CHAPTER- 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Water Quality : General Aspects

Water is an invaluabl e resource and the benefits to

mankind from proper management of this resource as wel 1 as

the disastrous consequences of its mismanagement are very

well known. The public awareness about water quality is at

its zenith now but at the same time, the danger signals have

not shown any abatement. Study of water quality has remained

an important pre-occupation with the environmentalist both

from the practical and the academic view points.

The concept of quality, however, raises a number of

questions which are often controversial because of wide

differences in technological and individual perceptions. The

economic and the aesthetic considerations describing water

quality also come to blows^. Technologically, water quality

can be catelogued in terms of appropriate physical, chemical

and bacteriological parameters which must be accurate,

2
unambiquous, quantitative and reproducible . Many authors

prefer to describe water quality in terms of the processes

occurring in a catchment ecosystem. This consists of a

source of water such as a river with its associated drainage

areas, and is a complex combination of biotic and abiotic

components and the interactions amongst them.

 23

A simplistic picture of the different hydrological

3
processes occurring in a catchment ecosystem is shown in

Fig. 2.1. Water entering a catchment is intercepted by the

vegetation and subsequently evaporated, or reaches the

ground as through fall and stem-flow. When there is no

vegetation, the precipitation comes to the ground directly,

although there may be some interception by surface litter.

From the ground water infiltrates into the soil or is

retained as surface storge which may move downward as

surface runoff or is slowly evaporated. Soil moisture may be

lost through evaporation and plant transpiration, or

percolates downward to form the mass of groundwater. The

groundwater is subject to similar losses through plant

transpiration and evaporation, or through upward flow by

capillary action into the unsaturated soil or through deep

transfer, or through base-flow to the river channel. The

river also receives contributions from surface runoff,

through-flow and inter-flow. The quality of the river water

is much different from that of the precipitation water. The

q
major mechanisms influencing water quality are shown in

Fig. 2.2. It clearly indicates (hat the river water quality

evolve through a complex series of interactions with soil,

rock, and biota of the catchment ecosystem. These

interactions are always in a delicate balance and a slight

modification to the catchment such as alterations in the

land use pattern is likely to generate significant changes

in water quality.
 24

CHANNEL
RUNOFF

Fig. 2.1 Hydrological processes In a catchment

 25

Fig. 2.2 Mechanisms influencing water quality.

 26

Natural water is chemically not pure, it contains a

large number of foreign constituents^ like (i) minerals

containing various metal ions, (ii) soluble organics like

alcohols, acids and sugars, (iii) trace amounts of organics

and inorganics which are normally insoluble, (iv) suspended

particulates, (v) living organisms and products of their

metabolism and (vi) floating matter such as Oil. All these

come either through solution of aerosol particles, which act

as the nuclei for condensation of raindrops, or through

solution of atmospheric particles by the falling raindrops

below the cloud level on impaction . Terrestrial aerosol

particles are rich in Ca2+, NH^+ NO^ HCO ^ and SO^2

while aerosols derived from the sea surface are high in Na +,

Cl", Mg2+ and K+ .

Chemical quality of precipitation and hence, of

water as a whole alters significantly during the

5 6
interception by vegetation cover ’ . changes in pll and

cation— content of the precipitation due to trees have been

well documented.

Water from surface runoff incorporates the soluble

materials and entrains sediment particles, making the water

turbid. The suspended sediments are likely to adsorb ions

and other matter. Water infiltrating into the soil will have

its quality modified appreciably due to soil-water

interactions. During dry periods, evaporative losses will be

maximum and the constituents of the sub-surface water will

 27

be enriched. The exchange reactions and the chemical equili­

bria, involving soil ad water, have been known2 to play an

important role in determining water quality. Water also

8 0
behaves as a chemical weathering agent and this aspect ’ is
-f

reflected in water quality through dissolved silica, Na ,

Ca2+. Mg2+ and HCO~

J l

The quality of water in contact with soil is also

governed by complex biotic regulation which is reflected in

NH* and NO^ content ns s h o w n ^ in Fig. 7.8.

