Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Heat transfer characteristics in nanofluid—A review MARK

⁎
R.B. Ganvir , P.V. Walke, V.M. Kriplani
Department of Mechanical Engineering, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering, CRPF Gate No. 3, Hingna road, Nagpur 440016, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: The heat transfer characteristics of current fluids are tremendously improved by suspending nano-sized solid
Heat transfer particles with diameter below 100 nm and are considered as prospective working fluids for the applications such
Nanoparticles as solar collectors, heat pipes, nuclear reactors, electronic cooling systems, automobile radiators etc. The
Nanofluid present paper summarizes the current research in the nanofluid studies on convective heat transfer
Thermal conductivity
performance, thermo-physical properties, effect of fluid temperature, inlet velocity, use of surfactant for better
stability of nanofluids, particle size, and volume concentration effects. The article also suggests the direction for
future developments.

1. Introduction major benefits such as higher heat conduction, microchannel cooling

Heat transfer enhancement of thermal systems is most important
problem in many industrial applications owing to the lack of energy
sources. From the last few decades, we have seen strange growth in
various fields such as electronics, communication and computing
technologies and will continue to grow at faster rate than ever.
Thermal management of high power systems like hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) and aerospace applications, microprocessors heat
fluxes etc. are challenging issues and requires high performance
compact cooling techniques. To enhance heat transfer rate by reducing
energy losses using traditional/or new energy sources, it is most
important to deal with the energy wastage problems, for this purpose
extended surfaces technologies used such as fins, micro channels which
are reaching to their limits. Therefore, new technologies which have
potential to improve the thermal properties of cooling fluids are of
great interest to the researchers. Conventional fluids such as water,
ethylene glycol and mineral oils possess poor thermal conductivity. A
possible effective way of improving heat transfer performance on
conventional fluids is to suspend small solid particles, such as metallic
and non-metallic particles in conventional fluids. Recent developments
in nanotechnology and related manufacturing techniques have made
possible to manufacture the nanosized particles. Fluids with nanopar-
ticles (diameter less than 100 nm) suspended in conventional fluids are
called nanofluids, as coined by Choi S.U.S. [5] to increase the heat
transfer characteristics. The main goal of nanofluids is to achieve
highest possible value of thermal conductivity at the smallest possible
concentration of nanoparticles. Nanofluid due to its molecular chain
behavior, nanoparticles properly dispersed in the base fluid achieved
without clogging, reduced chances of erosion and pumping power with
enhancement in thermal conductivity and stability of mixture. In
general the above features of nanofluids provide us the new area of
research in nanofluid technology, plays an important role to improve
heat transfer and energy efficiency in several areas including vehicular
cooling in transportation, power generation, defense, nuclear, space,
microelectronics and biomedical devices.
1.1. Objectives of the work
This paper reviews about various thermal and other rheological
properties of nanofluid necessary to increase heat transfer enhance-
ment rate and studies other challenging issues such as economy,
thermal achievement rate, availability, and environmental impact that
need to be solved for future research on nanofluid as well as proposed
suggestions to ensure more stability of nanofluid over a long period of
time with negligible agglomeration and without chemically changing
the properties of fluid while preparation of nanofluid.
2. Preparation of nanofluids
The first step in experimental studies is the preparation of nano-
fluids. Preparation of a stabilized nanofluid is of great importance in
heat transfer applications of nanofluids. Poorly prepared nanofluids
will render biphasic heat transfer (i.e. solid-liquid). Another challenge
is posed by nanoparticles aggregation which creates larger particles (in
micrometer order), thus eliminating the nanorelated discussions.
Furthermore, particle instability results in particle fouling in reservoir,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ganvirraj72@gmail.com (R.B. Ganvir), pramod.walke@raisoni.net (P.V. Walke), vilayatrai.kriplani@raisoni.net, v.vmk@rediffmail.com (V.M. Kriplani).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.010
Received 25 October 2015; Received in revised form 19 October 2016; Accepted 1 November 2016
Available online 11 November 2016
1364-0321/ © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.B. Ganvir et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460

Nomenclature NC Nanocoolant
PC Personal computer
AR Aspect ratio Pr Prandtl Number
CeO2 Cerium Oxide Pe Peclet number
CHE Compact heat exchanger Qnf Heat transfer rate of nanofluid
CNT Carbon nanotube Ra Rayleigh number
CPU Central Processing Unit Ra/Rc Thermal resistance ratio
DIW De-ionised water Re Reynolds Number
EG Ethylene Glycol SDBS sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate
FCNT Functionalised carbon nanotube SWCNT single wall carbon nanotube
HAC heaters and coolers TEM Transmission Electronic Microscope,
HTC Heat transfer coefficient THW Transient hot-wire method
h Hour TMHS Tangential Micro heat sink
Km Thermal conductivity of solid particles Tnf Temperature of nanofluid
Ko Thermal conductivity of liquid TNT Titanate nanotube
K Thermal conductivity of mixture VG vortex generator
MCHS Multichannel heat sink ΔTLMTD Log mean temperature difference
MWCNT Multiwall carbon nanotube n Empirical scaling factor

pipes, pumps and other equipment of thermal cycle.
Nanofluids are usually prepared by two-step method and one-step
method which are elaborated as:
2.1. Two-step method
This method utilizes nanoparticles, nanotubes and other nano-
materials which are initially in the form of dry powders by chemical,
physical, mechanical methods [5]. Ultrasonic vibrators are generally
used to stir nano-powders with base fluids. Two-step method is most
economical method for all type of production of nanofluids.
Agglomeration is a major issue in synthesizing nanofluids. Frequently
use of ultra-sonication or stirring process decreases particle agglom-
eration. The nanofluids tend to aggregate because of high surface area
and activity [5]. Stability is a significant issue as the powders aggregate
easily because of van der Waals force among nanoparticles [5].
Nanoparticles aggregations are difficult to break up by ultra-sonication
process. Agglomeration decreases the thermal conductivity of nano-
fluids. However, the two-step method is recognized as most economical
process for producing nanofluids as they are produced on large scale. It
was suggested that the two step process method is more suitable for
preparing nanofluids with oxide nanoparticles than those with metallic
nanoparticles [1].
