ΕΔΥ ΓΡΑΜΜΙΚΗ ΑΛΓΕΒΡΑ PDF

Grammik 'Algebra
Miqlhc AnoÔshc
Perieqìmena
Eisagwg 4
SumbolismoÐ 7
1 Eisagwgikèc 'Ennoiec 8
1.1 Omdec, DaktÔlioi, S¸mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Diairetìthta ston Poluwnumikì DaktÔlio . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 H Summetrik Omda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 DianusmatikoÐ Q¸roi 21
2.1 DianusmatikoÐ q¸roi, DianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 GrammikoÐ MetasqhmatismoÐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Logismìc Upoq¸rwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Duðkìc Q¸roc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Q¸roi PhlÐka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 PÐnakec 42
3.1 PÐnakec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2 Grammik Sust mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3 H 'Algebra twn Pinkwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
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3.4 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4 OrÐzousec Sunart seic 52
4.1 OrÐzousec Sunart seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5 GrammikoÐ MetasqhmatismoÐ 64
5.1 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2 PÐnakac GrammikoÔ MetasqhmatismoÔ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.3 Qarakthristikì Polu¸numo, Idiotimèc, IdiodianÔsmata . . . . . 70
5.4 AnalloÐwtoi Upìqwroi, Probolèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.5 MetasqhmatismoÐ PhlÐka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.6 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6 Kanonikèc Morfèc 87
6.1 TrigwnopoÐhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.2 Elqisto Polu¸numo, Prwtarqik Anlush . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 Stoiqei¸deic Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
6.4 Kanonikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
6.5 DiagwnopoÐhsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.6 H S+N Anlush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.7 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7 Digrammikèc morfèc, Ermitianèc morfèc 106
7.1 Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc, Enallssousec Digrammi-
kèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4 Enallssousec Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.5 Ermitianèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
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7.6 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8 EukleÐdeioi Q¸roi 136
8.1 Q¸roi me Eswterikì Ginìmeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.2 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ se ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro . . . . . 140
8.3 Orjèc probolèc, Orjèc SummetrÐec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.4 DiagwnopoÐhsh SummetrikoÔ GrammikoÔ MetasqhmatismoÔ . . 144
8.5 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9 Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi 152
9.1 Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.2 Susqetismènec ApeikonÐseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.3 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
10 IsometrÐec enìc EukleÐdeiou q¸rou 162
10.1 IsometrÐec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.2 H IsometrÐa san SÔnjesh Summetri¸n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
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10.3 IsometrÐec tou R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
10.4 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
BibliografÐa 181
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Eisagwg
H Grammik 'Algebra eÐnai o kldoc twn Majhmatik¸n pou melet touc dia-
nusmatikoÔc q¸rouc kai touc grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc twn dianusma-
tik¸n q¸rwn.
Sto uperkeÐmeno autì anaptÔssontai o basikìc kormìc thc Grammik c
'Algebrac kaj¸c kai orismènec efarmogèc sthn GewmetrÐa. To uperkeÐme-
no apeujÔnetai stouc foithtèc thc Jematik c Enìthtac MSM 50 {Basikèc
Mèjodoi kai JewrÐec sta Majhmatik} tou Progrmmatoc {Metaptuqiakèc
Spoudèc sta Majhmatik} tou EllhnikoÔ AnoiktoÔ PanepisthmÐou.
Sto pr¸to keflaio {Eisagwgikèc ènnoiec} upenjumÐzontai orismènec ba-
sikèc ènnoiec ìpwc h ènnoia thc omdac, tou daktulÐou kai tou s¸matoc.
EpÐshc anaptÔssetai h JewrÐa Diairetìthtac ston daktÔlio poluwnÔmwn p-
nw se èna s¸ma, h opoÐa ja qrhsimopoihjeÐ sto keflaio 6 gia thn kataskeu
thc kanonik c morf c enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ. Parousizontai kai
orismèna apotelèsmata apo thn JewrÐa twn Summetrik¸n Omdwn ta opoÐa
ja qreiastoÔn gia thn anptuxh thc JewrÐac twn Orizous¸n sto Keflaio
4.
Sto keflaio {DianusmatikoÐ Q¸roi} anaptÔssontai oi basikèc ènnoiec
twn dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn kai parousizontai ta basik jewr mata.
Sto keflaio 3 gÐnetai mia sunoptik parousÐash twn pinkwn kai sto
keflaio 4 parousizetai h JewrÐa twn Orizous¸n.
Sto keflaio 5 gÐnetai mia melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n twn
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dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn. Melettai o pÐnakac enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmati-
smoÔ, oi analloÐwtoi upìqwroi enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ, oi idiotimèc
kai ta idiodianÔsmata enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.
H melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n oloklhr¸netai sto keflaio
6 ìpou kataskeuzetai h morf Jordan enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.
Sto keflaio 7 parousizontai kai melet¸ntai oi digrammikèc kai ermi-
tianèc morfèc. AnalÔontai ènnoiec ìpwc h kajetìthta, kai melet¸ntai oi
grammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ se q¸rouc me digrammikèc kai ermitianèc morfèc.
To epìmeno keflaio eÐnai afierwmèno sthn parousÐash twn EukleÐdeiwn
q¸rwn kaj¸c kai twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n twn EukleÐdeiwn q¸rwn.
EpÐshc melet¸ntai oi orjèc probolèc kai oi orjèc summetrÐec.
Sto keflaio 9 gÐnetai mia parousÐash twn susqetismènwn upìqwrwn
kai twn susqetismènwn apeikonÐsewn, ennoi¸n pou eÐnai anagkaÐec gia thn
kalÔterh katanìhsh twn isometri¸n enìc EukleideÐou q¸rou.
Sto kefalaio 10 gÐnetai melèth twn isometri¸n enìc EukleideÐou q¸rou.
Parousizontai orismèna genik jewr mata gia thn dom twn isometri¸n enìc
EukleÐdeiou q¸rou. EpÐshc parousizontai oi isometrÐec tou R2 .
Gia thn melèth tou uperkeimènou autoÔ den apaitoÔntai idaÐterec proa-
paitoÔmenec gn¸seic. EÐnai anagkaÐa ìmwc mia majhmatik wrimìthta. Ta
basik keflaia gia thn katanìhsh twn dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn kai twn gram-
mik¸n metasqhmatism¸n eÐnai ta 2 5

, kai 6 . Ta keflaia 7 kai 8 eÐnai basik
gia thn katanìhsh twn EukleÐdeiwn q¸rwn kai twn grammik¸n metasqhma-
tism¸n touc kai to keflaio 10 eÐnai mia parousÐash twn isometri¸n enìc
EukleÐdeiou q¸rou.
Ja jèlame na epishmnoume stouc foithtèc ta akìlouja
1. Merikèc apodeÐxeic jewrhmtwn, protsewn h porismtwn den perilam-
bnontai sto uperkeÐmeno. Autì gÐnetai ìtan h apìdeixh eÐnai mesh
sunèpeia prohgoumènwn protsewn ìtan èqei gÐnei prohgoÔmena mia
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anlogh apìdeixh. EÐnai polÔ qr simo gia touc foithtèc na knoun
mìnoi touc tic apodeÐxeic pou den perilambnontai sto uperkeÐmeno
2. EÐnai qr simo na melet soun ta paradeÐgmata pou uprqoun sto uper-
keÐmeno kaj¸c kai na prospaj soun na kataskeusoun nèa.
3. EÐnai anagkaÐo gia thn kalÔterh katanìhsh thc jewrÐac na epilÔsoun
meglo arijmì apo tic proteinìmenec ask seic.
PisteÔoume ìti h melèth tou uperkeimènou autoÔ ja bohj sei touc foi-
thtèc na katano soun tic basikèc ènnoiec kai ta basik apotelèsmata thc
Grammik c 'Algebrac.
Tèloc ja jèlame na shmei¸soume ìti se sqèsh me to uprqon ekpaideutikì
ulikì, to uperkeÐmeno autì dÐdei èmfash sto jewrhtikì mèroc thc Grammik c
'Algebrac. O foitht c prèpei na melet sei to uperkeÐmeno gia na apokt sei
thn ikanìthta qeirismoÔ twn ennoi¸n kai efarmog c twn jewrhmtwn thc
Grammik c 'Algebrac. Mia ekten c parousÐash efarmog¸n thc Grammik c
'Algebrac sthn Arijmhtik Anlush, ston Grammikì Programmatismì, stic
Diaforikèc Exis¸seic, sthn JewrÐa Grafhmtwn, sthn JewrÐa PaignÐwn kai
alloÔ perièqetai sto biblÐo {Grammik 'Algebra kai Efarmogèc} tou Gilbert
Strang .
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SumbolismoÐ
JewroÔme qr simo na parousisoume merikoÔc sumbolismoÔc pou ja qrhsi-
mopoihjoÔn sto uperkeÐmeno autì.
To kenì sÔnolo ja sumbolÐzetai ∅ .
An A eÐnai èna sÔnolo kai B èna uposÔnolo tou A ja sumbolÐzoume A−B

to sÔnolo twn stoiqeÐwntou A pou den an koun sto B .
Ja sumbolÐzoume me N to sÔnolo twn fusik¸n arijm¸n {0, 1, 2, ...} kai
me N∗ to sÔnolo N − {0} = {1, 2, ...} . Ja sumbolÐzoume me Z to sÔnolo twn
akeraÐwn kai me Q to sÔnolo twn rht¸n arijm¸n. To sÔnolo twn pragma-
tik¸n arijm¸n ja sumbolÐzetai R kai to sÔnolo twn migadik¸n arijm¸n ja
sumbolÐzetai C .
An F eÐnai èna s¸ma ta stoiqeÐa tou dianusmatikoÔ q¸rou Fn eÐnai dia-
n
nÔsmata st lec (dhlad n×1 pÐnakec). Kje dinusma tou F eÐnai thc
morf c
 
x1
 
 x2 
 
 ... 
 
xn
gia kpoia x1 , x2 , ..., xn sto F . Pollèc forèc, gia lìgouc tupografik c oiko-
nomÐac kai komyìthtac ja sumbolÐzoume ta dianÔsmata tou Fn san dianÔsma-
ta grammèc (dhlad (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) ). Stouc upologismoÔc bèbaia ta stoiqeÐa
n
tou F ja qrhsimopoioÔntai san dianÔsmata st lec.
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Keflaio 1
Eisagwgikèc 'Ennoiec
1.1 Omdec, DaktÔlioi, S¸mata
Orismìc 1.1.1 'Ena sÔnolo G efodiasmèno me mi prxh · lègetai omda an
ikanopoioÔntai ta ex c:
1. a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c, ∀a ∈ G, ∀b ∈ G, ∀c ∈ G .
2. Uprqei èna stoiqeÐo e∈G tètoio ¸ste a·e = e·a = a gia kje a∈G .
3. Gi kje a ∈ G uprqei èna stoiqeÐo a−1 ∈ G tètoio ¸ste a · a−1 =

a−1 · a = e .
Orismìc 1.1.2 JewroÔme mi omda G . 'Ena uposÔnolo H thc G lègetai
upoomda an isqÔoun ta ex c:
1. e∈H .
2. An a ∈ H, b ∈ H tìte a·b∈H .
3. An a∈H tìte a−1 ∈ H .
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Orismìc 1.1.3 Mi omda G lègetai metajetik ( abelian ) an
a · b = b · a, ∀a ∈ G, ∀b ∈ G.
Pardeigma 1.1.1 To sÔnolo R me prxh thn prìsjesh eÐnai metajetik
omda.
Pardeigma 1.1.2 To sÔnolo Z me prxh thn prìsjesh eÐnai metajetik
omda.
Pardeigma 1.1.3 JewroÔme èna sÔnolo X me X 6= ∅ . To sÔnolo twn 1−1

kai epÐ apeikonÐsewn apì to X sto X me prxh thn sÔnjesh apeikonÐsewn eÐnai
omda.
Orismìc 1.1.4 'Ena sÔnolo R efodiasmèno me dÔo prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai
(a, b) 7→ a · b lègetai daktÔlioc an
1. To R efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai metajetik omda.
2. 'Eqoume a · b = b · a, ∀a ∈ R, ∀b ∈ R .
3. 'Eqoume a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, ∀a ∈ R, ∀b ∈ R, ∀c ∈ R .
Orismìc 1.1.5 JewroÔme ènan daktÔlio R me prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai
(a, b) 7→ a · b . 'Ena uposÔnolo I tou R lègetai ide¸dec an:
1. To I efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai upoomda tou R .
2. An a∈I kai b∈R tìte a·b∈I .
Orismìc 1.1.6 'Ena sÔnolo F efodiasmèno me dÔo prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai
(a, b) 7→ a · b lègetai s¸ma an
1. To F efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai metajetik omda. SumbolÐ-
zoume 0 to oudètro stoiqeÐo thc omdac aut c.
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2. To F − {0} , efodiasmèno me thn prxh · eÐnai metajetik omda.
3. 'Eqoume a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, ∀a ∈ F, ∀b ∈ F, ∀c ∈ F .
1.2 Diairetìthta ston Poluwnumikì DaktÔlio
Se aut n thn pargrafo to s¸ma F eÐnai to R to C .
SumbolÐzoume me F [x] ton daktÔlio twn poluwnÔmwn mic metablht c me
suntelestèc sto s¸ma F . 'Ena stoiqeÐo tou F [x] eÐnai thc morf c an x n +
an−1 xn−1 + ... + a1 x + a0 me ai sto s¸ma F gia kje i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n .
Orismìc 1.2.1 JewroÔme èna polu¸numo p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + ... +

a1 x + a0 ston F [x] me an 6= 0 . O n lègetai bajmìc tou poluwnÔmou p(x)
kai sumbolÐzetai deg p(x) . O an x n lègetai megistobjmioc ìroc tou p(x) , o
an lègetai suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou p(x) kai o a0 lègetai
stajerìc ìroc tou p(x) .
Je¸rhma 1.2.1 JewroÔme dÔo polu¸numa p(x) kai q(x) ston F [x] . Upr-
qoun monadik polu¸numa r(x) kai s(x) tètoia ¸ste
1. p(x) = q(x)r(x) + s(x) .
2. deg s(x) < deg q(x) .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme to sÔnolo A = {p(x) − q(x)t(x) : t(x) ∈ F [x]} . Je-
wroÔme èna stoiqeÐo s(x) tou A elqistou bajmoÔ. Uprqei èna polu¸numo
r(x) ∈ F [x] tètoio ¸ste s(x) = p(x)−q(x)r(x) kai ra p(x) = q(x)r(x)+s(x) .
DeÐqnoume ìti deg s(x) < deg q(x) . Upojètoume ìti deg s(x) ≥ deg q(x) .
SumbolÐzoume m ton bajmì tou s(x) n , ton bajmì tou q(x) an

, ton suntele-
st tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou s(x) kai bm ton suntelest tou megisto-
bjmiou ìrou tou q(x) . Tìte to s(x) − an b−1

m x
m−n
q(x) = p(x) − q(x)r(x) −
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an b−1
m x
m−n
q(x) ∈ A kai èqei bajmì mikrìtero apo to bajmì tou s(x) . Autì
antibaÐnei me thn epilog tou s(x) . 'Ara deg s(x) < deg q(x) .
DeÐqnoume ìti ta r(x) kai s(x) eÐnai ta monadik pou ikanopoioÔn tic (1)
kai (2) . Prgmati, jewroÔme r1 (x) kai s1 (x) tètoia ¸ste: p(x) = q(x)r1 (x) +
s1 (x) kai deg s1 (x) < deg q(x) . 'Eqoume q(x)r(x) + s(x) = q(x)r1 (x) + s1 (x)
kai ra q(x)(r(x)−r1 (x)) = s1 (x)−s(x) . Epeid deg(s(x)−s1 (x)) < deg q(x)
sumperaÐnoume ìti r(x) − r1 (x) = 0 kai ra s1 (x) − s(x) = 0 .
Orismìc 1.2.2 JewroÔme dÔo polu¸numa p(x) kai q(x) ston F [x] . An u-
prqei polu¸numo r(x) tètoio ¸ste p(x) = q(x)r(x) , lème ìti to q(x) diaireÐ
to p(x) kai sumbolÐzoume q(x)|p(x) .
Je¸rhma 1.2.2 JewroÔme èna ide¸dec I tou F [x] . Uprqei èna polu¸numo
q(x) ston F [x] tètoio ¸ste I = {q(x)r(x) : r(x) ∈ F [x]} .
Apìdeixh
JewroÔme èna polu¸numo elqistou bajmoÔ q(x) sto I . Jètoume I0 =

{q(x)r(x) : r(x) ∈ F [x]} . EÐnai profanèc ìti I0 ⊆ I . Ja deÐxoume ìti
0
I ⊆I . Prgmati, an p(x) ∈ I èpetai apo to Je¸rhma 1.2.1 ìti uprqoun
polu¸numa r(x) kai s(x) ston F [x] tètoia ¸ste p(x) = q(x)r(x) + s(x) kai
deg s(x) < deg q(x) . Epeid s(x) = p(x) − q(x)r(x) , to s(x) ∈ I kai epeid
deg s(x) < deg q(x) sumperaÐnoume ìti s(x) = 0 . 'Ara p(x) = q(x)r(x) kai
p(x) ∈ I 0 . 2
Je¸rhma 1.2.3 JewroÔme m polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) ston F [x] .
Uprqei monadikì polu¸numo d(x) ston F [x] tètoio ¸ste:
1. O suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou d(x) eÐnai 1 .
2. d(x)|pi (x) gia kje i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m .
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3. An d0 (x) eÐnai èna polu¸numo ston F [x] kai d0 (x)|pi (x) gia kje i, 1 ≤
i≤m , tìte d0 (x)|d(x) .
Pm
Apìdeixh JewroÔme to sÔnolo I={ i=1 pi (x)qi (x) : qi (x) ∈ F [x], ∀i, 1 ≤
i ≤ m} . To I eÐnai ide¸dec tou F [x] kai ra uprqei èna polu¸numo d(x)
tètoio ¸ste I = {d(x)q(x) : q(x) ∈ F [x]} . MporoÔme na upojèsou-
me ìti o suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou d(x) eÐnai 1. Tìte to
d(x) ikanopoieÐ ta (1) kai (2) . ParathroÔme ìti d(x) ∈ I

epeid , uprqoun
Pm
q1 (x), q2 (x), ..., qm (x) ston F [x] tètoia ¸ste d(x) = i=1 pi (x)qi (x) = d(x) .
JewroÔme èna polu¸numo d0 (x) F [x] ston tètoio ¸ste d0 (x)|pi (x) gia kje
Pm
i, 1 ≤ i ≤ m . Epeid d(x) = i=1 pi (x)qi (x) , èqoume d0 (x)|d(x) . 2
Orismìc 1.2.3 JewroÔme m polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) ston F [x] .
To polu¸numo d(x) pou ikanopoieÐ ta (1), (2), (3) tou Jewr matoc 1.2.3 lègetai
mègistoc koinìc diairèthc twn p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) .
Orismìc 1.2.4 JewroÔme m polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) ston F [x] .
Ta polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) lègontai pr¸ta metaxÔ touc an o mègi-
stoc koinìc diairèthc touc eÐnai to stajerì polu¸numo 1.
Prìtash 1.2.1 JewroÔme m polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) ston F [x] .
An d(x) eÐnai o mègistoc koinìc diairèthc twn p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pm (x) , tìte
uprqoun polu¸numa q1 (x), q2 (x), ..., qm (x) ston F [x] tètoia ¸ste
m
X
pi (x)qi (x) = d(x).
i=1
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh perièqetai sthn apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc 1.2.3. 2
Pardeigma 1.2.1 JewroÔme ta polu¸numa x6 − 1 kai x3 + x2 + x + 1 tou
6 3 2
R[x] . O mègistoc koinìc diarèthc twn x −1 kai x +x +x+1 eÐnai to
12
polu¸numo x+1 . 'Eqoume
1 1
x + 1 = (x6 − 1) (−x − 1) + (x3 + x2 + x + 1) (x4 − x2 + 1).
2 2
Orismìc 1.2.5 JewroÔme èna polu¸numo p(x) ston F [x] me deg p(x) ≥ 1 .
To polu¸numo p(x) lègetai pr¸to an oi mìnoi diairètec tou p(x) eÐnai ta
stajer polu¸numa kai ta polu¸numa thc morf c λp(x) me λ∈F .
Parat rhsh 1.2.1 'Ena polu¸numo p(x) ston F [x] eÐnai pr¸to an oi mìnon
an den mporeÐ na grafeÐ sthn morf p(x) = q(x)r(x) me q(x) ∈ F [x] r(x) ∈ ,
F [x] kai deg q(x) ≥ 1 deg r(x) ≥ 1 , .
Prìtash 1.2.2 JewroÔme èna pr¸to polu¸numo p(x) ston F [x] kai dÔo po-
lu¸numa q(x) kai r(x) ston F [x] . An p(x)|q(x)r(x) tìte p(x)|q(x) p(x)|r(x) .
Apìdeixh An to p(x) den diaireÐ to q(x) tìte o mègistoc koinìc diairèthc twn
p(x) kai q(x) eÐnai to 1 kai ra o to Je¸rhma 1.2.1 uprqoun polu¸numa s(x)
kai t(x) sto F [x] tètoia ¸ste p(x)s(x)+q(x)t(x) = 1 . Pollaplasizontac ta
dÔo mèlh thc isìthtac me r(x) paÐrnoume p(x)s(x)r(x) + q(x)r(x)t(x) = r(x) .
'Eqoume p(x)|p(x)s(x)r(x) kai p(x)|q(x)r(x)t(x) ra p(x)|r(x) . 2
Pìrisma 1.2.1 JewroÔme èna pr¸to polu¸numo p(x) ston F [x] kai polu¸-
Qr
numa q1 (x), q2 (x), ..., qr (x) ston F [x] . An to p(x) diaireÐ to
i=1 qi (x) tìte
uprqei i me 1≤i≤r tètoio ¸ste to p(x) na diaireÐ to qi (x) .
Je¸rhma 1.2.4 JewroÔme èna polu¸numo p(x) ston F [x] me p(x) 6= 0 . Tìte
uprqoun λ∈F r∈N , , polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pr (x) sto F [x] kai arijmoÐ
m1 , m2 , ..., mr sto N∗ tètoia ¸ste:
1. To pi (x) eÐnai pr¸to gia kje i me 1≤i≤r .
2. O suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou pi (x) eÐnai 1 gia kje i me
1≤i≤r .
13
3. 'Eqoume
r
Y
p(x) = λ pm
i (x).
i
i=1
4. An uprqoun µ ∈ F r0 ∈ N
, , polu¸numa p01 (x), p02 (x), ..., p0r0 (x) sto F [x]
kai arijmoÐ m01 , m02 , ..., m0r0 sto N∗ tètoia ¸ste to p0i (x) na eÐnai pr¸to
0
gia kje i me 1≤i≤r , o suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou
pi (x) na eÐnai 1 gia kje i me 1 ≤ i ≤ r0 kai
r 0
m0
Y
p(x) = µ (p0 )i i (x),
i=1
tìte λ = µ r = r0
, kai uprqei mia 1−1 kai epÐ apeikìnish σ apo to
sÔnolo {1, 2, .., r} sto {1, 2, ..., r} tètoia ¸ste pi = p0σ(i) kai mi = m0σ(i)
gia kje i me 1≤i≤r .
Apìdeixh DeÐqnoume to Je¸rhma me epagwg ston bajmì tou poluwnÔmou
p(x) . An deg p(x) = 0 to sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc eÐnai meso. Upojè-
toume ìti deg p(x) > 0 . An to polu¸numo p(x) eÐnai pr¸to tìte prokÔptoun
mesa ta (1) (2)