The quality of groundwater, on the other hand,

depends on the type of rock entrapping the water and also on

depth and movement of aquifers'^'.

2.2 River Water

Surface runoff and groundwater flows together consti­

tute the river water. The contributions to river water

includc-~

(a) Precipitation

(b) Materials added on land erosion,

(c) Solution of chemicals during travel over and through the

SO [ 1 ,

(d) Removal of chemicl s bv plants or by reaction with soil

constituents,
 Plant transformation

SOIL

Fig. 2.3 Siotiu co..l i

.o 1 of and NOo content.
28
 29

(e) Addition through human activities, from both point and

non-point sources.

Surface runoff and groundwater outflow widely differ

in physical and chemical characteristics and therefore,

their their relative proportion determine effectively the

river water quality. Normally, after heavy precipitation,

the flow may be predominantly surface runoff, but at other

times, groundwater will be the main component. In general

surface runoff, throughflow and interflow, and base-flow or

groundwater flow form a continum rather than remaining as

discrete sources. Dilution of solute concentrations in

stream- flow during floods or heavy precipitation is much

13
less than is expected

Residence time of subsurface water is important in

determining quality characteristics of river water. Complex

translatory flow mechanisms ensure that during a storm

event, the water moving into a stream is actually "Old-

Water" displaced from the soil bv the entry of "New Wafer"

which suggests a certain time- lag between precipitation

I 'i ! ')
input and rtmoll. euLerl.ng a stnoiiii ’ . it !r: a l s o t r u e

that runoff quality varies with Its origin.

 30

There are also numerous channel processes

influencing stream water quality. These are particularly

responsible for controlling temperature, dissolved oxygen

and suspended sediment levels of stream water. Diurnal

fluctuation in pH, Ca^+ and HCO^ is brought about by release

of CO2 during the night by photosynthetic organisms in a

river"*"^. The stream sediments absorb large amounts of Ca^+ ,

Mg^', K* and PO^ , and subsequently they act as buffers for

these ions. Nitrogenous pollutants, on the other hand,

17-21
influence the dissolved oxygen values in river water

The annual pattern of variation of river water tempe­

rature follows closely that of air temperature, and that of

dissolved oxygen is similar but reversed. On the other hand,

suspended solid or turbidity bears a positive relationship

with levelof water discharge while dissolved solid is

inversely related to the same" 2-24 •■>

On the basis of four major ions, viz., Ca^+ , Na+ ,

Cl and HCO ., the chemical composition of river water is

shown lo have llnoc main control!, (1) atmosp h e r i c

precipitation dominance, (ii) soil and rock dominance and

25
(iii) evaporation- chemical precipitation dominance
 31

According to this study, rivers with low dissolved solid

content (.$20-30 mg/1) are dominated by atmospheric precipi­

tation sources and are characterized by high Na+ and Cl

concentration. Waters with very high dissolved solid content

(>,1000-2000 rng/1) are influenced by the processes of evapora­

tion and subsequent precipitation and their composition

reflects precipitation of CaCO^ from solution, leaving Na +

and Cl as the dominant ionic constituents. Where rock and

soil are the predominant sources, concentrations are inter­

mediate and the composition is characterized by Ca^+ and

HCO^ dominance. Vegetation cover also regulates the

2f 27
d i s s o l v e d s o l i d eoiiletiL oi r i v e r s ' ’

2.3 Human Impact on River Water

The complex and delicate mechanism which regulates

stream water quality is readily upset through human

activities
28 31 . These activities result in the addition of
“

foreign matter, the so-called pollutants from both point and

diffuse sources. Point sources discharge directly into

channels and their effects can be studied without much

difficulty. The routes of non-point or diffuse pollutants

are numerous and therefore, their study and categorisation

is always an uphill task. The effects on water quality of

natural and anthropogenic sources have been analysed in a

_ .32
recent report
 32

River waterquaiity starting from the source to the

sea is a mirror of the effects of man's social and indus­

trial activities. Along the river's course, water is drawn

for use in drinking, washing, agriculture, industrial

activity etc. and is returned to the river as effluent. The

waste discharges which may cause chemical, physical, physio-

33
logical, and biological pollution are summarised in Table
2.1 and 2.2.

