Technical Report Writing

A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and
easily accessible format.
It is divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of information.
This guide explains the commonly accepted format for a technical report; explains the purposes
of the individual sections; and gives hints on how to go about drafting and refining a report in
order to produce an accurate, professional document.

Structure
A technical report should contain the following sections;
1. Title Page
2. Abstract /Executive Summary
3. Table of contents
4. List of figures, list of tables
5. Introduction
6. The sections which make up the body of the report
a. Methods, Assumptions, Procedures (or Experimental Details)
b. Results and Discussions
7. Conclusion
8. Recommendations
9. References
10. Bibliography
11. Acknowledgements
12. Appendices

Title Page:

Title of the report

The names of the individual(s) to whom the report is being submitted (usually the supervisor)
The names and phone numbers of the individual(s) submitting the report
The unit name and code, the department, and university (institution details)
The date of submission

Abstract
An abstract of a technical report briefly summarizes the report.
It should describe
 Purpose,
 Scope,
 Methods,
 Major results, and
 Conclusions and sometimes recommendations
Be concise in the abstract. Think of an abstract as a one-paragraph summary of the report.
Ideally, an abstract is one paragraph long. It’s like a brief technical summary, usually not more
than 200 words of the report.

There are two types of abstract

1. Informational abstract and
2. Descriptive abstract
Informational Abstract
It includes purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations.
Descriptive Abstract
It includes purpose, methods, scope, but NOT results, conclusions, and recommendations.

Table of contents

As the name implies, Table of Contents is the list of what is in the report. Major sections of the
report must be listed with page numbers. Second and third level headings may also be listed as
appropriated. Think of revising the structure of the report if fourth level heading is important
enough to be listed in the Table of Contents

 Do not forget to update your

  Table of Contents , List of Figures
 List of Tables
 Check that the right information is there
 Check that all figures and tables are listed
 Your readers use these to find information throughout your report

List of Figures and Tables

This section contains two related but separate lists. List of Figures contains the listing of all the
figures (drawings and graphs) that appear in the report. They are listed in consecutive order that
they appear in the report with figure captions and page number. List of Tables is similar to the
List of Figures but for all the tables that appear in the report.

List of Symbols
This list is optional. It can be used if the report contains a lot of formulae and symbols. The
readers often appreciate a list explaining the symbols used in the report.

Introduction
 States the objective of the report
 Defines the topic and associated terminology: may include the
o theory,
o historical background of the of the problem/topic
o background of the organization
 The current situation about the work on the project/problem
 The scope and significance of the report/study
 Definition of special terms and symbols
 Organization of the report

Main Section
a) Methods, Assumptions, Procedures (or Experimental Details)
The methods, assumptions, and procedures used in the investigation are described so the reader
could duplicate the procedures of the investigation. Information in this section includes:
System of measurement
Types of equipment used and accuracy
Test methods used
Methods
How did you discover the problem? What measuring tools were used? What measurement
system was used?
Assumptions
What do you think, but cannot substantiate as fact?
Procedures
How did you gain a better understanding of the problem?

This is the section where details of the experiments or research conducted are discussed. The
descriptions maybe in paragraph form, list form, or a combination of both. Think of experimental
details section as a recipe in a cookbook. The description must contain enough details to enable
someone else to duplicate the experiment. Engineering and scientific experiment must be
repeatable and verifyable

b) Results and Discussions

Had this been an actual report, the results should be reported in table or graph format. Report
only the final results. Raw data and intermediate results that are not central to the topic of the
report can be placed in the Appendix if needed. The Results and Discussion section should be the
most substantial part of the report. This is where the results of the experiment are reported and
discussed. Consider this section to be the “meat” of the report while other sections constitute the
rest of the “ingredients”.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Conclusion
Conclusion is a restatement of your results.
Conclude what was discussed in the Results and Discussion section. Do not conclude anything
that had not been discussed. Think of the conclusion as a short restatement of important points
being presented in the report.

Recommendations and limitations

Once conclusions are made, make some recommendations as to the utilities of those conclusions.
Explain how useful the methodology and the results are. Mention restrictions or limits pertaining
to the use of the results. For example, “The results reported here only apply to the second full-
moon night a month (blue corn moon) and not any other night.” Suggest what the next step in the
study should be to overcome the limitation or advance the study further. Both conclusions and
recommendations may be in the form of descriptive paragraphs or running lists. Whichever the
format is chosen, apply it consistently for both the conclusions and the recommendations

References
List of materials that you directly used in your report such as algorithms, experimental results,
figures, and/or tables that are not originally yours
Books
Papers
Websites (use URL address for websites)

So, in the list of references, the report writer gives credit to the works referred to or quoted. This
is done by citing such works in the text and listing them in alphabetical order at the end. If their
number is small, they can be mentioned in the form of footnotes at the bottom of the page on
which they are cited. The foot note is numbered sequentially by superscript font or by simply
superscribing an asterisk or star mark [ 1 *]. It gives in detail the author’s name and title in full,
and the details about publication (the place, the name and the year), and the page numbers.
For example:
1 Alan Warner, A Short Guide to English Style, Oxford University Press, London, ELBS
Edition, 1964, pp. 40-42.
This is a typical example of a reference where commas are used to separate items and the author
name is arranged with the first name followed by the surname. However, in a bibliography, the
items will not be separated by commas but by full stops.