, kai (3) tou Jewr matoc. An to p(x) den eÐnai pr¸to, tìte
grfetai p(x) = q(x)r(x) ìpou q(x) ∈ F [x] r(x) ∈ F [x]

, kai deg q(x) > 0 ,
deg r(x) > 0 . Apo thn upìjesh thc epagwg c, to sumpèrasma tou jewr -
matoc isqÔei gia ta q(x) kai r(x) kai ra prokÔptoun ta (1) (2)
, kai (3) tou
Jewr matoc.
DeÐqnoume to (4) . JewroÔme λ∈F r∈N , , polu¸numa p1 (x), p2 (x), ..., pr (x)
sto F [x] , arijmoÔc m1 , m2 , ..., mr sto N∗ kai µ ∈ F r0 ∈ N , , polu¸numa
p01 (x), p02 (x), ..., p0r0 (x) sto F [x] kai arijmoÔc m01 , m02 , ..., m0r0 sto N∗ ìpwc sto
(4) tou Jewr matoc. O λ eÐnai o suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou
poluwnÔmou p(x) . EpÐshc o µ o suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou
14
poluwnÔmou p(x) . 'Ara λ=µ . 'Eqoume
r r 0
m0
Y Y
p(x) = λ pm
i (x)
i
= µ (p0 )i i (x).
i=1 i=1
Qr 0 0
0 mi
To polu¸numo p1 (x) diaireÐ to µ i=1 (p )i (x). Apì to Pìrisma 1.2.1
0
uprqei k ∈ N∗ me 1 ≤ k ≤ r tètoio ¸ste to p1 (x) na diaireÐ to p0k (x).
Epeid to p0i (x) eÐnai pr¸to, èqoume p1 (x) = p0i (x) . 'Ara
r r 0
m0 −1 m0
Y Y
λ pm
i (x)
i
= µ(p0 )k k (x) (p0 )i i (x).
i=2 i=1,i6=k
To polu¸numo autì èqei bajmì mikrìtero apì ton bajmì tou p(x) kai ra
to sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc prokÔptei apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c.
To epìmeno je¸rhma eÐnai èna apo ta spoudaiìtera jewr mata twn Ma-
jhmatik¸n. H apìdeixh tou den eÐnai stouc skopoÔc tou uperkeimènou autoÔ.
Mia apìdeixh tou jewr matoc autoÔ h opoÐa gÐnetai me qr sh thc JewrÐac
twn Migadik¸n Sunart sewn mporeÐ na breÐ o anagn¸sthc sto biblÐo tou
Louis Brand {Majhmatik Anlush}.
Je¸rhma 1.2.5 (Jemeli¸dec Je¸rhma thc 'Algebrac) JewroÔme èna po-
lu¸numo p(x) ston C[x] me deg p(x) ≥ 1 . Tìte to p(x) èqei toulqiston mÐa
rÐza sto C .
Prìtash 1.2.3 JewroÔme èna pr¸to polu¸numo p(x) ston C[x] . Tìte to
p(x) eÐnai prwtobjmio.
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì to Je¸rhma 1.2.5. 2
15
1.3 H Summetrik Omda
JewroÔme n ∈ N∗ . SumbolÐzoume Jn to sÔnolo {1, 2, ..., n} .
Orismìc 1.3.1 Mia 1−1 kai epÐ apeikìnish apo to Jn sto Jn lègetai met-
jesh metjesh bajmoÔ n .
JewroÔme mi metjesh σ tou Jn . H σ sumbolÐzetai
!
1 2 ... n
.
σ(1) σ(2) ... σ(n)
Prìtash 1.3.1 To sÔnolo twn metajèsewn tou Jn me prxh thn sÔnjesh
apeikonÐsewn eÐnai omda.
Orismìc 1.3.2 To sÔnolo twn metajèsewn tou Jn lègetai summetrik om-
da kai sumbolÐzetai Sn .
Orismìc 1.3.3 JewroÔme k ∈ {1, 2, ..., n} kai k diaforetikoÔc an dÔo a-
kèraiouc i1 , i2 , ..., ik , 1 ≤ ij ≤ n, ∀j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k . H metjesh pou orÐ-
zetai wc ex c: σ(ij ) = ij+1 gia 1 ≤ j ≤ k − 1 σ(ik ) = i1 , kai σ(i) = i

gia i∈
/ {i1 , i2 , ..., ik } lègetai kÔkloc m kouc k ( kÔkloc) kai sumbolÐzetai
(i1 , i2 , ..., ik )
.
Orismìc 1.3.4 'Enac kÔkloc m kouc 2 lègetai antimetjesh.
Orismìc 1.3.5 DÔo kÔkloi (i1 , i2 , ..., ik ) kai (j1 , j2 , ..., jl ) lègontai xènoi an
{i1 , i2 , ..., ik } ∩ {j1 , j2 , ..., jl } = ∅.
Prìtash 1.3.2 Kje metjesh eÐnai ginìmeno kÔklwn xènwn an dÔo.
16
Apìdeixh Ja apodeÐxoume thn Prìtash me epagwg sto n . JewroÔme mia
metjesh σ . An σ(i) = i gia kje i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n tìte h σ eÐnai h tautotik
apeikìnish. Upojètoume ìti uprqei i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n tètoio ¸ste σ(i) 6= i . Jew-
roÔme thn akoloujÐa {σ k (i)}∞

i=1 . Uprqoun m, l sto N∗ me m>l tètoia ¸ste
σ m (i) = σ l (i) . 'Ara σ m−l (i) = i . JewroÔme to mikrìtero r ∈ N∗ tètoio ¸ste
r r−1
σ (i) = i . Tìte ta i, σ(i), ..., σ (i) eÐnai difora an dÔo. SumbolÐzoume
τ ton kÔklo (i, σ(i), ..., σ r−1 (i)) . JewroÔme thn metjesh τ −1 σ . Gi kje
j ∈ {i, σ(i), ..., σ r−1 (i)} èqoume τ −1 σ(j) = j . 'Ara h metjesh τ −1 σ mporeÐ na
r−1
jewrhjeÐ san mi metjesh tou sunìlou Jn − {i, σ(i), ..., σ (i)} . Apo thn
upojesh thc epagwg c h τ −1 σ eÐnai ginìmeno kÔklwn xènwn an dÔo kai ra
h σ = τ (τ −1 σ) eÐnai ginìmeno kÔklwn xènwn an dÔo. 2
Pardeigma 1.3.1 JewroÔme thn metjesh
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
3 2 4 1 6 5
tou J6 . H metjesh aut grfetai
!
1 2 3 4 5 6
= (1, 3, 4)(5, 6).
3 2 4 1 6 5
Prìtash 1.3.3 Kje metjesh eÐnai ginìmeno antimetajèsewn.
Apìdeixh Apì thn Prìtash 1.3.2 arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti kje kÔkloc eÐ-
nai ginìmeno antimetajèsewn. Prgmati, jewroÔme ton kÔklo (i1 , i2 , ..., ik ).
'Eqoume
(i1 , i2 , ..., ik ) = (i1 , ik )(i1 , ik−1 )...(i1 , i2 ).
17
JewroÔme èna polu¸numo n metablht¸n p(t1 , t2 , ..., tn ) me suntelestèc
sto R . An σ eÐnai mia metjesh tou Jn sumbolÐzoume σp to polu¸numo
p(tσ(1) , tσ(2) , ..., tσ(n) ).
SumbolÐzoume f to polu¸numo
Y
(ti − tj ).
i∈Jn ,j∈Jn ,i<j
Je¸rhma 1.3.1 JewroÔme mia metjesh σ . Tìte σf = f σf = −f .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme i kai j sto Jn . Uprqei akrib¸c èna i0 sto Jn tètoio
0 0 0
¸ste σ(i ) = i kai akrib¸c èna j sto Jn tètoio ¸ste σ(j ) = j . 'Ara to
σf èqei pargonta to ti − tj an kai mìnon an i0 < j 0 kai èqei pargonta to
−(ti − tj ) an kai mìnon an i0 > j 0 . 2
Orismìc 1.3.6 JewroÔme mia metjesh σ . Jètoume sgn σ = 1 an σf = f

kai sgn σ = −1 an σf = −f . O arjmìc sgn σ lègetai prìshmo thc σ .
Je¸rhma 1.3.2 JewroÔme dÔo metajèseic σ kai τ . Tìte sgn(στ ) = sgn σ sgn τ .
Apìdeixh To sumpèrasma prokÔptei apo to ìti an σ kai τ eÐnai dÔo meta-
jèseic tou Jn tìte (στ )f = σ(τ f ) . 2
Je¸rhma 1.3.3 JewroÔme mi antimetjesh σ . Tìte sgn σ = −1 .
1.4 Ask seic
'Askhsh 1.4.1 JewroÔme ton daktÔlio Z . DeÐxte ìti an I eÐnai èna ide¸dec
tou Z, tìte uprqei n∈N tètoio ¸ste I = {nk : k ∈ Z} .
18
'Askhsh 1.4.2 JewroÔme ton daktÔlio Z . JewroÔme m kai n sto N kai
jètoume I1 = {mk : k ∈ Z} kai I2 = {nk : k ∈ Z} . DeÐxte ìti ta I1 + I2 kai
I1 ∩ I2 eÐnai ide¸dh tou Z kai breÐte r kai s sto Z tètoia ¸ste I1 + I2 = {rk :
k ∈ Z} kai I1 ∩ I2 = {sk : k ∈ Z} .
'Askhsh 1.4.3 JewroÔme èna s¸ma F me prxeic + kai ·

. DeÐxte ìti:
1. An a ∈ F, b ∈ F, c ∈ F kai a+b=a+c tìte b=c .
2. Gi kje a∈F isqÔei a·0=0·a=0 .
3. Gi kje a∈F isqÔei (−1)a = −a .
4. An a ∈ F, b ∈ F tìte (−a) · (−b) = a · b .
5. An a ∈ F, b ∈ F kai a·b=0 tìte a=0 b=0 .
√ √
'Askhsh 1.4.4 JewroÔme to sÔnolo Q( 3) = {a + b 3 : a ∈ Q, b ∈ Q} .
√
DeÐxte ìti to Q( 3) efodiasmèno me thn prìsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasmì
pragmatik¸n arijm¸n eÐnai s¸ma.
'Askhsh 1.4.5 JewroÔme to sÔnolo Q(i) = {a + bi : a ∈ Q, b ∈ Q} . DeÐxte
ìti to Q(i) efodiasmèno me thn prìsjesh kai ton pollaplasiasmì migadik¸n
arijm¸n eÐnai s¸ma.
'Askhsh 1.4.6 JewroÔme ta polu¸numa x2 + 1 kai x3 − 1 tou R[x] . BreÐte
ton mègisto koinì diairèth d(x) twn x2 + 1 kai x3 − 1 . BreÐte dÔo polu¸numa
q1 (x) kai q2 (x) ston R[x] tètoia ¸ste q1 (x)(x2 + 1) + q2 (x)(x3 − 1) = d(x) .
'Askhsh 1.4.7 JewroÔme ta polu¸numa x7 +1 kai x2 +x+1 tou R[x] . BreÐte
7 2
ton mègisto koinì diairèth d(x) twn x +1 kai x +x+1 . BreÐte dÔo polu¸numa
q1 (x) kai q2 (x) ston R[x] tètoia ¸ste q1 (x)(x7 + 1) + q2 (x)(x2 + x + 1) = d(x) .
19
'Askhsh 1.4.8 DeÐxte ìti kje metjesh sthn Sn eÐnai ginìmeno antimeta-
jèsewn thc morf c (1, 2), (1, 3), ..., (1, n).
'Askhsh 1.4.9 DeÐxte ìti kje metjesh sthn Sn eÐnai ginìmeno antimeta-
jèsewn thc morf c (i, i + 1) gia 1≤i<n .
'Askhsh 1.4.10 BreÐte to prìshmo twn metajèsewn:
!
1 2 3
1. .
2 3 1
!
1 2 3
2. .
3 1 2
!
1 2 3
3. .
3 2 1
!
1 2 3 4
4. .
2 3 1 4
!
1 2 3 4
5. .
2 1 4 3
!
1 2 3 4
6. .
4 2 1 3
20
Keflaio 2
DianusmatikoÐ Q¸roi
Se autì to keflaio to s¸ma F eÐnai to R to C .
2.1 DianusmatikoÐ q¸roi, DianusmatikoÐ upì-
qwroi
Orismìc 2.1.1 JewroÔme to s¸ma F kai èna sÔnolo V . Lème ìti to V eÐnai
dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw sto s¸ma F an:
1. Uprqei mia prxh + sto V tètoia ¸ste to (V, +) na eÐnai abelian
omda.
2. Uprqei mia apeikìnish F ×V →V tètoia ¸ste:
(aþ) α(βv) = (αβ)v , gia α, β sto F kai v sto V .
(bþ) 1v = v , gia v sto V .
3. 'Eqoume:
(aþ) α(v + w) = αv + αw , gia α∈F v∈V w∈V , , .
(bþ) (α + β)v = αv + βv , gia α∈F β∈F v∈V , , .
21
Pardeigma 2.1.1 To Rn pnw sto R .
Pardeigma 2.1.2 To Cn pnw sto C pnw sto R .
Pardeigma 2.1.3 To sÔnolo Pn = {p ∈ F [x] : deg p ≤ n} pnw sto F .
Pardeigma 2.1.4 Oi suneqeÐc pragmatikèc sunart seic me pedÐo orismoÔ
to R , pnw sto R .
Pardeigma 2.1.5 Oi diaforÐsimec sunart seic me pragmatikèc timèc kai
pedÐo orismoÔ to R pnw sto R .
Ta stoiqeÐa enìc dianusmatikoÔ q¸rou V lègontai dianÔsmata.
Orismìc 2.1.2 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw sto s¸ma F kai W ⊆

V lème ìti o W eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V an:
1. To (W, +) eÐnai upoomda tou (V, +).
2. Gia α∈F w∈W , èqoume αw ∈ W.
Pardeigma 2.1.6 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V = R3 . To sÔnolo
W = {(x, y, 0) : x ∈ R, y ∈ R} eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V .
Pardeigma 2.1.7 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V twn suneq¸n prag-
matikwn sunart sewn me pedÐo orismoÔ to R , pnw sto R . To sÔnolo twn
diaforÐsimwn pragmatik¸n sunart sewn me pedÐo orismoÔ to R eÐnai dianu-
smatikìc upìqwroc tou V .
Orismìc 2.1.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai èna uposÔnolo S

tou V . 'Enac grammikìc sunduasmìc twn stoiqeÐwn tou S eÐnai mia parsta-
P
sh thc morf c: αi vi me vi sto S gia kje i αi
, sto F gia kje i , kai
peperasmèno pl joc twn αi mh mhdenik.
22
Orismìc 2.1.4 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊆V . Lème ì-
ti ta stoiqeÐa tou S eÐnai grammik exarthmèna an uprqei ènac grammikìc
P P
sunduasmìc touc αi xi tètoioc ¸ste αi xi = 0 kai kpoio apì ta αi eÐnai
diforo apì to mhdèn. Lème ìti ta stoiqeÐa tou S eÐnai grammik anexrthta
P
an: Opoted pote to αi xi eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn stoiqeÐwn tou S
P
kai αi xi = 0 tìte αi = 0 gia kje i .
Orismìc 2.1.5 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊆V . Lème ìti
to S eÐnai mia bsh tou V an:
1. Ta stoiqeÐa tou S eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
2. Kje stoiqeÐo tou V eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn stoiqeÐwn tou S .
Orismìc 2.1.6 'Enac dianusmatikìc q¸roc V lègetai peperasmènhc dista-
shc an èqei mia peperasmènh bsh.
Pardeigma 2.1.8 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 . H ((1, 0), (0, 1))
eÐnai mi bsh tou R2 .
Pardeigma 2.1.9 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R3 . H
((1, 1, 0), (1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 1))
eÐnai mi bsh tou R3 .
Prìtash 2.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊂V . Ta stoi-
qeÐa tou S eÐnai grammik exarthmèna an kai mìnon an uprqei v sto S pou
eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn stoiqeÐwn tou S − {v} .
Apìdeixh Ta stoiqeÐa tou S eÐnai grammik exarthmèna an kai mìnon an
P
uprqei grammikìc sunduasmìc touc αi vi me αk 6= 0 gia kpoio k kai
−1
P P
αi vi = 0 , dhlad an kai mìnon an uprqei k tètoioc ¸ste vk = − i6=k αk αi vi ,
23
dhlad an kai mìnon an kpoio apì ta stoiqeÐa tou S eÐnai grammikìc sun-
duasmìc twn upìloipwn stoiqeÐwn tou S . 2
Pìrisma 2.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V S⊂V

, kai v sto S pou
eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn stoiqeÐwn tou S −{v} . Tìte kje grammikìc
sunduasmìc stoiqeÐwn tou S eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc stoiqeÐwn tou S−