The sewage consists of 38-73% domestic wastewater

(water used in the toilet, for waste disposal, personal

washing, and laundering), 5-25% road runoff, 5-20%

3A-
infiltration and 10-20% trade effluent"5 . The domestic

Wcl s tewat er, on the c>ther hand , comprises nearly 90% of the

W ei Ger us ed in the home.

The relative flows and qualities of a river and the

eiI t 1uent discharged into it determine the impact of the

ef f1uent on the receiving waters. The stream flow is

rai nf all and season-■dependent , and the qual ity of the flow

at any point is dependent

i on upstream discha rges and

abs tract ions. Direct discharge of effluent, without any pre-

treatment, to a river may have serious ecological

consequences.

The carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which are

commonly found in sewage, are used by bacteria as food and

in the process, are converted to low molecular weight

 n
T a b l e 2.1 Types of discharge and associated pollution.

T y p e of p o 1 1 u t 1 o n
Source of
eff1uent Chemical Physical Physiological Biological

Sewage Organic Suspended Smel 1 Bacteria

matter solids vi ruses
Turbidity

• Coal mining Dissolved Suspended Taste(iron)

inorganic solids
matter Bed deposits

• Food Proteins Temperature - Racier 1a

processing, s11 g a rs
Carbohydrates

• Metal Metals Col our Taste!iron) -

industry Cyanide 1ox 1c .
1ty
Phenols (cyanide)
Ammonia

Organic Chlorinated Foaming Ta s te (phenol ■;)

Chemical Organic
Industry Compounds

Electricity - Waste heat

industry
Table 2.2 Effluents and their affects on water quality.

Effluent i,
'"ri'ors affecting water quality

Domestic sewage BOD, suspended solids, ammonia,

n 11 r a to , phosplui te

Vegetable processing BOD, suspended solids, culmir

Chemical Industry BOD, ammonia, pheno'ls, nonbiode-

gradable organics, heat

Iron and steel Cyanide, phenols, thiocyanate,

manufacturing pH, ammonia, sulphides

Coal mining Suspended solids, iron, pH,

dissolved solids

Metal finishing Cyanide, copper, cadmium, nickel,

pi-l.

Brewing .Suspended solids, BOD, pD

Dairy products BOD, pH

Oil refincries Heal , ammor;a , phenols , oil,

su 1p!i ide

Quarrying Suspended solids, oil

Powe r g e nc r a t io n
compounds. The common pathways involve conversion to pyruvic

uci.fl (ClljCO, COOII), lactic acid (CH^. CHOH. COOH) , propionic

acid (r.H.j. CII.,. COOli) or arctic acid (C H ^ . COOli) which arc*

further degraded to CC^ and water. Fats are initially broken

down to glycerol and the appropriate fatty acids, while

proteins are broken down into their amino acid components

and then further degraded through loss of ammonia. The

28
simplified scheme of degradation is shown in Fig. 2.4. All

these processes utilize oxygen and thus, result in reduction

of dissolved oxygen in river water. However, some solid

substances, discharged into the river, settle to the bed and

undergo anerobic reduction forming such end-products as

methane (CH^), carbon dioxide,ammonia and hydrogen sulphide.

World Health Organisation

35 found more than 1000

organic compounds in rivers and effluents. Data for

biodegradability, toxicity, and carcinogenicity of all these

compounds are not available, but they have definitely

multiplied the health hazards.

When a river crosses through an urban agglomeration,

its water quality is affected by the urban runoff. Due to

high traffic, the urban runoff is very much

O£ 0 7
contaminatedJ ’ and it adds much more pollutants to the

stream flow than the river base-flow or the sewage

effluents. This is shown for the nutrients^

38 in Table 2.3.