SUPPLEMENTARY PARTS
The supplementary parts contain the following five components: appendixes, references,
bibliography, glossary, and index. Although they are the back matter of the report, they are
equally important because they give the scientific evidence of the fact that you really conducted
an objective report.

APPENDIXES
An appendix contains materials related to the report; but they are too detailed or lengthy to be
included in the main text. The reader can safely omit reading it without any loss of understanding
of the contents or feel disconnected from the main thought flow. Whether to give certain material
in an appendix or not is decided on two factors. One: whether it sustains the theme and forms an
essential and integral part of the report. Two: whether it would interrupt the train of the reader’s
thought if included in the main body. All appendixes should be referred to in the text; whether
they are questionnaires or statistical data. They must also be labeled as for example:

Appendix A: Questionnaire
Appendix B: Statistical Data

Bibliography
Other published sources of material, including websites, not referred to in the text but useful for
background or further reading.
You need to keep the following in mind; one, the order of writing the names and surnames of
authors; two: the sequences of details; three: the punctuation marks, and four: the layout. In
bibliography, the second name or surname is placed first. All the items are separated by full
stops. The edition comes before the place of publication. Similarly, the place of publication
comes before the name of the publisher and the ear of publication. The second line and the
subsequent ones are intended.
For example:
Warner, Alan. A Short Guide to English Style. ELBS Edition. London: Oxford University Press,
1964.

GLOSSARY
Glossary is a list of technical words used in the report and their explanations. It briefly explains
jargons and unfamiliar terms in the form of a small dictionary format. If the number of entries is
small, it can be explained in footnotes. The inclusion of it depends on the level of understanding
and background of the readers.

INDEX
Index is intended to serve as a quick guide to the material of the report. It enables the reader to
locate easily any topic, sub-topic or important aspect of the contents. Key words are entered and
arranged in alphabetical order, and then, cross referenced. All page numbers on which
information about an entry is available are mentioned against it.
For example:
Reports audience for, 121, 156-157
characteristics of, 131-132, 148

Acknowledgements
List of people who helped you research or prepare the report, including your proofreaders.

Presentation of report
For technical reports required as part of an assessment, the following presentation guidelines are
recommended;
Script: The report must be printed single sided on white A4 paper. Hand written or dot-matrix
printed reports are not acceptable.

Margins: All four margins must be at least 2.54 cm

Page numbers: Do not number the title, summary or contents pages. Number all other pages
consecutively starting at 1
Binding: A single staple in the top left corner or 3 staples spaced down the left hand margin. For
longer reports (e.g. year 3 project report) binders may be used.

Planning the report

There are some excellent textbooks contain advice about the writing process and how to begin
(see section 16). Here is a checklist of the main stages;
 Collect your information. Sources include laboratory handouts and lecture notes, the
University Library, the reference books and journals in the Department office. Keep an
accurate record of all the published references which you intend to use in your report, by
noting down the following information;
Journal Article Book
Author(s) Author(s)
title of article title of book (italic or underlined)
name of journal (italic or underlined) edition, if appropriate
year of publication publisher
volume of number (bold) year of publication
issue number, if provided (in brackets)
page numbers

N.B. the listing of recommended textbooks in section 16 contains all this information in the
correct format.
 Creative phase of planning. Write down topics and ideas from your researched material in
random order. Next arrange them into logical groups. Keep note of topics that do not fit
into groups in case they come in useful later. Put the groups into a logical sequence
which covers the topic of your report.
 Structuring the report. Using your logical sequence of grouped ideas, write out a rough
outline of the report with headings and subheadings.
 Writing the first draft
Who is going to read the report? For coursework assignments, the readers might be fellow
students and/or faculty markers. In professional contexts, the readers might be managers, clients,
project team members. The answer will affect the content and technical level, and is a major
consideration in the level of detail required in the introduction.

Begin writing with the main text, not the introduction. Follow your outline in terms of headings
and subheadings. Let the ideas flow; do not worry at this stage about style, spelling or word
processing. If you get stuck, go back to your outline plan and make more detailed preparatory
notes to get the writing flowing again.

Make rough sketches of diagrams or graphs. Keep a numbered list of references as they are
included in your writing and put any quoted material inside quotation marks (see section 11).

Write the Conclusion next, followed by the Introduction. Do not write the Summary at this stage.

