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Paleoseismicity and Neotectonics of the Cordillera Blanca Fault Zone, Northern


Peruvian Andes

Article  in  Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · May 1988


DOI: 10.1029/JB093iB05p04712

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JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 93, NO. B5, PAGES 4712-4730, MAY 10, 1988

Paleoseismicityand Neotectonics of the Cordillera Blanca Fault Zone,


Northern Peruvian Andes

DAVID P. SCHWARTZ

U.S. Geolo•ticalSurvey, Menlo Park, California

The Cordillera Blanca fault zone is a major west dipping normal fault that bounds the west side of a
120- to 170-km-wide zone of active extension along the crest of the northern Peruvian Andes. The fault is
approximately 210 km long and exhibits continuous geomorphic evidence of repeated late Pleistocene
and Holocene displacementsbut has not been the sourceof historical or teleseismicallyrecordedearth-
quakes. Trenching and mapping of fault scarpsprovide new information on earthquake recurrence,slip
rate, timing of the most recent events,and Andean neotectonics.At Quebrada Queroccocha,55 km from
the south end of the zone, an 11,000- to 14,000-year-old moraine is displaced 12-15 m, and younger
valley fill lacustrine and fluvial deposits are displaced 7.5-8 m. Scarp profiles, tectonic terraces, and
trench exposuresindicate five to seven scarp-forming earthquakes of 2-3 m per event during the past
11,000-14,000 years at this location. Considering uncertaintiesin the number of events and in the age of
the displaced moraine, the average recurrence interval is estimated to be 2440 +__1060 years. Detrital
charcoal from colluviums that predate and postdate the most recent event yielded agesof 2480 +_65 and
750 ___
80 •4C yearsB.P.,respectively,
and stratigraphicrelationships
suggestthat the eventmay be closer
to the older date. The late Quaternary slip rate at Quebrada Queroccocha is 0.86-1.36 mm/yr and
appears to be representativeof much of the fault zone. At Pachma Bajo, located 30 km from the north
end of the zone on a separatesegment,displacementduring each of the past two eventswas 2 to > 3 m.
The morphology of scarpsin alluvial fan and debris flow depositsindicatesrecurrenceintervals of about
1000-3000 years. Relationshipsbetween pre-Inca walls and faulted depositssuggestthat 1500-2000 years
have elapsedsincethe most recent event. Fault behavior parameters,particularly displacementper event
and fault segment length, show that the Cordillera Bianca fault zone is similar to seismogenicnormal
faultsthat nucleateM 7-7« earthquakes
at depthsof approximately
15 km. The QuebradaQueroccocha
slip rate and analysisof other normal faults in the region suggestcumulative late Quaternary extensional
strain rates of about 1-4 mm/yr acrossthe completezone of Andean crestal extension.

INTRODUCTION length of the zone. The results provide a basis for examining
Seismogenic,scarp-forming normal faults occur along the aspectsof extensional faulting and orogenesisalong this part
crest of the Andes in northern Peru (Figure 1). The Cordillera of the Andean continental margin.
Blanca fault zone is the largest of these and has been the
location of recurrent late Quaternary faulting [Dalmayrac, CORDILLERA BLANCA FAULT ZONE
1974; Yonekura et al., 1979; Dalmayrac and Molnar, 1981;
The Cordillera Blanca fault zone extendsapproximately 210
Bonnot, 1984]. Little is known, however, about the rate and
km from Chiquian on the south to Corongo on the north
timing of past earthquakes on this structure or on other (Figure 2). The fault zone dips west and for much of its length
normal faults in the region.
separates Miocene and Pliocene granite and granodiorite in
Trenching and geomorphic investigations in the Great the footwall from Mesozoic shalesin the hanging wall. Eleva-
Basin of the western United States [Swan et al., 1980; Crone,
tions along the crest of the Cordillera Blanca range to the east
1983; Schwartz and Coppersmith, 1984; Schwartz and Crone, exceed 6000 m.
1985; Nelson and Van Ardsdale, 1986] have led to the devel-
The distribution of Pleistocene and Holocene fault scarps
opment of techniquesto quantify late Quaternary slip rates, that define the youthful trace of the zone is shown on Figure
earthquake recurrence intervals, amount of displacement
2. The fault displacesglacial moraines, glacial and postglacial
during individual past earthquakes, and fault zone segmenta- lacustrine and fluvial deposits, alluvial fans, and debris flows.
tion of active normal faults. This paper describesthe results of
Along the 120 km of its length north of Huaraz the fault is
trenching and scarp profiling at several locations along the
generally well defined by a main west facing scarp along the
Cordillera Bianca fault zone that were conducted as part of a
base of the range front. Graben, back-tilted surfaces,and as-
seismic hazard assessmentfor hydroelectric systems in the sociated antithetic scarps are common and occur in zones a
northern Andes. The absence of significant cultural modifi- few tens to several hundreds of meters across. South of
cation of fault scarps along the entire length of the fault, cou-
Huaraz the pattern of Quaternary scarps is more complex.
pled with a semiarid environment that preservesgeomorphic
Although the west facing scarp remains the main late
features,resultsin an ideal environment to study the behavior Pleistocene-Holocene trace, older and more subdued east
of a major normal fault zone. Detailed investigations at two
facing scarps produce a broad graben 5-10 km wide west of
sites, Quebrada Queroccocha and Pachma Bajo (Figure 2),
the range. The graben is particularly evident west of Chiquian.
and surface reconnaissance at other localities enable
characterization and comparison of fault behavior along the Quebrada QueroccochaSite
The Cordillera Bianca fault zone in the vicinity of the Que-
Thispaperisnotsubject
to U.S.copyright.
Published
in 1988by bradaQueroccocha
ischaracterized
by enechelon,
westfacing
theAmerican
Geophysical
Union. faultscarps
developed
indeposits
ofdifferent
ages
(Figure
3).
Papernumber7B2025. The fault crossesthe valley of Quebrada Queroccocha as a
4712
SCHWARTZ; ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS 4713

78 ø 76 ø 74 ø tervals, slip rate during the late Pleistocene-Holocene,and


timing of the mostrecenteventat this point on the Cordillera
Blanca fault zone.
Net vertical tectonic displacement.Topographic profiles

0I I 210
krn

10ø Pachma

',90•
x4/ Bajo,•
HUALLANCA
m•
1 2 ø --
Lima
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
"':'
:':'•"?"i
GARAZ •

YUNGAY •

CARHUAZ m

t
Fig. 1. Map of major tectonic and structural elements in the
northern Andean region. CB is Cordillera Blanca fault zone; A is
surfacefaulting from 1946 Ancash earthquake; EB is large normal
fault interpreted from Lansat imagery; thin lines with barbs and
arrows are reverse faults and fold axes, respectively. Large arrows
showdirectionsof Nazca plate convergence and crustalshorteningin
sub-Andes. Contour line encloses elevations greater than 3000 m.
A-A' is location of crosssectionshown on Figure 17.
hUaRa:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

