing in the conduit. So, knowing the relative dry and wet temperatures of the
ambient air entering the Baudgeer, the relative entering humidity to the building can
be calculated.
For instance, for the Baudgeer in Fig. 6.1 and with the following assumptions:
(a) The latitude of the place: 32
(b) Time: July 6th 3 p.m.
(c) Climate characteristics of the place:
kg
Tx = 35.7°C; Tn = 17.7°C; K T = 0.71; ωamb = 0.0074
kg

(d) The physical specifications of the structure:
Clay conduits:
 kg   J 
ρc = 1700  3  , C pc = 840   , x c = 10 ( mm )
 m   kg.K 
The external wall of the Baudgeer:
 W   kg   J 
k w = 0.671  , ρw = 1700  3  , C pw = 840   , x w = 10 ( cm ) ,
 mK  m   kg.K 
The absorbed water by the clay conduits:
 kg   J 
ρwt = 1000  3  , C pw = 4180   , x wt = 1 ( mm )
m   kg.K 
the length has been considered one meter per part and the t is 150 s.
The illustrated thermal network in Fig. 5.3 as well as the available temperature,

moisture, and the velocity of the entering air into the Baudgeer, assessment on the
intensity of radiation on external walls as well as the heat transfer and mass coeffi-
cients, can bring about the velocity, temperature, and relative input and output
humidity rate. Besides, these issues may also be calculated for the flow entering the
building from the column [3–5].
5.1.3 Results of the Study
Figures 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, and 5.11 indicate the outcome of the numerical
and analytical study of a Baudgeer functioning on wetted Figs. 5.5 column in
climate conditions mentioned earlier. To carry out the comparison with a conven-
tional structure, considered in Chap. 4, the effective elevation, the cross-section
surface with the wetted column enjoys the same dimensions.
Figure 5.5 shows the flow from the structure into the building with regards to the
velocity and different flow directions in different hours round the clock. The output
temperature of a wetted column with a height of 6 m is very much near to the tem-
perature of the outside humid air [3–5].
Figure 5.6 illustrates the outlet mass flow entering the building with regards to
the velocity, flow directions in different hours round the clock. As shown, when
there is no air movement, because of the difference between the internal and exter-
nal temperature and the buoyancy, a moderate breeze enters the building from the
structure which is more sensible in the afternoon when the surroundings are hotter.
When the angle of the blow is 90, the airflow is still from the Baudgeer into the
building while in traditional ones this process is carried out reversely. This is
because of the previously mentioned curtains which prevent the escape of the flow
from the upper hatches (Fig. 5.1) [3–5].
Figures 5.7 and 5.8 indicate the air moving into the building from the structure
according to its elevation at 3 p.m. (the outdoors highest heat). As illustrated, there
is an optimum height in each climatic condition for drenched Baudgeers. Height
increase more than the available structures does not cause considerable change in
the air entering the building. In such conditions, the relative moisture is near to
100 % [3–5].
Figures 5.9 and 5.10 show the mass flow of the air entering the building at differ-
ent velocities and directions according to the structure’s elevation at 3:00 p.m.. The
height increase of the wet area brings about the decline of the mass flow due to the
pressure drop along the channels. The mass flow is reinforced exceptionally, when
the wind speed is zero. In this case, height increase causes the buoyancy [3–5].
Figure 5.11 indicates the relative humidity of the structure’s output for different
velocities and directions according to the elevation at 3:00 p.m.. As shown in
Figs. 5.7, 5.8, and 5.11, temperature drop and raise of relative humidity along the
first few meters of the drenched column are rapid, while it slows down all along the
Fig. 5.5 Temperature of the air entering the building at different times in a Baudgeer with wetted
column
5.2 Study of the Performance of Baudgeers with Wetted Surface 129
Fig. 5.6 Mass flow rate of

the air entering the building
at different times in a
Baudgeer with wetted column
rest of the passage. It is to be reminded that at 3:00 p.m., the air temperature reaches
its maximum, while at the other times, the mass flow and the relative humidity emit-
ted by the column varies.
5.2 S
tudy of the Performance of Baudgeers
with Wetted Surface
In this type of Baudgeers, some straws are placed at the air openings (mouth) of the
Baudgeer which are wetted by an electric water pump. Because of the evaporation,
the passing air loses its heat to a great extent. Figure 5.12 illustrates the cross-
section of a structure with inner wetted surfaces.
Since the contact surface between the air and the wetted straws is extremely
large, the moisture in the air will increase and a lot of water is evaporated and causes
the air speed to decrease. Because of the difference between the air density inside
the column and the ambient air and the creation of buoyancy (Δρ gh), a downward
flow of air inside the column is produced. This difference of density at the topmost
point of the column, means that based on the equation Δρ gh, the entire height of the
column has been employed to maximize the buoyancy. So, it is expected that in
places where the air speed is very low or ambient air is still, this type of Baudgeers
demonstrate excellent performance. Figure 5.13 shows the top openings of a
Baudgeer with wetted column and straws [10].
Fig. 5.7 Temperature of the air entering the building at 3 p.m. using Baudgeers with wetted col-
umn with different heights (the wind direction of 0° and 45°)
Fig. 5.8 Temperature of the air entering the building at 3 p.m. from Baudgeers with wetted col-
umn (for wind direction of 0° and 45°)
Fig. 5.9 Mass flow rate of the air entering the building at 3 p.m. from a Baudgeer with wetted
column and with different heights (the winds with 0 and 5 m/s)

the air entering the building
at 3 p.m. in A Baudgeer with
wetted column and with
different heights (for the
winds with 5 and 10 m/s)
Fig. 5.11 Relative humidity

of the air entering the
building at 3 p.m. from a
and with different heights
Fig. 5.12 Cross-section of a Baudgeer with wetted surfaces
Fig. 5.13 Top opening of a Baudgeer with wetted surfaces (straws); straws are wetted by an elec-
tric water pump (similar to water coolers)
The evaporation causes the heat of the air to reduce considerably. Therefore, the
lowest air temperature is in the space next to the straws. The lower the flow moves,
its temperature increases. This increase of temperature has direct correlation with the
height of the Baudgeer. Higher the Baudgeer, the more the increase in the air tem-
perature. On the other hand, the height of the column makes the buoyancy (Δρgh) to
increase too. So, where air has low speed, the elevation of the column plays a signifi-
cant role in the rate of the mass flow of the entering air into the building.
The airflow rate depends on some elements such as kind and thickness of the
straws, the electric pump discharge, elevation of the structure, and dimensions of
the cross-section, resistance to the air movement (including pressure drop in elbows,
inlet and outlet hatches and the straws), the ambient temperature, and relative mois-
ture. To capture maximum cool in wetted columns, resistance to the air movement
should abate to its lowest rate so that the air can be freely conveyed through the
layers of the straws into the column. Considering this issue, it seems that the drapes
(dampers) used in Baudgeers with wetted column do not play a significant role in
Baudgeers with wetted surfaces.
When there is no air movement, the flow is descending in all channels and when
the wind blows in a certain direction, the airflow enhances in the opening which
faces the air. This happens while the air escapes the openings back to the airflow,
because of the negative air pressure factor. The only remedy is the installment of a
thin one-sided curtain (as it is used in Baudgeers with wetted column) to prevent the
air escape.
Analysis of this structure depends on monitoring the temperature, relative humid-
ity as well as the conveyed flow into the building and can be divided into two parts:
1. Environmental and climatic elements including the temperature of the surround-
ings, solar radiation, maximum difference of the day and night temperature, rela-
tive humidity of the place, flow direction and velocity, air pressure and outside
temperature.
2. Geometrical elements including elevation of the structure, cross-section dimen-
sions, number of the air openings, thickness and type of the straws, the rate of the
water sprinkled onto the straws, resistance against the airflow (pressure drop in
the elbows, straws, inlets and outlets, etc.).
With the solution of the equations of continuity, energy, and momentum simul-
taneously, one can gain the velocity and moisture distribution all along the
Baudgeer. Here again, like conventional Baudgeers, in order to assess the tempera-
ture change, we should know the airflow speed inside the structure which mainly
depends on the thickness and kind of the straws, and the temperature of the walls
of the Baudgeer. Pressure drop at the straws and the walls also depend on the air
speed; therefore, the simultaneous solution of the referred equations is in need of
the trial and error tests [3–5].
The climatic parameters dealing with the assessment of the temperature, relative
moisture, and air mass flow are initially reviewed. Calculation of the radiation rate
as well as the temperature of the dry air in the day time is of the main steps taken.
The details of this process are exactly like what mentioned in Sect. 5.1 concerning
conventional Baudgeers.
5.2.1 Air Velocity Distribution in Baudgeers
To calculate the mass flow of the air entering the building and the heat convection
coefficient (h) inside the column, the flow velocity should be defined all across the
Baudgeer. To do so, first, the flow repulsion potential and then, the air pressure drop
in the column should be decided on. Considering these data and the continuation
rule, one may gain the velocity along the column.
Repulsion potential and pressure drop in a Baudgeer—Pressure drop occurs at air
openings, top and column, curvatures, flow conveyance elbows and the doors and
windows of the building. Pressure drop can be divided into the two categories of
dynamic and frictional. Further details are in Sect. 5.2. In Baudgeers with wetted
column, pressure drop in straws should also be added to the referred pressure drops.
The pressure drop in straws may be obtained through the following experimental
and testing procedures [11]:
When V < 1,
∆Pp = 1.029 Vd 0p.755 (5.7)