Nitrate loads of rivers have been found to be correlated to

agricultural practices
39 ’<40 Runoff from roads has been
Fig. 2.4 Simplified scheme of degradation of sewage components
 37

Table 2.3: Comparison of urban runoff, sewage effluent and

river base-f]ow during a 13 mm rain event.

Weight (Kg) added during the event

Parameter
Runoff Sewage Base-flow

Nitrite N 1.4 0.0 0.0

Nitrate N 52.2 2.5 0.41

Ammonia N 43.1 0.34 1.0

TKN 89.9 0.68 1.45

Total N 143.5 0.95 0.64

Total P 35.4 0.73 0.77

Ortho P 20.0 0.48 0.45

Suspended 46308.0 2 77.4 1.50.7

solids

Total Organic 479.0 2.86 2.36

Carbon

BOD5 296.9 1.77 2.36

TKN = Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen

n
The runnof Is from a 1.6.84 Km

Commercial- residential area.

 38

known to reduce both the diversity and density of fish and

microbenthic communities of receiving waters of streams

running through urban areas*4 5 , while the runoff is also a

rich source of a variety of micro-organisms. Sewage effluent

geology and physiography of an area and its land occupancy

pattern, and salinity of river water determine the virus,

f f C*.
bacteria and other micro-organism levels^

2.4 World Rivers

Over the years, a very large amount of published

work have built up on water qualLty and other aspects of the

rivers of the world. Only a selected tiny sample will be

considered here.

The Amazon river^ ’^ , which has the largest

drainage basin in the world, was found to have a

concentration variance factor of 2.2 to 3.4 for total

— 2+ o —
salinity, HCO^, Ca , SO ^ and K for a yearly period while
2+
Si02, Mg and Cl showed relatively constant values. The

river Wye |f) in Britain showed downstream enrichmenL of

most parameters, particularly iron { 500 ug/1 ) and

r o
manganese (^ 100 ug/1). Temporal variation study"5 revealed

that concentrations of total dissolved .solids and the major

ions (Ca^ , Mg^ , Na , K and HCO^) were generally lowest

during the winter and highest during the summer, which

corresponded well with seasonal pattern of flows (maximum

flow during winter, minimum flow during summer). Only

 39

nitrate N showed an opposing pattern of variation, due

apparently to flushing during the rainy winter following the

prolonged mineralisation of organic material of the soil

during the long, dry summer.

53
An exhaustive study of the river Rhine showed an

improvement in water quality in the period 1950 to 1980 with

respect to dissolved oxygen, ROD^ and COD,but the nutrients,

orthophosphate P and nitrate N indicated much enrichment for

the same period. The heavy metals (Cr, Ni, Cu, Z n , C d , Hg,

Pb) also showed appreciable concentration during 1982. About

70 to 80% of the pollution load of the Rhine has been shown

to come from the earstwhile West Germany"*^. Long time

seasonal variations in the composition of the river are also

reported . The Po river'" in Italy has also been subject to

extensive study. The river has suspended solid values

ranging from 45 to 450 mg/1, dissolved solid values from 220

to 370 mg/1 (86% of this load being of inorganic nature),

BOD^ mean value of 3 mg/1, C0D/B0D ratio of ^ 5 , and

detectable amounts of various organic and heavy metal

micropollutants.