well-definedscarp and displaceslacustrine,fluvial, and alluvial


fan depositsthat are younger than adjacent lateral moraines.
These valley fill deposits may range in age from early to late
Holocene.To the north and south of the valley floor the fault
RECUAY
m •• •
displacesa moraine. Yonekuraet al. [1979] showedthat this is
a recessionalmoraine (designatedM2) within the late Wiscon-
sin limit. They suggestedan age of 13,000 years based on
• t••Quebrada
Queroccocha
correlations with glacial deposits in Chile. Mapping at Que-
brada Queroccocha and at other locations in the Cordillera
Blanca by Clapperton [1981] identified at least three major
moraines, of which the moraine at Quebrada Queroccocha is
/
one, that define either stillstandsor glacial readvanceswithin
the late Wisconsin limit. Based on comparison with glacial
•70ø /. •Quebrada
Jeulesh
deposits in the Cordillera Real of Bolivia and radiocarbon
dates from other localities in Peru, Clapperton [1981] con- •••• Quebrada
Tuoo
cluded that these moraines of the Cordillera Blanca range in
age from 11,000 to 14,000 years B.P. Wright [1984] reports a
similar sequence of glacial events that ended about 12,000
years ago in the Cerros Cuchpanga of central Peru.
The site was selected for study because geomorphic and
structural features,in particular, displacedsurfacesof different
[•ßCHIQUIAN
/
Fig. 2. Map showinglocation of Quaternary fault scarpsof the
Cordillera Blanca fault zone and localities noted in text. Fault traces
age, a graben that could act as a trap for organic material, and
are based on interpretat]on of scale 1:60,000 aerial photographsand
terraces incised into the upthrown block of the fault, appeared
are modified from unpublished mapping of H. Salazar and O. Felix,
favorable for quantifying net vertical tectonic displacement, Electroperu. Stippled bands are proposed fault segment boundaries
number of events and displacement per event, recurrence in- discussed in text.
4714 SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS

Fig. 3. Aerial photographshowingen echelonfault scarps(arrows)at Quebrada Queroccocha.Locationsof trench Q-1


and profile(P) acrossfaultedmoraineM 2 (Figure6) are indicated.

were constructed to measure net vertical tectonic displacement location is 25 m, but projection of the surface of the moraine
acrossindividual scarps.Profiles of this type allow removal of across a graben indicates a net vertical tectonic displacement
the distortion (back tilting or graben formation) that com- of 12-15 m. The uncertainty in this measurementis caused by
monly occurs along normal faults and results in scarps that the irregular surfaceof the moraine on the downthrown block,
are higher than the net slip acrossthe fault zone. A profile of which leads to alternative projections of the surfaceacrossthe
the scarp where it crossesthe postglacial despositson the fault.
north side of Quebrada Queroccocha is shown on Figure 4. Number of events and displacementper event. Four strath
Here the scarp height is 8.75 m, but becauseof graben forma- (erosional) terraces developed on the upthrown block of the
tion the net vertical tectonic displacementis only 7.5 m. Tec- fault (Figure 7) provide a basis for estimating the number of
tonic displacementis measuredby projectingthe surfaceof an surfacefaulting events associatedwith the 7.5-8 m of net dis-
alluvial fan (af) acrossthe scarp and graben. This alluvial fan placement in the Quebrada Queroccocha valley. Terraces of
was derived from the adjacent moraine, and it grades to, and this type occur throughout the Cordillera Blanca where
overlies,lake deposits(Is). The fan/lake deposit contact is ob- streams have incised fault scarps. A consistent observation,
served on the upthrown block where the alluvial gravel has both here and at other locations, is that there are no correla-
been exposedby excavationand also in test pits on the down- tive terraces on the downthrown side of the fault. This
thrown block. At trench Q-1 (Figure 5), located 20 m south of strongly suggests that these terraces formed as a result of
the profile, scarp height is 9.5 4-0.3 m, and the net vertical downcutting of the stream in responseto uplift during individ-
tectonic displacementis 8 m. ual faulting events and are of tectonic origin. Similar terraces
The fault scarp in the lateral moraine on the first ridge to were observed to form shortly after the Borah Peak, Idaho,
the north of the trench site and the profile of this scarp are earthquake where active streams crossed the newly formed
shown on Figure 6. The height of the main scarp at this fault scarp [Vincent, 1985]. The lower three terraces (T4, T3,
SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITYAND NEOTECTONICS 4715

W
af

Isf -8.7-'•1•
5m•-•"•-
J_ -'ItNV-TD7.5m
"-•.Z•_•- - -,

graben

b
10m
5
0

vertical and horizontal scale

Fig. 4. Topographic profile acrossfault scarp in valley of Quebrada Queroccocha.The profile shows the relationship
between the apparent displacement(scarp height, SH) and the net vertical tectonic displacement(NVTD). Dashed line is
the projection of the surface of an alluvial fan (af) that has been displaced across the fault; Is is lake deposits. The fan
surfacehas been modified on the upthrown block by the excavation of gravel to the fan/lake contact.

T2) are interpreted as tectonic terraces. The origin of the al., 1980]. If the oldesteventoccurredimmediatelyafter depo-
upper terrace,T1, is uncertain.It could be either tectonicor a sition of the datum, there will be one less interval than the
flood terrace that was being cut by the stream at the time of number of events. If a period equal to about half the recur-
initial scarp formation. Therefore, at least three, and possibly rence interval elapsed before the oldest event, the number of
four, surface-faultingevents appear to be representedby the intervals will equal the number of events. If an event occurred
scarp in the valley of Quebrada Queroccocha. immediatelyprior to depositionof the datum and a period
Three to four eventson this scarp yield an averagedisplace- equal to the recurrence interval elapsed before the oldest
ment of about 2-2.5 m per event. The heights of individual event, there will be one more interval than the number of
terrace risers observed on the profiles vary from 2.0 to 3.3 m. events. Using this approach, the recurrence for five events
However, becauseof graben formation and back tilting, which during the past 11,000-14,000years is 1830-3500 years. Six
increase the height of the main scarp, terrace risers with eventsduring this period yield an interval of 1570-2800 years.
heights that exceed the net vertical tectonic slip can form. If sevenevents occurred,the average recurrenceinterval is
Therefore the terrace heightsprovide an upper bound for esti- 1375-2330 years.Thereforethe averagerecurrenceinterval for
mating scarp height, and if the amount of distortion is small, the Cordillera Blancafault zone at this locality is in the range
which appears to be the case here (about 15%), the riser of 1375-3500 years and, for comparative purposes,is ex-
heightscan closelyreflectthe net slip per event. pressedas 2440 + 1060 years.On normal slip faults where the
An independentestimate of displacementduring the most actual interval betweensuccessive eventshas been determined,
recent event at Quebrada Queroccocha can be made using it is often observedthat the averageand actual intervals can
geologicrelationshipsin trench Q-1 (Figure 8). The thickness differ by as much as a factor of 4 [Schwartzand Coppersmith,
of scarp-derived colluvium adjacent to a buried fault scarp 1984].
free face can be used to estimate the minimum height, and in Slip rate. Yonekura et al. [1979] estimated a late Pleisto-
some.casesthe actual height, of the coseismicscarp [Swan et cene slip rate at Quebrada Queroccocha of 2-3 mm/yr based
al., 1980]. In trench Q-I, scarp-derivedcolluvium (unit 6) fills on 25 m of displacement of moraine M2 during the past
a fissureat the base of the scarp and buries a slightly degraded 13,000 years. As shown on Figure 6, however, the net vertical
free face (dash-dot line). The thicknessof the colluvial wedge tectonic displacement is only 12-15 m. The displacement
indicates a minimum scarp height of 1.7-2 m during this values and range of 11,000-14,000 years for the age of the
event.
moraine yield a slip rate of 0.86-1.36 mm/yr for this period of
The terrace and trench measurements and their associated time. This is a vertical rate that assumesonly dip slip. Bonnot
uncertainties suggestthe average net vertical displacementat [1984] measuredbedrock striations and slickensidesalong the
Quebrada Queroccocha has been about 2.5 m per event and fault zone between Chiquian and Huaraz and concluded that
the actual amount could have varied from 2 to 3 m. The there has been a consistentsinistral component to the Quater-
differencein the amount of net vertical tectonic displacement nary slip. However, the amount must be small becauselateral
acrossthe postmoraine scarp in the valley (7.5-8.0 m) and the offsets of moraine axes are not observed in the field at Que-
scarp in the moraine (12-15 m) ranges from 4 to 7.5 m given brada Querocchocha or within the resolution of 1'60,000
the measurementuncertainties.This differencemost likely rep- aerial photographs of older moraines that have even larger
resentsan additional two to three events,assuminga charac- dip-slip displacements.
teristic slip of 2-3 m. Therefore it appears that at least five, Timing qfevents. Deposits that provide information on the
and possibly as many as seven,surface-faultingearthquakes timing of the two most recent events are exposed in trench
have occurred since the 11,000- to 14,000-year-old moraine Q-1 (Figures 6 and 8). Units 4A and 4B are facies of a col-
was formed. luvium with an organic matrix and an organic sandy silt,
Earthquake recurrenceintervals. There are no data on the respectively. They are the youngest faulted deposits and
actual intervals between earthquakes at Quebrada Queroc- formed the ground surface at the time of the most recent
cocha. Because of this only a range of average recurrence surface-faulting earthquake. During the event, lacustrine de-
intervals can be calculated. The range depends on assump- posits (unit 1) and fluvial gravel (unit 2) were exposed in the
tions of when the oldest and most recent identifiable events main scarp. Initial, rapid erosion of the scarp led to deposition
occurred relative to the age of the displaced datum [Swan et of scarp-derived colluvium (unit 6) that filled a fissure at the
4716 SCHWARTZ'ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY
AND NEOTECTONICS