and for 1 ≤ V ≤ 2,

( )
∆Pp = 4.9 0.1885V 4 − V3 + 2.091V2 − 1.42 V + 0.4056 d 0p.755

(5.8)
In the above equations, ΔPp is the air pressure drop in the straws in Pa and dp is
the thickness of straws in centimeters and V is the velocity of the air in m/s.
Air repulsion drop in the structure is generated by the pressure difference between
the Baudgeer inlets and the building doors and windows as well as the air density of
the column flow and the surroundings. To calculate the air speed in the Baudgeer,
we can use the equation below:
1 
gh t ( ∆ρ ) + ∆C p  ρo Vo 2  = ∑∆P + ∆Pp (5.9)
2 
In this regard, ΔCp is the coefficient of pressure difference between the upper
inlet and the doors and windows of the building, V0 and ρ0 are the mass and the
specific gravity of the flow, ht is the elevation of the column (from the center of
straws up to the outlets), g is the acceleration of gravity and ΔP is the dynamic and
frictional pressure drop in the Baudgeer.
When there is no air movement, the process is dealt with through the following
equation,
gh t ( ∆ρ ) = ∑∆P + ∆Pp (5.10)

With access to the physical characteristics of the Baudgeer (dimensions, con-
structional materials and designs similar to conventional ones), climate conditions
quoted later in equation 5.12, and the relations of the air pressure drop and energy,
can bring about the rate of temperature, relative moisture, and mass flow of the air
entering the building from the column. Temperature changes in a Baudgeer enjoy-
ing wetted surfaces occur as follows.
5.2.2 Temperature Variations in Baudgeer
The objective of this review is to get an assessment of the air temperature entering
the building. Since the column structure in wetted surface systems is similar to the
conventional (traditional) Baudgeers, the temperature variation is also similar. In
this section, the variation of temperature and the ratio of air moisture after passing
through the straws are discussed.
Temperature drop of the dry air passing through the straws—Enthalpy and wetted
temperature, while passing through straws, remain almost constant. Dry tempera-
ture of the air drops due to evaporation. The rate of the drop depends on factors such
as the thickness and the type of straws, the air speed passing through the straws and
the relative moisture of the outside air.
To assess the dry temperature drop of the air passing through straws or efficiency
of the straws, the experimental equations are used. To determine the efficiency of
the straws used in Iran and made out of white poplar, the following equation has
been proposed [11]:
Ta − Tt ∆T
η= = (5.11)
Ta − Twb ∆Twb

Ta = the open air temperature, Tt = temperature of the air after passing through the
straws and Twb = open air moisture. The following equation has been proposed for η
[11]:
η = f (V) + L (d ) (5.12)

When V < 1 for f(V) we have:
f ( V ) = −0.02325V + 0.899 (5.13)

and when 1 < V < 2, for f(V) we have:
f ( V ) = −0.0452 V 4 + 0.26 V 3 − 0.635V 2 + 0.57774 V + 0.714 (5.14)

and when the straws thickness is d ≤ 10, the following equation has been proposed
for L(d)[11]:
d
L ( d ) = 0.04631 − 1.444 × 10 −3 d  Ln (5.15)
2.5
V = the velocity of the air passing through the wetted straws in m/s, and d = the
straws thickness in centimeter. For instance, if the open air temperature is 34 °C, the
wet flow is 21 °C and the air speed in the straws (thickness d = 5 cm), and V = 0.75 m/s,
then, according to Eqs. (5.13) and (5.15) we will have:
f ( V ) = 0.881, L ( d ) = 0.0271

Applying the above figures in the Eq. (5.13), the efficiency of the straws is:
η = 0 / 908

Applying Eq. (5.12), the temperature of the air after straws is:
Tt = 22.2 °C
This is the temperature, supposed at the top of the column of the Baudgeer, while
in conventional Baudgeers, the temperature at the top of the column is equal to dry
temperature of the open air, i.e., 34°.
Determining the relative moisture of air in Baudgeer—Enthalpy of the moisture is
gained through the following equation [9]:
h = C p T + ωh g (5.16)

Cp = specific heat in Kj/Kg K, T = dry air temperature in °C, ω = moister ratio in
Kg/Kg and hg = Enthalpy of the saturated vapor in Kj/Kg.
Because of the constancy of the moisture enthalpy passing through the straws,
we can have the following equation:
Cp Tt + ( ωh g ) = Cp Ta + ( ωh g ) (5.17)
t a
t and a subscripts are, respectively, concern the interior and exterior airflows. So,
if the open air characteristics as well as the dry air temperature inside the column
(next to straws) are known, one can assess the moisture ratio and relative humidity
of the airflow next to the straws.
The moisture ratio does not change while the air moves downward inside the col-
umn, however, the relative humidity decreases due to the increase in the dry air heat [7].
This occurs because of the inner surfaces heat radiation and the circulation of the air.
5.2.3 T
he Data Gained Through the Numerical
and Analytical Study
Figures 5.14, 5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.20, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, and 5.24 indicate
the data regarding physical and climatic aspect concerned (referred to in Sects. 5.1.1
and 5.1.2) [3–5]. Figures 5.14 is the temperature, 5.15 and 5.16 show the mass flow
Fig. 5.14 Temperature of the entering air into the building based on the different time of the day
in a Baudgeer with wetted column
Fig. 5.15 Mass flow rate of the entering air into the building based on the different time of the day
in a Baudgeer with wetted column (the wind direction of 0° and 45°)
Fig. 5.16 Mass flow of the

entering air into the building
based on the different time of
the day in a Baudgeer with
wetted column (for wind
direction of 0° and 90°)

of the entering air into the
building based on the
different time of the day in a
and Fig. 5.17 is the relative moisture of the structure’s air entering the building at
different hours round the clock.
As illustrated in Fig. 5.14, when the air has no movement, the temperature of the
air exiting the Baudgeer, is slightly higher than the corresponding wet temperature
of the surroundings. As the air velocity increases, the difference between these two
temperatures increases. Figures 5.15 and 5.16 indicate that the mass flow of the air
resembles that of the conventional structures and in case the air blows perpendicu-
larly, the Baudgeer functions as a vent, having no evaporation cooling usage
Fig. 5.18 Temperature of the entering air into the building based on the different heights in a
Baudgeer with wetted column at 3 p.m. (for the winds with 0.5 and 10 m/s)
Fig. 5.19 Comparison
between the highest and
lowest points of the column
in a Baudgeer with wetted
column at 3 p.m. (the winds
with 0.5 and 10 m/s)
(Fig. 5.16). However, one may seek a remedy (setting up light blades at the back of
the straws) to prevent the escape of the air.
Figure 5.18 shows the temperature of the air entering the building according
to the structure’s elevation and Fig. 5.19 indicates the air temperature after pass-
ing through the straws and before running through the building for different con-
ditions according to the height of the Baudgeer. Figures 5.20 and 5.21 illustrate
the mass flow of the air and Fig. 5.22 shows the relative moisture of the air
exiting from the Baudgeer for different conditions according to the height of the
structure [3–5].
Figures 5.23 and 5.24 show the temperature and mass flow of the air exiting from
the Baudgeer at different times, according to the thickness of the straws (at wetted
columns). If the thickness is not considerable, the pressure drop of the passing air
decreases while the mass flow increases. This causes the temperature drop and
increase of temperature for the air escaping from the Baudgeer.
Fig. 5.20 Mass flow rate of the entering air into the building based on the different heights in a
Baudgeer with wetted column at 3 p.m. (the wind direction of 0° and 45°)

the entering air into the
different heights in a
at 3 p.m. (the wind direction
of 0° and 45°)

of the entering air into the
different heights in a
at 3 p.m. (the winds with 0.5
and 10 m/s)
Fig. 5.23 Temperature of the entering air into the building based on the different time of the day
and the thickness of the straws in a Baudgeer with wetted column (for wind angle 0 and the winds
with 0.5 and 10 m/s)
References 147
Fig. 5.24 Temperature of the

entering air into the building
based on the different time of
the day and the thickness of
the straws in a Baudgeer with
wetted column (for wind
angle 45° and the winds with
0.5 and 10 m/s)
References
1. Bahadori MN (1985) An improved design of wind towers for natural ventilation and passive
cooling. Sol Energ 35(2):119–129
2. Bahadori MN (1994) Viability of wind towers in achieving summer comfort in the hot
arid regions of the Middle East, 3rd World Renewable Energy Congress, Reading, pp 879–892,
11–16 Sept 1994
paper no. FEDSM 2002–31247. In: Proceedings of ASME FEDSM02, ASME 2002 fluids
5. Bahadori MN, Yaghobi M (2006) Ventilation and natural cooling system in traditional build-
ings of Iran. University Publication Center, Iran, Tehran
6. ASHRAE Handbook (1981) Fundamentals, American Society of Heating Refrigerating and
Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, GA
7. Porges F (1994) HVAC engineers handbook, 10th edn, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford
8. Duffie JA, Beckman WA (1990) Solar engineering of thermal processes. Wiley, New York, NY
9. Stoecker WF, Jones HE (1982) Refrigeration and air conditioning, 2nd edn. Mc Graw-Hill
Inc., New York, NY
10. Memarie GH (1991) An analysis of the performance and comparison of two modern designs of
wind towers. B.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University, Tehran, Iran, 1991.
11. Ghariblou M (1991) Assessment of the Empirical relations for the pressure and dry tempera-
ture drops in water coolers. B.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University
of Technology, Tehran
Chapter 6
Performance Evaluation of New Designs
of Baudgeers Compared to the
Conventional Ones
In this chapter an additional numerical–analytical operation of the conventional