Several researchers prepared nanofluids by different processes
using direct synthesis method [7–10,12–14,16,17,30], sol-gel method
[11], chemical precipitation method [15], physical gas-phase and direct
condensation method [22,23,80] mechanical stirring process [25],
surface treated and fuctionalisation acid treatment for Carbon nano-
tube [49,52], chemical co-precipitation method [68]. To reduce
agglomeration of nanoparticles, some of them employed dispersant
such as SDBS [18,32,34,39], chitosan [43], using surfactant such as
Polyvinylpyrolidine [6], Cetyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide [44],
some researchers employed other alternatives to obtain homogeneous
mixture using silane as a surface modifier [20], spiral coil [21], varying
of pH of concentration [32,41,49], formation of carboxyl groups on the
surface of the nanoparticles [68] for stability purpose.
Zeinali Heris et al. [44] prepared suspension of Al2O3 nanoparticles
without dispersant or stabilizer because the addition of any agent may
change the fluid properties. After preparing the required volume of
powder, nanoparticles mixed with the distilled water and vibrated for
6–12 h by ultrasonic mixing system. No sedimentation was observed
for all volume factions after 12 h at rest while Chougule and Sahu
[49,52] prepared suspension of carbon nanotube and Al2O3 nanopar-
ticles by fuctionalisation acid treatment method. The ultrasonic
vibrator employed along with sonication process for 1 h to make the
nanofluid more stable and remain more dispersed in water. This was
caused by a hydrophobic-to- hydrophilic conversion of the surface
nature due to the generation of a hydroxyl group. The functionalized

Table 1
Results of the thermal conductivity measurement of different types of nanofluid.

Researchers Nanoparticles (size in nm) Base fluid Measurement technique Enhancement of ‘k’with particle volume
percentage

Xie et al. [8] Al2O3 (60.4) DIW, EG, Pump THW 7.6% at 5.0 vol%
Oil
Sahooli and Sabbaghi et al. [9] CuO (4) EG THW 1.0089% At 0.01 vol%
Asirvatham et al. [13] Silver(80) DIW THW 69.3%. at 0.9 vol%
Naphon et al. [24] Titanium (20) DIW, alcohol THW 10.60% at 0.1 vol%
Pantzali et al. [25] CuO (30) Water THW 22% At 4.0 vol%
Al2O3 (11) 18% At 4.0 vol%
CNT(10-50) 10% At 4.0 vol%
Pantzali et al. [26] CuO (30) Water THW 10% at 2.0 vol%
Nguyen et. [27] Al2O3 (36) Water THW Higher at 2.8%
Gherasim et al. [28] Al2O3 (47) Water THW 12.1%,at 2.0 vol%
Leong et al. [29] Copper EG THW 3.8% at 2.0 vol%
Hung et al. [30] Al2O3 (20) Water THW 40% at 1.5 wt%
Leong et al. [31] Al2O3, Water THW 23% at 7.0 vol%,
TiO2 23% at 4.0 vol%
Naraki et al. [32] CuO (60) Water THW 8% at 0.4 vol%
Naphon and Nakharint [33] TiO2 (21) DIW THW Optimum at 0.2 vol%
Halelfadl et al. [34] CNT (9.2) Water THW 1.4% at 0.3 vol%

452
R.B. Ganvir et al.
CNT (FCNT) nanocoolant exhibits better enhancement in the heat
transfer rate compared to surface treated CNT nanocoolant and water.
The performance of surface treated CNT nanocoolant (SCNT) was
found to deteriorate at higher temperature due to lower bonding
strength between nanoparticles and surfactant.
2.2. One- step method
The one-step process simultaneously makes and disperses the
nanoparticles directly into the base fluid. The one-step process is also
favourable because it prevents oxidation of the nanoparticles.
Several researchers have used this method to prepare nanofluids .
Drying, storage, transportation and nanoparticles dispersion avoided in
this method to minimize nanoparticles agglomeration and increase
fluid stability thus reduces the production cost [6].
Because of difficulty while preparing stable nanofluids by two step
method, advanced techniques are developed in one-step method
process like laser ablation method [5] and submerged arc nanoparticles
synthesis system (SANSS) where metals are vaporized and cooled into
liquids to obtain stable nanofluids. Submerged arc nanoparticles
synthesis system (SANSS) consists of a heating source, a cooling unit,
and a state control system, includes an isobaric control system and an
isothermal control system. Result reveals that the particles dispersed
were safe and pure because of submerged in de-ionized water, and thus
not contaminated further. This method avoids undesired particle
aggregation [21] because of incomplete reaction or stabilization at
the cost of uniform stability at low saturation rate.
Stability of working fluids is required for thermal management
systems either using one-step or two-step method for preparation. To
maintain uniform nanofluid concentrations, it is major possibilities to
deposit nanoparticles on the inner wall of the flow channel. Therefore,
for the application of nanofluid effectively and reliably in engineering
systems, the new technology is needed which increases the degree of
stability of nanofluid.
3. Research on nanofluids – current status
Regarding the flow and heat transfer of thermal system, main
thermo-physical properties of nanofluids includes density, specific heat
capacity, thermal conductivity, viscosity and surface tension. Changes
in these thermo-physical properties of nanofluids compared with the
base fluids are to be estimated. Changes in thermal conductivity,
viscosity and surface tension are reviewed.
3.1. Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity received most attention by the researchers.
Suspension of small amounts of nanoparticles of oxides (Al2O3, CuO,
TiO2, Fe2O3, SiO2 etc.), metals (Cu, Ag), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in
traditional base fluids (water, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, engine
oil etc.) have resulted increase in thermal conductivity of mixture.
Table 1 indicates that the thermal conductivity of base fluid
enhanced by using nanoparticles and it was generally measured by
transient hot wire (THW) method in which natural convection effects
eliminated at large scale.
3.1.1. Effects of volume fraction and particle size on thermal
conductivity
Several researchers experimentally studied the effects of volume
fraction and particle size on thermal conductivity of homogeneous
mixture of different nanoparticles with base fluid for Silver nanopar-
ticles [13] with base fluid (DIW) at 0.9 vol%, thermal conductivity ratio
raised upto 1.64.