The Global Environmental Monitoring System of the

United Nations Environment Programme, under which water

quality of rivers worldwide, have been monitored at 240

stations since 1977, has drawn some Interesting conclusions

57
recently . It is found that the most widespread pollutant
 40

is the organic matter present in domestic sewage, the other

important pollutants being nutrients, toxic metals, and

industrial and agricultural chemicals. The European and US

rivers were found to contain excess Ivo nutrients, causing n

number of major problems like developing algal blooms and

subsequent lowering, of oxygen levels due Lo decay of algal

material. Mining and industry were identified as the major

sources of metal contamination and nitrogen and sulphur

oxides released to the atmosphere on fossil fuel burning

contributed to acidification of river water. Deforestation

and destruction of natural filters such as wetlands were

responsible for increasing amount of sediments in the

rivers. 801 of the river sampling, stations exhibited total

coliform and faecal coliform concentrations above WHO

limits. Many streams and rivers in South America, India and

Southeast Asia arc heavily contaminated with bacterial and

faecal matter, mainly as a result of lack of sewage treat­

ment plants. 107„ of the rivers are polluted by organic

matter with ROD of >6.5 mg/] and COD > 44 mg/1 , and 51 of

the rivers are severely oxygen- depleted. European rivers

have' the highest average nut i lent levels, the nit rate levels

being as high as 45 times the natural background concentra­

tions, 1.01 or Lho rivers haw- high values of nitrate (0 ? r>

mg/1) and phosphorus (0.2-2.0 mg/.l ) which Tar exceed the

limits set by WHO. The study indicated heavy metal conta­

mination in several rivers of Chile, China, Japan, Mexico,

 41 .

Panama, the Philippines, Turkey and the US. Markedly higher

level s of organic micropollutants (100-1000 >tg/l) were found

for the river Trent (PCBS) in the UK, the Chinese rivers

(HCH isomers), and the Japanese rivers. Serious contamina­

tion (>1000 7ig/l) was found in some rivers of Colombia (DDT

and dieldrin), Indonesia (PCBS), Malaysia (Dieldrin) and

Tanzania (Dieldrin). The rivers in China, India, Indonesia,

Iraq and Iran are found to possess high levels of suspended

matter.

The major issues, related to the water quality of

rivers of the world, have also been identified and

co
summarised recently . Heavy metal pollution of the rivers

has received particular a Itent ion In all the countries.

Rivers in the US have been investigated very early in this

regard.59-61 . n. m. .,..62-63 , 0
Rivers the UK Germany 54-55,64
’

Chile^, Japan*^, R u s s i a ^ China^^, Thailand^

71-72
and others have been studied with respect to metal
contents.

Trace organics in river water have also been

estimated by many. Free fatty acid content is always found

O O £
to much higher in case of polluted rivers0 . The total

organic content is often dependent on the properties of

86
soil0 . The mercury content of river water is found to be of

organic nature 87 ’88 by as much as 307,. Investigation of

trace organics in the Beso's and Llobregat rivers of

 42

Spain ^’ ^ resulted In I hr flrlrrt l o t i o f r,1~f,5 a 1|ry 1 hr n i t r i m n ,

C8-C20 n <i1k.int-s , CIO CI3 a Ikv 1benzene;;, ch Ior In:i lod

hcnzcnos, Lerpenes niid l r Lbut v 1pho s phat os . The pol.'enL I a 1 1 y

carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAI!) like

fluoranthene, anthracene, phenanthrene, pyrene, benzo(K)

fluoranthene, and benzo(a) pyrene have been measured in the

range of <0.3 to 525 mg/1 in the rivers Brisbane, Parramatta

and Yarra in Australia

91'. Organic micropollutants like

surfactants, Phosphoric esters, Phthalic esters, pesticides,

92
etc. have been reported recently for the river Po in

Italy.

2.5 Indian Rivers

J
Study of water quality and pollution load of the

rivers in India has received a tremendous impetus in recent

years, particularly in the eighties. The literature, more

specifically the journals published from Tndla are repletc

with reports on Indian rivers. Again, a small fraction of

the same will be touched upon in this review.

The Ganga is regarded as one of the most polluted

rivers of the world. The river has been studied at different

stretches of its length of2525 Km (1450 Km in UP, 445 Km in

93 of
Bihar and 520 Km in West Bengal). The water chemistry

the whole river revealed total dissolved s o l Id content In

the range of 105 to 290 mg/1, of which respectively 57X and

 43

231 consisted of HCO^ and Ca2+. However, the ions did not

show a regular trend of downstream enrichment. The

pollutional characteristics of the Ganga and its tributaries,

94-112
particularly the Yamuna have been well established
1 OR
The Jamuna has been shown to contribute 3200 tons of Pb,

12100 tons of Zn and 8500 tons of Cu annually to the Ganga

at Allahabad in particulate form. The bacterial load of the

Ganga and the Yamuna is also extremely high. It has been

__
reported that the Yamuna, which enters Delhi with a load

of 7500 faecal coliforms per 100 ml of water, leaves the

city with a 24 million faecal coliforms per 100 ml load.