and modern structures (Baudgeers with wetted column and wetted surfaces) is
discussed, operating in identical physical and climatic conditions.
The physical conditions cover the following:
1 . Effective length of the column: 6 m
2. Cross-section: 2 × 1 m
3. Outlet measurements (entering air into the building) at the bottom: 2 × 0.6 m
4. Thickness of the walls: 10 cm
5. Four hatches of 1.5 m at the upper part of each Baudgeer
The climatic conditions of this review were carried out on:
1. Sixth of July with the maximum and minimum heat at 3 p.m. and 3 a.m. equal to
35.7 and 17.7 °C, respectively.
2. K T equal to 0.71
This chapter initially deals with the mass flow and the temperature of the air
entering the building, according to the data used through the assessment of the
referred Baudgeers and then the structures at identical input conditions.
6.1 Conventional Baudgeers
Using Figs. 5.5 through 5.10, one can get the following data concerning the
structures [1–4].
150 6 Performance Evaluation of New Designs of Baudgeers…
6.1.1 Temperature of the Air Entering the Building
As illustrated in Fig. 4.5, one can find out that the effective rate of velocity and air-
flow direction of the air entering the building compared with temperature of the
surroundings is less. As a general rule, the temperature of the air entering into the
building from the Baudgeer structure through the day and night is almost the same
as the outside temperature (±0.5 °C).
As illustrated in Fig. 4.8, the height of the column augments the flow temperature
entering the building while any decrease in air speed increases the temperature, since
the taller the Baudgeers the cleaner the air obtained and also the airflow is cooler at
high altitudes. Therefore in principle, taller columns are usually preferred [1–4].
6.1.2 Mass Flow Rate of the Air Entering the Building
According to Figs. 4.6 and 4.7, the mass flow of the air entering the building is
depending on the available air speed and the slope of the openings. So that, maxi-
mum mass flow is conveyed into the building at a 45° angle due to the positive pres-
sure coefficient of the two hatches facing the air blow. When air blows perpendicular
to a hatch, the air pressure coefficient is positive just at that spot while it is negative
in the other openings. This causes the escape of the air from the back or parallel
passages. While the airflow direction is perpendicular to the smaller hatch (α = 90°),
the flow does not enter the building and the column functions as a chimney and the
inside air is escaped to the outside. If the air speed is zero, the structure, in this case,
acts as a ventilator. It is just after midnight (from 2 to 8 a.m.) that the airflow is car-
ried inward. The maximum amount of air into the building occurs at 5 a.m. and is
about 0.25 kg/s for a column with a length of 6 m. With the increase of Baudgeer
length, the mass of the entering air at angles of zero and 45° are reduced. Increasing
the elevation to angle of 90°, this causes less air to be exhausted out through the
Baudgeer from the building and out from there [1–4].
6.2 Baudgeers with Wetted Columns
The following specifications pertain to the structures illustrated in Figs. 5.5 thru 5.11.
1 . The physical and climatic conditions are the same as the conventional ones
2. The ceramic passages are 10 × 10 cm
3. The ratio of the wetted surface to the total surface is 0.7 for the first meter (from
the top); 0.8 from 1 to 2 m and 0.9 from 2 to 3 m. For the lengths more than 3 m,
the whole clay conduit is assumed to be wetted.
4. The ratio of the moisture of the surroundings, all day and night, is assumed to be
ωa = 0.0074 kg/kg and constant.
5. All the hatches of the structure are equipped with unilateral screens.
6.2 Baudgeers with Wetted Columns 151
With regard to the above-mentioned specifications, one may get access to the
following results [1–4]:
As shown in Fig. 5.5, the temperature of the flow entering the building is much like
that of surroundings. Temperature difference is the most at 3 p.m. and the least at 3
a.m. velocity and direction of the flow, has little impact on the air entering the build-
ing round the clock.
Increase of the column length causes the temperature decrease of the flow enter-
ing the building. Figures 5.7 and 5.8 indicate the claim. The temperature drop of the
first 4 m (from the top) is considerable. In structures less than 4 m length, with
increase in the flow speed, the temperature of the air entering the building is aug-
mented. In Baudgeers with more than 5 m of length, increase of air speed, brings
about a decrease in the temperature. For the columns more than 7 m of length, the
air entering the building enjoys sort of constant temperature because the relative
humidity is increased so that it is saturated at the bottom. Then again it remains
unchanged since it cannot cool down due to evaporation and its temperature remains
the same as the ambient wet air [1–4].
6.2.2 M
ass Flow and Relative Humidity of the Air Entering
the Building
Mass flow of the air entering the building has a direct proportion with the air speed
(Fig. 5.6). Because of the unilateral screens (dampers), the airflow direction has no
considerable impact on the mass flow of the air entering the building. When air
speed is zero, more air rushes inward compared with conventional Baudgeers as the
result of buoyancy. At 3 p.m. when the moist and dry air enjoys the maximum dif-
ference, the highest rate of the mass flow and at 2 a.m. the lowest, enters the build-
ing (maximum mass flow difference is about 0.6 kg/s). The mass flow curve is sort
of sinusoidal according to the hours round the clock. The more the flow velocity is,
the less the buoyancy of the flow entering the building, and the mass flow curve is
kind of a straight line for velocities more than 5 m/s round the clock [1–4].
As indicated in Figs. 5.9 and 5.10, when the air speed is zero, the length increase
of the column causes the augmentation of the mass flow of the air entering the build-
ing. The main reason for this is the increase of buoyancy, based on (Δρgh), which
occurs simultaneously with the increase of the Baudgeer’s length. With the increase
in air speed and Baudgeer length, pressure drop also increases and less airflow
enters the building. As the air speed increases, the reduction rate of the mass flow to
the building increases too.
According to the Fig. 5.11, the increase of Baudgeer length is directly proportional
to the relative humidity of the air. The rate of humidity increase is much more in the
upper part compared to the lower part of the Baudgeer. In lofty Baudgeers, the relative
humidity of the flow entering the building is very close to saturation point [1–4].
6.3 Baudgeers with Wetted Surfaces
The following specifications referred to the Baudgeer illustrated in Figs. 5.14–5.24:

1. Physical and climatic conditions are considered the same as the ones in conven-
tional Baudgeers
2. Straws cover the whole upper openings
3. The thickness of the straws is 5 cm
4. The ratio of the moisture of the surroundings, all day and night, is assumed to be
ωa = 0.0074 kg/kg and constant.
With regard to the above-mentioned characteristics, we may claim the following:
6.3.1 Temperature of the Airflow Entering the Building
According to Fig. 5.14, for low speed airflows, the temperature of the air entering
the building is closely like the moist air of the surroundings. This maximum differ-
ence happened at 3 p.m. and it is least at 3 a.m.. The more the speed of the air, the
more is the temperature of the air is achieved, at a given time. The reason for this is
the reduction rate of the temperature drop in straws, simultaneously, with the
increase in air speed. When the flow enjoys a speed of 10 m/s, the air direction
affects more on the temperature of the current entering the building.
We conclude from the Fig. 5.18 that for velocities less than 5 m/s, with the
increase in Baudgeer’s length, the temperature of the air entering the building
increases too. For speeds more than 5 m/s, the temperature of the Baudgeer, remains
constant, despite the increase in Baudgeer’s length [1–4].
6.3.2 M
ass Flow Rate and Relative Humidity of the Air
Entering the Building
To go over this issue, we consider the following four cases:

1. Airflow at a velocity of zero. As illustrated in Fig. 5.11, during most hours of the
day (10 a.m–8 p.m.), the mass flow of the air entering the building is at more than
its speed of 5 m/s. At night, when the temperature difference of dry and moist air
6.4 Comparison of the Baudgeers Operating Under the Same Conditions 153
of the surroundings is not much, the mass flow of the air into the building is
alleviated. The curve of the mass flow, round the clock, is sinusoidal whose
scope of alterations is similar to the Baudgeers with wetted surfaces.
2. The airflow with a certain velocity. In such systems, like the conventional ones,
flow direction has considerable effect on the mass flow of the air entering the
building so that, when the angle of wind flow is 45°, the most mass flow of the
air enters the building. At this same angle, when the flow speed exceeds 7 m/s,
the mass flow of the air entering the building is more than when it is zero, at all
times (Figs. 5.15 and 5.16). According to Fig. 5.16, when the flow direction is
perpendicular to the smaller upper hatch (α = 90°) with a velocity of 5 m/s, most
of the time, day and night, the inner air of the building is conveyed out via the
Baudgeer and just from 12 to 6 p.m. the procedure is quite the reverse due to the
augmentation of the buoyancy. When the air speed is 10 m/s, the buoyancy, at the
mouth of the column, is reduced as compared with the flow pressure. So, the
system functions as a chimney round the clock and carries the air out [1–4].
3. The impact of the structure height. As indicated in Fig. 5.20, as the height of the
Baudgeer increases, the mass flow rate of the air entering the building increases too.
The less the velocity of the air, the more the rate of the mass flow is. So, if the air
speed is zero, with tall Baudgeers, the airflow rate entering the building is higher,
compared with when the velocity is 10 m/s and α = 90°. When the air speed is high
(about 10 m/s) the water evaporation from the pads decreases. Therefore, the mois-
ture rate of the air is less than the time the air moves through the pads more slowly.
4 . The impact of the pad’s thickness. As illustrated in Fig. 5.24, different velocities
of the air increases the mass flow rate entering the building through the pads of
3 cm thickness. The mass flow rate differences for various thicknesses of pads
are not considerable and the maximum discrepancy is related to the time when
the air speed is zero [1, 2, 4].
6.4 C
omparison of the Baudgeers Operating Under
the Same Conditions
Comparing the Figs. 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3, we conclude that for the winds with different
directions and speeds, in Baudgeers with wetted columns, the flow entering the
building is at the lowest temperature. The most important reason is the increase of
the heat transfer surface and mass in these types of structures. In both conventional
and Baudgeers with wetted surfaces, with the increase of the height, the temperature
increases at a constant positive slope. While in Baudgeers having wetted columns,
the increase of height, decreases the temperature and after a certain height (about
5 m) it remains constant [1–4].
Fig. 6.1 A comparison of the

temperature of air entering
the building based on
different heights with wind
direction of 0° at 3 p.m. in
Baudgeers with wetted
columns and wetted surfaces


columns, wetted surfaces and
conventional ones
6.4.2 Mass Flow Rate of the Air Entering the Building
A comparative analysis of the mass flow entering the building for various angles and
velocities has been carried out in Figs. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9. The following
conditions are considered in order to investigate the issue [1–4].
1. Wind velocity is zero. In this case the maximum mass flow of the air entering the
building for structures with different heights relates to Baudgeers with wetted
surfaces. With the increase in Baudgeers’ height, the difference in mass flow rate
becomes more.
2. Wind velocity is 5 m/s. The maximum mass flow entering the building for
Baudgeers with height of 8–9 m, concerns the structures with wetted columns.
According to Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, the mass flow differences of the air entering the
building decreases in Baudgeers with wetted surfaces and columns as their
height increases. In higher Baudgeers with wetted surfaces (extending the
curves), more air flows into the building. In conventional Baudgeers, according
to Figs. 6.7, 6.8, and 6.9, the length increase causes the increase of mass flow
difference compared with other structures.

mass flow rate of air entering



different heights with
wind direction of 0°
at 3 p.m. in Baudgeers
with wetted columns
and conventional ones
Fig. 6.8 A comparison

of the mass flow rate of air
entering the building based
on different heights with
wind direction of 0°
at 3 p.m. in Baudgeers
with wetted surfaces
and conventional ones

direction of 45° at 3
p.m. in Baudgeers with
wetted surfaces and
conventional ones
Fig. 6.10 A comparison of

the relative humidity of air
wind direction of 0° at 3 p.m.
in Baudgeers with wetted
3. Wind velocity is 10 m/s. In this case the maximum mass flow entering the building
for structures with different heights, concerns those with wetted columns.
According to Figs. 6.4 and 6.5, the length increase alleviates the mass flow
differences of the air entering the building for wetted surfaces and columns.
Figure 6.9 also indicates the mass flow differences of the air entering the building
due to length increase in conventional as well as Baudgeers with wetted surfaces.
6.4.3 Relative Humidity of the Air Entering the Building
According to the Figs. 6.10 and 6.11, the relative moisture entering the building for
all directions and velocities at different lengths is more pertaining to Baudgeers
with wetted columns. The reason is the increase of the wet area compared with
Baudgeers with wetted surfaces. In Baudgeers with wetted surfaces, for the air
speeds less than 8 m/s, increase of the height, alleviates the relative humidity
through a gentle and constant slope. This is because of the moisture remaining con-
stant in the column and gradual increase in the air temperature (because of heat
absorption from the inner walls) while descending the column. In Baudgeers with
wetted columns, as the height increases, the relative moisture of the entering air into
the building increases too. The rate of this increase is much more at the upper por-
tion of the column than the lower part [1–4].
Fig. 6.11 A comparison of

the relative humidity of air
wind direction of 45° at 3
p.m. in Baudgeers with
wetted columns and wetted
surfaces
6.4.4 T
he Sensible Cooling Effect of the Air Entering
the Building
The total climatic enthalpy (dry flow along with its moisture content) is constant all
along the structure (constant enthalpy process). However, the enthalpy of the dry air is
reduced. This phenomenon is defined as the Sensible Cooling Effect shown as follows:
o o
Q s = m a Cp ( To - Ti ) (6.1)
o o

where Q s is the sensible cooling effect in kW, m a is the mass flow inside the struc-
ture in Kg/s, Cp is the specific heat in dry air constant pressure in Kj/Kg°C, and T0
and Ti are respectively the temperature of the dry air entering and exiting the struc-
ture and then entering the building °C. With regards to Figs. 6.12 and 6.13, the fol-
lowing points can be made, concerning the sensible cooling effect:
1. Wind velocity is zero. In this case, the maximum sensible cooling effect for all the
different heights of the Baudgeers, concern those of the structures with wetted
surfaces. This difference increases as the height increases.
2. Wind velocity is 5 m/s and 10 m/s. The maximum sensible cooling effect for all
the heights and directions of the wind is related to the Baudgeers with wetted
columns. This effect decreases for the heights more than 5 m; and the more the
velocity, the more sensible is the cooling process [1–4].

of the sensible cooling effect
of air entering the building
based on different heights
with wind direction of 0°
at 3 p.m. in Baudgeers with
surfaces

of the sensible cooling effect
of air entering the building
based on different heights
with wind direction of 45°
at 3 p.m. in Baudgeers with
surfaces
In Baudgeers with wetted surfaces, at the wind direction of 45° and a height of
less than 5 m, the sensible cooling effect when air speed is 5 m/s, is more than that
of a speed of zero. The effect for Baudgeers with more than 5 m height, is vice
versa. An interesting point to be noted is that the maximum sensible cooling effect
occurs in Baudgeers with wetted surfaces with 4 m of height. In higher Baudgeers,
the cooling effect alleviates (Figs. 6.12 and 6.13). On the other hand, as the height
increases, the relative moisture of the air increases as well. Therefore, regarding the
high cost of the tall Baudgeers, height of 4 m with wetted columns (for the given
climatic condition) is quite appropriate [1–4].
References
2. Bahadori MN (2003) Evaluation of two new designs of wind towers in different cities of Iran, A
report for the Council of Scientific Studies of the Country Iran, Tehran
3. Bahadori MN, Pakzad AR (2002) Performance evaluation of new designs of wind towers. Paper
No. FEDSM 2002-31247. In: Proceedings of ASME FEDSM02, ASME 2002 fluids engineer-
ing division summer meeting, Montreal, QC, 14–18 July 2002
4. Bahadori MN, Yaghobi M (2006) Ventilation and natural cooling system in traditional buildings
of Iran. University Publication Center, Tehran
Chapter 7
Designing, Constructing, and Testing
Conventional Baudgeers and New Designs
To investigate the performance of the new designs of Baudgeers and comparing