For Al2O3 nanofluid employed in various application, result shows
an increase in thermal conductivity upto 29% at 5 vol%. [8], at volume
fractions of 2, 4, 6 shows heat transfer enhancement by 12.1%, 11.5%,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
and 11% respectively [28], With addition of 1 vol% of nanoparticles
into pure water, an increase of heat transfer coefficient of 30–45% in
comparison with pure water [37]. With addition of only 1 vol% of
nanoparticles into water or ethylene glycol, an increase in Nussult
number of 40% was recorded compared to base fluid [38], at 1 vol%,
heat transfer rate of CPU enhanced due to higher heat transfer surface
area at higher volume concentration [40], maximum enhancement in
heat transfer from 1.143 to 1.276 was achieved at concentration of
2.5% [44]. An overall heat transfer coefficient of 711 W/m2 was
observed at 50 vol% of nanofluid compared to base fluid [47]. At the
concentration of 0.5–1.5% in car radiator, heat transfer rate enhanced
from 19% to 42% with the addition of nanofluid [51]. In turbulent
region, at concentrations of 6 vol% at a Reynolds number of 8000,
shows a convective heat transfer coefficient of 50% higher than that
produced by base fluid thus heat transfer coefficient increased at higher
concentrations [53]. For MCHS, enhanced the heat transfer coefficient
as its volume fraction increases from 0% to 2.5% [55],while in
tangential micro heat sink, this trend of increasing heat transfer
reversed at higher volume fraction of nanoparticles [58], thus the
thermal boundary layer thickness decreases in micro-tube, furthermore
thermal conductivity increased due to presence of nanoparticles at a
more significant rate of Al2O3-water [63].
Many researchers experimentally illustrated the effects of volume
fraction of oxide of copper oxide nanoparticles volume concentration
on heat transfer such as Naraki et al. [32] observed the effects of
nanofluid concentration on overall heat transfer coefficient. Result
reveals that maximum enhancement of overall heat transfer coefficient
of nanofluid at 0.4 vol% and 0.15 vol% occurred about 8% and 6%
respectively as compared to base fluid. In double plate heat exchanger,
enhancement of heat transfer by the nanofluid was 37% for 1.0%
weight, due to suspended particles which increased thermal conduc-
tivity of mixture [39]. At volume fraction of 0.01–0.04 and at the flow
rate of 3–6 l/min in a helical coil heat exchanger, heat transfer
coefficient enhanced by 7.14% by using nanofluid [45]. Hence, greater
convective heat transfer coefficient was found for higher particles
volume fraction for nanofluid. At 6 vol%, the increase in heat transfer
coefficient was about 1.75 times at a Reynolds number of 20000 and
about 1.5 times at Reynolds number of 100000 over the base fluid [54].
Many researchers experimentally illustrated the effects of volume
fraction of copper nanoparticles volume concentration on heat transfer
like in shell and tube heat recovery exchanger [60], the 7.8% of heat
transfer enhancement was achieved at 1 vol% for copper/ethylene
glycol nanoparticles while 4.53% of heat transfer enhancement for
copper/water nanofluids at 2.0 vol% in laminar flow region. Yang et al.
[35] illustrated enhancement in heat transfer rate with addition of Cu
nanoparticles into distilled water. Result reveals that at Pe =2.4*105,
heat transfer coefficient increased at 0.25 vol%, 0.5 vol% and 1.0 vol%
about 9.0%, 18.3% and 37.9%, respectively. Thus at high Peclet
number of nanoscaled suspended particles, enhanced heat transfer
rate. M.Boudouh et al. [36] studied convective boiling of Cu nanopar-
ticles (35 nm) with the distilled water at volume fraction of 5 mg/l,
10 mg/l, and 50 mg/l. It was noticed that the nanoparticles increased
the heat transfer rate of about 2.7% at 50 mg/l and increased incipient
boiling rate because of the difference between the surface temperature
and the inlet liquid temperature.
Y.Vermahmoudi et al. [41] illustrated the effect of nanoparticles
(Fe2O3) concentration at 0.65 vol% and at fixed air flow rate of
1009 m3/h. Result reveals that about 13% improvements was achieved
in overall heat transfer coefficient at flow rate of 0.5 m3/h.
Peyghambarzadeh et al. [42] illustrated the effect of nanofluid con-
centration on heat transfer rate of Fe2O3/water nanofluid at 0.65 vol%
in car radiator. A result shows enhancement in heat transfer of 9% for
nanofluid compared to pure water. Furthermore, application of nano-
fluid causes the liquid to exit the radiator at lower temperature and air
gets warmer as compared to application of pure water.
Teng and Yu [43] illustrated the effect of different nanocoolants
R.B. Ganvir et al.
(NC) on heat exchange capacity ratio at different concentrations. Result
reveals that the heat exchange capacity shows a downward trend with
the increase of multi wall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) concentration.
Tiwari et al. [46] studied the enhancement of the overall heat
transfer coefficient by using nanofluid at different concentration. Result
reveals that enhancement in overall heat transfer coefficient were about
18.2%, 27.9%, 22.0%, 20.3%, 18.9%, 17.2%, and 13.0%, respectively, at
the concentration of 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0 and 3 vol% for CeO2/
water while for Al2O3/water, the maximum enhancement was observed
at 1.0 vol%.
Chougule and Sahu [49,52] illustrated the enhancement in heat
transfer with the increase in nanoparticles concentration (Carbon
Nanotube and Alumina) with water in an automobile radiator. Result
reveals that the heat transfer enhancement at concentration of 0.15%,
0.45%, 0.60%, and 1% were found as 23.07%, 33.12%, 40.38%, and
52.03%, respectively for Al2O3-water nanofluid, while for CNT-water
nanofluid, these figures were found to be 39.95%, 57.32%, 69.42%, and
90.76% as compared to water, further they prepared FCNT-water
nanofluid at 1 vol%, for this, the enhancement in heat transfer of
nanofluid were obtained as 45.87%, 66.64%, 76.55%, and 90.76% at
different flow rate while enhancement in Nusselt number was about
90.76% compared with the pure water thus enhancement in heat
transfer reduce the size of radiators in an automobile engine leading to
an improved fuel economy.