This dramatic increase is due to the dumping of 200 million

litres of sewage into the river daily at Delhi, severe

physico-chemical and bacterial pollution have also been

11 3
reported for the Ganga and its tributaries at Kanpur.. ,

Varanasi11^ , Patna11'5 and Calcutta98 199.

Many other rivers in North and South India have been

investigated for water quality and pollution monitoring. A

few of these are : the Periyar118, the Moosi (Hyderabad)112,

the Nandira118 (Bhubaneswar), the Brahmani (Orissa)119, the

121 , the Thelum (Kashmir) 122-124 , the
Codnvari^2^, the Gomti
125 127
Subarnarskha ’126, the Cauvery , the Kal i river

(U.P.)128, the Wainganga (M.P.)129, the Kali r Lv e r

1 30 1 31
(Karnataka)1 , the Patra river (Bhopal) , the Betwa

(M.P.,U.P.)132, the Pykara (Tamilnadu)133 , the lb

 44

1 ^ / j o r

(Orissa) f Lhe Muhi (Gujarat) , the Chambal, the Tapti

136 , etc. These and other works reveal
and the Sone (M.P.)1
that in some of the eases, discharge of industrial effluents

to natural rivers is responsible for the deterioration of

water quality, but in majority of the cases, the culprit

happens to be the untreated domestic sewage. Unfortunately,

the cities and towns in India do not have adequate and

proper sewerage and sewage treatment facilities, and the

sewage is often directly discharged to the rivers. The

effect has been a very pronounced deterioration of water

quality even of the big rivers near cities and other urban

conglomerations. When only small rivers and rivulets serve

as the natural drainage channels for cities, the

deterioration is almost irreversible.

j The rivers of the North-Eastern region, dominated by

the Brahmaputra and its innumerable tributaries, have not

been much investigated for water chemistry as well as pollu­

tion. As the region is known for industrial backwardness,

the prevalent belief lias been that the water of these rivers

has maintained its pristine purity. In the process, the

discharge of untreated sewage and other municipal waste has

been overlooked, secondly, awareness of the environmental

elements is of relatively recent origin in this part of the

country and only a few works1 on different aspects of

water pollution at Guwahati have seen light. The ion

chemistry
141 of the Brahmaputra and its sediment characteris-
 45

142
tics1 z have been briefly dealt with before, but the pollu-

tional aspects of neither the Brahmaputra nor its tributa­

ries have been reported.

The major environmental problems of the Asia-

143
Pacific region have been identified1 as due to the
relative 1,ick of development, poverty and Inadequate Infra­

structural facilities. India and the North-Eastern Region in

particular have not become an exception to this. Tills J.s

principally the reason for the pitiable condition of the

rivers in India. The plight of the Ganga-Yamuna due to flow

S7 q a 7 1 1 A - 1 1 S
of dirty drainwater has been well documented^ ’ ’

Other rivers like the Narmada'^"’, the Damodar^^ ’ ,

etc. have similar fate. Urban runoff and sewage disposal

have been playing a vital role in determining the water

quality status of Indian rivers and tributaries.

2.6 References

1. Keller, EA, 1982. In Environmental Geology, 3rd Edition,

Charles E Merril Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio, p.l.

2. Lamb, III JC, 1985. In Mater Quality and its Control,

John Wiley and Sons Inc. New York, p. 2-3.

3. Walling DE, 1980. Water in the catchment Ecosystem. In

Water Quality in Catchment Ecotystem ed. AM Gower, John

Wiley and Sons, Chichester, p. 4.

 46

4. Turk, J lurk A and Arm:, K, 1484. In Env I runinui iLa 1

Science, 3rd edition, Saunders College Publishing, New

York, |>, 424-426.