....

..

Fig. 5. Photographs of trench Q-1 at Quebrada Queroccocha. (a) View east showing trench across graben and main
fault scarp. Trench is located 20 m south of profile shown on Figure 4. Vertical scarp height is 9.5 • 0.3 m; cumulative net
vertical tectonic displacementis 7.5-8 m. Arrow points to the location of the most recent surface faulting event on the
scarp and to the location of Figure 5b. (b) North wall of trench Q-1. Arrow points to buried free face of scarp formed
during most recent event' 7B is youngestsoil, 6 is scarp-derivedcolluvium, 1 is lacustrine deposit, and 2 is fluvial gravel.
Unit numberscorrespondto the log of trench Q-1.

base of the scarp and eventually buried unit 4A. Continued Detrital charcoal was found in several stratigraphic hor-
erosion of the main scarp led to deposition of organic rich izons in trench Q-1 (Figure 8), and both conventional radio-
colluviums 7A and 7B. Colluvium 7B forms the present carbon and accelerator dates have been obtained. DPS-Q3
ground surface(Figure 8). was collected from unit 4A just below the contact with unit 6;
SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITYAND NEOTECTONICS 4717

Radiocarbon dates must be corrected to calendar years


using dendrochronological calibrations [Stuiver and Becker,
1986; Pearson and Stuiver, 1986] because of temporal vari-
ations in the radiocarbon content of atmosphericcarbon diox-
ide. These are expressedas cal B.P., which is the number of
years before 1950 A.D. (Table 1). In some casesa singleradio-
carbon date yieldsmultiple calendricdates.The calibratedage
for DPS-Q4 is 3370 cal B.P. with a range of 2960-3670 cal
B.P.; the calibrated age for DPS-Q3 is 3175 or 3210 cal B.P.
with a range of 2790-3520 cal B.P. Therefore the event prior
to the most recent occurred before about 2800 years ago and
most likely before 3200-3400 years ago. The calibrated age for
sample DPS-Q1A is 2500 or 2710 cal B.P. with a range of
2360-2740 cal B.P. DPS-Q2A yields a calibrated age of 680
cal B.P. and a range of 655-745 cal B.P. The most recent
surface-faulting event appears to have occurred in the interval
between about 2500-2700 and 700 years ago.
Stratigraphic relationshipsin trench Q-1 provide some con-
straints as to where within the interval the most recent event
occurred. Units 4A, 4B, and 5 represent colluvium and slope
wash derived from erosion of the fault scarp. Had units 4A
and 5 defined the ground surface for a significant period of
time following charcoal deposition and prior to the most
recent event, it is likely that they would have either been
buried by still younger deposits that also would have been
involved in the faulting or that unit 5 would have had a soil
developed on it. Instead, units 4A and 5 are directly overlain
by scarp-derived colluvium from the most recent event. The
youngest faulting produced a fissure,which isolated the pre-
faulting ground surfaceon the downthrown side from the col-
luvial source area (the main fault scarp). This surface was not
burieduntil after the fissurefilled, 1-1« m of scarp-colluvium
w E
(unit 6) accumulated to bury the fault scarp free face and
spread west, and organic-rich colluvium containing sample
vertical and
horizontal scale DPS-Q2A was deposited across units 6, 4A, and 5. The basal
lorn M2 part of unit 6, including the fissure infill, was probably de-
fo
•'lOB NVTD
j'......
posited rapidly, either at the time of or during several decades
following the event. Rapid deposition of the basal part of the
12--15m ,• ..,/ I SH colluvial wedge and infill of fissuresis common along normal
fault scarps.The upper and distal parts of unit 6, and unit 7A,
represent slope wash facies. Because of the relatively small
p2
sediment source area provided by the scarp, rates of colluvial
Fig. 6. The fault scarp •orth of trench Q-1 developedin an alluvi- deposition are likely to be low. These relationships,while not
al œan(af) (samefan shownon Figure 4) and glacialmoraine(M•).
The moraine has an estimated age of 11,000-14,000 years. Scarp
as quantitative as desired, do suggestthat the most recent
height (SH) acrossthe crestof the moraine is approximately25 m, but event may be closer in time to the 2500 or 2710 cal B.P. date
projected surfaces(dashed lines) indicate that cumulative net vertical of DPS-Q 1A.
tectonicdisplacement(NVTD) acrossa major graben (g) is 12-15 m.
A minor graben(g') is developedin the alluvial fan deposits.
Pachma Bajo Site
General characteristicsof thefault scarp. In the vicinity of
DPS-Q4 was collected 16 cm below the 4A-6 contact. Both Pachma Bajo, a hamlet located north of the town of Hual-
samples are in the upper part of the colluvium that was lanca (Figure 2), the fault is a well-defined scarp developed
derived from erosion of the scarp that formed prior to the primarily in late Pleistocene(?) and Holocene alluvial fan and
most recent event. DPS-Q1A and DPS-Q1B, splits of sample debris flow deposits. The fault scarp has been produced by
DPS-Q1, were collected from the contact zone between units multiple faulting events becausecumulative scarp height de-
4B and 5. Some charcoal occursentirely within the upper 3 creasesin younger deposits. Along-strike expressionof the
cm of unit 4B (DPS-Q6), and some is within the lower 2 cm of fault varies from a well-defined single scarp as high as 30-35
unit 5 (DPS-Q5). The charcoal in unit 4B appears to have m (Figure 9) to as many as four subparallel to en echelon
been at or close to the ground surface at the time of the most traces developed across a zone up to 140 m wide. Small
recent event and may have been locally reworked into unit 5. graben and antithetic scarpsand adjacent to the main scarp
Samples DPS-Q2A and DPS-Q2B are splits of the same are not common in this area. The multiple-event scarpshave
sample collected from colluvium (unit 7A) derived from ero- generally steep, uniform slopes that average about 35ø. The
sion of the scarp formed during the most recent event. most recent surface-faultingevent along this segmentof the
4718 SCHWARTZ: ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS

....
ß•.•..;.•..•.....