them with the old models, creation and testing of sample structures was carried out
in the province of Koh-Gilueh Buyer Ahmad-Londeh, Asr-e-Enghelab Research
Complex, near Shahryar, Tehran and University of Yazd, Yazd province.
Two Baudgeers, each with a height of 7.60 m, cross section of 80 × 60 cm, and
the length of the mouth of 110 cm, were set up in the town of Landeh [1]. One of the
Baudgeers (with wetted surfaces) was equipped with pads commonly employed in
evaporative coolers, and the other (with wetted columns) equipped with unglazed
ceramic conduits stacked lengthwise on top of each other. Water would spray on
top, wetting the entire columns. The height of the ceramic conduits was 2 m.
The tests were carried out in July, 1991 when the maximum temperature was
48.5 °C. The data indicated that Baudgeers with wetted surfaces are of a better effi-
ciency when there is no outside wind blowing. This demonstrated that Baudgeers
with wetted columns are more convenient for air flows [1].
Construction and testing of Baudgeers in Asr-e-Enghelab Research Complex,
which was funded by Iranian Industrial and Scientific Research Organization, was
terminated in August 2001 [2–4].
Construction and testing of Baudgeers in the University of Yazd, which
was funded by National Council of Scientific Research, was terminated in August
2002 [5, 6].
7.1 D
esigning, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers
in Asr-e-Enghelab Complex
At first, it was decided to build three samples with 12 m height and with some
distance from each other next to the mosque of the complex. But, due to inflation
and insufficient funding, the final decision was to build them next to each other
with equal sizes of 12 m height and cross section of 1 × 1 m. These structures were
164 7 Designing, Constructing, and Testing Conventional Baudgeers…
Fig. 7.1 Plan of Baudgeers (in cm)
supposed to be the minarets of the adjacent mosque and the plans were prepared
based on that idea. As considered, the air was to be coming from the three mina-
rets through three channels of 1 × 0.5 m into the prayer hall along the surface.
Figure 7.1 shows the plan and dimensions of the Baudgeers and Fig. 7.2 shows the
southern view and the longitudinal cross section of them, which were to be set up
adjacent to the prayer hall. These plans were prepared by Dr. M.T. Hariri, a mem-
ber of the faculty board of the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Tehran.
After some time, the Technical Office of the Complex disagreed with the con-
struction of the structures by the prayer hall. The Office agreed with another
spot. Finally, the three Baudgeers were set up next to the Sports Hall with 1 m
distance away from the western wall of the Hall. The flow from the Baudgeers
was to be carried into the building through canals of 1 × 0.5 m and hatches near
the floor (the horizontal canals, conducting the air flow, have not been con-
structed yet).
The maintenance and use of the structures and conducting the cool air to the
Sport Hall of the complex were undertaken by the Technical Office. Figures 7.3,
7.4, and 7.5 show the Baudgeers under construction and test.
7.1 Designing, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers… 165
Fig. 7.2 Southern view and longitudinal cross section of Baudgeers (in meter)
Fig. 7.3 Pictures of the Baudgeers under construction

Fig. 7.4 A picture of the

Baudgeer

upper openings of the
Baudgeers. In the Baudgeer
on the left, straws; middle
one, Pads; and on the right,
screens have been used
7.1 Designing, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers… 167
7.1.1 Construction and Testing of the Baudgeers
The tests concerning the efficiency of the structures were carried out from September
5 to October 4, 2001. At first, three Baudgeers, with the followings features, were
created for the tests.
The conventional (traditional) Baudgeer: Out of three adjacent Baudgeers, the mid-
dle one was the conventional and the other two side Baudgeers were with wetted
column and with wetted surfaces. The inner surfaces of all the Baudgeers were
insulated by white cement and were thoroughly coarse. As agreed on, to perform the
probable experiments in future, the surfaces were supposed to be smooth to prevent
the pressure drop of the crossing flow.
To calculate the temperature and velocity of the air flow leaving the structures,
the outlets were considered 1 × 0.6 and divided into ten rectangles of 20 × 30. The
temperature and velocity were calculated for each rectangle, and then the total was
averaged.
Baudgeer having a wetted column: To create a wetted column, ten screens out of
gunny each enjoying a width of 1 and a length of 8 m were used. These screens were
hanging from the top joined to some pipes at the top and the bottom with 10 cm
distance from each other, so that to remain firm and stretched in their place because
of the wind. The water was sprayed onto the upper pipes wetting the screens and
collected in pools to be carried out. No remedies were sought to reuse the collected
water in these Baudgeers. The water was used for the irrigation of some greenery.
An electric pump was used to spray the water on the Baudgeer structure.
Baudgeer with wetted surfaces: In this type of structure, the pads which are usually
used in evaporative coolers were employed. The top openings were covered with pads
and water was sprayed on them. The excessive water running down was conducted
for the irrigation of greenery from the bottom of the Baudgeer. In the actual use of
Baudgeers, the excessive water is reused for the wetting of the pads by a water pump.
7.1.2 Test Procedure
There are totally eight openings at the top of the structures. When testing, the ones
backing the air flow were closed. So, the entering air was led downward. The tem-
perature, velocity, and the direction of the air flow were initially calculated at the
height of 2 m off the ground in an open area, some 100 m away from the Sport Hall.
Then the temperature and velocity of the exiting air at the center of the given rect-
angles (20 × 30 cm) were calculated [3, 4]. Since the time needed for the calculation
of the temperature would last long, tests were carried out for two Baudgeers and
then velocity and the direction of the wind (at the mentioned spot) were assessed
once again. The same procedure was followed to monitor the temperature and the
velocity of the air at the outlet for the third Baudgeer as well.
The sensible cryogenic power of Baudgeers is calculated through the following

equations:
Q = ρVACp ∆T (7.1)

where ρ = density, V = velocity of the exiting air, A = section of the outlet, Cp = spe-
cific heat with constant pressure, and ΔT = temperature difference between the
ambient and the exiting air from the Baudgeer. To do the calculations, ρ = 1.15 kg/
m3, Cp = 1 kJ/kg °C, and A = 0.6 m2 were considered.
By spraying water and keeping the screens wet in the Baudgeer with wetted sur-
faces and keeping the pads wet in the Baudgeer with wetted column the walls of the
structure would get wet too. Penetration of the water through the adjacent walls
would make the walls of the middle Baudgeer (the conventional one) become wet
as well. In the course of the test, no attempt was made to prevent the wetting of these
walls. Because of this, the results obtained from the test of the middle Baudgeer
reflected some evaporative cooling in the structure.
7.1.3 Discussion of the Conclusions Drawn
Generally speaking, the structure equipped with straws function somewhat better
than the ones with screens or pads. The poor performance of the Baudgeer with
screens was because they were not thoroughly wetted during the test. Spraying
water could wet the straws thoroughly without wetting the screens. Due to the fact
that the cost of straws is less than the cost of pad and the screens, it can be used for
evaporative cooling of the system and hence it is more beneficial.
The results of the tests indicate that the conventional (traditional) structure
decreases the air flow temperature and cools the air. Of course, this was due to the
wetting of the walls and the inner surfaces of the Baudgeer by the water penetrated
through the neighboring walls of the two other structures. In the tests carried out, the
way that the water was sprayed onto the side structures would wet the walls of the
middle Baudgeer too.
7.1.4 C
omparison of the Performance of the Baudgeers
with Evaporative Coolers
This process was carried out at 3 p.m. on 17 September 2001 as follows [2–4]:
Evaporative Baudgeers Baudgeers Baudgeers

cooler with screens with pads with straws Outside air
RH (%) T (°C) RH (%) T (°C) RH (%) T (°C) RH (%) T (°C) RHo (%) To (°C) Vo (m/s)
54 21.4 62 20 69 19.5 64 20 14.5 36 0.1
7.2 Designing, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers at Yazd University 169
This comparison showed that the air exiting from the Baudgeers with wetted
surfaces and wetted column exhibited lower temperature and more relative humid-
ity than the evaporative coolers. However, the air flow rate of the tested evaporative
cooler (6,500 CFM) was more than the amount of escaped air from each structure.
7.2 D
esigning, Constructing, and Testing of the Baudgeers
at Yazd University
A research project entitled, “Performance Evaluation of Two New Designs of

Baudgeers in different cities of Iran,” was prepared and proposed by the Council of
Scientific Studies (CSS). The proposal forwarded to the establishment has some
new designs and a conventional structure in two different spots including one at the
Asr-e-Enghelab Complex affiliated to the Organization of Industrial and Scientific
Researches of Iran (OISRI) and the other one in one of the cities of Yazd, Kerman,
or Kashan. The proposal undertook the funding of the Baudgeers related to OISRI.
This research project was approved by the CSS too.
To locate the convenient spot, some trips were made to the referred cities in order
to have a brainstorming session with the university authorities who were inclined to
smooth the process. Since Yazd has the record of centuries of Baudgeers construc-
tion and also because a mosque was under construction at Yazd University, it was
decided that the second phase of the project could be executed here to function as a
minaret for this mosque. So, the plans were prepared by Doctor M.R. Olia a
Professor at the Faculty of Architecture. The construction of Baudgeers was com-
pleted in 2003 and the experiments started immediately.
7.2.1 Plans of the Wind Catchers
The Baudgeers under study at the University of Yazd were the minaret of the uni-
versity mosque. Figure 7.6 is the plan of the ground floor of the mosque as well as
the location of the structures on the southwest of the building. Figure 7.7 is the plan
of the ground floor under the Baudgeers and Fig. 7.8 shows the vertical cross section
and the other concerned details. The upper openings of the Baudgeers are also illus-
trated. The air outlet enters the mosque via some other openings which are made of
secorite glass (Fig. 7.8).
In Baudgeers with wetted column, cotton screens with 1.5 m width and 10 m
length were used. The screens were 10 cm away from each other and secured by
some tubes at top and bottom, so that they would remain tight when the wind would
flow through them. A water pump transferred the water from the pools underneath
the Baudgeer and distributed the water among the tubes placed on the screens.
These tubes had orifices through which the water would wet the screens. The exces-
sive water was collected in the pools and was reused.
Fig. 7.6 Plan of the mosque in the University of Yazd and the locations of the Baudgeers
In the Baudgeer with wetted surfaces, pads, like the ones used in evaporative coolers,
were used. Water was sprayed on the pads by a water pump. The excessive water was
collected in the pools underneath and was reused. Pools were connected to each other.
The Baudgeers were quite identical in terms of dimensions and other specifica-
tions, so that they could be used interchangeably (conventional, wetted columns,
wetted surfaces) or maybe one can bring about innovations in them in future.
Figures 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, and 7.12 show photographs of the tested structures. Some
thin screens had been installed behind the inlet openings at the upper part of the
Baudgeer, so that the airflow may open the ones facing wind and close those back-
ing. This way, the escape of the air with negative pressure was prevented. In
Baudgeers with wetted surfaces (using Pads), such screen were not used.
Fig. 7.7 Plan of the ground floor under the Baudgeers (in cm)
7.2.2 Description of the Tests and the Obtained Results
Several experiments concerning the cooling efficiency of the Baudgeers were