{v} .
Prìtash 2.1.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊂ V . To sÔ-
nolo twn grammik¸n sunduasm¸n twn stoiqeÐwn tou S eÐnai dianusmatikìc
upìqwroc tou V
Orismìc 2.1.7 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊂ V . An W

eÐnai to sÔnolo twn grammik¸n sunduasm¸n stoiqeÐwn tou S , lème ìti to S
pargei to dianusmatikì q¸ro W ìti o W eÐnai o dianusmatikìc q¸roc pou
pargetai apì to S .
Je¸rhma 2.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . JewroÔme èna sÔno-
lo S ⊂ V me n stoiqeÐa pou pargei ton q¸ro V kai èna sÔnolo Q me m

grammik anexrthta stoiqeÐa. Tìte m≤n . Epiplèon uprqei èna sÔnolo n
dianusmtwn pou perièqei to Q kai pargei ton q¸ro V .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme to n dedomèno kai deÐqnoume thn prìtash me epagwg
sto m . An m=0 h prìtash isqÔei. Upojètoume ìti h prìtash isqÔei gia
ìla ta sÔnola me m grammik anexrthta dianÔsmata. JewroÔme èna sÔno-
lo Q me m+1 grammik anexrthta dianÔsmata: v1 , v2 , ..., vm+1 . Apì thn
upìjesh thc epagwg c m≤n kai o V pargetai apì èna sÔnolo thc morf c
{v1 , v2 , ..., vm , w1 , w2 , ..., wn−m } gia kpoia w1 , w2 , ..., wn−m sto V . Eidikì-
tera èqoume vm+1 = α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αm vm + β1 w1 + · · · + βn−m wn−m

me α1 , α2 , ..., αm , β1 , ..., βn−m sto k . DeÐqnw ìti m+1 ≤ n . An ìqi, o V
pargetai apì to {v1 , v2 , ..., vm } , ra to vm+1 eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc
24
twn v1 , v2 , ...vm . Apì thn Prìtash 2.1.1, autì den mporeÐ na sumbeÐ. 'A-
ra m+1 ≤ n . Jewr¸ to sÔnolo: {v1 , v2 , ..., vm , vm+1 , w1 , ..., wn−m } . Autì
to sÔnolo pargei to q¸ro kai ta stoiqeÐa tou eÐnai grammik exarthmè-
na (epeid to vm+1 eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn upìloipwn stoiqeÐwn).
Sth sqèsh vm+1 = α1 v1 + · · · + αm vm + β1 w1 + · · · + βn−m βn−m den mpo-
roÔme na èqoume β1 = β2 = ... = βn−m = 0 , epeid ta v1 , v2 , ..., vm+1 eÐ-
nai grammik anexrthta. 'Ara uprqei i 1 ≤ i ≤ n−m

, tètoio ¸ste
βi 6= 0 . Apo thn Prìtash 2.1.1 to wi eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn
v1 , v2 , ..., vm , vm+1 , w1 , ..., wi−1 , wi+1 , ..., wn−m . Apì to Pìrisma 2.1.1, ta pa-
rapnw dianÔsmata pargoun to q¸ro. 2
Pìrisma 2.1.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V peperasmènhc dista-
shc. DÔo bseic tou V èqoun ton Ðdio arijmì dianusmtwn.
Apìdeixh An (v1 , v2 , ...vn ) kai (w1 , w2 , ..., wm ) eÐnai dÔo bseic tou V èqoume
apì to Je¸rhma 2.1.1 m≤n kai n≤m . 2
Orismìc 2.1.8 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc peperasmènhc distashc,
lème distash tou V to pl joc twn dianusmtwn miac bshc tou.
Pìrisma 2.1.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc n .
1. 'Ena sÔnolo n grammik anexrthtwn dianusmtwn eÐnai bsh.
2. 'Ena sÔnolo n dianusmtwn pou pargei to q¸ro eÐnai bsh.
2.2 GrammikoÐ MetasqhmatismoÐ
Orismìc 2.2.1 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W pnw sto
F . O T :V →W lègetai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc an
T (αv + βu) = αT (v) + βT (u)
25
gia α, β sto F v, u
, sto V .
Pardeigma 2.2.1 JewroÔme ènan m×n pÐnaka A . H apeikìnish T apo
n m
ton R ston R pou orÐzetai T x = Ax eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc.
Pardeigma 2.2.2 H apeikìnish T apo ton R3 ston R2 pou orÐzetai
T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (2x1 + 3x2 , x2 − 5x3 )
eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc.
Pardeigma 2.2.3 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Pn twn poluwnÔmwn
me pragmatikoÔc suntelestèc bajmoÔ to polÔ n . H apeikìnish D pou orÐzetai
D( n0 λi xi ) = ( n1 iλi xi−1 )
P P
eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou Pn .
Prìtash 2.2.1 1. H apeikìnish T apo ton V ston W pou orÐzetai Tv =

0, ∀v ∈ V eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc.
2. H apeikìnish T apo ton V ston V pou orÐzetai T v = v, ∀v ∈ V eÐnai
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc.
Pardeigma 2.2.4 H apeikìnish T apo ton V ston W pou orÐzetai Tv =

0, ∀v ∈ V eÐnai lègetai mhdenikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc.
Orismìc 2.2.2 H apeikìnish T apo ton V ston V pou orÐzetai T v = v, ∀v ∈

V lègetai tautotikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc kai sumbolÐzetai IV I .
JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W pnw sto F . To sÔ-
nolo twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n apo ton V ston W sumbolÐzetai me
L(V, W ) . To sÔnolo twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n apo ton V ston V

sumbolÐzetai me L(V ) .
An T ∈ L(V, W ) kai S ∈ L(V, W ) orÐzoume thn apeikìnish T +S apo ton
V ston W wc ex c: (T + S)v = T v + Sv . EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti h T +S

eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apo ton V ston W .
26
An T ∈ L(V, W ) kai α∈F orÐzoume thn apeikìnish αT apo ton V ston
W wc ex c: (αT )v = α(T v) . EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti o αT eÐnai grammikìc
metasqhmatismìc apo ton V ston W .
H paraktw Prìtash eÐnai mesh.
Prìtash 2.2.2 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W pnw sto
F . To sÔnolo twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n L(V, W ) apo ton V ston W

me tic prxeic pou orÐsthkan parapnw eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc.
JewroÔme treÐc dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V W

, kai U pnw sto F . An T
eÐnai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apo ton V ston W kai S eÐnai ènac
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apo ton W ston U , eÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti o
ST eÐnai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apo ton V ston U .
Orismìc 2.2.3 An T : V → W eÐnai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc,
lème pur na tou T kai sumbolÐzoume Ker T to sÔnolo {v ∈ V : T (v) = 0} .
Lème eikìna tou T kai sumbolÐzoume Im T to sÔnolo {T (v) : v ∈ V } .
EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti o Ker T eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V . E-
pÐshc h eikìna Im T tou T eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou W .
Prìtash 2.2.3 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T :V →W eÐnai 1−1

an kai mìnon an ker T = 0 .
Apìdeixh O T eÐnai 1−1 an kai mìnon an h sqèsh (T (v) = T (v 0 ) sunepgetai
v = v0 dhlad an kai mìnon an h sqèsh
(T (v − v 0 ) = 0 sunepgetai v − v0 = 0 kai ra an kai mìnon an ker T = 0 .
Orismìc 2.2.4 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W kai ènan
grammikì metasqhmatismì T apo ton V ston W .
1. O T lègetai monomorfismìc an eÐnai 1−1 .
27
2. O T lègetai epimorfismìc an eÐnai epÐ.
3. O T lègetai isomorfismìc an eÐnai 1−1 kai epÐ.
Orismìc 2.2.5 DÔo dianusmatikoÐ q¸roi V kai W lègontai isomorfikoÐ an
uprqei ènac isomorfismìc apì ton V ston W .
Je¸rhma 2.2.1 DÔo dianusmatikoÐ q¸roi peperasmènhc distashc V kai
W pnw sto F eÐnai isomorfikoÐ an kai mìnon an èqoun thn Ðdia distash.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti dim V = dim W . JewroÔme mia bsh (v1 , ..., vn )
tou V kai mia bsh (w1 , ..., wn ) tou W . OrÐzoume T :V →W
n
! n
X X
T αi vi = αi wi
i=1 i=1
O T eÐnai kal orismènoc sto V giatÐ kje dinusma grfetai me monadikì
trìpo san grammikìc sunduasmìc twn v1 , v2 , ..., vn . O T eÐnai epÐ giatÐ ta
w1 , w2 , ..., wn pargoun ton W . O T eÐnai 1−1 giatÐ ta w1 , w2 , ..., wn eÐnai
grammik anexrthta. 'Ara oi V kai W eÐnai isomorfikoÐ.
Upojètoume ìti oi V kai W eÐnai isomorfikoÐ. Ac eÐnai T o isomorfismìc
apì ton V ston W . JewroÔme mia bsh (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) tou V . H eikìna tou
T eÐnai to sÔnolo
( n )
X
αi T (vi ) : αi ∈ F, 1 ≤ i ≤ n .
i=1
Epeid o T eÐnai epÐ, ta dianÔsmata T (v1 ), T (v2 ), ..., T (vn ) pargoun ton
q¸ro W . DeÐqnoume ìti ta T (v1 ), T (v2 ), ..., T (vn ) eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
Upojètoume ìti uprqoun αi ∈ F gia 1≤i≤n tètoia ¸ste
n
X
αi T (vi ) = 0.
i=1
28
'Eqoume
n n
!
X X
αi T (vi ) = 0 ⇒ T αi vi = 0.
i=1 i=1
Epeid o T eÐnai 1−1 , èqoume
n
X
αi vi = 0,
i=1
ra α1 = α2 = ... = αn = 0 epeid ta v1 , v2 , ..., vn eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
'Ara ta T (v1 ), T (v2 ), ..., T (vn ) eÐnai grammik anexrthta. 2
2.3 Logismìc Upoq¸rwn
Prìtash 2.3.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . An {Wi }i∈I eÐnai mia
oikogèneia dianusmatik¸n upìqwrwn tou V , tìte to sÔnolo
\
W = Wi
i∈I
eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V .
Apìdeixh 'Amesh. 2
Prìtash 2.3.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai S ⊂ V . An W1

eÐnai o dianusmatikìc q¸roc pou pargetai apì to S kai W2 h tom twn
dianusmatik¸n upoq¸rwn tou V pou perièqoun to S , tìte W1 = W2 .
Apìdeixh O W1 perièqetai se kje dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou perièqei
to S . 'Ara W1 ⊆ W2 . O W1 eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V kai perièqei
to S . 'Ara W2 ⊆ W1 . 2
29
Orismìc 2.3.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo dianusmatikoÔc
upìqwrouc W1 kai W2 tou V . O dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V pou apoteleÐtai
apo ta dianÔsmata thc morf c w1 + w2 me w1 ∈ W1 kai w2 ∈ W2 lègetai
jroisma twn W1 kai W2 kai sumbolÐzetai W1 + W2 .
Orismìc 2.3.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo upìqwrouc W1

W2 tou V . O V lègetai eujÔ jroisma twn W1 kai W2 an W1 ∩ W2 = {0} kai
W1 + W2 = V .
Je¸rhma 2.3.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo upìqwrouc W1

kai W2 tou V . Ta akìlouja eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. V = W1 ⊕ W2
2. Kje v∈V , grfetai me monadikì trìpo: v = w1 + w2 me w1 ∈ W1 kai
w2 ∈ W2 .
Apìdeixh (1) ⇒ (2) Epeid W1 +W2 = V kje v∈V grfetai: v = w1 +w2

me w1 ∈ W1 kai w2 ∈ W2 . Upojètoume ìti v = w10 + w20 me w10 ∈ W1
kai w20 ∈ W2 . 'Eqoume: w1 − w10 = w20 − w2 ∈ W1 ∩ W2 = {0} . 'Ara
w1 − w10 = w20 − w2 = 0 kai sunep¸c w1 = w10 kai w2 = w20 .
(2) ⇒ (1) Epeid kje v ∈ V grfetai: v = w1 + w2 me w1 ∈ W1 kai
w2 ∈ W2 èqoume W1 + W2 = V . DeÐqnoume ìti W1 ∩ W2 = {0} . An uprqei
v ∈ W1 ∩ W2 , tìte to v grfetai me duì diaforetikoÔc trìpouc v = w1 + w2

me w1 ∈ W1 kai w2 ∈ W2 . Prgmati, v = v+0 me v ∈ W1 kai 0 ∈ W2 kai
v =0+v me 0 ∈ W1 kai v ∈ W2 . 2
Pardeigma 2.3.1 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V = R2 kai touc dia-
nusmatikoÔc upoq¸rouc W1 = {(k, 0) : k ∈ R} kai W2 = {(0, l) : l ∈ R} tou
V . EÔkola elègqoume ìti V = W1 ⊕ W2 .
30
Pardeigma 2.3.2 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V = R2 kai touc dia-
nusmatikoÔc upoq¸rouc W1 = {(k, k) : k ∈ R} kai W2 = {(0, l) : l ∈ R} tou
V . JewroÔme (x, y) ∈ W1 ∩ W2 . Epeid (x, y) ∈ W1 èqoume x=y . Epeid
(x, y) ∈ W2 èqoume x=0 kai telik (x, y) = (0, 0) . JewroÔme (x, y) ∈ V . 'E-
qoume (x, y) = (x, x)+(0, y −x) kai ra V = W1 +W2 . Telik, V = W1 ⊕W2 .
Prìtash 2.3.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V peperasmènhc dista-
shc kai dÔo upìqwrouc W1 kai W2 tou V . Upojètoume ìti V = W1 ⊕ W2 .
Tìte
dim V = dim W1 + dim W2 .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme mia bsh (v1 , ..., vn ) tou W1 kai mia bsh (w1 , ..., wm )
tou W2 . DeÐqnoume ìti (v1 , ..., vn , w1 , ..., wm ) eÐnai mia bsh tou V . Epeid
V = W1 ⊕ W2 to sÔnolo {v1 , ..., vn , w1 , ..., wm } pargei ton V . DeÐqnoume ìti
ta v1 , ..., vn , w1 , ..., wm eÐnai grammik anexrthta. Upojètoume ìti uprqoun
n
X m
X
α1 , ..., αn , β1 , ..., βm sto F tètoia ¸ste αi vi + βj wj = 0. 'Eqoume:
i=1 j=1
n
X m
X n
X m
X
αi vi = − βj wj ∈ W1 ∩ W2 = {0}. 'Ara αi vi = 0 kai βj wj = 0,
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
ra α1 = α2 = ... = αn = β1 = β2 = ...βm = 0. 2
shc kai èna dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . An B eÐnai mia bsh tou W ,
0
uprqei mia bsh B tou V pou perièqei thn F .
Apìdeixh 'Amesh apì to Je¸rhma 2.1.1. 2
shc kai èna dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . Tìte uprqei ènac dianusmatikìc
upìqwroc U tou V tètoioc ¸ste oi V =W ⊕U .
31
Apìdeixh Jewr¸ mia bsh (w1 , ..., wm ) tou W . Apì thn Prìtash 2.3.4,
uprqoun v1 , v2 , ..., vn−m ston V tètoia ¸ste h (w1 , ..., wm , v1 , ..., vn−m ) na
eÐnai bsh tou V .
SumbolÐzoume U ton dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou pargetai apì ta
v1 , v2 , ..., vn−m . Ja deÐxoume ìti V = W ⊕U . O dianusmatikìc q¸roc W +U

perièqei mia bsh tou V , ra W +U =V . DeÐqnoume ìti W ∩ U = {0} . An
v ∈W ∩U , èqoume:
m
X n−m
X
v= αi wi = βj vj
i=1 j=1
gia α1 , ..., αm , β1 , ..., βn−m sto F . 'Eqoume:
m
X n−m
X
αi wi − βj vj = 0
i=1 j=1
kai epeid ta w1 , ..., wm , v1 , ..., vn−m eÐnai grammik anexrthta, èqoume α1 =

α2 = ... = αm = β1 = ...βn−m = 0 . 'Ara v=0 . 2
Orismìc 2.3.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . DÔo dianusmatikoÐ
upìqwroi W kai U tou V lègontai sumplhrwmatikoÐ an V =W ⊕U .
2.4 Duðkìc Q¸roc
JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto s¸ma F .
Orismìc 2.4.1 Mia grammik apeikìnish f : V → F lègetai grammik
morf tou V .
To sÔnolo twn grammik¸n morf¸n tou V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw
sto F . Autìc o dianusmatikìc q¸roc lègetai duðkìc tou V kai sumbolÐzetai
me V∗ .
32
Je¸rhma 2.4.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n kai mia
bsh (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) tou V . Uprqei mia monadik orismènh bsh (f1 , f2 , ..., fn ) tou
∗
V tètoia ¸ste fi (vj ) = 1 an i=j kai fi (vj ) = 0 an i 6= j .
Apìdeixh Gia i1≤i≤n , orÐzoume grammik morf fi tou V wc ex c:
n
!
X
fi αj vj = αi .
i=j
EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti fi ∈ V ∗ gia kje i me 1 ≤ i ≤ n . DeÐqnoume
∗ ∗
ìti (f1 , f2 , ..., fn )
h V eÐnai f ∈V
bsh tou . JewroÔme . Ja deÐxoume ìti
Xn
f= f (vi )fi . Prgmati
i=1 ! n ! !
Xn X n
X n
X n
X
f (vi )fi αj vj = f (vj )αj fj (vj ) = αj f (vj ) = f αj vj
i=1 j=1 j=1 j=1 j=1
'Ara ta f1 , f2 , ..., fn pargoun ton V∗ .
DeÐqnoume ìti ta f1 , f2 , ..., fn eÐnai grammik anexrthta. Upojètoume ìti
n
X
uprqoun α1 , α2 , ..., αn sto F tètoia ¸ste αi fi = 0 . 'Eqoume
i=1
n
!
X
αi fi (vj ) = 0
i=1
gia kje j me 1≤j≤n . 'Ara αj = 0 gia kje j me 1≤j≤n .
H monadikìthta thc f1 , f2 , ..., fn prokÔptei apì to ìti fi (vj ) = 1 an i=j

kai fi (vj ) = 0 an i 6= j .
H bsh (f1 , f2 , ..., fn ) lègetai duðk thc (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) .
Pìrisma 2.4.1 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc me dim V = n , tìte dim V ∗ =

n .
33
Je¸rhma 2.4.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro peperasmènhc distashc
V . An v∈V w∈V , kai v 6= w , tìte uprqei f ∈V tètoia ¸ste f (v) 6= f (w) .
Apìdeixh ArkeÐ na broÔme f ∈ V∗ tètoia ¸ste f (v − w) 6= 0 . Epeid
v − w 6= 0 , apì thn Prìtash 2.3.4 uprqei mia bsh tou V pou perièqei to
v−w . Apì to Je¸rhma 2.4.1 uprqei f ∈ V∗ tètoia ¸ste f (v − w) = 1 .
2.5 Q¸roi PhlÐka
Ja orÐsoume t¸ra touc q¸rouc phlÐka.
JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto s¸ma F kai èna dianusmatikì
upìqwro W tou V . SumbolÐzoume me V /W to sÔnolo twn sumplìkwn tou
W mèsa sto V kai π thn fusik apeikìnish π pou orÐzetai:
π(v) = v + W.
OrÐzoume mi prxh sto V . An π(v1 ) ∈ V /W kai π(v2 ) ∈ V orÐzoume
π(v1 ) + π(v2 ) = π(v1 + v2 ).
DeÐqnoume ìti h prxh aut eÐnai kal orismènh. ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti an
v10 ∈V , v20 ∈ V kai π(v1 ) = π(v10 ), π(v2 ) = π(v20 ), tìte π(v1 +v2 ) = π(v10 +v20 ).
0 0 0
epeid π(v1 ) = π(v ) kai π(v2 ) = π(v ) èqoume v1 − v
Prgmati,
1 2 1 ∈ W kai
v2 − v20 ∈ W . Epeid o W eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , èqoume
v1 + v2 − (v10 + v20 ) ∈ W kai ra π(v1 + v2 ) = π(v10 + v20 ) .
An α∈F kai π(v) ∈ V /W orÐzoume
απ(v) = π(αv).
34
DeÐqnoume ìti h prxh aut eÐnai kal orismènh. ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti an
v0 ∈ V kai π(v) = π(v 0 ) , tìte π(αv) = π(αv 0 ) . Epeid π(v) = π(v 0 ) èqoume
0
v−v ∈ W . Epeid o W eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , èqoume α(v −
v0) ∈ W kai ra π(αv) = π(αv 0 ) .
Prìtash 2.5.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto F kai èna
dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . SumbolÐzoume π thn fusik apeikìnish
π : V → V /W .
1. To sÔnolo V /W efodiasmèno me tic prxeic π(v1 ) + π(v2 ) = π(v1 + v2 )

gia v1 ∈ V v2 ∈ V , kai απ(v) = π(αv) gia α ∈ F kai v ∈ V eÐnai
dianusmatikìc q¸roc.
2. H fusik apeikìnish π : V → V /W eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc
apo ton V ston V /W .
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh prokÔptei mesa apo ton orismì twn prxewn ston
V /W . 2
Orismìc 2.5.1 O V /W lègetai q¸roc phlÐko tou V me ton W .
Prìtash 2.5.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo dianusmatikoÔc
upìqwrouc U kai W tou V tètoiouc ¸ste V = U ⊕W . JewroÔme ton q¸ro
phlÐko V /W kai thn fusik apeikìnish π : V → V /W . SumbolÐzoume ρ