::'" .:.
":"'.•ii:
' ...
:...:.:f;::.i::::;•.::•...;i•i:,..:i.•::i:...;
'...
:"..7-..
::: ;;'""...;.'.
:,::,::;•;:•.•:.:...:
.......
ß '"::::'";]:7.:;';;,;:•...
' :..:•E.":i:;;...
........
:•;:..;:...

......
:%%4..
.... -;-;
""•;:•
"'
'"
;::';;:::;!!
..........
ß- '::.:i.•:,;,:.:::,::,.. T2 .....
.::,•;':::'

... ..•½•., 4;;: ...

,.....:•
.........,•E':•........
" ........
•'":'•':•'•:'"•'•i
"2, ....

•:.

.•.

..

.... .....
.

T4
ß 'i;;•
................
-,:?•.'.;:'.
.....
:::-':'
ß......

.... ...-.-..7.. .•.

..•.
....

•:.•:•.•,:.:.....:..

.......

Quebrada vertical and

% Queroccocho horizontal scale

T1
3%T'2 3'2m
10m

Profile
measured
atmain
fault
scarp.
T3 '•••
T4 0 lorn

Quebrada
Queroccocho

Profile measured approximately 50m


3.0m grovel
•---•_ _1
..•.•_,_•,•_•
upstream of main fault scarp T4
Fig. 7. Photograph and transversevalley profilesof terracesdevelopedon upthrown block of fault at Quebrada Queroc-
cocha.Terracetreadsare designatedT•, T 2, T3, and T,•.

fault zone is expressedas a well-definedinflection in the pro- strike (Figure 10). Exposuresin streamgullieseast of the scarp
file of the high scarps(Figure 9); locally,scarpsfrom this event show that this exhumed bedrock surfaceis a major fault zone
appear to have slopes exceeding 60ø in well-consolidated defined by mylonitic and cataclasticrocks at the margin of the
debris flow deposits.The scarp is commonly breached by gul- Cordillera Bianca pluton. In roadcuts south of Huallanca this
lies with small fans, and at several stream channels it is buried bedrock surfacecoincideswith a zone of foliated granodiorite
by from one to three unfaulted debrisflows. that contains younger, high-angle brittle shears(Figure 11).
The late Quaternary scarp occurs at the base of a bedrock Displacementper event. Trenches PB-1 and PB-2 (Figure
surfacethat risesspectacularlyfrom an elevation of 1800 m to 10) were excavated across the fault to obtain information on
an elevation of 3000 m along a constant westward dipping displacement per event and timing of individual surface-
slope of 350-40ø for a distance of approximately 8 km along faulting earthquakes.
SCHWARTZ'
ANDEAN
PALEOSEISMICITY
ANDNEOTECTONICS 4719

o
o
,•.

• o
• o

00 ..
+1 • •

0 n
I

_o

($W313•) IH•I3H
4720 SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS

TABLE I Radiocarbon Dates From Quebrada Queroccocha m to the west, slipped during the older event. The vertical
displacementof a distinctive red sand (unit 2B) acrossthe east
RadiocarbonDate, •4C Calibrated Date," cal
trace is 1.9 m, and the vertical displacement of the same unit
Sample years B.P. B.P.
across the small graben is 20 cm. Thus net vertical tectonic
DPS-QIAt' 2480_+65 2500or 2710(2360-2740) displacementfor this event is 2.1 m. Both the main fault and
DPS-Q 1B•' 2400 _+300 2360 or 2420 (2040-2800) graben-boundingfaults are overlain by unfaulted crossbedded
DPS-Q2At' 750 _+80 680 (655-745)
channel deposits(unit 3).
DPS-Q2B•' 620 _+400 570 or 650 (290-940)
DPS-Q3•' 2990 + 290 3175 or 3210 (2790-3520) The fault trace in the western part of the trench is the
DPS-Q4" 3130 _+270 3370 (2960-3670) location of the most recent surface-faulting event along this
DPS-Q5c 2420 _+350 2350 or 2440 (2030-2920) reach of the Cordillera Bianca fault zone. It is coincident with
DPS-Q6" 2300 _+400 2350 (1900-2840) the major inflection in the high scarp to the north and south
"Ranges,whichincludethelaboratory-reported
14Cageerror,are of the trench site. The fault juxtaposes alluvial fan deposits
given in parentheses. (units 2A and 2B), and possibly the crossbeddedchannel de-
t'Conventional
date, DicarbIsotopes,Incorporated. posits (unit 3 ?), against a debris flow (unit 4) (Figure 13). A 5-
"Accelerator date, University of Arizona. to 10-cm-wide shear zone containing rotated cobbles occurs
within the debris flow immediately adjacent to the fault. Three
meters of faulted debris flow deposits are exposed in the
trench; this value representsa minimum vertical displacement
Trench PB-I: Trench PB-1 was excavated into a stream during the most recent surface faulting. In the wall of the
channel where the fault scarp is 33 m high and is partially trench the trace of the most recent event is overlain by
buried by debris flow and alluvial fan deposits (Figure 12). younger unfaulted gravel (unit 5) and debris flows (units 6 and
The trench (Figure 13) exposesa lower alluvial fan sequenceof 7).
well-bedded sand and silt (units 2A, 2B, and 2C) that is cut by Trench PB-2: At this location, 5 km south of trench PB-1,
younger channel deposits (units 3 and 5) and overlain by the main scarp has a height of approximately 19 m and a net
coarse,poorly stratified debris flows (units 6 and 7). vertical tectonic displacement of about 14 m. Trench PB-2
Evidence of two distinct faulting events is observed in the (Figure 14) was excavated across the inflection of the most
trench. The fault in the eastern part of the trench, which recent event on the main scarp.
occurs close to the contact between mylonite (unit 1) and Two scarp-derived colluviums (units 2 and 3) are evidence
alluvial fan deposits(unit 2A), and the graben approximately 5 of the two most recent surface-faultingevents at this site. Unit

Fig. 9. View looking south at the 30-m-high main scarpjust south of trench PB-1. The inflectionin the scarp(arrow)
is the location of the most recent event along this segmentof the fault. With the exception of this inflection, the scarp
maintains a slopeat or near the angle of repose.
SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS 4721

Fig. 10. View looking north at late Pleistocene-Holocene scarps along base of range front at Pachma Bajo (PB).
Planar surface of the range front is an exhumed bedrock fault that rises from an elevation of 1800 m at its base to 3000 m
while maintaining a constant west dip of 35ø-40ø. Note locations of trenches PB-1 and PB-2' distance between trenchesis
5 km.

2A is a hard and poorly sorted colluvium that was deposited ment along the main fault during the most recent event can be
following the event prior to the most recent. It is in fault estimated by projecting the contact between units 2B and 3
contact with gently west dipping alluvial fan deposits(unit 1) (the ground surfaceat the time of the most recent event) and
that are exposed in the footwall. Unit 2B is slightly finer the surface of the older scarp to the fault plane (Figure 14).
grained and exhibits weak soil development.As discussed,the The separation between these is 2.2 m, which represents the
thickness of scarp-derived colluvium is an indication of the net vertical displacementacrossthe main trace of the fault. A
amount of free face that was exposed during the event. A steeplydipping contact betweenunits 2B and 3 is found in the
minimum thickness of 3.2 m for colluvial unit 2 (Figure 14) western part of the trench. This section of the trench was not
suggeststhat at least that much displacementoccurred on the deep enough to determine whether the steep contact was ero-
main fault during the event prior to the most recent. sional or representeddeposition of colluvium against a scarp.
Unit 3 is unfaulted colluvium that was deposited following If it is a fault, then it representsat least an additional 1.0 m of
the most recent event. Near the fault it fills a channel in col- slip during the most recent event. Added to the 2.2 m for the
luvial units 2A and 2B. It buries a steeply dipping, 40-cm-high main trace, it gives a minimum vertical tectonic displacement
remnant of the free face (dash-dot line, Figure 14) of the fault of 3.2 m; this is similar to the 3 m observed for the same event
scarp that formed during the most recent event. The displace- in trench PB-1.
4722 SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITYAND NEOTECTONICS

Fig. 11. Photograph of planar bedrock surface(pbs) coincident with zone of foliated grandiorite (fgd) along margin of
Cordillera Blanca batholith on road south of Huallanca. The foliated zone contains high-angle brittle shears(arrows)
associatedwith superposednormal faulting.