performed from the 5th to the 14th of September, 2003. The following was the
procedure [6]:
The temperature, relative humidity of the air, as well as the velocity and direction
of the wind were monitored per hour somewhere in the open area and away from the
Baudgeers at an altitude of 1.5 m. The outlet of each system (which were 1.3 and
0.6 m) was divided into four equal parts and the air speed was measured at the cen-
ter of each and the average of them was determined.
The spraying of water on the straws and the screens kept them wet all the time
during the testing period. The inner walls were tiled to prevent the penetration of
the water to the walls of the structure in the middle. Considering the cooler flow of
the two systems equipped with straws and screens, the warmer air of the middle
system (conventional one) would be transferred to the adjacent Baudgeers. This
way, the exiting air of the conventional Baudgeer was somewhat cooler.
7.2.3 C
omparison of the Performance of the Baudgeers
in the Experimental Tests
Figures 7.4 and 7.13 and Tables 7.1 and 7.2 indicate the ambient temperature and
the air exiting from the Baudgeers at different hours of the day on 1 September 2003
and at 3 p.m. on 5 September 5th through 14th [5–7].
Fig. 7.8 Vertical cross section of the Baudgeer (in meters)


Baudgeer, the minaret erected
on top of the mosque in the
University of Yazd
Fig. 7.10 A view of

Baudgeers from the roof
Fig. 7.11 A pictures of the

Baudgeers; the one with
straws on the right, the one
with wet screens on the left.
One-sided screens were used
to let or block the air flow
through the structure
Fig. 7.12 A view of the Baudgeers, making the minaret of the mosque
As shown, the lowest temperature belongs to the system with wetted column
and then the wetted surface one (Fig. 7.13). The conventional structure enjoyed
the highest rate of air flow due to the lowest pressure drop, while the Baudgeers
with wetted column and wetted surfaces were ranked better and cooler
respectively [5, 6].
Fig. 7.13 Temperature of air entering the mosque from the Baudgeers for different hours. Date of
test: 10 September 2003
Table 7.1 Results of the tests with the Baudgeer with wetted column (screen) in the University of
Yazd on 10 September 2003
Exiting air from the Baudgeer Outside air
Wind direction
Q (kW) ΔT (°C) ϕ% T (°C) V (m/s) ϕ % To (°C) in degrees Vo (m/s) Hour
12.28 8.9 80 19.8 1.5 13.7 28.7 215–285 2.5 9
10.49 9.5 78 20.7 1.2 12.4 30.2 200–280 2.1 10
16.15 11.7 82 20.4 1.5 12.1 32.1 180–245 1.8 11
16.1 12.5 73 20.3 1.4 11.5 32.8 175–215 1.8 12
22.19 13.4 71 19.9 1.8 11.1 33.3 210–280 2.1 13
18.90 13.7 70 20.4 1.5 10.8 34.1 175–215 1.7 14
19.19 14.9 83 20.7 1.4 9.5 35.6 180–230 1.7 15
19.14 16 71 21.2 1.3 9.3 37.2 190–245 1.8 16
17.99 16.3 71 20.1 1.2 9.4 36.4 150–180 1.6 17
13.78 10.7 84 20.1 1.4 9.7 35.8 185–245 1.9 18
Table 7.2 Comparison of the performance of the new designs and conventional Baudgeers tested
in the University of Yazd at 3 p.m. on different days in September
Q, sensible heat transfer in (kW) Outside air
Baudgeer with Baudgeer with Wind
wetted surface Conventional wetted column To direction Vo
(Straws) Baudgeer (Screen) ϕ % (°C) in degrees (m/s) Day
6.7 4.37 12.20 9.2 33.9 180–230 2.8 14
11.81 3.35 20.8 8 35.1 150–190 1.8 15
13.98 3.35 18.22 7 36.3 180–250 1.6 16
14.98 7.18 23.05 5.7 38.6 200–285 1.9 17
12.25 7.04 20.69 8.2 37.6 185–245 1.7 18
13.46 9.61 27.49 9.5 37 250–310 2.4 19
12.95 6.48 19.19 9.5 35.6 180–230 1.7 20
10.93 4.27 20.01 10.7 35.3 210–270 1.8 21
9.13 5.45 20.7 10.5 35.1 245–275 1.7 22
14.68 5.94 20.61 12.1 34.8 240–300 2.1 23
Fig. 7.14 Temperature of air entering the mosque from the Baudgeers at 2 p.m. on September 7th
through 13th 2003
References 177
References
1. Me-marie GH (1991) An analysis of the performance and comparison of two modern designs
2. Bahadori MN (2001) Performance evaluation of the new designs of wind towers and comparing
them with the old systems. A report for Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of Iran,
Tehran
5. Bahadori MN (2003) Evaluation of two new designs of wind towers in different cities of Iran.
A report for the Council of Scientific Studies of the Country Iran, Tehran
and empirical methods. M.S. Thesis, Department of Power-plant, Shahid Abbas Pour Water and
Electricity University, Tehran
7. Bahadori MN, Mazidi M, Dehghani AR (2008) Experimental investigation of new designs of
wind towers. Renew Energ 33:2273–2281
Chapter 8
Conclusions and Recommendations
To study and assess the performance of the conventional (or traditional) and new
designs of Baudgeers, samples (models) of each type with identical specifications
were used. The new models included the ones with wetted columns and with wetted
surfaces. The mathematical and empirical performances evaluation of the Baudgeers
was carried out between 1990 and 2003 [1–11].
In this assessment survey of 1990, the structure with wetted columns consisted of
unglazed ceramic conduits of 10 × 10 cm and thickness of 5 mm, stacked lengthwise
on top of each other. In the studies of 2001 and 2003, instead of ceramic conduits,
screens made of gunny and cotton were used. These screens had the same width and
length as the column, and were hanging from the column at 10 cm distance away
from each other. To keep them wet, water was sprayed from the top, wetting the
entire columns. The excessive water was collected in a sump at the bottom of the
column. In Baudgeers with wetted surfaces, Pads (Straws), commonly employed in
evaporative coolers, were used. These pads were placed at the apertures on the top
of the column and were wetted by spraying water on them.
The empirical surveys were performed in three places of Londeh Township in the
province of Kohkiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad, Research Complex of Asr-E-Enghelab
(under the auspices of the Iran Industrial and Scientific Research Organization
(near Shahryar in Tehran)) and the mosque of the University of Yazd. In empirical
assessment of the Baudgeers in question, built at the second and third locations, the
three structures were placed closely next to each other with the conventional one in
the middle.
The performance of each Baudgeer was evaluated individually. All Baudgeers
had the same measurements and were quite similar in their features.
In brief, the results obtained from the studies revealed that the new designs
outperform the conventional ones in terms of flow rates to the building and
evaporative cooling.
Comparison of the two new models, wetted columns (with screens) and wetted
surfaces (with Pads), showed the relative superiority of screens. It is important to
realize that those with screens need an electric pump to reuse the water from the
180 8 Conclusions and Recommendations
sump at the bottom of the Baudgeer. So, it seems that the construction costs are at a
disadvantage in such systems. However, the water collected in the sump can have
other direct usage without a need of pumps. In spite of all these, application of a
small electric pump (like the ones in evaporative coolers) in order to reuse the water
for the pads of the new designs is recommended.
The new designs utilizing the evaporative cooling in hot and dry regions have
minimum energy consumption. Regarding this aspect, they resemble the real evapo-
rative coolers with lower rates of air flow and cooling capability. In Baudgeers with
pads, the electric energy used by the pumps is less than the electricity used by the
pumps in the evaporative coolers.
To reduce the construction expenditures of a Baudgeer with pads, mass produc-
tion of different sizes could be carried out in a factory, just like evaporative coolers.
Instead of columns, canals can be made of galvanized metals or other similar
materials.
To prevent the escape of the air flow in Baudgeers with pads, one may install
screens at the air openings in such a way that the ones facing the wind open and let
the air flow enter the structure while those at the back of the air blow close at the
same time.
In spite of all these facts and the results of the experiments made at Asr-E-
Enghelab Organization and the University of Yazd, further studies of different
Baudgeers as the Iranian masterpieces of the mechanical engineering are highly
recommended. We are very much hopeful that Iranian young university students can
link the modern findings of science and technology with the great architectural suc-
cesses of the past and achieve new goals in constructing new masterpieces.
References
1. Javan Amoli F (1990) An analytic survey of the two types of modern drenched wind towers.
B.S. Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University, Tehran
2. Memarie GH (1991) An analysis of the performance and comparison of two modern designs
4. Bahadori MN (2001) Performance evaluation of the new designs of wind towers and compar-
ing them with the old systems. A report for Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of
Iran, Tehran
Paper No. FEDSM 2002–31247. In: Proceedings of ASME FEDSM02, ASME 2002 fluids
8. Bahadori MN (2003) Evaluation of two new designs of wind towers in different cities of Iran.
A report for the Council of Scientific Studies of the Country Iran, Tehran
References 181
and empirical methods. M.S. Thesis, Department of Power-plant, Shahid Abbas Pour Water
and Electricity University, Tehran
10. Bahadori MN, Yaghobi M (2006) Ventilation and natural cooling system in traditional buildings
of Iran. University Publication Center, Tehran
11. Bahadori MN, Mazidi M, Dehghani AR (2008) Experimental investigation of new designs of
wind towers. Renew Energ 33:2273–2281
Chapter 9
Pictures of Baudgeers
This chapter illustrates pictures of the Baudgeers in Iran and other Middle Eastern
countries including Egypt which were built in houses and water reservoirs.
Baudgeers in Iran are used in both hot arid regions and humid regions. Egyptian and
other Middle Eastern Baudgeers have also been used in different climatic regions
(as illustrated in Figs. 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, 9.12, 9.13,
9.14, 9.15, 9.16, 9.17, 9.18, 9.19, 9.20, 9.21, 9.22, 9.23, 9.24, 9.25, 9.26, 9.27, 9.28,
9.29, 9.30, 9.31, 9.32, 9.33, 9.34, 9.35, 9.36, 9.37, 9.38, 9.39, 9.40, 9.41, 9.42, 9.43,
9.44, 9.45, 9.46, 9.47, 9.48, 9.49).
184 9 Pictures of Baudgeers
Fig. 9.1 The Baudgeer and