D. Madhesh et al. [50] illustrated the thermal conductivity as a
function of particle volume concentration for hybrid nanofluid (Cu and
TiO2). Results reveals that at 1.0 vol%, the convective heat transfer
coefficient and Nusselt number were increased by 52% and 49%,
respectively. Also, the rate of heat transfer was reduced at higher
volume proportions of nanofluid. However, an enhancement in the
convective heat transfer coefficient of 27% was achieved at 1.6 vol% of
nanofluid compared to that of the base fluid. Result reveals that at the
concentrations of 1.0 vol%, the effective thermal conductivity enhanced
more. of hybrid nanofluid.
E. Ebrahimnia Bajestan et al. [57] illustrated the effect of particle
volume concentration on the heat transfer coefficient for heat pipe
using Al2O3, CuO, carbon nanotube (CNT) and titanate nanotube
(TNT). At 6.0 vol%, local heat transfer coefficient increased about
22% more than the pure water at the end of the pipe while at lower
volume concentrations, the heat transfer coefficient of nanofluid
increased of smaller nanoparticles compared to larger particle size.
H.E. Ahmed et al. [59] illustrated the effects of nanoparticles
concentration on local Nusselt number in triangular duct at volume
fraction of 1%, 3% and 6% for Al2O3, CuO and SiO2 nanofluid. Result
reveals that at 1 vol%, Nu number enhanced about 18.33%, 18.38%
and 21.74%, while at 6 vol%, an augmentation in Nu number were
obtained as 37.27%, 34.95% and 42.8% for Al2O3–EG, CuO–EG and
SiO2–EG, respectively, compared with the base fluid.
Mohammed et al. [61] illustrated effects of Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, and
ZnO nanoparticles volume fractions (1–4%) at different Reynolds
number. Result reveals that with the increase in Reynolds number,
the Nusselt number rises irrespective of volume fraction which
enhanced the thermal dispersion of the flow.
Jmai et al. [62] illustrated the variations in heat transfer rate with
respect to the volume fraction of nanoparticles (Cu, TiO2, Al2O3) for
different positions of heat sources at different Rayleigh numbers.
Result reveals that the heat transfer rate was higher for Cu and lower
for TiO2. However, intermediate values were obtained by using Al2O3.
Javadi et al. [64] studied the effects of volume fractions on thermal
conductivity of nanoparticles (TiO2,Al2O3,SiO2). Result reveals that the
thermal conductivity increased with increase in nanoparticles volume
fraction in base fluid while Al2O3 has the highest effect on improvement
of thermal conductivity of base fluid compared to TiO2 & SiO2.
Thus, different groups reported different enhancements for results
of effective thermal conductivity of nanofluid as a function of nano-
particles volume fraction for the same nanofluid.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
3.1.2. Effect of nanofluid temperature on thermal conductivity
According to various authors not only volume fraction and particle
size of nannoparticles affects the thermal conductivity, but also
temperature plays an important role to increase thermal conductivity.
Several researchers experimentally studied about thermal conduc-
tivity enhancement by changing temperature range of nanofluid such
as CuO nanofluid (0.045) at 25 °C with EG/water base fluid [9]. In a
wire-bonded flat heat pipe, copper (20 nm) using water, ethanol as
working fluids at 1.0 wt. Result shows HTC improves about 35% at
7.45 kPa. [80]. Also at various conditions such as no-surfactant added,
water-soluble dispersant added, both dispersant and surfactant mix-
ture added at concentrations of 1.0 wt%, at temperature ranges 15–
40 °C. Results show that the nanofluid with no surfactant added has
highest thermal conductivity, whereas with both dispersant and
surfactant have the lowest [12]. In liquid cooling system, dispersing a
small amount of nanoparticles to the base fluid resulted in a significant
decrease in processor operating temperature [16]. At inlet temperature
of 37–49 °C for 1 vol% of automobile car radiator improves the heat
transfer coefficient up to 7% [37,38].
Y. Vermahmoudi et al. [41] studied the temperature effect on
overall heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer rate of Fe2O3
nanofluid (0.65 vol%) at 50, 65 and 80 °C.Result reveals that overall
heat transfer coefficient reaches its lowest at temperature of 80 °C
while it decreased about 5% with increase in nanofluid temperature
from 50 to 80 °C also heat transfer rate increased about 116% with the
increase in nanofluid temperature from 50 to 80 °C. Futher, Hussein
et al. [65] illustrated, the heat transfer enhancement with the increase
in inlet temperature of SiO2 nanofluid, ranges from 39% to 56% at inlet
temperature of 60–80 °C.
In a small diameter tube, E.B.Haghighi et al. [78] investigated the
effect of axial conduction during cooling performance of Al2O3, TiO2
and CeO2 nanofluid, at the low heat flux of 0.3 W, tube wall
temperatures remains the same as in the actual tests due to heat losses
during the tests. At these conditions, the measured temperatures from
the first and the last thermocouples were around 0.5 °C lower than the
others due to axial conduction. In plate heat exchanger, A.K.Tiwari
et al. [79] investigated heat transfer characteristics of CeO2/water
nanofluid. The result reveals that the convective heat transfer coeffi-
cient of CeO2/water nanofluid increased due to increase in thermal
conductivity because of reducing inthermal boundary layer thickness as
compared to water.
Thus, thermal conductivity of nanofluids shows dependence upon
temperature and size of nanofluid. Brownian motion of nanoparticles
by which particles move through liquid and possible collide, thereby
enabling direct solid-solid transfer of heat from one another considered
as a key mechanism in thermal conductivity enhancement with
increase in temperature and decreasing nanoparticles sizes [4]. To
explain the enhancement various theories have been proposed such as
Brownian motion, aggregation of suspended particles, formation of
interfacial nano-layer around particles, percolation like behavior,
micro-convection and lattice vibration of nanoparticles [4]. Also it
included the particles iterations, particle distribution, and range of
concentration on thermal conductivity enhancement., liquid layering
around the particle may give a path for rapid conduction. Experimental
investigations show that relative thermal conductivity of nanofluids
increased with increasing particle volume fraction. Increasing volume
fraction, too many particles lead to large shear stresses and requires
large pumping power and therefore selection of proper concentration
of nanoparticles is important. Tiny size of nanoparticles may bring
micro-convection of fluid which increases the heat transfer. Very small
nanoparticles impart reduced momentum to a solid wall which reduces
the chances of erosion of components, such as heat exchangers, pipe
lines and pumps. Large surface area of nanoparticles allows more heat
transfer. The particles of diameter less than 12 nm carries 20% of the
atoms on their surface making them instantaneous available for
thermal interaction. Small particles weigh less chances of sedimenta-
R.B. Ganvir et al.
tion are less. Reduced sedimentation makes the nanoparticles more
stable. Increasing volume concentration, too many particles lead to
large shear stresses and require large pumping power. Therefore, to
maximize the heat transfer rate at constant pumping power select the
approximate amount of nanoparticles [3]. For CPU's thermal manage-
ment, a larger temperature drop at low coolant temperature [40],
further viscosity also plays a vital role to increase heat transfer rate of
nanofluid.