Earthquake recurrenceintervalsand elapsedtime. No direct range of 1500-2000 years suggestedby the archeologicalevi-
evidence for actual or average intervals between successive denceis compatiblewith thesegeologicalobservations.
surface-faultingearthquakeswas obtained along the Pachma The general morphology of the fault scarp in late
Bajo segmentof the fault. However, the relationship between Pleistocene-Holocenedeposits provides some indirect evi-
the fault, debris flow deposits,and pre-Inca ruins (irrigation dencefor quantifyingaveragerecurrenceintervals.On normal
walls) is a basisfor estimating the elapsedtime sincethe most slip faults that have had a significantperiod of time between
recent event. In the Pachma Bajo area these irrigation walls events(5000 to > 10,000 years) a compound or faceted scarp
are locally built up to and acrossthe fault scarp.They gener- that exhibitswell-definedvariation in slopeanglesis formedin
ally appear unaffected by surface faulting, although this re- unconsolidateddeposits[Wallace, 1977' Buckhamand Ander-
lationship is not unequivocal.In the vicinity of trench PB-1 son, 1979]. On scarps that have been formed by repeated
the walls are built on the faulted debris flow (unit 4) and on events that have shorter intervals (<1000-3000 years) the
unfaulted deposits(units 5 and 6) that directly overlie it, and overall slopeof the scarpis generallyat or near the angle of
they are partly buried by a younger debris flow deposit (unit repose(30"-35ø) and is only broken by an inflection that de-
7) (Figure 15). Along the part of the range front shown on fines the location of the most recent event [Swan et al., 1980].
Figure 10, these walls appear to occur primarily on the The fault scarpnearPachmaBajohasthe lattermorphology,
youngestfaulted surfaces,and locally on the oldest unfaulted suggestinga history characterizedby recurrent displacement
deposits,rather than on alluvial fans or debris flows that sig- with intervals in the shorter range. The average interval of
nificantly postdate the most recent event. These observations 2440 + 1060 years calculated at Quebrada Queroccocha is
suggestthat the walls were constructedrelatively closein time consistentwith scarp morphological observationsalong the
to the most recent event. Archeological reconnaissanceindi- fault at Pachma Bajo.
cates that the walls were probably constructed between about
200 B.C. and 400 A.D. (Electroperu, written communication, Quebrada Tuco
1985). Whether construction was initiated before the event and Quebrada Tuco is located 35 km southeast of Quebrada
continued after it, or whether it all postdatesthe event, re- Queroccochaon an apparently different segmentof the fault
mains uncertain. The occurrence of unfaulted debris flow and zone. Reconnaissanceto this location provides an additional
fan deposits that locally bury the 30-m-high scarp and the estimateof fault slip rate. Here the scarp is developedin mo-
degree of degradation of the buried free face in trench PB-2 raines and postmoraine fans and lake deposits (Figure 16).
suggestthat the most recent event has certainly not occurred Yonekuraet al. [1979] correlatedthe youngestfaulted mo-
during the past several hundred years. An elapsed time in the raines with those at Quebrada Queroccocha. Clapperton
SCHWARTZ: ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITYAND NEOTECTONICS 4723

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log of trench PB-1. Black and white dashedline outlines T1, which is a tectonic terrace.

E w
UNIT DESCRIPTIONS

Unit 1. Mylonite derived from granodiorite

• Unit
2A.Sand;
fine-grained,
grey
Unit
2B.Sand;
medium-grained,
light
todark
redI Alluvial
fan
deposits
• Unit
2C.
Sand
and
thin
Unit 3. silt•
grey,
well-laminated
Channel fill deposits• well-stratified, cross-bedded sand

----•. Unit
4. Debris
flow
• Unit 5. Debris flow and gravel;locally coarse, poorly sorted

• 7 • Unit
6.
Debris
flow
•c"', --__•3 •..• -'• '
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2c -""' 7
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2A

EXPLANATION

..... Lithologic contact: dashed where less distinct

• Fault:arrowsindicatesenseof displacement
0-

I 1 I5 I I I I 1 0 I I I I I
5 I I I i i
o
DISTANCE (METERS)

Fig. 13. Log of trench PB-I at Pachma Bajo.


4724 SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS

UNIT DESCRIPTIONS

Unit 1. Alluvial fan deposits; well-bedded sand and subrounded to angular gravel
Unit 2A. Scarp-derived colluvium from event prior to most recent surface
faulting event; dense, poorly sorted, angular to subangular clasts
Unit 2B. Similar to 2A but slightly finer and less dense; light red,
formed ground surface at time of most recent event
Unit 3. Scarp-derived colluvium from most recent surface faulting event;
pebble and cobble gravel, open-work, loose, clasts are subangular

EXPLANATION

Lithologic contact: dashed where less distinct


o

• Fault:arrowsindicatesenseof displacement
-
..... Buried
faultscarp
freeface /" ,, ..'""
.......... Degradedfault scarp free face "o •..-'"
....... Projected surface
2.2 m

2A

I I i i i I i i
5
DISTANGE (METERS)

Fig. 14. Log of trench PB-2 at Pachma Bajo.

[1981] mapped the Quebrada Tuco glacial sequenceand moraines,and depositionlikely startedduring or shortlyafter
showed that the youngestdisplaced moraines into which the the 11,000- to 14,000-year interval. This is not unreasonable,
fans and lake deposits are inset are part of the 11,000- to as Wright [1984] reports radiocarbon dates of 10,000-13,500
14,000-year-old late Wisconsin readvancesand stillstands.The years for peats growing in lakes that fill basins between mo-
absolute ages of the displaced fan and lake deposits are not raines in central Peru.
known. They are close in elevation to the youngest faulted The faulted alluvial fan (af) on Figure 16 grades to and

:•,?:.:.:.•::;::::!.:
:/4,? /.: ,

.. .....

• %.:,:
' ,,.:..?:- .-..... -..
............. ., , ?".'!;.•':777/"½....'i;:,
':•'*•::':**
....."}Z'"'":.:;:.;?'::.:;•;$*.:::-:
....'::.-,¾,i½
,:::•,• ..., .....
. ..... .. :.... ......,.: .......