5. Carlisle A, Brown AHF and White EJ , 1967. The nutrient

content of tree stem flow and ground flora litter and

leachate in a sessile oak woodland, J. Ecol. 55, 615-627

6 . Cule I)W and .Johnson !)W, 1977. Atmospheric sulphate addi­

tions and cation leaching in a Donglas Fir ecosystem.

Water Resour. Res. 13, 313-317.

7. Bolt GH, Bruggenwert MGM and Kamphorst A, 1976.

Adsorption of cations by soil. In Soil Chemistry. A.

Basic elements, eds. GH Bolt and MGM Bruggenwert, Else­

vier, Amsterdam.

8. Bricker OP and Carrels R M , 1967. Mineralogic factors in

natural water equilibria. In Principles and Application

of Water Chemistry, eds. SD Faust and JV Hunter, Wiley,

New York, pp. 449-469.

9. Tollenaar P and Ryckborst H., 1975. The effect of

conifers on the chemistry and mass balance of two large

lysimeters in castricum (the Netherlands) J. Hydrol. 24,

77-87.

10. Walling DE, 1980. Water in the catchment Ecosystem. In

Water Qualityin Catchment Ecosystem, ed. AM Gower, John

Wileyand Sons, Chichesten, pp. 16-19.

11. Sawyer CN and McCarty PL, 1978. In Chemistry Cor Envirpn-

mental Engineering, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York,

p.380.

12. Lamb, III JC, 1985. In Water Quality and Its Control,

John Wiley and Sons, New York, p. 127.

13. Kennedy VC, L977. Hypothesis to explain the rapid

release of solutes from soil during storm runoff EOS

58,386.

14. Hewlett JD and Hibbert A R , 1967, Factors affecting the

response of small watersheds to precipitation in humid

areas. In Inte motion al Symposium on Forest Hydrology,

cds. WE Copper and MW Lull , Pcrgamon Press, Oxford,

pp.725-736.

15. Fritz P Cherry JA, Weyer KU and Ski ash M, 1976. Storm

runoff analysis using environmental isolopes and major

ions. In Interpretation of Environmental Isotope and

Hydro-chemical Data in Groundwater Hydrology, Interna­

tional Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, pp. 111-142.

16. Barnes I, 1965. Geochemistry of Birch Creek, Inyo

County, California in a travertine depositing creek in

an arid climate. Geochim. Onsmorhlm Act a 20, 85-11 2.

17. Courchaine R J , 1968. Significance of nitrification in

stream analysis- effects on the oxygen balance. J. Wat.

Pollut. Control Fed. 40, 835-942.

 48

18. WezernakT and Cannon J J , 1967. Oxygen-nitrogen relation­

ship in autotrophic nitrification. Appl . Microbiol. 15,

1211-1215.

19. Gowda TPH, 1983, Modeling nitrification effects on the

dissolved oxygen regime of the Speed River. Wat. Res.

17, 1917-1927.

20. Cooper ABJ , 1986. Developing management guidel ines for

river nitrogenous oxygen demand. J. Wat. Pollut. Control

Fed. 58, 845-852.

21. Deai J, Yida T, Gong Y, Jianrong Z and Yicheng S, 1991.

Factors affecting the Relationship between the NBOD

values and the amounts of nitrogenous pollutants : A

field study on the Lee River Wat. Res. 25, 485-489.

22. Hall FR, 1970. Dissolved solids- discharge relationships

1 Mixing models. Water Resour. Res. 6, 845-850.

23. Hal 1 F R , 1971. Dissolved solids- discharge relationships

2 Application to field data. Water Resour. Res. 7,

591-601.

24. Johnson NM, Likens GE, Bormann FH, Fisher DW and Pierce

R S , 1969. A Working model for the variation of Stream

water chemistry at the Hubbard Brook Experimental forest

New Hampshire. Water Resou. Res. 5, 1353-1363.

25. Gibbs R, 1970. Mechanisms controlling world water

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 49

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