3.2. Viscosity
Beside thermal conductivity, viscosity of nanofluids is another
important thermal transport property in the application of heat
transfer for energy engineering systems such as heat exchangers or
cooling systems.
In the fully developed turbulent region, Suresh et al. [11] illustrated
flow with constant heat flux of CuO nanoparticles (15.3). The viscosity
of nanofluids was measured using Brookfield viscometer at about
27 °C. The experimental results indicate that the experimental value
of viscosity of CuO/water nanofluid was far exceeding the theoretical
values predicted by Einstein model due to the depression of water
intermolecular forces by the use of nanoparticles at very low volume
fractions [19,25,26]. During thermal analysis of an automotive car
radiator, K.Y. Leong et al. illustrated the influence of copper nanopar-
ticles at constant Reynolds number of air (4000) and coolant (5000) at
2 vol% of nanofluid. Result reveals that mass velocity of nanofluid
increased due to increase in volume fraction of nanoparticles results
into increase in dynamic viscosity of the nanofluid as well as heat
transfer rate increased exponentially upto 3.8% [29]. During study of
the efficiency of carbon nanotubes, Halelfadl et al. [34] illustrated the
thermo-physical properties of nanofluids stabilized by SDBS as surfac-
tant at concentration of 0.0055–0.278% and temperature of 20–40 °C.
Result reveals that the relative viscosity of nanofluids was affected by
both the increase in nanoparticles volume fraction and shear rate.
While cooling of electronic LED's, Lin et al. [12], found that the
dynamic viscosity increased with a longer storage time for the nano-
fluids (Al2O3) with and without using a dispersant. However, the
nanofluid prepared with both a dispersant and surfactant shows
slowest increase in viscosity over time. Further, Ghanbarpour et al.
[20] studied the fluid-mechanics behavior of nanoparticles considering
viscosity. Result shows that viscosity of the nanofluid increased with
increase in mass concentration but decreased with the temperature.
Chaugule and Shahu [49,52] studied about the absolute viscosities of
nanofluid (CNT-water, Al2O3-water) at different volume concentra-
tions and temperatures by using a viscosity meter. It was found that
absolute viscosity of nanofluid increases with particle volume concen-
tration.
Namburu et al. [54] observed about the particle diameter effect on
viscosity of SiO2 nanofluids (20, 50 and 100 nm). Result shows that
smaller diameter possessed the higher viscosity for the same volume
concentration of nanofluids because smaller diameter nanoparticles
were more in number and the total surface area of these smaller
diameter nanoparticles also more. In double tube helical heat exchan-
gers, Huminic and Huminic [64] illustrated heat transfer characteristic
for the volume concentration of 2% of CuO and TiO2, the heat transfer
coefficient of water for particle concentration at 3% was smaller but
still larger than base liquid due to the fact that the nanoparticles
increased the viscosity of the base liquid at more volume concentra-
tions level.
Ray and Das [67] performed computational study of an automotive
radiator using three different nanoparticles, Al2O3, CuO, and SiO2
dispersed in the base fluid EG/W (60:40). Result reveals that by
increasing the particle concentration increases viscosity which in-
creased the Prandtl number but decreased the Reynolds number which
affects the heat transfer and pumping power.
Kole and Dey [79] explored effect of aggregation on the viscosity of
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
copper oxide-gear oil nanofluids at volume fraction of 0.005–0.025,
enhanced the viscosity of mixture by 3 times than that of gear oil due to
changing its Newtonian feature of gear oil into non-Newtonian feature
at higher concentrations.
By reviewing and analysing the available literature about viscosity
of nanofluid, it reveals that the viscosity of the nanofluid increased with
increase in mass concentration and at higher particle volume fraction
(56) but decreased with the temperature [20,49]. Further, viscosity at
the wall reduces due to migration of particles towards the centre of the
tube. The mass velocity of nanofluid increased due to increase in
volume fraction of nanoparticles results into increase in dynamic
viscosity [29]. The relative viscosity of nanofluids is affected by both
the increase in nanoparticles volume fraction and shear rate [34].
Smaller diameter nanoparticles interact with the surrounding fluid
over a greater surface area, thus increasing the viscosity as the particle
diameter decreases [54]. An increase in viscosity will increase the
Prandtl number but decrease the Reynolds number influencing heat
transfer and pumping power. Furthermore, the viscosity decreases with
an increase in temperature causing the Reynolds number to rise, which
leads to an increase in Nussult number [67]. For high volume fraction
of nanofluids, Einstein equation underestimates the viscosity for
nanofluids [19].
3.3. Surface tension
Surface Tension is another important parameter in boiling and two-
phase heat transfer phenomena. However, it has received less attention
in past-years compared to thermal conductivity and viscosity.
In plate heat exchangers, Pantzali et al. [25,26] experimentally
investigated the performance of a nanofluid in a commercial herring-
bone-type PHE and compared to that of water in which surface tension
measured by using the “pendant drop” method. It was observed that
the surface tension of Al2O3 and TiO2 nanofluids, without surfactant
addition was not lower than that of water. When a surfactant employed
for the stabilization of CuO and CNT nanofluids, a significant reduction
of surface tension was observed.
Although the data of surface tension of nanofluids are scarce, the
following information gained from research work is very important. (i)
Nanofluids surface tension is highly dependent on temperature. (ii) The
effect of nanoparticles concentration on the surface tension of nano-
fluids is not monotonic, (iii) The effect of nanoparticles size on the
surface tension of nanofluids need to be investigated. (iv)The combined
effect of the nanoparticles and surfactant used on the surface tension of
the nanofluid is a key factor in the boiling heat transfer and the
mechanism of critical heat flux enhancement.