pavilion (Kolah-farangi) of
the Dowlat Abbad garden in
Yazd
Fig. 9.2 Another picture of

the Dowlad Abbad Baudgeer
garden in Yazd
9 Pictures of Baudgeers 185
Fig. 9.3 Another view

of the Dowlat Abbad garden
Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.4 Upper portion of the

Baudgeer of Dowlat Abbad
garden in Yazd
Fig. 9.5 View of channels of

the Baudgeer of Dowlat
Abbad garden in Yazd
Fig. 9.6 View of a Baudgeer

of the harem of the Dowlat
Abbad garden in Yazd
Fig. 9.7 Another view of the

renovated Baudgeers of the
harem Dowlat Abbad garden
in Yazd
Fig. 9.8 Renovated

Baudgeer of the Zargar Bashi
mansion in Yazd
Fig. 9.9 Renovated

four-sided Baudgeer enjoying
a rectangle section of the
Zargar Bashi mansion in Yazd
Fig. 9.10 Four-sided brick

Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.11 Some four-sided short Baudgeers in Yazd

Fig. 9.12 Renovated

four-sided Baudgeer,
decorated with plasterworks
in Yazd
Fig. 9.13 The Baudgeer on

ancient house in Yazd
Fig. 9.14 A square section

four-sided Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.15 Two short

four-sided Baudgeers of an
old house in Yazd
Fig. 9.16 Short bulky

Fig. 9.17 Two short bulky

four-sided Baudgeers in Yazd
Fig. 9.18 View of one side

of a four-sided Baudgeer in
Yazd
Fig. 9.19 Short four-sided

Baudgeer of an ancient house
in Yazd
Fig. 9.20 Two short

rectangle section four-sided
Baudgeers in Yazd
Fig. 9.21 A recently built

brick Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.22 Lofty square

section Baudgeer of the Khan
garden in Yazd
Fig. 9.23 Lofty brick

Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.24 Short bulky quadr

partte Baudgeer of an old
house in Yazd
Fig. 9.25 View of the body

and channels of a six-sided
Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.26 A renovated

four-sided Baudgeer enjoying
a rectangle section in Yazd
Fig. 9.27 A square section

Fig. 9.28 A tall bulky four-sided Baudgeer in Yazd

Fig. 9.29 Two Baudgeers of Mortaz mansion in Yazd
Fig. 9.30 Baudgeers of the Arabha mansion (House of Mahmoudi) in Yazd

Fig. 9.31 View of Baudgeers of Yazd city
Fig. 9.32 Some Baudgeers enjoying different sizes and sections in Yazd
Fig. 9.33 A short square

section Baudgeer of an old
house in Yazd
Fig. 9.34 Two old Baudgeers

of a ruined house in Yazd
Fig. 9.35 Two renovated four-sided Baudgeers in Yazd
Fig. 9.36 A decorated brick

Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.37 View of another renovated brick Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.38 The renovated

Baudgeer of the Naji Park
in Yazd
Fig. 9.39 The building and Baudgeer of the Naji Park in Yazd
Fig. 9.40 Two rectangle

section four-sided Baudgeers
of the Fahadan neighborhood
in Yazd
Fig. 9.41 Renovated

four-sided Baudgeer of an old
house in Fahadan
neighborhood in Yazd
Fig. 9.42 Numerous Baudgeers of the traditional quarter in Yazd

Fig. 9.43 Some other Baudgeers of the traditional quarter in Yazd
Fig. 9.44 A renovated

Baudgeer in Yazd
Fig. 9.45 One of the

Baudgeer of Vaght-o-saat
Aub-anbar in Yazd
Fig. 9.46 A Baudgeer close

to the grand mosque in Yazd
Fig. 9.47 A newly

constructed 40 m high
Baudgeer in Mehriz
Fig. 9.48 Two four-sided Baudgeers enjoying cupolas (added when reconstructed) Pir-e-Naraki,
A Zoroastrian shrine in Mehriz
9.1 Baudgeers on Buildings in Hot and Dry Regions 207
Fig. 9.49 Another view of two four-sided Baudgeers enjoying cupolas (added when recon-
structed) Pir-e-Naraki, A Zoroastrian shrine in Mehriz
9.1 Baudgeers on Buildings in Hot and Dry Regions
City of Yazd Province of Yazd

City of Abarkuh Province of Yazd
City of Ardakan Province of Yazd
City of Bafgh Province of Yazd
City of Mehriz Province of Yazd
City of Tabas Province of Yazd
City of Taft Province of Yazd
City of Meybod Province of Yazd
City of Kashan Province of Isfahan
City of Ardestan Province of Isfahan
City of Naein Province of Isfahan
City of Isfahan Province of Isfahan
City of Aran Province of Isfahan
City of Anarak Province of Isfahan
City of Kerman Province of Kerman
City of Bam Province of Kerman
City of Mahan Province of Kerman
City of Sirjan Province of Kerman
City of Rafsanjan Province of Kerman
City of Shahr Babak Province of Kerman
City of Semnan Province of Semnan
City of Damghan Province of Semnan
(continued)
(continued)
City of Shahrood Province of Semnan
City of Shiraz Province of Fars
City of Jahrom Province of Fars
City of Khonj Province of Fars
City of Grash Province of Fars
City of Tehran Province of Tehran
City of Lavasanat Province of Tehran
City of Qom Province of Qom
City of Saveh Province of Markazi
City of Naragh Province of Markazi
City of Gonabad Province of Khorasan Razavi
City of Birjand Province of South Khorasan
City of Zabul Province of Sistan and Baluchestan
9.2 Baudgeers on Buildings in Hot and Humid Regions
Bandar of Lengeh Province of Hormozgan

Qeshm Island Province of Hormozgan
City of Minab Province of Hormozgan
Bandar of Kong Province of Hormozgan
Bandar of Siraf Province of Bushehr
City of Khur Province of Bushehr
City of Bardestan Province of Bushehr
9.3 Baudgeers on Buildings in Egypt and the Middle East
City of Dubai United Arab Emirates

City of Sharjah United Arab Emirates
City of Ras Al Khaimeh United Arab Emirates
City of Duha Qatar
City of Manama Bahrain
City of Shuna Jordon
City of Karbala Iraq
City of Baghdad Iraq
City of Herat Afghanistan
City of Kabul Afghanistan
City of Heydar Abbad Pakistan
City of Suhar Oman
City of Cairo Egypt
City of Fayyum Egypt
City of Shabramant Egypt
City of Tanta Egypt
9.4 Baudgeers on Aub-anbars in Iran 209
9.4 Baudgeers on Aub-anbars in Iran
City of Yazd Province of Yazd

City of Ardakan Province of Yazd
City of Meybod Province of Yazd
City of Taft Province of Yazd
City of Naein Province of Esfahan
City of Ardestan Province of Esfahan
City of Rafsanjan Province of Kerman
City of Qazvin Province of Qazvin
City of Sabzevar Province of Khorasan Razavi
Kish island Province of Hormozgan
Index
A temperature variations in, 137–138