thn apeikìnish apo ton U ston V /W pou orÐzetai: ρ(v) = π(v) . H ρ eÐnai
isomorfismìc apo ton dianusmatikì q¸ro U ston dianusmatikì q¸ro V /W .
Apìdeixh EÐnai fanerì ìti h ρ eÐnai grammik . Ja deÐxoume ìti eÐnai 1−1 kai
epÐ. JewroÔme v 1 , v2 sto U tètoia ¸ste ρ(v1 ) = ρ(v2 ) . 'Eqoume π(v1 ) = π(v2 )
ra v1 − v2 ∈ W . Epeid v1 − v2 ∈ U kai U ∩ W = {0} , èqoume v1 − v2 = 0 .
'Ara h ρ eÐnai 1−1 . JewroÔme èna stoiqeÐo π(v) tou V /W , me v∈V . Ja
deÐxoume ìti uprqei u∈U tètoio ¸ste ρ(u) = π(v) . 'Eqoume v =u+w me
35
u∈U kai w∈W . 'Eqoume: v−u=w ∈W . 'Ara π(v) = π(u) = ρ(u) . 'Ara
h ρ eÐnai epÐ. 2
Pìrisma 2.5.1 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc peperasmènhc distashc
kai W eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , tìte:
dim(V /W ) = dim V − dim W.
Je¸rhma 2.5.1 (1o je¸rhma isomorfismoÔ) JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc
q¸rouc V kai W kai ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T :V →W . O dianu-
smatikìc q¸roc V / Ker T eÐnai isomorfikìc me ton Im T .
Apìdeixh SumbolÐzoume π thn fusik apeikìnish V → V / Ker T . OrÐzoume
mia apeikìnish T̃ : V / Ker T → Im T . JewroÔme π(v) ∈ V / Ker T me v∈V .
Jètoume: T̃ (π(v)) = T (v) . H apeikìnish T̃ eÐnai kal orismènh. Prgmati,
an π(v) = π(v 0 ) èqoume v − v 0 ∈ Ker T . Sunep¸c T (v − v 0 ) = 0 kai ra
T (v) = T (v 0 ) .
JewroÔme w ∈ Im T . Uprqei v ∈ V tètoio ¸ste T (v) = w . 'Eqoume
T̃ (π(v)) = T (v) = w . 'Ara h T̃ eÐnai epÐ. JewroÔme π(v) ∈ V / Ker T me
v ∈V . An T̃ (π(v)) = 0 , èqoume T (v) = 0 , ra v ∈ Ker T , ra π(v) = 0 .
'Ara h T̃ eÐnai 1−1 . 2
shc kai ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T apì ton V se èna dianusmatikì
q¸ro W . 'Eqoume:
dim Ker T + dim Im T = dim V.
Apìdeixh Apì to Je¸rhma 2.5.1 o V / Ker T eÐnai isomorfikìc me ton ImT

kai ra, dim(V / Ker T ) = dim Im T . Apì to Pìrisma 2.5.1 , dim(V / Ker T ) =
36
dim V − dim Ker T . 'Ara dim V = dim Ker T + dim Im T . 2
Je¸rhma 2.5.2 (2o Je¸rhma isomorfismoÔ) JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì
q¸ro V kai dÔo upìqwrouc W kai U tou V . O dianusmatikìc q¸roc U/(U ∩W )

eÐnai isomorfikìc me ton (W + U )/W .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T1 : U → W + U pou
orÐzetai: T1 (u) = u . SumbolÐzoume me π thn fusik apeikìnish W +U →

(W + U )/W . Jètoume T = πT1 . O T eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apo
ton U ston (W + U )/W . DeÐqnoume ìti o T eÐnai epÐ. JewroÔme π(v) ∈

(W + U )/W me v ∈ W +U . 'Eqoume: v = w+u me w∈W kai u∈U . Epeid
v−u = w ∈ W , èqoume: π(v) = π(u) . All, T (u) = π(T1 (u)) = π(u) = π(v) .
'Ara T eÐnai epÐ.
Apì to Je¸rhma 2.5.1 o U/ Ker T eÐnai isomorfikìc me ton (W + U )/W .
Gia na oloklhr¸soume thn apìdeixh, arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti Ker T = W ∩ U .
JewroÔme u ∈ U tètoio ¸ste to T (u) = 0 . 'Eqoume: T (u) = π(T1 (u)) =

π(u) = 0 kai ra u∈W . 'Ara: Ker T ⊆ W ∩ U . AntÐstrofa: An u ∈ W ∩U ,
èqoume: T (u) = π(T1 (u)) = π(u) = 0 . 'Ara W ∩ U ⊆ Ker T . 2
shc kai dÔo upìqwrouc W kai U tou V . 'Eqoume:
dim(W + U ) + dim(W ∩ U ) = dim W + dim U.
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì to Je¸rhma 2.5.2 kai to Pìrisma 2.5.1. 2
2.6 Ask seic
'Askhsh 2.6.1 BreÐte poi apì ta paraktw diatetagmèna sÔnola eÐnai bseic
3
tou R .
37
1. ((1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)) .
2. ((0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 2), (0, 0, 3)) .
3. ((1, −1, 1), (−2, 2, 2), (1, 1, 1)) .
4. ((1, −1, 0), (0, 1, −1), (1, 0, −1)) .
'Askhsh 2.6.2 DeÐxte ìti h (x+1, x2 +1, x2 +2) eÐnai bsh tou dianusmatikoÔ
q¸rou V = {p(x) : p(x) ∈ R[x] : deg p(x) ≤ 2} . Gryte ta polu¸numa
2
x, x + 2, x , 4 san grammikoÔc sunduasmoÔc stoiqeÐwn aut c thc bshc.
√ √
'Askhsh 2.6.3 Jètoume: V = {α + β 3 + γ 5 : α ∈ Q, β ∈ Q, γ ∈ Q}.
DeÐxte ìti o V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw sto Q, breÐte mia bsh tou
kaj¸c kai th distash tou.
'Askhsh 2.6.4 BreÐte poi apì ta paraktw uposÔnola tou C3 eÐnai dianu-
smatikoÐ upìqwroi tou C3 ?
1. {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x ∈ R} .
2. {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x = 0} .
3. {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x = 0 η y = 0} .
4. {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x + y = 0} .
5. {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x + y = 1} .
'Askhsh 2.6.5 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai x, y, z ston V gram-
mik anexrthta. EÐnai ta x + y, y + z, z + x grammik anexrthta?
'Askhsh 2.6.6 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro C2 pnw sto s¸ma C . Gia
poia ξ∈C ta dianÔsmata: (1 + ξ, 1 − ξ), (1 − ξ, 1 + ξ) tou C2 eÐnai grammik
exarthmèna?
38
'Askhsh 2.6.7 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n . DeÐxte
ìti:
1. Kje sÔnolo n+1 dianusmtwn tou V eÐnai grammik exarthmèno.
2. Den uprqei sÔnolo n−1 dianusmtwn tou V pou na pargei ton V .
'Askhsh 2.6.8 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai x, y, z ston V . An
x+y +z = 0 , deÐxte ìti ta sÔnola {x, y} kai {y, z} pargoun ton Ðdio upìqwro
tou V .
'Askhsh 2.6.9 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai W 1 , W2 , W3 upìqw-
rouc tou V . DeÐxte ìti:
W1 ∩ (W2 + (W1 ∩ W3 )) = W1 ∩ W2 + W1 ∩ W3 .
'Askhsh 2.6.10 DÐnontai oi upìqwroi W1 = {(x, y, o) : x ∈ C, y ∈ C} kai
3 3
W2 = {(0, x, x) : x ∈ C} tou C . DeÐxte ìti C = W1 ⊕ W2 .
'Askhsh 2.6.11 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai dÔo upìqwrouc W1

kai W2 tou R2 me dim W1 = dim W2 = 1 . DeÐxte ìti uprqei dianusmatikìc
upìqwroc W tou R2 tètoioc ¸ste V = W ⊕ W1 kai V = W ⊕ W2 .
'Askhsh 2.6.12 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n kai
dÔo upìqwrouc W1 kai W2 tou V me dim W1 = dim W2 . DeÐxte ìti uprqei
dianusmatikìc upìqwroc W tou V tètoioc ¸ste V = W ⊕W1 kai V = W ⊕W2 .
'Askhsh 2.6.13 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n . DeÐxte
∗
ìti an f ∈ V , f 6= 0 tìte dim Ker f = n − 1.
'Askhsh 2.6.14 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n . An
S⊂V sumbolÐzoume S o = {f ∈ V ∗ : f (x) = 0 ∀x ∈ S} .
1. DeÐxte ìti gia kje S⊆V , to So eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V∗ .
39
2. DeÐxte ìti an S⊆F ⊆V , tìte F o ⊆ S o.
3. DeÐxte ìti an W 1 , W2 eÐnai dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi tou V tìte:
(W1 ∩ W2 )o = W1o + W2o , (W1 + W2 )o ) = W1o ∩ W2o .
'Askhsh 2.6.15 JewroÔme dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n . DeÐxte ìti
∗
an f1 , f2 , ..., fk eÐnai grammik anexrthta stoiqeÐa tou V , tìte
dim(∩ki=1 Ker fi ) = n − k.
'Askhsh 2.6.16 JewroÔme thn grammik morf f : C3 → C pou orÐzetai:
f (x, y, z) = x + y + z . BreÐte mia bsh tou Ker f.
'Askhsh 2.6.17 JewroÔme dianusmatikì q¸ro V me dim V = n kai ènan
upìqwro W tou V me dim W = k . DeÐxte ìti dim W o = n − k.
'Askhsh 2.6.18 BreÐte ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V treÐc dianusmatikoÔc u-
pìqwrouc W 1 , W2 , W3 tou V tètoiouc ¸ste W1 ⊕ W2 = V W1 ⊕ W3 = V , kai
W1 ∩ W2 = {0} .
'Askhsh 2.6.19 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W kai ènan
grammikì metasqhmatismì T apo ton V ston W . DeÐxte ìti an o T eÐnai
monomorfismìc kai ta x1 , x2 , ..., xn eÐnai grammik anexrthta dianÔsmata tou
V , tìte ta T (x1 ), T (x2 ), ..., T (xn ) eÐnai grammik anexrthta dianÔsmata tou
W .
'Askhsh 2.6.20 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W . An dim V =

n kai dim W = m breÐte th distash tou dianusmatikoÔ q¸rou twn grammi-
k¸n metasqhmatism¸n apì to V sto W .
40
'Askhsh 2.6.21 (3o Je¸rhma isomorfismoÔ) DÐnontai ènac dianusmatikìc
q¸roc V kai dÔo dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi W kai U tou V me U ⊆W . DeÐxte
ìti o V /W eÐnai isomorfikìc me ton (V /U )/(W/U ) .
41
Keflaio 3
PÐnakec
3.1 PÐnakec
JewroÔme to s¸ma F kai m, n sto N∗ . Enac m×n pÐnakac A me stoiqeÐa
sto s¸ma F eÐnai mia dieujèthsh
 
a11 a12 ··· ··· a1n
 
 a21 a22
 ··· ···a2n 

A = · · · · · · ··· ··· ··· ,
 
 
· · · · · · ··· ··· ··· 
 
am1 am2 · · · · · · amn
ìpou aij ∈ F .
O pÐnakac A èqei m grammèc kai n st lec. H i gramm tou A eÐnai
(ai1 , ai2 , ..., ain )
42
kai h j st lh eÐnai h
 
a1j
 
 a2j 
 
 a3j .
 
 
· · · 
 
amj
Ta aij lègontai stoiqeÐa suntelestèc tou pÐnaka. O arijmìc aij lègetai
to ij stoiqeÐo tou pÐnaka A .
SumbolÐzoume ton pÐnaka A kai (aij ) .
Oi grammèc tou pÐnaka A eÐnai dianÔsmata tou Fn kai sumbolÐzontai
a1 , a2 , ..., am . Oi st lec tou pÐnaka A eÐnai dianÔsmata tou Fm kai sum-
1 2 n
bolÐzontai a , a , ..., a .
Pardeigma 3.1.1 O pÐnakac
!
2 −1 4
A= ,
0 1 7
eÐnai ènac 2×3 pÐnakac.

Oi grammèc tou eÐnai oi 2 −1 4 0 1 7 , kai oi st lec tou eÐnai oi
! ! !
2 −1 4
, , .
0 1 7
Orismìc 3.1.1 O mhdenikìc m×n pÐnakac eÐnai o pÐnakac tou opoÐou ìla
ta stoiqeÐa eÐnai Ðsa me 0 .
An A kai B eÐnai dÔo m×n pÐnakec to jroisma touc eÐnai o m×n pÐnakac
A+B tou opoÐou to ij stoiqeÐo eÐnai aij + bij . An A eÐnai ènac m×n pÐnakac
kai α èna stoiqeÐo tou s¸matoc F , o pÐnakac αA eÐnai o pÐnakac tou opoÐou
to ij stoiqeÐo eÐnai αaij .
43
Me tic dÔo autèc prxeic to sÔnolo twn m×n pinkwn me stoiqeÐa sto
F eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc.
SumbolÐzoume F m×n ton dianusmatikì q¸ro twn m×n pinkwn me stoiqeÐa
sto F .
Orismìc 3.1.2 'Enac n×n pÐnakac A lègetai tetragwnikìc.
Orismìc 3.1.3 O anstrofoc enìc m×n pÐnaka A eÐnai o n×m pÐnakac tou
opoÐou to ij stoiqeÐo eÐnai to aji . O anstrofoc enìc pÐnaka A sumbolÐzetai
t
A .
Pardeigma 3.1.2 JewroÔme ton 2×3 pÐnaka
!
2 1 4
A= .
3 2 7
O anstrofoc tou A eÐnai o 3×2 pÐnakac
 
2 3
 
At = 
 1 2.

4 7
Orismìc 3.1.4 'Enac n×n pÐnakac A lègetai summetrikìc an A = At .
Pardeigma 3.1.3 O pÐnakac
 
2 −1 4
 
−1 1 7
 
4 7 4
eÐnai ènac 3×3 summetrikìc pÐnakac.
Orismìc 3.1.5 'Enac n×n pÐnakac A me lègetai antisummetrikìc an A=

t
−A .
44
Orismìc 3.1.6 JewroÔme ènan tetragwnikì n×n pÐnaka A . Ta diag¸nia
stoiqeÐa tou A eÐnai ta a11 , a22 , ..., ann . O A lègetai diag¸nioc an ìla ta
stoiqeÐa tou pou den eÐnai diag¸nia eÐnai Ðsa me 0 .
Orismìc 3.1.7 JewroÔme ènan tetragwnikì n×n pÐnaka A . Lème Ðqnoc tou
A kai sumbolÐzoume tr A to jroisma twn diagwnÐwn stoiqeÐwn tou A :
n
X
tr A = aii .
i=1
Orismìc 3.1.8 O tautotikìc n×n pÐnakac eÐnai o diag¸nioc pÐnakac tou
opoÐou ta diag¸nia stoiqeÐa eÐnai Ðsa me 1. O tautotikìc n×n pÐnakac sum-
bolÐzetai In .
Orismìc 3.1.9 'Enac tetragwnikìc n×n pÐnakac A lègetai nw trigwnikìc
an aij = 0 ìtan i>j me 1≤i≤n kai 1≤j≤n . 'Enac tetragwnikìc n×n

pÐnakac A lègetai ktw trigwnikìc an aij = 0 ìtan i<j me 1≤i≤n kai
1≤j≤n .
3.2 Grammik Sust mata
JewroÔme ènan m×n pÐnaka A = (aij ) kai ta stoiqeÐa b1 , b2 , ..., bm tou F .
To akìloujo eÐnai èna sÔsthma m grammik¸n exis¸sewn me n agn¸stouc.
a11 x1 + a12 x1 + ... + a1n x1 = b1

...
am1 x1 + am2 x1 + ... + amn x1 = bm
To m eÐnai to pl joc twn exis¸sewn kai to n to pl joc twn agn¸stwn.
O pÐnakac A lègetai o pÐnakac twn suntelest¸n tou sust matoc. JewroÔme
tic st lec a1 , a2 , ..., an tou pÐnaka A . Jètoume b = (b1 , b2 , ..., bm ) . Tìte to
sÔsthma grfetai:
45
n
X
xi ai = b.
i=1
Mi lÔsh tou sust matoc autoÔ eÐnai mia n -ada stoiqeÐwn ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn tou
s¸matoc F tètoia ¸ste:
a11 ξ1 + a12 ξ2 + ... + a1n ξn = b1

...
am1 ξ1 + am2 ξ2 + ... + amn ξn = bm
isodÔnama:
n
X
ξi ai = b.
i=1
To sÔsthma lègetai omogenèc an b1 = b2 = ... = bm = 0 . Lème ìti èna
omogenèc sÔsthma èqei mia mh tetrimmènh lÔsh en èqei mi lush diaforetik
apo thn (0, 0, ..., 0) .
Je¸rhma 3.2.1 JewroÔme èna omogenèc sÔsthma m grammik¸n exis¸sewn
me n agn¸stouc, ìpou n>m . Tìte to sÔsthma èqei mia mh tetrimmènh lÔsh.
Apìdeixh Grfoume to sÔsthma sthn morf :
n
X
xi ai = 0,
i=1
ìpou ai eÐnai h i st lh tou pÐnaka A gia kje i me 1≤i≤n . Ta dianÔsmata
ai ∈ F m gia kje i me 1≤i≤n . Epeid n>m , èpetai apo to Je¸rhma 2.1.1
ìti ta dianÔsmata ai 1 ≤ i ≤ n
, eÐnai grammik exarthmèna. 'Ara uprqoun
ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn sto F , ìqi ìla Ðsa me 0 tètoia ¸ste
n
X
ξi ai = 0.
i=1
H n -ada ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn eÐnai mi mh tetrimmènh lÔsh tou sust matoc. 2
46
Je¸rhma 3.2.2 JewroÔme to sÔsthma n grammik¸n exis¸sewn me n agn¸-
stouc. Upojètoume ìti ta dianÔsmata a1 , a2 , .., an eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
Tìte to sÔsthma èqei lÔsh kai h lÔsh aut eÐnai monadik .
Apìdeixh
Grfoume to sÔsthma sthn morf :
n
X
xi ai = 0,
i=1
ìpou ai eÐnai h i st lh tou pÐnaka A gia kje i me 1≤i≤n . 'Epetai apo to
Pìrisma 2.1.3 ìti h (a1 , a2 , .., an ) eÐnai bsh tou Fn . 'Ara uprqoun monadik
ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn sto F tètoia ¸ste
n
X
xi ai = 0.
i=1
H n -ada ξ1 , ξ2 , ..., ξn apoteleÐ thn monadik lÔsh tou sust matoc. 2
3.3 H 'Algebra twn Pinkwn
Orismìc 3.3.1 JewroÔme ènan m×n pÐnaka A kai ènan n×k pÐnaka B .
To ginìmeno twn A kai B eÐnai ènac m×k pÐnakac tou opoÐou to ij stoiqeÐo
Pn
eÐnai to
s=1 ais bsj .
Je¸rhma 3.3.1 JewroÔme m×n pÐnaka A kai dÔo n×k pÐnakec B kai C .
Tìte èqoume:
A(B + C) = AB + AC
EpÐshc, an λ∈F tìte A(λB) = λ(AB).
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc eÐnai mesh. 2
47
Je¸rhma 3.3.2 JewroÔme èna m×n pÐnaka A , ènan n×k pÐnaka B kai
ènan k×l pÐnaka C . Tìte èqoume:
A(BC) = (AB)C.
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh tou Jewr matoc eÐnai mesh. 2
Orismìc 3.3.2 JewroÔme ènan tetragwnikì n×n pÐnaka A . O A lègetai
antistrèyimoc an uprqei ènac tetragwnikìc n×n pÐnakac B tètoioc ¸ste
AB = BA = In .
Prìtash 3.3.1 JewroÔme ènan tetragwnikì n×n antistrèyimo pÐnaka A .
Upojètoume ìti uprqoun dÔo tetragwnikoÐ n×n pÐnakec B kai C tètoioi ¸ste
AB = BA = In
kai
AC = CA = In .
Tìte B=C .
Apìdeixh 'Eqoume
B = BIn = B(AC) = (BA)C = In C = C.
Orismìc 3.3.3 JewroÔme ènan tetragwnikì n×n antistrèyimo pÐnaka A .
O pÐnakac B pou ikanopoieÐ thn sqèsh
AB = BA = In
48
lègetai antÐstrofoc tou A kai sumbolÐzetai A−1 .
Prìtash 3.3.2 JewroÔme dÔo tetragwnikoÔc n×n antistrèyimouc pÐnakec
A kai B . Tìte o AB eÐnai antistrèyimoc kai (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh eÐnai mesh. 2
Orismìc 3.3.4 JewroÔme dÔo tetragwnikoÔc n×n pÐnakec A kai B . Oi A

kai B lègontai ìmoioi an uprqei n×n antistrèyimoc pÐnakac C tètoioc ¸ste
CAC −1 = B .
Prìtash 3.3.3 H omoiìthta pinkwn eÐnai sqèsh isodunamÐac.
Prìtash 3.3.4 JewroÔme m×n pÐnaka A kai ènan n×k pÐnaka B . Tìte:
(AB)t = B t At .
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh thc Prìtashc eÐnai mesh. 2
Orismìc 3.3.5 'Enac n×n pÐnakac A me suntelestèc sto R lègetai orjo-
g¸nioc an At A = AAt = In .
3.4 Ask seic
'Askhsh 3.4.1 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Rn×n twn n×n pinkwn
me suntelestèc sto R . Jètoume:
n×n
W1 = {A ∈ R : A = At }
W2 = {A ∈ Rn×n : A = −At }
1. DeÐxte ìti oi W1 kai W2 eÐnai dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi tou Rn×n .
49
2. UpologÐste touc arijmoÔc dim W1 , dim W2 .
3. DeÐxte ìti Rn×n = W1 ⊕ W2 .
'Askhsh 3.4.2 Jètoume
V = {A ∈ Rn×n : tr A = 0} .
DeÐxte ìti V eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou Rn×n kai breÐte thn di-
stash tou V.
'Askhsh 3.4.3 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Rn×n twn n×n pinkwn
me suntelestèc sto R . JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì upìqwro V tou Rn×n pou
apoteleÐtai apì touc anw trigwnikoÔc pÐnakec. BreÐte mia bsh tou V . BreÐte
ènan dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou Rn×n tètoio ¸ste:
V ⊕ W = Rn×n .
'Askhsh 3.4.4 JewroÔme dÔo tetragwnikoÔc n×n pÐnakec A kai B . DeÐxte
ìti
tr AB = tr BA.
'Askhsh 3.4.5 Jètoume ènan n×n pÐnaka A me stoiqeÐa sto F . Upojè-
m
toume ìti uprqei m ∈ N∗ tètoio ¸ste A = 0 . DeÐxte ìti o In − A eÐnai
antistrèyimoc.
'Askhsh 3.4.6 JewroÔme ton pÐnaka A ìpou:
 