4. Theoretical studies of nanofluid
Various researchers considered different theories, mechanisms and
models behind increase in thermal conductivity of nanofluid due to
fluid particle interaction in laminar flow and turbulent flow region. In
laminar flow, Brownian motion and thermophoresis plays an important
role while in the turbulent region, eddies affects the motion of
nanoparticles like in a shallow cavity [70], radiator [73,74] & etc.
Eastman et al. [23] compared thermal performance of Cu nano-
particles with base fluid and described the thermal conductivity based
on theoretical predictions of two-component mixtures suggested by
Hamilton and Crosser's analysis such as
km + (n − 1) k 0 − (n − 1) α (k 0 − kn )
k = k0 ………
km − (n − 1) kn + α (k 0 − kn ) (1)
In a shallow cavity, Goodarzi et al. [70] illustrated about mixed
convection of nanofluid about thermal conductivity. To obtain laminar
mixed convection, shallow cavity cooled from the bottom and heated
upto the top of movable wall at aspect ratio of 0.2 and 0.1. Further,
using RNG turbulence model, the vertical velocity profile near the hot
R.B. Ganvir et al.
wall shows the features of a natural convection boundary layer. For
turbulent mixed convection, shallow cavity model validated at
Reynolds number of 105–107 for laminar flow and 40821 for turbulent
flow in enclosed tube.
During measurements of thermal conductivity of nanofluid,
Keblinski et al. [72] illustrated four possible causes behind increase
in thermal conductivity of small size nanoparticles such as Brownian
motion of particles, molecular level layering of liquid at liquid- particle
interface, the nature of heat transport in the nanoparticles and the
effects of nanoparticles clustering.
During heat dissipation of a radiator using oxide nano-coolant,
Nieh et al. [73] suggested the possible causes behind heat transport in
base fluid/nanoparticles based on Brownian motion in which a layer
structure form around the nanoparticles and it does not further creates
fluid–fluid phase transition in the bulk fluid. Result reveals that
enhancement in heat transfer of nanoparticles does not affect at low
volume fractions less than 5%.
In a mini-channel radiator, Liu et al. [74] demonstrated about the
highest conductivity of fluid i.e. liquid metal of low melting point
expected as an idealistic base fluid to make super conductivity solution
which leads to the ultimate coolant for heat transfer enhancement area.
Wang et al. [75] illustrated various causes in nanofluid (Al2O3 and
CuO) for heat transport which are elaborated such as,
1) Microscopic motion of particles: heat transfers in nanofluids
increased due to Brownian motion and inter particle forces.
Result reveals that microscopic forces such as Vander Waals force,
electrostatic force and stochastic force acting on nanoparticles rise
the Brownian motion of particles which collectively enhances the
heat transfer phenomena. The increase of thermal conductivity was
given by
3 ⎡ 1.176 (κp−κf )2 ⎛ κp−κf ⎞ ⎤
Δκe , r = κf . φ.Pe f ⎢ + 5 × ⎜0.6 −0.028 ⎟⎥
2 ⎣ (κp + 2κf )2 ⎝ κp + 2κf ⎠ ⎦ (2)
2) Type of particle structure: According to Hamilton and Crosser, heat
transfer enhanced if the particles forms a chain structure which
contributes an increase in thermal conductivity of nanoparticles
fluid mixtures.
Ghadimi et al. [76] suggested static and dynamic model behind
increase in nanofluid thermal conductivity such as static model and
dynamic model. In static Models model, particles of nanoparticles acts
as an immovable particles in the host fluid which is conduction based,
predicts the thermal transport properties like Maxwell and Hamilton–
Crosser model, while in dynamic model, particle motion responsible for
energy transport directly through collision between nanoparticles or
indirectly through micro-liquid convection that enhances the thermal
energy transfer.
For laminar forced convection heat transfer of water/alumina
nanofluid, Minea [77] modeling the thermal conductivity in a tube
and found increased in thermal conductivity described by Maxwell
equation, nanolayer thickness and effect of size of particles give by,
I) Maxwell equation: Based on Maxwell's work, the effective thermal
conductivity of a homogeneous suspension was predicted as,
k nf kp + 2kbf + 2φ (kp − kbf )
=
kbf kp + 2kbf − φ (kp − kbf ) (3)
where kp- thermal conductivity of the dispersed particles, kbf -thermal
conductivity of the dispersion liquid, knf -thermal conductivity of the
nanofluid and Φ- Particle volume concentration of suspension.
II) Nanolayer thickness: The effect of a solid/solid interface resis-
tance lowers overall effective thermal conductivity. Based on this,
Maxwell equation modified as,
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
k nf kp + 2kbf + 2φ (kp − kbf )(1 + β )3
=
kbf kp + 2kbf − φ (kp − kbf )(1 + β )3 (4)
where ‘β’ is the ratio of the nanolayer thickness to original particle
radius.
III) Effect of size of particles: Hamilton and Crosser studied the effect
of size particles in millimeter or micrometer. Based on this, the
effective thermal conductivity was given by,
k nf kp + (n − 1) kbf − (n − 1) φ (kbf − kp )
=
kbf kp + (n − 1) kbf + φ (kbf − kp ) (5)
where ‘n’ is the shape factor (for spherical n=3).
There are no general mechanisms to rationalize the strange
behavior of nanofluids, including the highly improved effective thermal
conductivity. Although many possible factors have been considered,
including Brownian motion, liquid-solid interface layer, ballistic pho-
non transport and surface charge state. However, there are still several
other possible macro-scale explanations such as heat conduction,
particle driven natural convection, convection induced by electrophor-
esis, thermophoresis, etc.
5. Analytical and numerical studies on heat transport of
nanofluid
To identify the effects of liquid layering at liquid–solid interface
during thermal transport in nanofluid studied by various researchers
by using analytical/numerical method such as in circular tube [54,57],
micro channel heat sink [56,88], rib groove channel [61], rectangular
shallow cavity [70,85], porous enclosure [71], micro-channel [82,86],
corrugated channel [83], double tube heat exchanger [84], plate-fin
compact heat exchanger [87] and square cavity [10]. In numerical
simulation two approaches have been adopted in the literature to
investigate the heat transfer characteristics of nanofluid. The first
approach assumes that the continuum assumption is still valid for the
fluids with suspended nanosize particles. The other approach uses a
two phase model for a better description of both the fluid and solid
phases. The single phase model is much simpler and computationally
more efficient.