Fig. 15. Pre-Inca walls (arrows)in the vicinity of trench PB-1 were constructedbetweenabout 200 B.C. and 400 A.D.
Walls are built on the youngestfaulteddebrisflow (unit 4) and the oldestunfaulteddebrisflows(units5 and 6), and they
are partly buriedby an unfaulteddebrisflow (unit 7). The wallsappearto be undisturbedwherethey crossthe fault scarp
(fs).Unit numbersreferto log of trenchPB-1.
SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS 4725

active normal fault in the western United States during late


Pleistocene-Holocenetime despite the lack of significant his-
torical seismicity.The Lost River fault zone has been signifi-
cantly less active than the Wasatch during late Quaternary
time but was the location of the October 28, 1983, M• 7.3
Borah Peak earthquake.
Segmentation. Long normal faults rupture only some per-
centage of their total length during a surface-faultingearth-
quake. The 1983 Borah Peak, Idaho, earthquake was a
normal fault event with a surfacerupture of 35 km along the
140-km-long Lost River fault zone [Crone and Machette,
1984]. The 370-km-long Wasatch fault zone has not ruptured
historically. However, dating of past earthquakes from trench
exposures has shown consistent differences in the timing of
these events along the length of the zone and indicates the
presenceof essentiallyindependent rupture segmentsthat vary
in length from 30 to 60 km [Schwartz and Coppersmith,1984].
Worldwide data on surfacefaulting along normal faults show
that rupture lengths of 30-40 km are commonly associated
with earthquakes
in the magnituderangeof 7-7«. The longest
recorded surface rupture for a normal slip fault in the great
Basinis 62 km for the 1915PleasantValleyearthquake(M 7•)
[Wallace, 1984]. The length and location of rupture segments
on normal faults appear to be controlled,to a large degree,by
preexisting bedrock structure and lithology, especially struc-
tural trends transverse to the zone [Smith and Bruhn, 1984;
Schwartz and Coppersmith, 1986; Bruhn et al., 1987; Crone et
al., 1987]. On a geometric basis,segmentsmay be recognized
by major changes in the orientation of a range front, and
segment boundaries may occur at salients and reentrants in
Fig. 16. View north of fault scarp in postglacial alluvial fan and the range [Scott et al., 1985]. Although the present data base
lacustrine deposits at Quebrada Tuco. Displacement of the fan sur-
does not contain well-constrained information on the timing
face (af) is 14 m and decreasesto 10 m in the lacustrinedeposits.P is
location of scarpprofile discussedin text; g is a large graben. of individual past events, geometric and structural observa-
tions suggestthat the 210-km-long Cordillera Blanca is seg-
mented in a manner similar to other normal faults.
Two segments are proposed for the fault zone south of
interfingerswith lake deposits.The scarp height in the fan is Huaraz. The southernmostis approximately35 km long and
approximately14 m, but the scarpwas not profiled.Although extendsfrom about 15 km south of Chiquian to about 10 km
back tilting is not apparent,therecould be a smallpercentage north of QuebradaJeulesh(Figure 2). The northernboundary
of distortionin the scarpheight.The fault scarpwas profiled zone of this proposedsegmentis marked by an eastwardstep
at P (Figure 16) and is 10.2 m high, with the lower 8 m in the range that is generallycoincidentwith a major contact
exposinglake depositsand the upper 2.2 m exposingthe allu- betweenvolcanic rocks and granodiorite.A gap of approxi-
vial fan. There is no back tilting at this point. To the north, mately 10 km in which there is an absenceof westdipping late
scarpheightdecreasesin youngerfloodplaindeposits. Quaternary fault scarpsalso occurs in this boundary zone.
If the range of displacements(10.2-14 m) occurred within The next segmentnorthward would extend from about 15 km
the past 11,000-14,000 years, the calculated slip rate is 0.7- south of Quebrada Queroccochato the approximate latitude
1.27 mm/yr. The stratigraphicand geomorphicrelationships of Huaraz, a distanceof approximately45 km. The northern
make it more likely that they occurredcloserto the younger end of this proposedsegmentis marked by a major salientin
date. Taking into consideration all of the uncertaintiesat this the rangefront and a generalchangein the morphologyof the
location, the slip rate appearsto be very similar to the rate at fault zone from en echelon scarpsto a single main scarp
Quebrada Queroccocha. (Figure 2).
From Huaraz to the ruins of Colcasthere is no compelling
DISCUSSION physicalbasisfor defininga segmentboundary,although a
salient in the range occurs northeast of Carhuaz where the
Comparison With Other Normal Faults trend of the fault zone changes slightly from N27øW to
The Cordillera Blanca fault zone sharesmany featuresin N40øW. Possibly,the fault may behaveas separatesegments
common with other shallowcrustalnormal faults,particularly north and south of this area. The northernmostsegmentex-
those in the Great Basin of the western United States. Table 2 tends from just south of Huallanca to north of Corongo, a
compares the Cordillera Blanca with the Wasatch and Lost distanceof approximately40 km. In the boundary area at the
River fault zones, two faults for which there is detailed infor- south end of this segmentthe main fault changesstrike from
mation on fault behavior. The Wasatch fault is the major N40'•W to N10øW and also becomesa series of complex
active structure in the boundary zone between the Great Basin brancheswith individual tracesstriking N50ø-60øW. Bruhn et
and Colorado Plateau. In fact, it has been the most highly al. 1-1987]have observedsimilar branchingat the north end of
4726 SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITYAND NEOTECTONICS

TABLE 2. Comparison of Characteristics of Normal Faults

Surface Slip
Recurrence Displacement Slip Rate
Fault Length, Seg- Interval, per Event, Rate, Interval, Historical
Zone km ments years m mm/yr years Seismicity

Cordillera 210 4-5 2440 + 1060 at a 2-3 0.86-1.36 11,000-14,000 absence of teleseismically
Blanca" point recorded events
575 z300 for zone no historical surface rupture
(1513to present)
•'
Wasatch' 370 -> 6 range of 1700-3000 1.6-2.7 0.76-1.36; 5,000 -19,000 general absence of small to
and average oL - 1.0 average moderate events a
2100 per segment for central
segments
400-650 for zone no historical surface rupture
(early 1800s to present)
Lost River 140 5" 6-8 k yr on 1.7-2.5h -< 0.3 on active ->15,00ff no identifiable seismicity >M 3.5
activesegments
/ segments during20-yearperiodpre-1983i
30,000 years Ms 7.3 Borah Peak earthquake,
quiescenceon 1983;35 km of surfacefaulting/
southern
segments,•'

"This study.
•'Silgado[ 1978].
•Schwartz and Coppersmith[1984].
aArabaszand Smith[1981].
eScottet al. [1985].
thanks and Schwartz[1987].
•Malde [ 1987].
hSchwartz and Crone[1985].
iDewey[ 1987].
;Crone and Machette [1984].