The Absorbed water by the clay conduits, 126 three-sided (see Three-sided Baudgeers)
Air velocity distribution in Baudgeers, 17, two-sided (see Two-sided Baudgeers
136–137 types of, 63–66, 78, 85–91, 98
Assessment of the Baudgeer’s temperature, with wetted column, 16, 17, 120, 123, 128,
112–114, 123–127 129, 132, 133, 139–147, 168, 175, 176
Aub-anbars, 1, 3, 5, 43, 47, 57, 64, 78, 86, 209 with wetted surfaces, 16, 18, 134, 167,
168, 170, 176
B
Baghdad, 36, 95, 208 C
Baudgeers Cairo, 38, 60, 93, 94, 208
in the architects and literature of Arabic Chimney, 9, 11, 16–18, 50, 52, 78, 119, 150, 153
countries, 59 Circular, 1, 72–74, 86
on Aub-anbars in Iran, 209 Climate and environmental conditions, 104
on buildings in Egypt and the Middle Comparison of the performance of the
East, 208 Baudgeers with evaporative coolers,
on buildings in regions of Hot and Dry, 168–169
207–208
on buildings in regions of Hot and Humid,
208 D
cellular, 67–69 Designing, constructing and testing of the
classification, 78–79 Baudgeers in Asr-e-Enghelab complex,
conventional, 9, 15, 16, 18, 20, 102–109, 163–169
111–117, 119–122, 135, 137, 138, Dinearlial temperature, 1, 121,
149–152, 155, 163–176 Dubai, 35, 60, 61, 208
cylindrical, 3, 63, 66 Duha, 208
decorative, 78, 79
distribution of the air speed in a, 110–112,
122–123 E
eight-sided (see Eight-sided Baudgeers) Eight-sided Baudgeers, 3, 63–68, 86, 87
four-sided (see Four-sided Baudgeer) Empirical survey, 179
in Iraq, 94–96 Environmental elements, 102–109
one-sided (see One-sided Baudgeers) Evaporation cooling system, 121
operational, 78 Extension of the thermal conveyance
six-sided (see Six-sided Baudgeers) surface, 121
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05876-4, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
212 Index
F R
Fayyum, 208 Ras Al Khaimeh, 208
Four-sided Baudgeer, 2, 11, 19, 24, 25, 27, 30,
31, 33, 35, 64–66, 69, 70, 72, 81–86,
119, 187, 189–192, 195, 196, 200, 202, S
203, 206, 207 Sharjah, 208
Shiraz, 32, 46, 47, 52, 55, 72, 109, 208
Six-sided Baudgeers, 2, 5, 63–66, 86,
G 87, 195
Geometrical elements, 104, 135 Solar chimney, 16–18
The Solar radiation, 104–108, 112, 124, 135
Straws, 16, 80, 129, 134–138, 143, 146, 147,
H 152, 166, 168, 171, 174, 176, 179
Head, 82–84, 101, 121 Suhar, 37, 208
History of Baudgeers, 20, 41–61
History of Baudgeers in the Iranian
architecture, 55–58 T
History of Baudgeers in travel accounts of Tehran, 49, 52, 58, 59, 79, 106, 109, 163, 164,
foreigners, 45–55 179, 208
Horizontal canals, 164 Temperature variations in Baudgeer, 137–138
Thermal mass, 3, 4
Thermal network and assessment of the air
I temperature, 123–125
The Impact of the pad’s thickness, 153 Three-sided Baudgeers, 11, 75–78, 119
The Impact of the structure height, 153 Thrust potential and pressure drop,
Isfahan, 31, 46, 47, 52, 109, 207 122–123
Two-sided Baudgeers, 63–65, 72, 85, 90, 167
K
Kabul, 208 U
Karbala, 208 Unique Baudgeers, 22, 67–73
University of Tehran, 164
University of Yazd, 163, 169, 170, 173, 175,
M 176, 179, 180
Manama, 208
Minarets, 51, 52, 164, 169, 173, 174
Mosque, 52, 56, 57, 60, 163, 164, 169, 170, W
173–176, 179, 205 Wetted columns, 16, 17, 120–133, 135, 136,
139–147, 149–157, 159–163, 167–170,
174–176, 179
O Wetted surfaces, 16, 18, 120, 129–147,
One-sided Baudgeers, 21, 27, 28, 32, 34, 149, 150, 152–163, 167–170, 174,
63–64, 74, 80–81, 90, 93, 191 176, 179
Operational Baudgeers, 78 Wind Atlas of Iran, 7
Operational-decorative, 79 Wind catchers, 13, 169–171
Wind speed is favourable, 101
Wind speed is zero, 101, 114, 127
P Wind velocity, 111, 114, 155, 159, 160
Pads, 16, 153, 163, 166–168, 170, 179, 180
Pipe-like Baudgeer, 69–71
Plans of the wind catchers, 169–171 Y
Yazd, 2, 3, 5, 11, 17–19, 44, 46, 51–54, 57, 60,
63–65, 67, 68, 75, 77, 79, 85–91, 97,
Q 99, 109, 163, 169–176, 179, 180,
Qanat, 3, 44, 51, 53, 67 184–205, 207, 209

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Mehdi N.

Edited by Ali Sayigh

ISBN 978-3-319-05875-7 ISBN 978-3-319-05876-4 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2014938622

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

3.3 Short Eastern, North Eastern, and South Eastern

5.2.3 The Data Gained Through the Numerical

9 Pictures of Baudgeers ............................................................................... 183

Index ................................................................................................................. 211

Aub-anbar An Aub-anbar is a traditional reservoir or “cistern” of drinking water

M.N. Bahadori et al., Wind Towers: Architecture, Climate and Sustainability, 1

Fig. 1.1 A four-sided

Fig. 1.2 A view of an Aub-anbar in Yazd with six-sided Baudgeers

Fig. 1.3 A view of an

Fig. 1.4 A view of

Fig. 1.5 Pictures from

Fig. 1.6 Topographic map of Iran

Fig. 1.7 Climate atlas of Iran

Fig. 1.9 (continued)

Fig. 1.11 A view of a narrow

Figure 1.14 is a Baudgeer in Bam cooling the interior by means of an underground

Fig. 1.14 A Baudgeer,

Fig. 1.17 Cross section of a

Fig. 1.18 Cross section of a Baudgeer with wetted column

Fig. 1.20 A view of Baudgeers in Yazd city

Fig. 1.21 A four-sided

Fig. 1.23 The single

Fig. 1.24 Two short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers in Ardakan

Fig. 1.25 A view of the tall

Fig. 1.26 A view of a

Fig. 1.27 Four-sided of an old residence in Minab [25]

Fig. 1.29 Bulky four-sided Baudgeers in Queshm Island

Fig. 1.30 A short bulky

Fig. 1.31 Four-sided

Fig. 1.32 A four-sided

Fig. 1.33 Baudgeers of Shah-Nemat-o-lahe Vali tomb in Mahan

Fig. 1.34 Baudgeers of Ghavam-al-Dowleh mansion in Tehran

Fig. 1.35 Short four-sided Baudgeers in Aran [8]

Fig. 1.36 Short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers in Gonabad [26]

Fig. 1.37 A view of

Fig. 1.38 Short unichannel

Fig. 1.39 A view of a

Fig. 1.40 The Baudgeer of Sadri garden (Namir) in Taft

Fig. 1.41 Brick-Baudgeer in Sabzevar

Fig. 1.42 Bulky four-sided Baudgeers in Bandar of Kong [28]

Fig. 1.43 Renovated

Fig. 1.46 Karim Khan Zand

Fig. 1.47 A tall renovated

Fig. 1.48 A four-sided

Fig. 1.49 Short unichannel (one-sided) Baudgeers, Harat city in Afghanistan

Fig. 1.51 A Baudgeer in a

Fig. 1.52 A picture of a four-sided Baudgeer in Bahrain

Fig. 1.53 Decorated brick Baudgeers in Doha, Qatar

Fig. 1.54 Baudgeers of Mirjan Khan building in Baghdad, Iraq [31]

Fig. 1.56 A view of a Baudgeer of a house in Suhar, Oman [33]

Fig. 1.57 The Baudgeer

1. Bahadori MN (1978) Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture. Sci Am 283(2):

There is no precise date or information about the antiquity of Baudgeers.

2.2 Reported Knowledge and Texts of Baudgeers

2.2.1 History of Baudgeers in Literature of Iranians

M.N. Bahadori et al., Wind Towers: Architecture, Climate and Sustainability, 41

3.1 Types of Baudgeers

3.1.1 One-Sided Baudgeers

3.1.2 Two-Sided Baudgeers

3.1.3 Four, Six, Eight-Sided Baudgeers

3.1.4 Cylindrical Baudgeers

3.2 Unique Baudgeers

3.2.1 Eight-Sided Baudgeer of Dowlat Abbad Garden in Yazd

3.2.2 Cellular Baudgeers of Brojerdy’s House in Kashan

3.2.4 Sirjan Pipe-Like Baudgeer

3.4 Three-Sided Baudgeers

3.5 Some More Points on Baudgeers

Fig. 3.21 Separate three-

3.5.1 Classification of Baudgeers

3.5.3 Construction of Four-Sided Baudgeers

3.5.3.1 Plan of the Baudgeer

3.5.3.2 Construction and Details

3.5.3.3 Mouth of the Baudgeer (Ventilating Part)

3.5.3.4 Constructing the Roof of the Baudgeer’s Head

3.5.3.5 Partitioning the Column

3.6 Study of the Designs of Types of Baudgeers in Yazd

3.6.1.1 Two-Sided Baudgeers