During investigation in a circular tube, Namburu et al. [54] studied
the heat transfer of nanofluids (CuO, Al2O3 and SiO2) in an ethylene
glycol and water mixture under constant heat flux at a Reynolds
number of 20000, Nussult number increased by 1.35 times over the
base fluid at 6 vol% of CuO. At the same concentration, CuO indicates
higher heat transfer performance followed by Al2O3 and SiO2.
During numerical investigation using Al2O3/water nanofluid, H.A.
Mohammed et al. [55] found that the wall temperature decreased and
the wall shear stress increased due to increase of particle volume
fraction at extreme heat flux of 1000 W/m2. While for CuO & Al2O3
nanoparticles with de-ionised water [56] using three-dimensional
steady state equation, Naviere Stokes equation and energy equation
during SIMPLE algorithm, results into significant enhancement of heat
transfer due to suspension. For Al2O3, CuO, CNT and TNT nanofluid at
0–6 vol% flows in laminar flow regime at constant heat flux [57], shows
heat transfer coefficients of nanofluid was lower than the experimental
data while the effect of Brownian motion of nanoparticles predicts the
heat transfer coefficient more accurately.
In a 3-D wavy microchannel heat sink (MCHS), Sakanova et al. [48]
numerically studied the effects of wavy amplitude, wavelength, volu-
metric flow rate and volume fraction on diamond, CuO and SiO2
nanofluid with water, shows wavy MCHS overcomes cooling perfor-
mance of traditional rectangular MCHS at more Re as compared to less
Re. Also wavy geometry affects the thinning of thermal and hydro-
dynamic boundary layer at the penalty of pressure drop.
R.B. Ganvir et al.
For Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, and ZnO nanofluid simulation, at volume
fractions of 1–4%, dispersed in water, glycerin and engine oil using
finite volume method to solve continuity, momentum and energy
equations [61], result indicates that the rectangular rib and triangular
groove has the highest Nussult number for SiO2 nanofluid while for Cu-
water nanofluid simulation at 0.00–0.04 vol% [70], using a finite
volume method for laminar flow at Grashof number of 105 while for
turbulent flow, this figure was 1010, increase in volume fraction,
enhanced the convective heat transfer coefficient and the Nussult
number.
Using CFD approach, solving by continuity, momentum and energy
equation shows that the highest enhancement in heat transfer of
around 43.9% at Re number of 200 and at 5 vol% over the base fluid
which leads to design of more compact heat exchangers [83]. Further
for water-Al2O3 nanofluid (100 nm) at particle concentrations of 1–
4 wt% under constant heat flux by using single and two-phase models,
M. Keshavarz Moraveji and E. Esmaeili [88] observed that heat transfer
enhanced by increasing the concentration of nanoparticles.
In laminar region, Manu Mital [82] validated the model using
Reynolds number, volume fraction and particle size shows that heat
transfer ratio maximized at smallest possible particle diameter and at
lower Reynolds number. For CuO and TiO2 nanofluid [84] at volume
concentration of 0.5–3% set at either half, full or double the value,
enhanced the convective heat transfer as increase in Dean Number due
to particle concentration level.
In natural convection, using various parameters such as thermal
Rayleigh number (Ra), Prandtl number (Pr), the aspect ratio of the
cavity (A) and the solid volume fraction of nanoparticles (F) [85],
nanoparticles reduced the strength of flow field at low Rayleigh number
and the temperature on the solid boundaries reduced/enhanced due to
nanoparticles when the strength of convection was high/low, respec-
tively.
Further using Ag, Al2O3, CuO, SiO2, and TiO2 in microchannel heat
exchanger simulated with Finite volume method [86], shows that SiO2
nanofluid has the highest heat transfer coefficient, highest pressure
drop, highest shear stress and highest pumping power followed by
Al2O3, TiO2, water, CuO, and finally Ag. While Ag nanofluid has the
highest effectiveness and performance index values followed by CuO,
TiO2, Al2O3, H2O and finally SiO2. Further, Faroogh Garoosi et al. [90]
studied the natural convection phenomena, filled with nanofluid with
several pairs of heaters and coolers (HAC) at Rayleigh numbers of 104–
107 using finite volume descretization method to solve 2-D Navier–
Stokes and energy equation, reveals that the enhancement of heat
transfer rate obtained by changing the position of heaters and coolers
and types of nanoparticles employed.
In automobile radiator, Gunnasegaran et al. [87] studied the heat
transfer performance using ethylene glycol-based nanoparticles (Cu,
Diamond, SiO2) at 2 vol% using 3-D governing equations for both
liquid and heat transfer flow, solved by using a standard finite volume
method at Reynolds number of 4000–7000 while the standard κ-ε
turbulence model was employed, shows that all parameters were found
higher magnitudes in the developing and developed regions along the
flat tubes except pressure drop. Hence, application of nanofluid in
radiator transfers more energy in a cost-effective manner than using
conventional coolants.
To obtain direct numerical simulations, Gori and Boghi [89] studied
the three dimensional (3D) domains on non-Newtonian fluids (nano-
fluid) at different Reynolds numbers using GNF turbulence model
shows that the relation between the viscosity fluctuation and its
derivatives indicted the non-Newtonian behavior of nanofluid. It is
difficult to indentify an established theory to predict accurately the heat
transfer characteristics of nanofluids. Many researchers deal with
nanofluids as a single phase fluid rather than a two-phase mixture.
However, the particle liquid interaction and the movement between
particle and liquids should play an important role in affecting the
convective heat transfer performance of nanofluids.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
6. Applications of nanofluid
Nanofluids have great potential for heat transfer equipment and
very suited in practical heat transfer processes. This gives opportunities
to the researchers, engineers to develop compact and effective heat
transfer equipment. Researchers used nanofluid for commercial cool-
ing in automobile radiators, defense, electronics, air-conditioning,
power generation, space technology.