λ 1 1
 
A=
 0 λ 1 ,

0 0 λ
me λ∈R . UpologÐste ton An gia n ∈ N∗ .
50
 
λ 1 1
 
A=
 0 λ 1 ,

0 0 λ
me λ ∈ R . DeÐxte ìti o A eÐnai antistrèyimoc an kai mìnon an λ 6= 0

. An
λ 6= 0 breÐte ton antÐstrofo tou A .
!
1 1
A= ,
1 λ
me λ ∈ R . DeÐxte ìti o A eÐnai antistrèyimoc an kai mìnon an λ 6= 1

. An
λ 6= 1 breÐte ton antÐstrofo tou A .
'Askhsh 3.4.9 BreÐte dÔo 2×2 pÐnakec A kai B tètoiouc ¸ste AB = 0 kai
BA 6= 0 .
'Askhsh 3.4.10 JewroÔme ènan 2×2 pÐnaka A . DeÐxte ìti uprqoun dÔo
2×2 pÐnakec B kai C tètoioi ¸ste A = BC − CB an kai mìnon an tr A = 0 .
51
Keflaio 4
OrÐzousec Sunart seic
4.1 OrÐzousec Sunart seic
SumbolÐzoume to sÔnolo twn n×n pinkwn me suntelestèc sto F me F n×n .
n×n
An A eÐnai ènac pÐnakac sto F , sumbolÐzoume a1 , ..., an tic grammèc tou.
SumbolÐzoume epishc (a1 , ..., an ) ton pÐnaka A .
Dhlad an a1 , ..., an eÐnai oi grammèc tou A , grfoume
D(A) = D(a1 , ..., an )
Orismìc 4.1.1 MÐa sunrthsh D : F n×n → F lègetai n -grammik an
0 0
D(a1 , ..., cai + ai , ..., an ) = cD(a1 , ..., ai , ..., an ) + D(a1 , ..., ai , ..., an )
gia kje ai ∈ F n i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, D(·) .
L mma 4.1.1 'Enac grammikìc sunduasmìc n -grammik¸n sunart sewn eÐnai
n -grammik sunrthsh.
52
Pardeigma 4.1.1 JewroÔme thn sunrthsh D : R2×2 → R pou orÐzetai:
D(A) = D(a1 , a2 ) = a11 a22 − a12 a21 . H sunrthsh D eÐnai ish me
D1 + D2 ìpou D1 (A) = a11 a22 kai D2 (A) = a12 a21 . EÔkola blèpoume ìti
oi D1 kai D2 eÐnai 2 -grammikèc sunart seic, ra kai h D eÐnai 2 -grammik
sunrthsh. ParathroÔme ìti:
1. D(I2 ) = 1 .
2. An oi dÔo grammèc thc A eÐnai Ðdiec tìte D(A) = 0 .
3. Tèloc an A eÐnai ènac 2×2 pÐnakac kai A0 eÐnai o pÐnakac pou prokÔptei
apo ton A allzontac tic grammèc tou, èqoume D(A0 ) = −D(A).
Orismìc 4.1.2 MÐa n -grammik sunrthsh D lègetai enallssousa en
1. D(A) = 0 an dÔo seirèc tou A eÐnai Ðdiec
2. An A0 eÐnai o pÐnakac pou prokÔptei apì ton A enallssontac dÔo gram-
mèc, tìte D(A0 ) = −D(A) .
Sthn pragmatikìthta ja deÐxoume ìti (1) ⇒ (2) gia kje n− grammik
sunrthsh D . EpÐshc an o A èqei dÔo Ðdiec grammèc tìte apo thn (2) èpetai
ìti D(A) = −D(A) ⇒ D(A) = 0 kai ra h (2) sunepgetai thn (1) . Opìte
blèpoume ìti telik oi (1) kai (2) eÐnai isodÔnamec.
L mma 4.1.2 An D eÐnai mÐa 2 -grammik sunrthsh kai D(A) = 0 gia kje
2×2 0 0
A∈R me Ðdiec grammèc, tìte D(A ) = −D(A) ìpou A eÐnai o pÐnakac pou
prokÔptei apì ton A enallssontac dÔo grammèc.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme tic grammèc a1 , a2 tou A . 'Eqoume
D(a1 + a2 , a1 + a2 ) = D(a1 , a1 ) + D(a1 , a2 ) + D(a2 , a1 ) + D(a2 , a2 ) .
All apì thn upìjesh mac
D(a1 + a2 , a1 + a2 ) = D(a1 , a1 ) = D(a2 , a2 ) = 0 kai ra
D(a1 , a2 ) = −D(a2 , a1 ) 2
53
L mma 4.1.3 An D eÐnai mÐa n -grammik sunrthsh kai D(A) = 0 gia kje
A ∈ Rn×n me dÔo diadoqikèc grammèc Ðdiec, tìte D(A0 ) = −D(A) ìpou A0 o
pÐnakac pou prokÔptei apì ton A enallssontac dÔo grammèc.
Apìdeixh Pr¸ta upojètoume ìti o A0 prokÔptei apì thn enallag dÔo diado-
qik¸n gramm¸n. 'Opwc sthn apìdeixh tou prohgoÔmenou L mmatoc deÐqnoume
0
ìti D(A ) = −D(A) .
T¸ra èstw ìti o A0 prokÔptei apì thn amoibaÐa enallag twn gramm¸n i
kai j me i<j . Ja proume thn A0 apì mia peperasmènh akoloujÐa enallag¸n
diadoqik¸n seir¸n: Pr¸ta enallssoume thn i me thn i+1 kai suneqÐzoume
wc ìtou sqhmatÐsoume ton pÐnaka
(a1 , ..., ai−1 , ai+1 , ..., aj−1 , aj , ai , aj+1 , ..., an )

Autì apaiteÐ k = j −i enallagèc diadoqik¸n gramm¸n. Met metakinoÔme
to aj sthn i jèsh. Autì apaiteÐ k−1 enallagèc. Sunolik knoume k + (k −

1) = 2k − 1 enallagèc. 'Etsi
D(A0 ) = (−1)2k−1 D(A) = −D(A)
Orismìc 4.1.3 MÐa orÐzousa sunrthsh D : F n×n → F eÐnai mia
n -grammik apeikìnish pou ikanopoieÐ D(I) = 1 .
An eÐnai ènac n×n pÐnakac sumbolÐzoume A(i|j) ton (n − 1) × (n − 1)

pÐnaka pou prokÔptei apì ton A diagrfontac thn i gramm kai thn j st lh.
Je¸rhma 4.1.1 'Estw n > 1 kai D mÐa enallssousa, (n − 1) -grammik
sunrthsh apì to F (n−1)×(n−1) sto F . Jètoume Dij (A) = D(A(i|j)) gia
1≤i≤n 1≤j≤n , . Gia kje j me 1≤j≤n h sunrthsh
n
X
Ej (A) = (−1)i+j aij Dij (A)
i=1
eÐnai mia enallssousa, n -grammik sunrthsh sto F n×n . An h D eÐnai
orÐzousa, tìte kai h Ej eÐnai epÐshc orÐzousa gia kje j me 1≤j≤n .
54
Apìdeixh Epeid h D eÐnai (n − 1) -grammik h Dij eÐnai grammik san sunr-
thsh kje gramm c ektìc thc i . Sunep¸c h aij Dij (A) eÐnai n -grammik kai h
Ej eÐnai n -grammik .
Gia na deÐxoume ìti h Ej eÐnai enallssousa, arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti Ej (A) =

0 ìtan h A èqei dÔo diadoqikèc grammèc Ðdiec. Upojètoume loipìn ìti ak =
ak+1 . An i 6= k kai i 6= k + 1 o A(i|j) èqei dÔo Ðdiec grammèc kai ra Dij (A) =
0. 'Eqoume Ej (A) = (−1)k+j akj Dkj (A) + (−1)k+1+j a(k+1)j D(k+1)j (A) .
Epeid ak = ak+1 èqoume Akj = A(k+1)j ra A(k|j) = A(k + 1|j) kai su-
nep¸c Ej (A) = 0. Upojètoume ìti h D eÐnai orÐzousa sunrthsh. O I(n) (i|j)

eÐnai o tautotikìc (n − 1) × (n − 1) pÐnakac sto F (n−1)×(n−1) . 'Eqoume:
Ej (I(n) ) = D(I(n−1) ) = 1 kai ra h Ej eÐnai orÐzousa. 2
Pìrisma 4.1.1 Uprqei toulqiston mia orÐzousa sunrthsh sto F n×n .
Apìdeixh 'Hdh eÐdame ìti uprqei sto F 1×1 . EpÐshc h prohgoÔmenh apìdeixh
mac leei pwc mporoÔme na proume mia orÐzousa sunrthsh sto F n×n ìtan
èqoume mia tètoia sunrthsh sto F (n−1)×(n−1) . 2
Je¸rhma 4.1.2 Uprqei mia kai monadik orÐzousa sunrthsh sto F n×n
kai dÐnetai apì ton tÔpo
X
sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) .
σ
An D eÐnai mia opoiad pote n -grammik sunrthsh sto F n×n , tìte
!
X
D(A) = sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) D(I).
σ
Apìdeixh JewroÔme ènan n×n pÐnaka A sto F n×n . SumbolÐzoume a1 , ..., an

tic grammèc tou A . SumbolÐzoume ei , 1 ≤ i ≤ n thn i gramm tou tautotikoÔ
n
X
pÐnaka. 'Eqoume ai = aij ej gia 1≤i≤n .
j=1
55
'Eqoume
D(A) = D(a1 , ..., an ) =

X X X
D( a1j ej , a2j ej , ..., anj ej ).
j j j
Kai telik èqoume:
X
D(A) = a1k1 ...ankn D(ek1 , ..., ekn )
k1 ,k2 ,...,kn
ìpou to jroisma eÐnai wc proc ìlec tic akoloujÐec (k1 , ..., kn ) jetik¸n
akeraÐwn mikrìterwn Ðswn tou n .
Epeid h D eÐnai enallssousa D(ek1 , ..., ekn ) = 0 ìtan dÔo ki eÐnai Ðsa.
EpÐshc D(eσ1 , ..., eσn ) = sgn σD(e1 , ..., en ) ìpou σ metjesh bajmoÔ n .
Sunep¸c
!
X
D(A) = sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) D(I)
σ
DeÐxame ìti an D eÐnai mia opoiad pote n -grammik enallssousa sunr-
thsh, tìte
!
X
D(A) = sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) D(I).
σ
An epiplèon h D eÐnai orÐzousa sunrthsh, tìte epeid D(I) = 1 , èqoume
X
D(A) = sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) .
σ
2
Orismìc 4.1.4 JewroÔme ènan n×n pÐnaka A sto F n×n . Ja lème orÐzousa
56
tou A ton arijmì
X
sgn σa1σ(1) ...anσ(n) .
σ
Ja sumbolÐzoume thn orÐzousa tou A me det A |A|

a11 a12 ... a1n

a21 a22 ... a2n
.

... ... ... ...

an1 an2 ... ann
Je¸rhma 4.1.3 An A, B ∈ F n×n , tìte det(AB) = det A det B
Apìdeixh 'Estw B ∈ F n×n . OrÐzoume D : F n×n → F wc ex c.
D(A) = det(AB)
JewroÔme tic grammèc a1 , ..., an tou A . 'Eqoume
D(a1 , ..., an ) = det(a1 B, ..., an B)

0 0
Epeid (cai + ai )B = cai + ai B kai det eÐnai n -grammik h D eÐnai n -
grammik . Epiplèon an ai = aj tìte ai B = aj B kai epeid h det eÐnai e-
nallssousa èqoume ìti kai h D eÐnai enallssousa. Ara apo to Je¸rhma
4.1.2 èqoume ìti D(A) = det AD(I) All D(I) = det(IB) = det B kai telik
D(A) = det(AB) = det A det B 2
Pìrisma 4.1.2 JewroÔme dÔo metajèseic σ kai τ tou {1, 2, ..., n} . Tìte:
sgn(στ ) = (sgnσ)(sgnτ )
Apìdeixh EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme apì to Je¸rhma 4.1.2 ìti D(aσ1 , ..., aσn ) =
sgn σ . To Pìrisma èpetai t¸ra apo to Je¸rhma 4.1.3. 2
Pìrisma 4.1.3 JewroÔme ènan n×n pÐnaka A . 'Eqoume:
det At = det A
57
Apìdeixh An σ eÐnai mia metjesh bajmoÔ n èqoume
atiσ(i) = aσ(i)i . Sunep¸c
X
det At = sgn σaσ(1)1 ...aσ(n)n .
σ
'Eqoume
aσ(1)1 ...aσ(n)n = a1σ−1 (1) ...anσ−1 (n)
kai sgn σ = sgn σ −1 kai ra
X
det At = (sgn σ −1 )a1σ−1 (1) ...anσ−1 (n) = det A.
σ
2
Pìrisma 4.1.4 1. An o n×n pÐnakac B prokÔptei apì ton n×n pÐnaka
A prosjètontac èna pollaplsio miac gramm c se mia llh, tìte
det B = det A
2. An o n×n pÐnakac B prokÔptei apì ton n×n pÐnaka A prosjètontac
èna pollaplsio miac st lhc se mia llh, tìte
det B = det A
Apìdeixh
1. SumbolÐzoume a1 , ..., an tic grammèc tou A . An c∈F kai h caj prostÐ-
jetai sthn ai gia i<j tìte
det B = det A + c det(a1 , ..., aj , ..., aj , ..., an ) = det A .
2. ProkÔptei apì to (1) kai to Pìrisma 4.1.3.
58
Pìrisma 4.1.5 JewroÔme n ∈ N∗ kai s ∈ N ∗ r ∈ N∗
, tètoia ¸ste ns+r = n .
An o A eÐnai ènac r×r pÐnakac, o B eÐnai ènac B =r×s pÐnakac, o C eÐnai
ènac s×s pÐnakac, kai X eÐnai o n×n pÐnakac
!
A B
X=
0 C
tìte
det X = det A det C.
Je¸rhma 4.1.4 'Estw A ∈ F n×n . Tìte A eÐnai antistrèyimoc an det A 6= 0

kai
A−1 = (det A)−1 adj A
ìpou adj A eÐnai o pÐnakac (adj A)ij = (−1)i+j det A(j|i).
Apìdeixh
Aapo to Je¸rhma 4.1.1 èqoume ìti
n
X
det A = (−1)i+j aij det A(i|j).
i=1
i+j
Jètoume cij = (−1) det A(i|j) .
'Etsi
n
X
det A = cij aij .
i=1
DeÐqnoume ìti an 1≤j≤n 1≤k≤n , kai j 6= k èqoume:
n
X
aik cij = 0.
i=1
59
Prgmati, an antikatast soume thn j st lh tou A apì thn k st lh kai
onomsoume ton pÐnaka pou prokÔptei B , tìte o B èqei dÔo Ðsec st lec kai
ra det B = 0. Epeid B(i|j) = A(i|j) , gia kje i me 1≤i≤n , èqoume
n
X
0 = det B = (−1)i+j bij det B(i|j)
i=1
n
X n
X
i+j
= (−1) aik det A(i|j) = aik cij .
i=1 i=1
Telik èqoume:
n
X
aik cij = δjk det A.
i=1
Epeid
(adj A)ij = cji = (−1)i+j det A(j|i).
èqoume:
(adj A)A = (det A)I.
Ja deÐxoume ìti
A(adj A) = (det A)I.
'Eqoume
At (i|j) = A(j|i)t kai ra
(−1)i+j det At (i|j) = (−1)i+j det A(j|i)t = (−1)i+j det A(j|i).
SumperaÐnoume ìti
adj(At ) = (adj A)t .
60
'Ara
(adj At )At = (det At )I = (det A)I
kai paÐrnontac anstrofouc se aut th sqèsh briskoume ìti
A(adj A) = (det A)I.
4.2 Ask seic
'Askhsh 4.2.1 An A eÐnai ènac n×n pÐnakac me suntelestèc sto F kai
λ∈F , deÐxte ìti det(λA) = λn det A.
'Askhsh 4.2.2 DeÐxte ìti an A eÐnai ènac n×n pÐnakac tètoioc ¸ste At =
−A kai n eÐnai perittìc, tìte det A = 0 . IsqÔei det A = 0 an n eÐnai rtioc?
'Askhsh 4.2.3 DeÐxte ìti h orÐzousa enìc nw trigwnikoÔ pÐnaka eÐnai Ðsh
me to ginìmeno twn diagwnÐwn stoiqeÐwn tou.
'Askhsh 4.2.4 JewroÔme ènan antistrèyimo n×n nw trigwnikì pÐnaka A .
DeÐxte ìti o antÐstrofoc tou A eÐnai nw trigwnikìc.
'Askhsh 4.2.5 UpologÐste thn orÐzousa:

1 x x2

1 y y2 .