Revising the first draft

This is the stage at which your report will start to take shape as a professional, technical
document. In revising what you have drafted you must bear in mind the following, important
principle;
 the essence of a successful technical report lies in how accurately and concisely it
conveys the intended information to the intended readership.
During year 1, term 1 you will be learning how to write formal English for technical
communication. This includes examples of the most common pitfalls in the use of English and
how to avoid them. Use what you learn and the recommended books to guide you. Most
importantly, when you read through what you have written, you must ask yourself these
questions;
Does that sentence/paragraph/section say what I want and mean it to say? If not, write it in a
different way.
Are there any words/sentences/paragraphs which could be removed without affecting the
information which I am trying to convey? If so, remove them.
 Diagrams, graphs, tables and mathematics
It is often the case that technical information is most concisely and clearly conveyed by means
other than words. Imagine how you would describe an electrical circuit layout using words rather
than a circuit diagram. Here are some simple guidelines;
Diagrams
Keep them simple. Draw them specifically for the report. Put small diagrams after the text
reference and as close as possible to it. Think about where to place large diagrams.
Graphs
For detailed guidance on graph plotting, see the ‘Guide to laboratory report writing’
Tables
Is a table the best way to present your information? Consider graphs, bar charts or pie charts.
Dependent tables (small) can be placed within the text, even as part of a sentence Independent
tables (larger) are separated from the text with table numbers and captions. Position them as
close as possible to the text reference. Complicated tables should go in an appendix.
Mathematics
Only use mathematics where it is the most efficient way to convey the information. Longer
mathematical arguments, if they are really necessary, should go into an appendix. You will be
provided with lecture handouts on the correct layout for mathematics.

The report layout

The appearance of a report is no less important than its content. An attractive, clearly organized
report stands a better chance of being read. Use a standard, 12pt, font, such as Times New
Roman, for the main text. Use different font sizes, bold, italic and underline where appropriate
but not to excess. Too many changes of type style can look very fussy.

Headings
Use heading and sub-headings to break up the text and to guide the reader. They should be based
on the logical sequence which you identified at the planning stage but with enough sub-headings
to break up the material into manageable chunks. The use of numbering and type size and style
can clarify the structure as follows;
3. METHODS OF HARNESSING WAVE ENERGY
3.1 Shore-Based Systems
3.2 Deep-Water Systems
3.2.1 ‘Duck’ Devices
3.2.2 Rafts

References to diagrams, graphs, tables and equations

 In the main text you must always refer to any diagram, graph or table which you use.
 Label diagrams and graphs as follows;
Figure 1.2 Graph of energy output as a function of wave height.
In this example, the second diagram in section 1 would be referred to by “….see figure
1.2…”
 Label tables in a similar fashion;
Table 3.1 Performance specifications of a range of commercially available GaAsFET
devices
In this example, the first table in section 3 might be referred to by “…with reference to
the performance specifications provided in Table 3.1…”
 Number equations as follows
F(dB) = 10log10F (3.6)
In this example, the sixth equation in section 3 might be referred to by “…noise figure in
decibels as given by eqn (3.6)…”

Originality and plagiarism

Whenever you make use of other people’s facts or ideas, you must indicate this in the text with a
number which refers to an item in the list of references. Any phrases, sentences or paragraphs
which are copied unaltered must be enclosed in quotation marks and referenced by a number.
Material which is not reproduced unaltered should not be in quotation marks but must still be
referenced. It is not sufficient to list the sources of information at the end of the report; you must
indicate the sources of information individually within the report using the reference numbering
system.
Information that is not referenced is assumed to be either common knowledge or your own work
or ideas; if it is not, then it is assumed to be plagiarised i.e. you have knowingly copied someone
else’s words, facts or ideas without reference, passing them off as your own. This is a serious
offence. If the person copied from is a fellow student, then this offence is known as collusion
and is equally serious. Examination boards can, and do, impose penalties for these offences
ranging from loss of marks to disqualification from the award of a degree. This warning applies
equally to information obtained from the Internet. It is very easy for markers to identify words
and images that have been copied directly from web sites. If you do this without acknowledging
the source of your information and putting the words in quotation marks then your report will be
sent to the Investigating Officer and you may be called before a disciplinary panel.

Finalising the report and proofreading

Your report should now be nearly complete with an introduction, main text in sections,
conclusions, properly formatted references and bibliography and any appendices. Now you must
add the page numbers, contents and title pages and write the summary.

The Summary
The summary, with the title, should indicate the scope of the report and give the main results and
conclusions. It must be intelligible without the rest of the report. Many people may read, and
refer to, a report summary but only a few may read the full report, as often happens in a
professional organisation.
 Purpose - a short version of the report and a guide to the report.
 Length – short, typically not more than 100 - 300 words
 Content - provide information, not just a description of the report.

Proofreading
This refers to the checking of every aspect of a piece of written work from the content to the
layout and is an absolutely necessary part of the writing process. You should acquire the habit of
never sending or submitting any piece of written work, from email to course work, without at
least one and preferably several processes of proofreading.
In addition, it is not possible for you, as the author of a long piece of writing, to proofread
accurately yourself; you are too familiar with what you have written and will not spot all the
mistakes.

When you have finished your report, and before you staple it, you must check it very carefully
yourself. You should then give it to someone else, e.g. one of your fellow students, to read
carefully and check for any errors in content, style, structure and layout. You should record the
name of this person in your acknowledgements.

Two useful tips;

Do not bother with style and formatting of a document until the penultimate or
final draft.
Do not try to get graphics finalised until the text content is complete.