the Salt Lake segmentof the Wasatch fault zone and also near tivity appears fairly constant, and the recurrenceinterval at
the north end of the 1983 Borah Peak surfacerupture. Quebrada Queroccocha may characterize all segments. In
In the presentgeometricanalysisthe Cordillera Blanca fault contrast, the end segments of the Wasatch fault zone have
zone appears to be composed of four and possibly five seg- significantly longer recurrence intervals than the central seg-
ments that range in length from 35 to 45 km. Based on com- ments, and this difference in behavior is clearly observable
parison with other normal faults, these could behave as rup- in both the height and morphology of the associated scarps
ture segmentsduring large earthquakes,with the possibility [Schwartz and Coppersmith,1984]. Similarly, differencesin the
that rupture during an event overlaps or involves adjacent recurrence time and behavior of segmentsare clearly recog-
segments.The maximum combined length of two adjacent nizable on the basis of scarp morphology and development
segmentsis 85 km. along the Lost River Range, Idaho [Scott et al., 1985]. Using
Recurrence intervals. Along the Wasatch fault zone, the Quebrada Queroccocha recurrence (average and range)
average recurrenceintervals for scarp-forming earthquakes on and four to five segments, a range of 275-875 years, with a
individual segmentsrange from 1700 to 3000 years and tend preferred value of 575 _ 300 years per event, can be calculated
to cluster around 2000 years per segment.The average Holo- as the average recurrence interval for 2-3 m surface-faulting
cene recurrence interval of 2440 _+ 1060 at Quebrada Queroc- earthquakes on the Cordillera Blanca fault zone.
cocha is quite comparable to the Wasatch fault. It differs Displacementper event. Net vertical tectonic displacement
markedly from the Lost River fault zone, which has late per event at the surface is similar for each of the three fault
Pleistocene-Holocene intervals of 6000 to 8000 years on its zones. For the Wasatch, trench studies have shown that net
two active central segments[Hanks and Schwartz, 1987] and a slip per event at points on different segmentsof the zone has
period of quiescenceof at least 30,000 years since the most varied from 1.6 to 2.3 m. When successive events can be mea-
recent event on its southern segments [Scott et al., 1985' sured at a point along the fault, the amount of displacement
Malde, 1987]. during each has been essentiallythe same. For the Borah Peak
With the exceptionof the averagelate Pleistocene-Holocene surfacerupture, slip along strike varied from 10 cm to 3 m and
recurrence interval measured at Quebrada Queroccocha, inde- averaged about 1.75 m in 1983 [Crone and Machette, 1984].
pendent recurrence data have not been obtained at other lo- Trenching of the fault at Doublespring Pass Road [Schwartz
cations along the fault. As discussed,the multiple-event scarps and Crone, 1985] showedthat slip during the 1983 earthquake
at Pachma Bajo have a morphology consistent with recur- duplicated the displacementthat occurred during the one pre-
rence intervals of about 1000-3000 years. A similar morpho- vious earthquake recognizable at that location. Measured
logic expressionis found on scarpsalong the entire length of single-event displacements on the Cordillera Blanca fault
the Cordillera Blanca fault zone, and there is no indication range from 2 to > 3 m. Displacements estimated for the two
that any segmenthas sustainedconsistantlylong periods with- most recent events from trenches at Pachma Bajo are essen-
out surface-faultingearthquakes. Thus the overall rate of ac- tially the same, and trench exposuresand terraces at Que-
SCHWARTZ:
ANDEAN
PALEOSEISMICITY
ANDNEOTECTONICS 4727

Zone of
CORDILLERA crestal
PERU BLANCA F.Z. extension SUB-ANDES
A TEC. -....... A'
-"'l//'•i!!i!11iiiii
iiiiiiii!?!ii!i!iiii?ii;:
BRAZILIA
NSHIE
LD
NAZCA
PLATE .•.. %• _...
L]THOS?Hgl:tg

ASTHENOSPHERE •_ "•'
50

o i
o lOO KILOMETERS

Fig.17. Cross
sectionofseismicity
andcrustal
structureacross
central
Peru(modified
fromSuarezet al.[1983])
showingthelocation
oftheCordillera
Bianca
faultzonein relationship
to majortectonic
features
oftheregion.The
stippled
areadefines
thezoneofextension
across
thecrest
oftheAndes. Cross-section
location
isshownonFigure 1.

brada Queroccochashow that point-specificdisplacements distributionof microseismicity in the vicinityof the Cordillera
duringthe five to sevensuccessive scarp-forming earthquakes Blanca fault are unknown because of a lack of local seismo-
at this location were also very similar.The occurrenceof suc- graphnetworks. However,thereare alsono teleseismically
cessivesimilar-sizedslip eventsat a point on a fault suggests recordedeventsthat might be associated with the fault. The
that the slip distributionduringrepeatedeventsis essentially generalabsence of smallandmoderate eventsandtherelease
the same. This is consistentwith the concept of distinct rup- of strainenergyduringinfrequent
largeor characteristic
earth-
ture segments
that havegenerallyfixedlengths. quakesappearto typifymanyseismogenic normalfaults.
Two additional points regarding displacementper event Andean Neotectonics
warrant consideration. First, it is uncertain where the point-
specificslipvaluesfrom the CordilleraBlancalie with regard SeveralrecentstudiesI-Dalmayracand Molnar, 1981; Suarez
to the slipdistributionduringan individualearthquake.While et al., 1983; $erbieret al., 1986] have discussed
Quaternary
studies of normal faults suggestthat well-developedscarps faultingin the Andesof Peru and Boliviawith regardto tec-
commonlyrepresentaverageslip values,point-specific values tonicsand orogenesis alongthe westerncordilleraof South
can vary from this. Second,geodeticmeasurements of slip America. Of particularinteresthavebeenthe stateof stressin
from largenormal-faulting earthquakes suchas Borah Peak the overriding plate between the Nazcasubduction zoneand
and the 1959 Hebgen Lake, Montana earthquakeshow that the sub-Andeanunderthrustzone (Figures 1 and 17) and the
slip at the surfacecan be lessthan slip at depth[Barrientoset closespatialrelationship
betweenparallelactivenormaland
al., 1987].The degreeto whichthis has occurredat pointson reversefaults (Figure 1).
the Cordillera Blanca fault is not known. The Cordillera Blanca fault defines the western edge of a
Sliprate. On the CordilleraBlancafaultzonethe sliprate zoneof extensional
faultingin the crestalregionof the north-
at Quebrada Queroccochais 0.86-1.36 mm/yr for the past ern Andes.The occurrenceof the 1946M s7.2 Ancashnormal-
11,000-14,000years.The slip rate at QuebradaTuco is about faultingevent[Silgado,1951]60 km northeast
of the Cordil-
0.7-1.27mm/yr for the sameinterval.The similarityof the two lera Blanca and of another large normal fault interpretedon
sitessuggeststhat this range of rates may characterizethe Landsatimagery(EB,Figure1) showsthat thiszonevariesin
entire fault zone. Theseslip rates are comparableto the Was- width from 120 to 170 km. Its extentalong strike of the Andes
is not known.
atch fault zone (0.76-1.36mm/yr), which exhibitsthe highest
ratesof any fault in the Great Basin.Slip ratesof 1 mm/yr or The 1946Ancashearthquakeprovidesinformationon fault
faster are on the high side for normal faults and reflect the geometry
anddepthsof earthquake
nucleationwithintheex-
tensional zone. This event was associated with a N40øW -
generallycontinuousoccurrence of largeslip events.
Historicalseismicity. Another similaritybetweenthe three 50øWstriking,discontinuous,
22-km-long(minimum) zoneof
zonesis the relationshipbetweenhistoricalseismicityand geo- surface
faultingexpressed
as westfacingscarpsashighas 3.5
logicallydetermined
recurrence.Therehas beenno surface m [Silgado,1951](Figure18).Locally,the mainscarpappears
ruptureontheWasatchfaultzoneduringhistorical time(back to be coincidentwith older reversefaults in limestonethat dip
to 1847and probablythe early 1800s).A diffusepatternof westat anglesof 25ø-35ø [Heim, 1949].Doser[1987] reeva-
and clustersof epicenters luatedfirst motion data for the earthquakeand concludesthat
instrumentallyrecordedepicenters
occursalongtheWasatchfrontarea,althoughvery the 1946 event nucleated at 15-17 km on a normal fault that
generally
little of the seismicityactuallyappearsto be occurringon the flattensfrom about a 60ø west dip near surfaceto 30ø-38ø at
Wasatch fault I-Arabaszand Smith, 1981]. Likewise,Dewey hypocentral depth,suggestingpossible reactivationof existing
largerthanmagnitude thrust
[1987]hasshownthatno earthquakes or reverse faults.
3.5 occurredwithin 25 km of the epicenterof the 1983 Borah In the Cordillera Blanca the Quaternary normal faulting
Peakearthquake duringthe 20 yearsprior to the event.Sil- appearsto havepreferentially
occurred alongstructures
that
gado[1978]reviewed thehistorical
seismicityrecordof Peru. formedpriorto thepresent extensional
regime,probablywith
He foundno recordsof a largeeventor of surfacefaultingin a varietyof downdipgeometries but all orientedfavorably
the CordilleraBlancaregionback to 1513.The amount and with regardto the present
stress
field.At locationssuchas
4728 SCHWARTZ: ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS

::½:%:'-• • ........
• •::;::
.:;:f.