1 z z2

61
'Askhsh 4.2.6 UpologÐste ton antÐstrofo tou pÐnaka:
 
cos φ 0 − sin φ
 
 0 1 0 ,
 
sin φ 0 cos φ
φ∈R .
'Askhsh 4.2.7 BeÐte gia poièc timèc tou α o pÐnakac
 
0 1 α
 
1 α 0
 
α 0 1
eÐnai antistrèyimoc. Gia autèc tic timèc tou α , breÐte ton antÐstrofì tou.
'Askhsh 4.2.8 An A eÐnai ènac 2×2 pÐnakac me suntelestèc sto F tètoioc
2 2
¸ste A =0 kai λ∈F , deÐxte ìti det(λI2 − A) = λ .
'Askhsh 4.2.9 DÐdontai oi n×n pÐnakec A, B, C, D me stoiqeÐa sto F . U-
pojètoume ìti oi A, B, C, D metatÐjentai an dÔo. DeÐxte ìti h orÐzousa tou
2n × 2n pÐnaka
!
A B
C D
eÐnai Ðsh me det(AD − BC) .
'Askhsh 4.2.10 Oi arijmoÐ 20604 53227 25755 20927

, , , kai 78421 diairoÔntai
me to 17 . DeÐxte ìti h orÐzousa
62

2 0 6 0 4

5 3 2 2 7
2 5 7 5 5

2 0 9 2 7

7 8 4 2 1
diaireÐtai me to 17
.
63
Keflaio 5
GrammikoÐ MetasqhmatismoÐ
Se autì to keflaio to s¸ma F eÐnai to R to C kai ìloi oi dianusmatikoÐ
q¸roi pou jewroÔme eÐnai peperasmènhc distashc.
5.1 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ
Je¸rhma 5.1.1 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikouc q¸rouc V kai W . JewroÔme
mia bsh (v1 , ..., vn ) tou V kai n dianÔsmata w1 , ..., wn tou W . Tìte uprqei
ènac monadikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T :V →W tètoioc ¸ste
T (vi ) = wi gia kje i me i = 1, ..., n
Apìdeixh JewroÔme v ∈ V . Tìte uprqoun monadik λ1 , ..., λn F tètoia
n
X
¸ste v= λi v i . OrÐzoume:
i=1
n
X
T (v) = λi wi
i=1
O T eÐnai kala orismènoc, kai T (vi ) = wi gia kje i me i = 1, ..., n .
EpÐshc eÔkola blèpoume ìti eÐnai grammikìc. DeÐqnoume ìti eÐnai monadikìc.
JewroÔme ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T0 apì to V sto W tètoio ¸ste
64
n
X
0
T (vi ) = wi gia kje i me i = 1, ..., n . Tìte gia to v= λi v i èqoume
i=1
n
X n
X n
X
0 0
T (v) = λi T (vi ) = λi wi = λi T (vi ) = T (v)
i=1 i=1 i=1
kai ra
T 0 = T.
Pardeigma 5.1.1 JewroÔme thn bsh ((1, 2), (3, 4)) tou R2 kai ta dia-
nÔsmata (3, 2, 1), (6, 5, 4) tou R2 . Apo to Je¸rhma èpetai ìti uprqei è-
nac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc apì to R2 sto R3 tètoioc ¸ste T (1, 2) =

(3, 2, 1), T (3, 4) = (6, 5, 4) .
UpologÐzoume to T (1, 0) . 'Eqoume (1, 0) = −2(1, 2) + 1(3, 4) kai ra
T (1, 0) = (−2)(3, 2, 1) + (6, 5, 4) = (0, 1, 2) .
Je¸rhma 5.1.2 'Estw V, W dianusmatikoÐ q¸roi tètoioi ¸ste dim V = dim W

kai T ∈ L(X, Y ) . Ta ex c eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. O T eÐnai isomorfismìc.
2. O T eÐnai monomorfismìc.
3. O T eÐnai epimorfismìc.
Apìdeixh Profan¸c h (1) sunepgetai thn (2). An o T eÐnai monomorfismìc
apo to Je¸rhma 2.5.1 kai to Pìrisma 2.5.1 èpetai ìti dim Im(T ) = dim V =
dim W kai ra o T eÐnai epimorfismìc. Upojètoume ìti o T eÐnai epimorfi-
smìc. Apo to Je¸rhma 2.5.1 kai to Pìrisma 2.5.1 èpetai ìti dim Ker T = 0
kai ra o T eÐnai kai monomorfismìc, dhlad eÐnai isomorfismìc. 2
65
Prìtash 5.1.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan grammikì me-
tasqhmatismì T tou V . An o T eÐnai isomorfismìc, h antÐstrofh apeikìnish
tou T eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V .
Orismìc 5.1.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan isomorfismì
T tou V . Lème ìti o T eÐnai antistrèyimoc. H antÐstrofh apeikìnish tou T

lègetai antÐstrofoc tou T kai sumbolÐzetai T −1 .
Je¸rhma 5.1.3 JewroÔme dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V W , kai U kai Z . Sum-
bolÐzoume 0V ton mhdenikì grammikì metasqhmatismì tou V 0W

, ton mhdenikì
grammikì metasqhmatismì tou W IV, ton tautotikì grammikì metasqhmati-
smì tou V kai IW ton tautotikì grammikì metasqhmatismì tou W .
1. An T ∈ L(V, W ) èqoume:
T 0V = 0W T = 0W .
2. An T ∈ L(V, W ) èqoume:
T IV = IW T = T.
3. An T ∈ L(V, W ) S ∈ L(W, U )
, kai R ∈ L(W, U ) èqoume:
(S + R)T = ST + RT.
4. An S ∈ L(V, W ) R ∈ L(V, U )
, kai T ∈ L(W, U ) èqoume:
T (S + R) = T S + T R.
5. An R ∈ L(W, U ) S ∈ L(W, U )
, kai T ∈ L(U, Z) èqoume:
(T S)R = T (SR).
66
5.2 PÐnakac GrammikoÔ MetasqhmatismoÔ
JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V , mi bsh B = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) tou V

kai èna dinusma v tou V . Uprqoun λ1 , λ2 , ..., λn sto F tètoia ¸ste v =
Pn
i=1 λi v i . SumbolÐzoume [v]B to dinusma (λ1 , λ2 , ..., λn ) tou Fn .
Je¸rhma 5.2.1 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W me dim V =

n, dim W = m . JewroÔme mi bsh B = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) tou V kai mi
0
bsh B = (w1 , w2 , ..., wm ) tou W . Gia kje grammikì metasqhmatismì T ∈
L(V, W ) uprqei ènac m×n pÐnakac A tètoioc ¸ste [T v]B 0 = A[v]B , ∀v ∈ V .
Epiplèon h antistoiqÐa T →A eÐnai 1−1 .
Apìdeixh Uprqoun aij ∈ F 1 ≤ i ≤ m 1 ≤ j ≤ n tètoia ¸ste
m
X
T vj = aij wi
i=1
gia kje j me 1 ≤ j ≤ n . Jètoume A = aij . O pÐnakac A ikanopoieÐ to
sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc. 2
Orismìc 5.2.1 O pÐnakac A tou Jewr matoc lègetai o pÐnakac tou T wc
0 0
proc tic bseic B kai B . An V =W kai B=B tìte o pÐnakac A lègetai o
pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B .
Pardeigma 5.2.1 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R2 pou
orÐzetai: T (x, y) = (3x + y, x − y) . JewroÔme thn bsh B = ((1, 0), (0, 1))
0 2
kai thn bsh B = ((1, −1), (1, 1)) tou R . Tìte o pÐnakac tou T wc proc tic
bseic B kai B0 eÐnai o
!
1 1
2 0
67
orÐzetai: T (x, y) = (3x + y, x − y) . JewroÔme thn bsh B = ((1, 0), (0, 1))
2
tou R . Tìte o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B eÐnai
!
3 1
1 −1
Je¸rhma 5.2.2 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V kai W me dim V =

n, dim W = m . JewroÔme mi bsh B tou V kai mi bsh B0 tou W . H
apeikìnish pou stèlnei enan grammikì metasqhmatismì T ∈ L(V, W ) ston
0
pÐnaka tou wc proc tic bseic B kai B eÐnai isomorfismìc grammik¸n q¸rwn.
Je¸rhma 5.2.3 JewroÔme treÐc dianusmatikoÔc q¸rouc V, W kai U kai b-
0 00
seic B, B kai B twn V, W kai U antÐstoiqa. JewroÔme T ∈ L(V, W ) kai
S ∈ L(W, U ) . An A eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc tic bseic B kai B0 kai C

o pÐnakac tou S wc proc tic bseic B0 kai B 00 antÐstoiqa, tìte o pÐnakac tou
00
ST wc proc tic bseic B kai B eÐnai o CA .
Pìrisma 5.2.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai mÐa bsh B tou
V . JewroÔme ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V kai sumbolÐzoume A

ton pÐnaka tou T ¸c proc thn bsh B . Tìte o T eÐnai antistrèyimoc an kai
mìnon an o A eÐnai antistrèyimoc. Epiplèon an o T eÐnai antistrèyimoc, o
−1 −1
pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B eÐnai o A .
Orismìc 5.2.2 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo bseic B kai
B0 tou V . O pÐnakac tou tautotikoÔ grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ wc proc tic
bseic B kai B0 lègetai pÐnakac allag c bshc apo thn B sthn B0 .
68
orÐzetai:
T (x, y) = (3x + y, x − y).
JewroÔme thn bsh B = ((1, 0), (0, 1)) kai thn bsh B 0 = ((1, −1), (1, 1))
tou R2 . Tìte o pÐnakac allag c bshc apo thn B kai B0 eÐnai o
!
1
2
− 12
1 1
.
2 2
Je¸rhma 5.2.4 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo bseic B kai
0
B tou V . JewroÔme ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . An A eÐnai o
pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B kai A0 o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh
B0 tìte A = C −1 A0 C , ìpou C eÐnai o pÐnakac allag c bshc apì thn B sthn
0
B .
orÐzetai:
T (x, y) = (3x + y, x − y).
JewroÔme thn bsh B = ((1, 0), (0, 1)) kai thn bsh B 0 = ((1, −1), (1, 1))
tou R2 . O pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B eÐnai o
!
3 1
A=
1 −1
kai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B0 eÐnai o
!
0 2
A0 = .
2 2
69
'Opwc eÐdame sto Pardeigma 5.2.3 o pÐnakac allag c bshc apì thn B
sthn B0 eÐnai o
!
1
2
− 12
C= 1 1
.
2 2
'Eqoume
! !−1 ! !
1
3 1 2
− 12 0 2 1
2
− 12
= 1 1 1 1
.
1 −1 2 2
2 2 2 2
Orismìc 5.2.3 JewroÔme dÔo m×n pÐnakec A kai B . Lème ìti oi A, B eÐnai
−1
ìmoioi en uprqei P antistrèyimoc tètoioc ¸ste B=P AP .
EÐnai eÔkolo na diapist¸soume ìti h omoiìthta eÐnai sqèsh isodunamÐac.
5.3 Qarakthristikì Polu¸numo, Idiotimèc, I-
diodianÔsmata
Prìtash 5.3.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo bseic B kai
0
B tou V . JewroÔme ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . An A eÐnai o
pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh B kai A0 o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn bsh
B0 tìte det A = det A0 .
Apìdeixh Apì to Je¸rhma 5.2.4 èpetai ìti A = C −1 A0 C , ìpou C eÐnai o
0
pÐnakac allag c bshc apì thn B sthn B . Kai ra apo to Je¸rhma 4.1.3
èqoume ìti det A = det A0 . 2
Orismìc 5.3.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan grammikì
metasqhmatismì T tou V . To qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou T eÐnai to
polu¸numo det(T − λIV ) .
70
Orismìc 5.3.2 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan grammikì
metasqhmatismì T tou V .
1. 'Ena stoiqeÐo λ tou s¸matoc F lègetai idiotim tou T an uprqei v ∈

V, v 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste T v = λv .
2. 'Ena dinusma v∈V gia to opoÐo uprqei λ∈F tètoio ¸ste T v = λv

lègetai idiodinusma tou T me idiotim λ .
3. An λ∈F eÐnai mia idiotim tou T o idiìqwroc tou T gia thn idiotim λ
eÐnai to sÔnolo twn dianusmtwn v ta opoÐa ikanopoioÔn T v = λv .
orÐzetai:
T (x, y) = (3x + 2y, x + 2y).
Mia idiotim tou T eÐnai to 4. 'Ena idiodinusma tou T gia thn idiotim 4 eÐnai
to (2, 1) . Prgmati, T (2, 1) = (8, 4) = 4(2, 1) .
Je¸rhma 5.3.1 JewroÔme dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai T ∈ L(V ) . JewroÔme
λ∈F . Tìte ta akìlouja eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. To λ eÐnai idiotim tou T .
2. O T − λIV den eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
3. H orÐzousa det(T − λIV ) eÐnai Ðsh me 0.
Apìdeixh (1) ⇒ (2) Uprqei v ∈ V, v 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste T v = λv . 'Ara
(T − λIV )v = 0 kai apo to Je¸rhma 5.1.2 èpetai ìti o T − λIV den eÐnai
antistrèyimoc. (2) ⇒ (1) Apo to Je¸rhma 5.1.2 èpetai ìti uprqei v ∈

V, v 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste (T − λIV )v = 0 . 'Ara uprqei v ∈ V, v 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste
T v = λv .
Ta (2) kai (3) eÐnai isodÔnama apo to Pìrisma 5.2.1. 2
71
Pìrisma 5.3.1 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan grammikì me-
tasqhmatismì T tou V . Oi idiotimèc tou T eÐnai oi rÐzec tou qarakthristikoÔ
poluwnÔmou tou T .
Pìrisma 5.3.2 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto C kai ènan
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . O T èqei toulqiston mÐa idiotim .
Apìdeixh H apìdeixh èpetai apì to Pìrisma 5.3.1 kai to Je¸rhma 1.2.5.
Pardeigma 5.3.2 EÐnai dunatìn ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc se è-
nan dianusmatikì q¸ro pnw sto R na mhn èqei kammÐa idiotim . Prgmati,
2
jewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R pou orÐzetai:
T (x, y) = (−y, x).
To qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou T eÐnai to λ2 + 1 kai sunep¸c o T den èqei
idiotimèc sto R .
5.4 AnalloÐwtoi Upìqwroi, Probolèc
JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T ∈

L(V ) .
Orismìc 5.4.1 An W eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , lème ìti o W

eÐnai analloÐwtoc apì ton T an gia kje x∈W èqoume: Tx ∈ W .
An o W eÐnai analloÐwtoc apì ton T o periorismìc tou T ston W orÐzei
èna grammikì metasqhmatismì tou W . Jètoume: dim V = n dim W = m , .
72
JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V tètoia ¸ste h (e1 , e2 , ..., em ) na eÐnai
bsh tou W . O pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh eÐnai thc morf c:
!
A B
,
0 C
ìpou A eÐnai ènac m×m pÐnakac, B ènac m × (n − m) pÐnakac, C ènac
( n − m) × (n − m) pÐnakac kai 0 o mhdenikìc (n − m) × m pÐnakac.
EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti an o T af nei analloÐwto ton W , tìte kje
polu¸numo tou T af nei analloÐwto ton W .
Orismìc 5.4.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo sumplhrwma-
tikoÔc upìqwrouc W kai U tou V tètoiouc ¸ste:
V = W ⊕ U.
O grammikìc metasqhmatismìc E tou V pou orÐzetai apì tic sqèseic:
1. Ev = v , an v∈W
2. Ev = 0 , an v∈U
lègetai probol pnw ston W kat m koc tou U .
Pardeigma 5.4.1 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai touc dianusma-
tikoÔc upoq¸rouc W = {(z, z) : z ∈ R} kai U = {(w, 0) : w ∈ R} tou R2 .
Oi W kai U eÐnai sumplhrwmatikoÐ upìqwroi. UpologÐzoume thn probol E

pnw ston W kat m koc tou U . JewroÔme (x, y) ∈ R2 . Uprqoun monadi-
k (z, z) ∈ W kai (w, 0) ∈ U tètoia ¸ste (x, y) = (z, z) + (w, 0) . 'Eqoume
x=z+w kai y=z . 'Ara z=y kai w =x−y kai sunep¸c
E(x, y) = (y, y).
73
Je¸rhma 5.4.1 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc E tou V eÐnai probol
an kai mìnon an E2 = E .
Apìdeixh EÐnai fanerì ìti an o E eÐnai probol , tìte èqoume: E2 = E .
2
Upojètoume ìti E =E . Jètoume: W = {x ∈ V : Ex = x} U = Ker E , .
Ja deÐxoume ìti V = W ⊕U . 'Eqoume: W ∩ U = {0} . JewroÔme x∈V .
'Eqoume x = x − Ex + Ex . Epeid E(x − Ex) = 0 , èqoume x − Ex ∈ U .
EpÐshc, Ex ∈ W . 'Ara V = W ⊕U kai o E eÐnai h probol pnw ston W

kat m koc tou U . 2
Pìrisma 5.4.1 An ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc E tou V eÐnai h pro-
bol pnw ston W kat m koc tou U , tìte o W eÐnai to sÔnolo twn lÔsewn
thc exÐswshc Ex = x kai o U eÐnai to sÔnolo twn lÔsewn thc exÐswshc
Ex = 0 .
Pìrisma 5.4.2 An o E eÐnai h probol pnw ston W kat m koc tou U , o
I −E eÐnai h probol pnw ston U kat m koc tou W .
Ja melet soume t¸ra touc upìqwrouc pou mènoun analloÐwtoi apì èna
grammikì metasqhmatismì T qrhsimopoi¸ntac tic probolèc.
Je¸rhma 5.4.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V , èna grammikì meta-
sqhmatismì T tou V kai ènan upìqwro W tou V . An o T af nei analloÐwto
ton W , tìte ET E = T E gia kje probol E pnw ston W . AntÐstrofa, an
ET E = T E gia kpoia probol E pnw ston W , tìte o T af nei analloÐwto
ton W .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme mia probol E pnw ston W . Jètoume U = Ker E .
'Eqoume V = W ⊕U . JewroÔme v∈V . 'Eqoume v = w +u me w∈W u∈U , .
T¸ra, ET E(w + u) = ET Ew = ET w = T w , epeid Tw ∈ W . EpÐshc,
T E(w + u) = T Ew = T w . 'Ara ET E = T E . AntÐstrofa, upojètoume ìti
74
ET E = T E gia kpoia probol E pnw sto W . DeÐqnoume ìti an v∈W ,
tìte Tv ∈ W . 'Eqoume: T v = T Ev = ET Ev = ET v . 'Ara T v = ET v ,
dhlad Tv ∈ W . 2 .
Pardeigma 5.4.2 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai ton dianusma-
2
tikì upìqwro W = {(x, 0) : x ∈ R} tou R . JewroÔme a, b, c, d sto R kai ton
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R2 pou orÐzetai
T (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)
gia (x, y) ∈ R2 .
BrÐskoume gia poièc timèc twn a, b, c, d o T af nei analloÐwto ton W .
O grammikìc metasqhmatismìc E tou R2 pou orÐzetai E(x, y) = (x, 0) gia
2
(x, y) ∈ R eÐnai mia probol pnw ston W . Apì to Je¸rhma 5.4.2 èpetai
ìti T af nei analloÐwto ton W an kai mìnon an T E = ET E . Dhlad an kai
mìnon an gia kje (x, y) ∈ R2 èqoume
T E(x, y) = ET E(x, y) ⇔ T (x, 0) = ET (x, 0)
⇔ (ax, cx) = E(ax, cx) ⇔ (ax, cx) = (ax, 0).
'Eqoume (ax, cx) = (ax, 0) gia kje (x, y) ∈ R2 an kai mìnon an c=0 .
'Ara o T af nei analloÐwto ton W an kai mìnon an c=0 .
Pardeigma 5.4.3 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai ton dianusma-
tikì upìqwro W = {(x, −x) : x ∈ R} tou R2 . JewroÔme a, b, c, d sto R kai
ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R2 pou orÐzetai
T (x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy)
gia (x, y) ∈ R2 .
75
BrÐskoume gia poièc timèc twn a, b, c, d o T af nei analloÐwto ton W . O
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc E tou R2 pou orÐzetai E(x, y) = (x, −x) gia
2
(x, y) ∈ R eÐnai mia probol pnw ston W . Apì to Je¸rhma 5.4.2 èpetai ìti
T af nei analloÐwto ton W an kai mìnon an T E = ET E . O pÐnakac tou T

wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 eÐnai o
!
a b
c d
kai o pÐnakac tou E wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 eÐnai o
!
1 0
.
−1 0
'Ara o o T af nei analloÐwto ton W an kai mìnon an
! ! ! ! !
a b 1 0 1 0 a b 1 0
= ⇔
c d −1 0 −1 0 c d −1 0
! ! !
a−b 0 1 0 a−b 0
= ⇔
c−d 0 −1 0 c−d 0
! !
a−b 0 a−b 0
= .
c−d 0 b−a 0
'Ara o T af nei analloÐwto ton W an kai mìnon an a+c=b+d .
Je¸rhma 5.4.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo upìqwrouc W