6.1. Automobile radiators
An ethylene glycol and water (50/50) mixture is widely used as
automotive coolant. However, it is relatively poor heat transfer fluid
compared to water. Use of nanofluids as an engine coolant will reduce
the size of radiator which will benefit almost every aspect of car and
truck performance and will lead to fuel economy. Various researchers
studied experimentally the convective heat transfer enhancement using
nanofluids in an automobile radiator [49,51,52,65,67,69,91,93,94].
Heat transfer performance of an automobile radiator using water
based nanofluids (Carbon nanotubes and Al2O3) as coolants, volume
concentration of 0.15–1.0 vol% [49] revealed that CNT-water nano-
fluid performs better than Al2O3-water nanofluid. Moreover, the heat
transfer enhancement at 1.0 vol% concentration was 90.7% and 52.0%
for CNT-water and Al2O3-water, respectively as compared to water.
Performance of other nanofluids such as SiO2-water, CuO-water, CuO-
ethylene glycol, TiO2-water and enhancement in heat transfer rate was
reported. Experimental studies are also performed at nanofluid inlet
temperature range 35–80 °C.
6.2. Electronic cooling
In electronic industry, improvement of the thermal performance of
cooling systems together with the reduction of the required surface
area is a technical challenge. Microprocessor power dissipation is
constantly increasing. Increase in microprocessor size has resulted in
higher heat fluxes. Increase in demands on high temperature power
systems, like hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and aerospace applications,
the conventional cooling methods will not be able to meet the demands.
Nanofluids have demonstrated wide applicability in electrical thermal
conductance due to their superior thermal conductivity. Nanosize
particles prove much greater size area which enhances heat transfer
rate and also increases the particles’ suspension capability in the liquid.
Rafati et al. [16] used nanofluids for cooling of computer micro-
chips. Base fluid used, was various compositions of mixture of
deionized water and ethylene glycol. Nanoparticles of silica, alumina
and titania were used with three different volumetric concentrations in
the base fluid. Results show enhanced heat transfer in cooling of
microchips Considerable reduction of operating temperature of pro-
cessor was observed when using the nanofluid as compared to
application of pure fluid. As expected an increase in flow rateof
nanofluid resulted in decrease in processor temperature. The largest
decrease observed was for alumina nanofluid which decreased proces-
sor temperature from 49.4 to 43.9 °C for 1% of volumetric concentra-
tion and flow rate of 1.0 l per minute when compared with pure base
fluid with same flow rate. Sakanova et al. [2] in their study introduced
micro-channel heat sink into power electronics cooling. Using water
based Al2O3 (with volume concentration of 1% and 5%) nanofluid
remarkable improvement in heat transfer rate was observed. Nanofluid
at higher concentration yielded a better cooling performance by about
17.3% at 5% volume concentration compared to 10.6% at 1% volume
concentration. Lin et al. [12] used ultrasonic vibration to prepare Al2O3
nanofluid with a surfactant, a dispersant and combination of the two to
evaluate their suspension and heat transfer characteristics in electronic
equipment. Putra et al. [40], In their study, the application of
nanofluids as working fluid on a heat pipe liquid-block combined with
thermoelectric cooling is investigated as an option for CPU cooling. The
R.B. Ganvir et al.
effect of volume concentration of nanofluid, coolant temperature and
thermoelectric system as heat pump of a PC on the CPU's (Central
Processing Unit) temperature are considered. The heat pipe liquid-
block combined with thermoelectric system had a significant effect on
heat transfer from CPU.
To choose suitable nanofluid for computer cooling systems,few
parameters are to be considered such as:
a. Stability of suspension,
b. No chemical and corrosion impact on cooling system,
c. Better thermal performance,
d. Economical aspects.
6.3. Space and defense
Quite good number of military devices and systems require high-
heat-flux cooling, applications include cooling of power electronics and
directed- energy weapons and must be provided adequate cooling.
Nanofluids have potential to provide the required cooling in such
applications and also other military systems including military vehicles,
submarines.
Transformer cooling is important to the Navy and also the power
generation industry with the objective of reducing the transformer size
and weight. A potential alternative may be replacement of conventional
transformer oil with a nanofluid.
6.4. Other applications
Nanofluids have applications in biomedical industry. Nanofluid can
be used for safer surgery by producing effective cooling around the
surgical region reducing the risk of organ damage. Nanofluid coolants
also have potential applications in process industry such as chemical,
food, oil and gas, paper printing, and textiles [66,81,92].
7. Concluding remarks and future direction for research
The present study demonstrates the depth of the research progress
made in the area of nanofluids. Enhanced cooling efficiency using
nanofluids as coolants has gained tremendous interest among the
researchers.
Most of the studies have been performed with oxides of metals.
Heat transfer enhancement is much higher in case of metallic
nanoparticles and enhancement is large even at very low volume
fraction. Therefore, exhaustive studies on low volume concentration,
nanofluids with metallic nanoparticles, detailed characterization of
nanoparticles sizes, distribution, additives and stabilizers (if used) are
required to be done.
Experimental and numerical studies are to be done with metallic,
metallic oxides and nanotubes based nanofluids for wide range of inlet
temperatures.
Stability of nanofluid under quiescent as well as flow conditions is
most important and should be deeply studied and evaluated in order
that whether the nanofluids can be applied effectively in engineering
systems where stability of nanofluid is important.
From the theoretical perspective, the mechanism of thermal con-
ductivity enhancement still not very clear, one of the possible explana-
tions is the particle motion in the form of Brownian motion. Other
possible concept is nano-convection of fluid around the particles due to
their motion; in this concept the particles transport some of the
amount of heat transferred through agitation in the liquid. This concept
seems to be potential explanation for nanoparticles behavior.
Yet another concept of liquid layering around the particle may give
a path for rapid thermal conduction. A liquid shell around the particles
behaves like solids, is assumed, then adjustable parameters of shell
thickness and shell conductivity are to be thought of for future
research.
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 75 (2017) 451–460
A nanofluid database of thermo-physical properties is needed which
includes nanoparticles composition, its concentration, size, preparation
method; additives (if used). Further application oriented research of
nanofluid is the need of an hour.
Nanofluid with enhanced thermal conductivity brings about en-
hanced heat transfer. However, in addition, with other suitable
conditions such as nanoparticles material and size, appropriate particle
concentration range, additives to maintain the stability may achieve
higher heat transfer coefficients.
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