.........

:•;•;•4:•.., ....'•

Fig. 18. Fault scarpformed during the 1946 Ancashearthquake(photographfrom Silgado[1951]). Arrows point to
breaks in slope that define the pre-1946 scarp. The low slope angle of the older scarp indicatessignificantlylonger
recurrence intervals for this fault than for the Cordillera Bianca fault zone.

Pachma Bajo it is concident with a zone of marginal defor- in topographic relief that extends progressively eastward.
mation associatedwith emplacement of the Cordillera Bianca When a critical elevation is reached, the vertical compressive
batholith. This older structure forms the modern range front stressexceedsthe horizontal stressin regions of high altitude
and defines a 350-40ø dip slope that has a height of 1.2 km and normal faulting occurs. The constant addition of new
and extends at least 8 km along strike. The degree to which material and formation of new faults maintains the average
this dip is maintained with depth is not known. The amount elevationof the highestpart of the Andes.Similarly, Burchfiel
of displacementper event for past earthquakes and the pro- and Royden [1985] interpret normal faults in southern Tibet
posedsegmentlength estimatedfor the Cordillera Bianca fault and the Higher Himalayas to be a direct result of gravity
zone are typical of large normal-faulting earthquakes else- acting on areas of high topography that formed in responseto
where that nucleate at depths of 12-15 km. Together with thickeningof the crustalroot by the addition of incompletely
observations from the Ancash earthquake, they suggest that subducted Indian crust.
surface-faulting earthquakes within the Andean extensional Suarezet al. [1983• estimatedthe rate of crustal shortening
environment may typically nucleate at depths of approxi- acrossthe sub-Andesby adding seismicmoments for instru-
mately 15 km. mentallyrecordedearthquakesin the magnituderange of 5.4-
The driving mechanismfor normal faulting in this tectonic 6.3 in a volume of crust 2000 km long, 250 km wide, and 40
setting remains speculative.The crestal zone lies between the km deep. Using this approach,they estimatea lower bound
shallow dipping (10ø-15ø) Nazca plate [Barazan•7iand Isacks, shortening rate of 1.0-1.7 mm/yr. Taking into account the
1979], which is subducting in a N60øE direction [Stauder, possibilityof viscoelasticdeformation and the contribution
1975] and the zone of west dipping active thrust faults of the from earthquakeswith magnitudesless than 5.4 (recording
sub-Andes.Dalrnayrac and Molnar [1981] suggestthat normal threshold), Suarez et al. [1983] conclude that the average rate
faulting in the high Andes can be explained by gravitational of crustal shorteningis of the order of 1.4-2.1 mm/yr.
forces acting on areas of high elevation and the associated Preliminary estimates of the rate of late Pleistocene-
thickened crustal root. Suarez et al. [1983] showed that earth- Holocene extension across the Andean crest are based on the
quakes in the sub-Andes are occurring in the depth range of Cordillera Blanca slip rate and observationspresentedearlier.
8-38 km within crystalline basementon reversefaults that dip The downdip geometryof the Cordillera Blanca fault is uncer-
between 30ø and 60ø west. They suggestthat the addition of tain. A minimum rate of extensionof 0.5 mm/yr is obtained by
cold, brittle crust from the Brazilian shield to the eastern edge assumingan averagedip of 60ø and a net vertical slip of 12 m
of the Andes thickens the crustal root and causes an increase during the past 14,000years.A maximum rate of 1.9 mm/yr is
SCHWARTZ' ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY AND NEOTECTONICS 4729

obtained with a dip of 35ø and a net vertical slip of 15 m depths of 12-15 km. These observations,coupled with the 15-
during the past 11,000 years. These calculations are sensitive to 17-km nucleation depth of the 1946 Ancash earthquake,
to the dip of the fault and to the assumption that the slip rate suggest that this depth range is typical for nucleating large
at Quebrada Queroccocha is representativeof both the slip at normal-faulting events in the shallow crust of the northern
depth and of the rest of the fault zone. As mentioned earlier, a Andes.
parallel normal fault is observed on Landsat imagery on the At the latitude of the Cordillera Blanca, normal faults define
east side of the zone of extension. It has comparable ex- a zone of extension 120-170 km wide across the Andean crest.
pression on the imagery and could have a rate similar to the Using a late Pleistocene-Holocenevertical slip rate of 0.8-1.3
Cordillera Blanca. Normal faults that occur between these two mm/yr, rates of extension of 0.5-1.9 mm/yr can be calculated
boundaries, such as the Ancash and others that may exist in for the Cordillera Blanca fault zone. The contribution from
the zone, clearly have much longer recurrence intervals other faults is not certain, but the eastern boundary fault
(Figure 18) and would have added only a very small amount could have a comparable rate and double the value to ap-
to the extension during this time. Given the assumptionsand proximately 1-4 mm/yr. Taking into account all of the uncer-
uncertaintiesdiscussedhere, 1-4 mm/yr appears to be a rea- tainties in measurement,dating, and downdip fault geometry,
sonable estimate of the rate of extension across the Andean the range of 1-4 mm/yr is certainly within the correct order of
crest in late Pleistocene-Holocene time. It is interesting that magnitude. The similarity between the geologically derived
estimates of crestal extension and sub-Andean shortening are extension rate and the seismically derived moment rate esti-
similar. The degree to which this is fortuitous or meaningful is mate of crustal shortening in the sub-Andes is intriguing and
uncertain. On one hand, care must be taken in comparing warrants further study. The techniques discussed here to
them becauseof the differencesin the time scale during which quantify late Pleistocene-Holocene rates of deformation are
the rates are calculated and becausethe occurrence of a large applicable to other faults in the Andes and have the potential
magnitude earthquake in the sub-Andean region would sig- to provide better constraints on rates and models of
nificantly increase the seismicmoment used in the calculation. mountain-building processesin the Andean Cordillera.
On the other, the rate of extension may be a very reasonable
approximation of the rate of crustal shortening in the sub- Acknowledqments. Field work for this study, part of a plan for
long-term siting and design of hydroelectric projects along the Rio
Andes and of the rate at which crustal material is being added
Santa Basin, was undertaken while I was at Woodward-Clyde Con-
to the Andean root.
sultants.I thank Hidroservice (Lima, Peru) for permissionto use the
field results. I am indebted to H. Salazar and O. Felix (Electroperu),
CONCLUSIONS
H. Santucci and A. Arnt (Hidroservice), and J. La Cruz and M.
This paper has presentedthe observationsand interpreta- Farfan (Motlima) for their invaluable assistancein the field. M. J.
Bergin, A. Hull, P. K. Knuepfer, J. Perkins, R. S. Stein, and M. L.
tions of a study to quantify the recent behavior of a major Zoback provided insightful and constructivereviews.
Andean fault zone using recently developed paleoseismictech-
niques for normal faults. As additional studies are undertaken
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4730 SCHWARTZ: ANDEAN PALEOSEISMICITY
AND NEOTECTONICS

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Gailhardis, Quaternary normal and reversefaulting and the state of (ReceivedApril 9, 1987;
stress in the central Andes of south Peru, Tectonics, 4, 739-780, revised December 21, 1987;
1985. accepted December 24, 1987.)

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