kai U tou V tètoiouc ¸ste V = W ⊕U . Jètoume E thn probol pnw ston
W kat m koc tou U . JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T :V →V .
Ta akìlouja eÐnai isodÔnama
1. O T af nei analloÐwtouc touc W kai U .
76
2. 'Eqoume ET = T E .
Apìdeixh
Upojètoume ìti T E = ET . JewroÔme v ∈ W . 'Eqoume: v = Ev ra
T v = T Ev = ET v . 'Ara T v = ET v , dhlad Tv ∈ W . JewroÔme v∈U . Ja
deÐxoume ìti Tv ∈ U , dhlad ìti ET v = 0 . 'Eqoume: ET v = T Ev = 0 . 'Ara
o T af nei analloÐwtouc touc W kai U .
AntÐstrofa. Upojètoume ìti o T af nei analloÐwtouc touc W kai U .
Apì to Je¸rhma 5.4.2 èqoume: ET E = T E kai (I − E)T (I − E) = T (I − E) .
H teleutaÐa sqèsh dÐnei: ET E = ET . 'Ara ET = T E . 2
5.5 MetasqhmatismoÐ PhlÐka
sqhmatismì T tou V kai ènan upìqwro W tou V , analloÐwto apì ton T .
SumbolÐzoume π thn fusik apeikìnish V → V /W . Uprqei ènac monadikìc
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T̃ tou V /W tètoioc ¸ste:
πT = T̃ π.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme π(v) ∈ V /W me v ∈ V . Jètoume: T̃ π(v) = π(T v) .
0
DeÐqnoume ìti o T̃ eÐnai kal orismènoc. Prèpei na deÐxoume ìti an v ∈V kai
π(v) = π(v 0 ) tìte π(T v) = π(T v 0 ) . Epeid π(v) = π(v 0 ) èqoume v − v0 ∈ W .
Epeid o W eÐnai analloÐwtoc apì ton T , èqoume: T (v − v 0 ) =∈ W . 'Ara
0
π(T v) = π(T v ) kai o T̃ eÐnai kal orismènoc. EÔkola blèpoume ìti eÐnai ènac
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V /W kai apo ton orismì tou ikanopoieÐ thn
πT = T̃ π.
H monadikìthta tou T̃ prokÔptei mesa. 2
77
Lème ìti o T̃ eÐnai o metasqhmatismìc phlÐko tou T pnw ston V /W .
Jètoume dim V = n dim W = m , . JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou
V tètoia ¸ste (e1 , e2 , ..., em ) na eÐnai bsh tou W . EÐdame sthn pargrafo
1, ìti o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh eÐnai thc morf c:
!
A B
.
0 C
H (π(em+1 ), π(em+2 ), ..., π(en )) eÐnai mia bsh tou V /W . O pÐnakac tou T̃ wc
proc aut th bsh eÐnai o C .
sqhmatismì T tou V , dÔo upìqwrouc W kai U tou V , analloÐwtouc apì ton
T kai tètoiouc ¸ste V = W ⊕U . SumbolÐzoume π thn fusik apeikìnish
V → V /W . SumbolÐzoume ρ thn ton periorismì thc π ston U . SumbolÐzoume
TU ton periorismì tou T ston U . 'Eqoume:
T̃ ρ = ρTU .
Apìdeixh Gia u sto U èqoume:
ρTU (u) = ρT (u) = πT (u) = T̃ π(u) = T̃ ρ(u).
Pìrisma 5.5.1 JewroÔme dÔo grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc T kai S tou
V , kai dÔo upìqwrouc W kai U tou V , analloÐwtouc apì touc T kai S kai
tètoiouc ¸ste V = W ⊕U . SumbolÐzoume TW ton periorismì tou T ston W

kai SW ton periorismì tou S ston W . SumbolÐzoume π thn fusik apeikìnish
V → V /W T̃ , ton metasqhmatismì phlÐko tou T pnw ston V /W kai S̃ ton
metasqhmatismì phlÐko tou S pnw ston V /W . 'Eqoume: An TW = SW kai
T̃ = S̃ tìte T =S .
Apìdeixh ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti T u = Su gia kje u∈U . Apì to Je¸rhma
5.5.2 èqoume: T̃ ρ(u) = ρT (u) kai S̃ρ(u) = ρS(u) , ìpou ρ o periorismìc thc
78
π ston U . Apì thn upìjesh èqoume: S̃ = T̃ . 'Ara ρS(u) = ρT (u) . Epeid o
ρ eÐnai isomorfismìc, T (u) = S(u) . 2
5.6 Ask seic
'Askhsh 5.6.1 BreÐte poièc apì tic paraktw apeikonÐseic T : R2 → R2 eÐnai
grammikèc.
1. T (x1 , x2 ) = (1 + x1 , x2 ) .
2. T (x1 , x2 ) = (x2 , x1 ) .
3. T (x1 , x2 ) = (x21 , x2 ) .
4. T (x1 , x2 ) = (sin x1 , x2 ) .
5. T (x1 , x2 ) = (x1 − x2 , 0) .
'Askhsh 5.6.2 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai T ∈ L(V ) . DeÐxate
ìti oi akìloujec protseic eÐnai isodÔnamec:
1. Im T ∩ Ker T = {0}
2. Ker T 2 ⊆ Ker T .
'Askhsh 5.6.3 'Estw S ∈ L(R3 , R2 ) kai T ∈ L(R2 , R3 ) . DeÐxte ìti TS den
eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
'Askhsh 5.6.4 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai T S

, ston L(V ) .
DeÐxte ìti an T S = IV , tìte T kai S eÐnai antistrèyimoi grammikoÐ metasqh-
matismoÐ.
79
'Askhsh 5.6.5 JewroÔme th bsh e = (e1 , e2 ) tou R2 me e1 = (1, 0) e2 = ,
(0, 1) kai ton pÐnaka
!
2 1
A= .
−1 3
1. DeÐxte ìti o A eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
2. BreÐte mia bsh f = (f1 , f2 ) tou R2 tètoia ¸ste o A na eÐnai o pÐnakac
allag c bshc apì thn e sthn f .
'Askhsh 5.6.6 JewroÔme thn kanonik bsh e = (e1 , e2 ) tou R2 e1 = (1, 0)

, ,
e2 = (0, 1) kai thn bsh f = (f1 , f2 ) tou R2 me f1 = (1, 1) f2 = (1, 2)

, .
JewroÔme T ∈ L(R2 ) pou orÐzetai:
T (f1 ) = f1 , T (f2 ) = 0.
1. BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc th bsh f .
2. BreÐte ton pÐnaka allag c bshc apì thn e sthn f .
3. BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc th bsh e

.
'Askhsh 5.6.7 JewroÔme thn kanonik bsh E = (E11 , E12 , E21 , E22 ) tou
R2×2 ìpou
! ! ! !
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
E11 = , E12 = , E21 = , E22 =
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
kai ton 2×2 pÐnaka

!
2 3
A= .
5 1
80
OrÐzoume mia apeikìnish LA apì ton R2×2 ston R2×2 wc ex c:
LA (X) = AX.
1. DeÐxte ìti h LA eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou R2×2 .
2. BreÐte ton pÐnaka thc LA wc proc th bsh E tou R2×2 .
3. BreÐte thn orÐzousa tou pÐnaka thc LA wc proc th bsh E .
'Askhsh 5.6.8 BreÐte to qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou grammikoÔ meta-
3
sqhmatismoÔ tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R eÐnai
 
0 1 0
 
A=
0 0 1 .

c b a
n−1
X
'Askhsh 5.6.9 DÐnetai polu¸numo p(x) ∈ R[x] me p(x) = xn + αi xi .
i=0
BreÐte ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì tou Rn pou na èqei qarakthristikì
polu¸numo to p(x) .
'Askhsh 5.6.10 DÐnetai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T pnw ston R2 tou
opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou R2 eÐnai o
!
1 1
.
1 1
Na brejeÐ o pÐnakac tou T wc proc th bsh ((1, 1), (1 − 1)) .
'Askhsh 5.6.11 DÐnetai o dianusmatikìc q¸roc
V = {p(x) ∈ R[x] deg p(x) ≤ 3}
81
kai D ∈ L(V ) pou orÐzetai: Dxm = mxm−1 gia kje m me 1≤m≤3 kai
D1 = 0 .
1. BreÐte tic idiotimèc tou D .
2. BreÐte touc analloÐwtouc upìqwrouc tou D .
3. BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou D wc proc thn bsh (1, x, x2 , x3 ) tou V .
'Askhsh 5.6.12 BreÐte T, U ∈ L(R2 , R2 ) tètoia ¸ste TU = 0 all U T 6= 0.
'Askhsh 5.6.13 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R3 tou o-
poÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R3 eÐnai o:
 
2 1 1
 
A=
 0 1 1

−1 3 4
BreÐte mia bsh gia ton Im T kai mi bsh gia ton Ker T .
'Askhsh 5.6.14 BreÐte èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou R4 tou opoÐou
h eikìna pargetai apì ta dianÔsmata (1, 0, 1, 0) kai (0, 1, 0, 1) .
'Askhsh 5.6.15 DÐnetai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T pnw s' èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai èna polu¸numo p(x). DeÐxte ìti an λ eÐnai idiotim
tou T , h p(λ) eÐnai idiotim tou p(T ).
'Askhsh 5.6.16 DÐnetai mia probol P . DeÐxte ìti oi idiotimèc thc perièqo-
ntai sto {0, 1} .
'Askhsh 5.6.17 DÐnetai ènac dianusmatikìc q¸roc V kai ènac grammikìc
metasqhmatismìc T tou V . DeÐxte ìti gia kje m ∈ N∗ oi dianusmatikoÐ
m m
upìqwroi Ker T , Im T eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton T .
82
'Askhsh 5.6.18 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V kai dÔo grammikoÐ meta-
sqhmatismoÐ S, T tou V . DeÐxte ìti an ST = T S , tìte oi dianusmatikoÐ
upìqwroi Ker S kai Im S eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton T .
'Askhsh 5.6.19 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou R2 pou orÐze-
tai:
T (x, y) = (y, 0).
BreÐte ìlouc tou analloÐwtouc upìqwrouc tou T .
'Askhsh 5.6.20 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou R2 tou opoÐou
o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou R2 eÐnai o:
!
cos t − sin t
.
sin t cos t
DeÐxte ìti o T èqei analloÐwto upìqwro an kai mìnon an t = κπ gia κ ∈ Z.

D¸ste mia gewmetrik ermhneÐa autoÔ tou apotelèsmatoc.
'Askhsh 5.6.21 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou C2 tou opoÐou
o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou C2 eÐnai o:
!
cos t − sin t
.
sin t cos t
BreÐte touc analloÐwtouc upìqwrouc tou T .
'Askhsh 5.6.22 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V kai ènac grammikìc meta-
sqhmatismìc T tou V . DeÐxte ìti an W kai U eÐnai upìqwroi tou V analloÐ-
wtoi apì ton T , tìte oi upìqwroi W +U kai W ∩U eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton
T .
'Askhsh 5.6.23 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me dim V = n kai ènac
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V me dim Ker T = m . DeÐxte ìti o {S ∈
83
L(V ) : T S = 0} eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou L(V ) . UpologÐste thn
distash tou.
'Askhsh 5.6.24 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou R3 pou orÐze-
tai
T (x, y, z) = (3x + y, z − y, z + 3x)
gia (x, y, z) ∈ R3 . DeÐxte ìti o {S ∈ L(R3 ) : T S = 0} eÐnai dianusmatikìc
upìqwroc tou L(R3 ) kai breÐte mÐa bsh tou.
'Askhsh 5.6.25 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou R2 tou opoÐou
o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou R2 eÐnai o:
!
1 λ
,
0 1
λ 6= 0. BreÐte touc analloÐwtouc upìqwrouc tou T .
'Askhsh 5.6.26 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai dÔo probolèc E1

kai E2 tou V . H E1 eÐnai h probol pnw ston W1 kat m koc tou U1 kai h
E2 eÐnai h probol pnw ston W2 kat m koc tou U2 .

DeÐxte ìti:
1. O E1 + E2 eÐnai probol an kai mìnon an E1 E2 = E2 E1 = 0.

S' aut thn perÐptwsh W1 ∩ W2 = {0} kai o E1 + E2 eÐnai h probol
pnw ston W1 + W2 kat m koc tou U1 ∩ U2 .
2. O E1 − E2 eÐnai probol an kai mìnon an E1 E2 = E2 E1 = E2 .

Sut thn perÐptwsh h E1 − E2 eÐnai probol pnw ston W 1 ∩ U2 kat
m koc tou U1 + W2 .
3. An E1 E2 = E2 E1 = E , tìte h E eÐnai probol pnw ston W1 ∩ W2 kat
m koc tou U1 + U2 .
84
'Askhsh 5.6.27 BreÐte poia sqèsh prèpei na uprqei metaxÔ twn a kai b
¸ste o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou R2 tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc
2
thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou R eÐnai o:
!
3 a
b −2
na eÐnai probol .
'Askhsh 5.6.28 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V , èna dinusma v tou V kai f

mia grammik morf pnw ston V . OrÐzoume ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì
T pnw ston V : T u = f (u)v. BreÐte poia sqèsh prèpei na ikanopoioÔn ta f

kai v ¸ste o T na eÐnai probol .
'Askhsh 5.6.29 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai ton dianusmatikì
upìqwro W = {(x, 2x) : x ∈ R} tou R2 . BreÐte ìlec tic probolèc pnw ston
W .
'Askhsh 5.6.30 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 kai ton dianusmati-
kì upìqwro W = {(x, x) : x ∈ R} tou R2 . BreÐte ìlouc touc grammikoÔc
metasqhmatismoÔc tou R2 pou af noun analloÐwto ton W .
'Askhsh 5.6.31 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . 'Enac grammikìc me-
2
tasqhmatismìc T pnw ston V lègetai eneliktikìc an T = I. DeÐxte ì-
ti an o T eÐnai eneliktikìc, kai jèsoume W = {v ∈ V : T v = v} kai
U = {v ∈ V : T v = −v} tìte V =W ⊕U .
'Askhsh 5.6.32 1. JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro C pnw sto R . DeÐx-
te ìti h apeikìnish T :C→C , pou orÐzetai T (a + ib) = a − ib eÐnai
eneliktikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou C . BreÐte touc q¸rouc
W = {z ∈ C : T (z) = z} kai U = {z ∈ C : T (z) = −z} .
85
2. JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V twn n×n pinkwn me suntelestèc
sto R . OrÐzoume ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V ¸c ex c:
t
T (A) = A gia A∈V . DeÐxte ìti o T eÐnai ènac eneliktikìc grammikìc
metasqhmatismìc tou V . BreÐte touc q¸rouc W = {A ∈ V : T (A) =

A} kai U = {z ∈ V : T (A) = −A} .
'Askhsh 5.6.33 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai ènan eneliktikì
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . DeÐxte ìti an λ 6= 1, λ 6= −1 , tìte o
T − λIV eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
'Askhsh 5.6.34 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai mi probol P

tou V . DeÐxte ìti an λ 6= 0 λ 6= 1 , , tìte o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc
P − λIV eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
'Askhsh 5.6.35 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V . SumbolÐzoume I to sÔno-
lo twn eneliktik¸n grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n tou V kai P to sÔnolo twn
probol¸n tou V . DeÐxte ìti an T eÐnai eneliktikìc grammikìc metasqhma-
tismìc tou V , tìte o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc (T + I)/2 eÐnai probol .
DeÐxte akìmh ìti h apeikìnish T → (T + I)/2 apì ton I sto P eÐnai 1−1 kai
epÐ.
'Askhsh 5.6.36 DeÐxte ìti to ginìmeno dÔo eneliktik¸n grammik¸n meta-
sqhmatism¸n S kai T eÐnai eneliktikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc an kai
mìnon an ST = T S .
'Askhsh 5.6.37 DÐnontai dÔo probolèc E kai F . DeÐxte ìti oi E kai F èqoun
thn Ðdia eikìna an kai mìnon an EF = F kai F E = E.
86
Keflaio 6
Kanonikèc Morfèc
Sto keflaio autì o V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc peperasmènhc distashc
pnw sto C kai o T eÐnai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V .
6.1 TrigwnopoÐhsh
Je¸rhma 6.1.1 Uprqoun dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi Vi gia i = 1, 2, ..., n , ìpou
n = dim V tètoioi ¸ste:
1. 0 ⊆ V1 ⊆ V2 ⊆ ...Vn−1 ⊆ Vn = V,
2. dim Vi = i gia i = 1, ..., n
3. T Vi ⊆ Vi gia i = 1, ..., n .
Apìdeixh Ja deÐxoume to je¸rhma me epagwg sth distash tou V . Upo-
jètoume ìti to je¸rhma isqÔei gia dianusmatikì q¸ro distashc mikrìterhc
apì n . JewroÔme to qarakthristikì polu¸numo p(x) tou T . Apì to Je¸rh-
ma 1.2.5 to p(x) èqei toulqiston mia rÐza, λ . JewroÔme èna idiodinusma u

thc λ . Jètoume V1 = {µu : µ ∈ C} . Jètoume V = V /V1 kai sumbolÐzoume
87
T̃ ton metasqhmatismì phlÐko pou orÐzei o T pnw ston V /V1 . Apì thn upì-
jesh thc epagwg c uprqoun dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi: Wi i = 2, ..., n tètoioi
¸ste {0} ⊆ W2 ⊆ W3 ⊆ ...Wn = V /V1 , me dim Wi = i − 1 kai T̃ Wi ⊆ Wi gia
i = 2, ..., n .
SumbolÐzoume π thn kanonik apeikìnish π : V → V /V1 . Jètoume Vi =

−1
π (Wi ) gia i = 2, ..., n . EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti oi Vi i = 1, ..., n
, , ikano-
poioÔn to sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc. 2
Prìtash 6.1.1 JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V me thn idiìthta h
e1 , e2 , ..., ei na eÐnai bsh tou Vi gia i = 1, ..., n . O pÐnakac tou T wc proc
aut th bsh eÐnai nw trigwnikìc.
6.2 Elqisto Polu¸numo, Prwtarqik Anlu-
sh
Pn
JewroÔme èna polu¸numo p(x) = i=0 ai x i ston C[x] . O grammikìc meta-
n
sqhmatismìc p(T ) tou V eÐnai o a0 IV + a1 T + ... + an T .
JewroÔme thn apeikìnish p(x) → p(T ) apì ton C[x] ston L(V ). EÐnai
eÔkolo na doÔme ìti to sÔnolo {p(x) ∈ C[x] : p(T ) = 0} eÐnai ide¸dec tou
C[x] . Apo to Je¸rhma 1.2.2, uprqei èna monadikì polu¸numo q(x) ∈ C[x]
tètoio ¸ste:
1. {p(x) ∈ C[x] : p(T ) = 0} = {q(x)r(x) : r(x) ∈ C[x]}
2. O suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou q(x) eÐnai 1 .
Orismìc 6.2.1 To q(x) lègetai elqisto polu¸numo tou T .
To q(x) grfetai san ginìmeno pr¸tobjmiwn paragìntwn:
q(x) = q1m1 (x)q2m2 (x)...qrmr (x),
88
me qi (x) prwtobjmia gia i = 1, ...r kai m i ∈ N∗ gia i = 1, ...r . Jètoume gia
1≤k≤r
m m
gk (x) = q1m1 (x)...qk−1
k−1 k+1
(x)qk+1 (x)...qrmr (x).
Ta gi (x) me 1≤i≤r eÐnai pr¸ta metaxÔ touc. 'Ara uprqoun hi (x) ∈ C[x] ,
r
X
gia 1≤i≤r tètoia ¸ste hi (x)gi (x) = 1 . Jètoume pk (x) = hk (x)gk (x)
i=1
gia 1≤k≤r .
L mma 6.2.1 1. pk (T )pl (T ) = 0 , gia 1≤k≤r 1≤l≤r , kai k 6= l .
2. pk (T )2 = pk (T ) , gia 1≤k≤r .
Apìdeixh
1. To q(x) diaireÐ to gk (x)gl (x) , ra kai to pk (x)pl (x) . Sunep¸c pk (T )pl (T ) =
0
r
X
2. 'Eqoume: pk (T ) = pk (T ) pi (T ) = pk (T )2 .
i=1
r
X
Prìtash 6.2.1 Jètoume Vi = pi (T )V 1 ≤ i ≤ r , . Tìte V = ⊕Vi kai oi
i=1
Vi eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton T .
r
X
Apìdeixh Apì to L mma 6.2.1 sungetai ìti V = ⊕Vi . Apì to Je¸rhma
i=1
5.4.2 oi Vi eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton T . 2
Pìrisma 6.2.1 Gia i = 1, 2, ...r jewroÔme mia bsh Bi tou dianusmatikoÔ
q¸rou Vi . Tìte h (B1 , B2 , ...Br ) eÐnai mia bsh tou V kai o pÐnakac tou T wc
proc aut th bsh èqei th morf :
89
 
T1 0 0 ··· 0
 
 0
 T2 0 ··· 0 
 0 0 T3 ··· 0 ,
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
0 0 0 · · · Tr
ìpou Ti eÐnai o pÐnakac tou periorismoÔ tou T ston Vi wc proc th bsh Bi ,
gia 1≤i≤r . 2
Prìtash 6.2.2 'Eqoume: Vi = Ker qimi (T ) gia 1≤i≤r . O periorismìc tou
qimi (T ) ston Vj gia i 6= j eÐnai antistrèyimoc.
Apìdeixh
1. DeÐqnoume: Vi ⊆ Ker qimi (T ) . 'Eqoume: qimi (T )Vi = qimi (T )pi (T )V =

q(T )hi (T )V = {0}.
2. DeÐqnoume ìti o periorismìc tou qimi (T ) ston Vj gia i 6= j eÐnai a-
m
ntistrèyimoc. Ta qimi (x), qj j (x) eÐnai pr¸ta metaxÔ touc. Uprqoun
m
si (x), sj (x) ston C[x] tètoia ¸ste si (x)qimi (x) + sj (x)qj j (x) =1 . Gia
u ∈ Vj èqoume:
m
sj (T )qimi (T )u + sj (T )qj j (T )u = u ⇒ si (T )qimi (T )u = u
3. DeÐqnoume: Ker qimi (T ) ⊆ Vi . JewroÔme u ∈ Ker qimi (T ) . u=

'Eqoume
r
X r
X
uj me uj ∈ Vj gia 1 ≤ j ≤ r. 'Eqoume: qimi (T )u = qimi (T )uj = 0.
j=1 j=1
Apì to 2, èqoume ìti: an i ≤ j tìte qimi (T )uj = 0 ⇒ uj = 0 . 'Ara
u = ui ∈ Vi .
Prìtash 6.2.3 To elqisto polu¸numo tou periorismoÔ tou T ston Vi eÐnai
to qimi (x).
90
Apìdeixh Ac eÐnai r(x) to elqisto polu¸numo tou periorismoÔ tou T sto
Vi . 'Eqoume: qimi (T )Vi = 0, ra r(x)|qimi (x). 'Ara r(x) = qim (x) gia m ∈ N∗ ,
m ≤ mi . An m < mi èqoume: q1m1 (T )...qim (T )...qrmr (T ) = 0, topo. 'Ara
m = mi . 2
Prìtash 6.2.4 1. To elqisto polu¸numo tou T ston V eÐnai to ginìmeno
twn elqistwn poluwnÔmwn twn periorism¸n tou T stouc Vi gia 1≤i≤

r .
2. To qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou T ston V eÐnai to ginìmeno twn qara-
kthristik¸n poluwnÔmwn twn periorism¸n tou T stouc Vi gia 1≤i≤r .
Apìdeixh 'Amesh. 2
Pardeigma 6.2.1 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou C3 tou
opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) tou
3
C eÐnai o:  
5 −2 1
 
1 2 4 .
 
0 0 3
Ja upologÐsoume touc q¸rouc thc prwtarqik c anlushc tou T . To elqisto
polu¸numo tou T eÐnai to (x − 3)2 (x − 4) . Apo thn Prìtash 6.2.2 èqoume ìti
V1 = Ker(T − 3IC3 )2 kai V2 = Ker(T − 4IC3 ) . O pÐnakac tou (T − 3IC3 )2 wc
3
proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) tou C eÐnai o:
 
2 −2 −6
 
1 −1 −3
 
0 0 0
kai ra
V1 = {(x, y, z) ∈ C3 : x − y − 3z = 0}.
91
O pÐnakac tou (T −4IC3 ) wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1))
tou C3 eÐnai o:  
1 −2 1
 
1 −2 4 
 
0 0 −1
kai ra
V2 = {(2y, y, 0) : y ∈ C}.
6.3 Stoiqei¸deic Morfèc
Se aut n thn pargrafo upojètoume ìti to elqisto polu¸numo tou T eÐnai
m
thc morf c q (x) me q(x) prwtobjmio.
JewroÔme u ∈ V . JewroÔme to sÔnolo {p(x) ∈ C[x] : p(T )u = 0} .
EÔkola blèpoume ìti to sÔnolo {p(x) ∈ C[x] : p(T )u = 0} eÐnai ide¸dec tou
C[x] . 'Ara apo to Je¸rhma 1.2.2 uprqei èna polu¸numo pu (x) tètoio ¸ste:
{p(x) ∈ C[x] : p(T )u = 0} = {pu (x)r(x) : r(x) ∈ C[x]}.
Epeid q n (T ) = 0 èqoume q n (T )u = 0 . 'Ara to pu (x) diaireÐ to q n (x) kai
nu
sunep¸c to pu (x) eÐnai thc morf c q (x) .
Orismìc 6.3.1 Lème ìti to nu eÐnai h perÐodoc tou u∈V kai sumbolÐzoume
per(u) = nu .
An u ∈ V , sumbolÐzoume C[T ]u ton dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou
apoteleÐtai apì ta stoiqeÐa thc morf c p(T )u me p(x) ∈ C[x] .
Je¸rhma 6.3.1 Upojètoume ìti to elqisto polu¸numo tou T eÐnai q n (x)

me q(x) prwtobjmio. Tìte uprqoun u1 , ..., ur sto V tètoia ¸ste V =
r
X
⊕C[T ]ui kai per(ui ) = ni me ni ≤ n .
i=1
92
Apìdeixh Ja deÐxoume thn prìtash me epagwg sth distash tou V . Je-
wroÔme u∈V me per(u) = n kai jètoume Ṽ = V /C[T ]u . EÐnai eÔkolo na
doÔme ìti to elqisto polu¸numo tou metasqhmatismoÔ phlÐko T̃ eÐnai thc
morf c q ñ me ñ ≤ n . Apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c, uprqoun ũ1 , ..., ũl
l
X
ston Ṽ tètoioi ¸ste Ṽ = ⊕C[T̃ ]ũi , kai per(ũi ) = ñi me ñi ≤ ñ ≤ n . Ja
i=1
broÔme antipros¸pouc ui twn ũi gia 1≤i≤l me per(ui ) = per(ũi ) .
0 0 0
JewroÔme u , ..., u
1 l antipros¸pouc twn ũ1 , ..., ũl ston V . An per(ui ) = ñi ,
jètoume ui = u0i . Upojètoume ìti per(u0i ) 6= ñi . Profan¸c per(u0i ) > ñi .
Epeid per(ũi ) = ñi èqoume ìti q ñi (T̃ )ũi = 0 kai ra q ñi (T )u0i ∈ C[T ]u.
'Ara q ñi (T )u0i = s(T )u gia kpoio polu¸numo s(x) ∈ C[x] . Uprqei èna
polu¸numo r(x) ∈ C[x] tètoio ¸ste to q(x) na mhn diaireÐ to r(x) kai ènac
arijmìc k∈N k<n , tètoioc ¸ste na èqoume: s(x) = q k (x)r(x) . Sunep¸c
q(T )ñi u0i = q(T )k r(T )u .
'Eqoume:
k
per(q(T ) r(T )u) = n − k , ra per(q(T )ñi u0i ) = n − k , ra
per(u0i ) = n − k + ñi . 'Ara: k − ñi = n − per(u0i ) ≥ 0 . Jètoume ui =

u0i − q(T )k−ñi r(T )u . 'Eqoume per(ui ) = ñi kai to ui eÐnai antiprìswpoc tou
ũi ston V . 'Ara br kame antipros¸pouc ui twn ũi gia kje i me 1≤i≤l
ston V me per(ui ) = per(ũi ) . Gia na oloklhr¸soume thn apìdeixh arkeÐ na
deÐxoume ìti:
l
X
V = ⊕C[T ]ui ⊕ C[T ]u.
i=1
l
X
Profan¸c V = ⊕C[T ]ui + C[T ]u. DeÐqnoume ìti to jroisma eÐnai eujÔ.
i=1
JewroÔme si (x) ∈ C[x] , gia kje i me 1≤i≤l kai r(x) ∈ C[x] . Upojètoume
λ
X
ìti si (T )ui + r(T )u = 0 . Ja deÐxoume ìti si (T )ui = 0 gia kje i me 1≤
i=1
l
X l
X
i≤l kai r(T )u = 0 . Epeid si (T )ui +r(T )u = 0 , èqoume: si (T̃ )ũi = 0,
i=1 i=1
93
gia kje i me 1≤i≤l , ra apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c, si (T̃ )ũi = 0 gia
kje i me 1≤i≤l . 'Ara to q ñi (x) diaireÐ to si (x) gia kje i me 1≤i≤l .
Epeid per(ui ) = ñi èqoume qi (T )ui = 0 gia kje i me 1≤i≤l . 'Ara kai
r(T )u = 0 . 2
Parat rhsh 6.3.1 Oi q¸roi C[T ]xi den eÐnai kanonikoÐ. Exart¸ntai apì
thn epilog twn ui kai ìqi mìnon apì ton T . EpÐshc eÐnai analloÐwtoi apì ton
T .
Meletme t¸ra ton periorismì tou T s' èna q¸ro thc morf c C[T ]u .
Prìtash 6.3.1 Upojètoume ìti q(x) = x − λ , gia λ∈C . JewroÔme u∈V

m−1
me per(u) = m . H (u, q(T )u, ..., q(T ) u) eÐnai mi bsh tou C[T ]u .
Apìdeixh 'Ena stoiqeÐo tou C[T ]u eÐnai thc morf c s(T )u me s(x) sto C[x] .
'Eqoume: s(x) = q m (x)t(x) + r(x) me t(x), r(x) sto C[x] kai deg r(x) <
deg q m (x) = m . 'Ara s(T )u = r(T )u . Epeid to r(x) eÐnai grammikìc sundua-
m−1
smìc twn poluwnÔmwn 1, q(x), ..., q (x) ta dianÔsmata u, q(T )u, ..., q(T )m−1 u
pargoun ton C[T ]u . DeÐqnoume t¸ra ìti aut ta dianÔsmata eÐnai grammi-
k anexrthta. Upojètoume ìti uprqoun aj ∈ C 0 ≤ j ≤ m − 1

, tètoia
m−1
X
¸ste aj q(T )j u = 0 kai kpoio apì ta aj na eÐnai diforo apì 0 . To po-
j=0
Pm−1
lu¸numo
j=0 aj q(x)j èqei bajmì gn sia mikrìtero apì to m kai ikanopoieÐ
Pm−1 j
j=0 aj q(T ) u = 0 . 'Ara prèpei na diaireÐtai apo to q(x) . Autì eÐnai topo.
Pìrisma 6.3.1 O pÐnakac tou periorismoÔ tou T ston C[T ]u wc proc th
bsh (u, q(T )u, ..., q(T )ni −1 u) eÐnai thc morf c:
94
 
λ 0 0 ··· 0
 
 1
 λ 0 ··· 0 
 
 0
 1 λ ··· 0  .
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
0 0 0 ··· λ
Orismìc 6.3.2 'Enac pÐnakac thc morf c
 
λ 0 0 ··· 0
 
 1
 λ 0 ··· 0 
 
 0
 1 λ ··· 0  
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
0 0 0 ··· λ
lègetai stoiqei¸dhc λ -morf Jordan
Prìtash 6.3.2 Upojètoume ìti to elqisto polu¸numo tou T eÐnai (x − λ)n .
Uprqei mia bsh tètoia ¸ste o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh na èqei
th morf :
 
A1 0 0 ··· 0
 
 0
 A2 0 ··· 0 
 
 0
 0 A3 ··· 0  
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
0 0 0 · · · Ar
ìpou A1 , . . . , A r eÐnai stoiqei¸deic λ -morfèc Jordan .
Apìdeixh ProkÔptei apì to Je¸rhma 6.3.1 kai to Pìrisma 6.3.1. 2
95
6.4 Kanonikèc Morfèc
Je¸rhma 6.4.1 Uprqei bsh tou V tètoia ¸ste o pÐnakac tou T wc proc
aut th bsh na èqei th morf :
 
A1 0 0 ··· 0
 
 0
 A2 0 ··· 0 
 0 0 A3 ··· 0 
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
 
· · · ··· ··· · · · · · ·
 
0 0 0 · · · As
ìpou A1 , . . . , A s eÐnai stoiqei¸deic morfèc Jordan .
Apìdeixh ProkÔptei apo tic to Pìrisma 6.2.1, kai tic Protseic 6.2.3 kai
6.3.2. 2
Prìtash 6.4.1 JewroÔme touc q¸rouc Vi i = 1, r thc prwtarqik c anlu-
shc tou T . JewroÔme to elqisto polu¸numo
q(x) = (x − λ1 )m1 (x − λ2 )m2 ...(x − λr )mr ,
tou T .
1. To elqisto polu¸numo tou periorismoÔ tou T ston Vi eÐnai to (x−λi )mi .
2. To qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou periorismoÔ tou T ston Vi eÐnai to
dim Vi
(x − λi ) .
3. 'Eqoume mi ≤ dim Vi .
Apìdeixh ProkÔptei apo thn Prìtash 6.2.4 kai thn Prìtash 6.3.2. 2
96
Pìrisma 6.4.1 To elqisto polu¸numo tou T diaireÐ to qarakthristikì po-
lu¸numo tou T .
Apìdeixh ProkÔptei apo to Je¸rhma 6.4.1 kai thn Prìtash 6.4.1.
6.5 DiagwnopoÐhsh
Orismìc 6.5.1 O T lègetai diagwnopoi simoc an uprqei mi bsh tou V

wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac tou T eÐnai diag¸nioc.
Prìtash 6.5.1 O T eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc an uprqei mi bsh tou V pou
apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T .
Je¸rhma 6.5.1 O T eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc an kai mìnon an to elqisto
polu¸numo tou èqei aplèc rÐzec.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti to elqisto polu¸numo tou T èqei aplèc rÐzec,
dhlad q(x) = (x − λ1 )...(x − λr ) , me λ1 , ..., λr sto C . JewroÔme touc dianu-
smatikoÔc q¸rouc V1 , ...Vr thc prwtarqik c anlushc tou T . Apì thn prìta-
sh 6.2.2, èqoume: Vi = Ker(T − λi IV ) gia i = 1, ..., r . 'Ara kje dinusma tou
Vi eÐnai idiodinusma tou T gia thn idiotim λi . JewroÔme bseic B1 , ..., Br

twn dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn V1 , ..., Vr . H (B1 , Br , ..., Br ) eÐnai bsh tou V kai
apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T . 'Ara o T eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc.
Upojètoume ìti o T eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. 'Ara o V èqei mia bsh pou
apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T . Jètoume p(x) = (x − λ1 )...(x − λr ) ,
ìpou λ1 , ..., λr oi (diforec an dÔo) idiotimèc tou T . To polu¸numo p(x) èqei
aplèc rÐzec kai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc P (T ) mhdenÐzei kje stoiqeÐo
97
miac bshc tou V ra kje stoiqeÐo tou V . To elqisto polu¸numo tou T
diaireÐ to p(x) , ra èqei kai autì aplèc rÐzec. 2
L mma 6.5.1 JewroÔme T, S ston L(V ) . Upojètoume ìti oi T, S eÐnai dia-
gwnopoi simoi kai ìti T S = ST . Tìte o T +S eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme tic diforec an dÔo idiotimèc λ1 , ..., λr tou T . DeÐ-
qnoume to Je¸rhma me epagwg sto r . An r = 1 o T èqei mi idiotim
λ kai T = λIV . JewroÔme mi bsh B tou V wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐ-
nakac tou S eÐnai diag¸nioc. Tìte o pÐnakac tou T + S = λIV + S wc
proc thn bsh B eÐnai diag¸nioc kai o T +S eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. An
r > 1 jètoume: Vi = Ker(T − λi IV ) gia i = 1, ..., r . An u ∈ Vi èqoume:
T Su = ST u = Sλi u = λi Su , ra o S af nei analloÐwtouc touc Vi . Sumbo-
lÐzoume Ti ton periorismì tou T ston Vi kai Si ton periorismì tou tou S ston
Vi . 'Eqoume Ti Si = Si Ti kai o Ti eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. To elqisto po-
lu¸numo tou Si diaireÐ to elqisto polu¸numo tou S . 'Ara, apì to Je¸rhma
6.5.1 o Si eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. Apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c o Ti + Si

eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. Ara o T +S eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. 2
6.6 H S+N Anlush
Orismìc 6.6.1 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V lègetai mhde-
nodÔnamoc an uprqei k ∈ N∗ tètoio ¸ste Tk = 0 .
S' aut thn pargrafo ja deÐxoume ìti kje grammikìc metasqhmatismìc
T tou V , grfetai san jroisma enìc diagwnopoi simou grammikoÔ metasqh-
matismoÔ kai enìc mhdenodÔnamou grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.
L mma 6.6.1 JewroÔme T, S ston L(V ) . Upojètoume ìti oi T, S eÐnai mh-
denodÔnamoi kai ìti T S = ST . Tìte o T +S eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc.
98
Apìdeixh JewroÔme k ∈ N∗ tètoio ¸ste Tk = 0 kai me m ∈ N∗ tètoio ¸ste
Sm = 0 . 'Eqoume:
k+m
X
k+m k + m k+m−i i
(T + S) = T S.
i=0
i
An i≥m tìte Si = 0 kai T k+m−i S i = 0 . An i<m tìte k+m−i ≥ k kai
sunep¸c T k+m−i = 0 kai T k+m−i S i = 0 . 'Ara T k+m−i S i = 0 gia kje i me
0 ≤ i ≤ k+m kai sunep¸c (T +S)k+m = 0 . 'Ara o T +S eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc.
Je¸rhma 6.6.1 JewroÔme T ∈ L(V ) . Uprqei ènac diagwnopoi simoc gram-
mikìc metasqhmatismìc S kai ènac mhdenodÔnamoc grammikìc metasqhmati-
smìc N tètoioi ¸ste
1. T =S+N
2. SN = N S
Epiplèon oi S kai N eÐnai monadikoÐ me tic parapnw idiìthtec kai eÐnai
polu¸numa tou T .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme to elqisto polu¸numo q(x) tou T . 'Eqoume: q(x) =

q1m1 (x)...qrmr (x) kai qi (x) = x − λi me λi ∈ C gia i = 1, ..., r kai λi difora
an dÔo. JewroÔme ta polu¸numa pi (x) me i = 1, ..., r ìpwc sto L mma 6.2.1.
Jètoume:
r
X
S= λi pi (T )
i=1
r
X
N= (T − λi IV )pi (T )
i=1
99
Oi S kai N eÐnai polu¸numa tou T . 'Eqoume SN = N S . EpÐshc
r
X r
X r
X
S+N = (T − λi IV )pi (T ) + λi pi (T ) = T pi (T ) = T.
i=1 i=1 i=1
DeÐqnoume ìti o S eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti
r
Y
(S − λj IV ) = 0.
j=1
Prgmati, tìte to elqisto polu¸numo tou S ja èqei aplèc rÐzec kai ra
apo to Jèwrhma 6.5.1 o S ja eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc. Apì to L mma 6.2.1
èqoume
r
Y r X
Y r
(S − λj IV ) = ( (λi − λj )pi (T ))
j=1 j=1 i=1
r Y
X r
= (λi − λj )pi (T ) = 0.
i=1 j=1
DeÐqnoume ìti o N eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc. Jètoume κ = sup{m1 , ..., mr } .
Apì to L mma 6.2.1 èqoume:
r
X
Nk = (T − λi IV )κ pi (T ).
i=1
Epeid k ≥ mi gia i = 1, ..., r to polu¸numo q(x) diaireÐ to (x − λi )κ pi (x) gia
kje i = 1, ..., r ra Nk = 0 .
DeÐqnoume th monadikìthta twn S kai N . An uprqoun S0 kai N0 tètoia
¸ste:
1. O S0 na eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc kai o N0 na eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc.
100
2. T = S0 + N 0
3. S 0N 0 = N 0S 0
èqoume: S +N = S 0 +N 0 kai ra S −S 0 = N 0 −N . Jètoume R = S −S 0 =

N0 − N .
0
O S metatÐjetai me touc S0 kai N0 , ra me ton T , ra kai me ton S . 'Omoia,
o N0 metatÐjetai me ton N . Apì to l mma 6.5.1 o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc
R = S − S0 eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc kai apì to l mma 6.6.1 R = N − N0 eÐnai
0 0
mhdenodÔnamoc. 'Ara R=0 kai sunep¸c S=S kai N =N . 2
Pardeigma 6.6.1 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou C2 tou
opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou C2 eÐnai o:
!
5 −2
.
2 1
Gia na broÔme thn S+N anlush tou T ergazìmaste ìpwc sthn apìdeixh
tou Jewr matoc 6.6.1. To elqisto polu¸numo tou T eÐnai to (x − 3)2 . O S

eÐnai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou C2 tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn
2
kanonik bsh tou C eÐnai o
!
3 0
0 3
kai o N eÐnai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou C2 t tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc
proc thn kanonik bsh tou C2 eÐnai o
!
2 −2
.
2 −2
101
6.7 Ask seic
'Askhsh 6.7.1 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou C3 tou opoÐ-
ou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) tou C3
eÐnai o  
3 1 −1
 
0 1 −1 .
 
0 2 4
BreÐte touc q¸rouc thc prwtarqik c anlushc tou T .
'Askhsh 6.7.2 Na brejoÔn ta elqista kai ta qarakthristik polu¸numa
twn paraktw pinkwn:

   
! ! 3 0 0 3 0 0
2 1 2 0  
0 2 0

0 3 0

, , , .
0 2 0 2    
0 1 2 0 0 2
'Askhsh 6.7.3 Gryte se trigwnik morf touc paraktw pÐnakec:

     
! ! 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
2 1 0 1 
0 0 1
 
0 0 1
 
0 0 1

, , , , .
−1 1 1 0      
0 −1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
'Askhsh 6.7.4 BreÐte to elqisto (qarakthristikì) polu¸numo miac probo-
l c.
'Askhsh 6.7.5 BreÐte to elqisto (qarakthristikì) polu¸numo enìc eneli-
ktikoÔ grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.
'Askhsh 6.7.6 DeÐxte ìti h orÐzousa enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ eÐnai
Ðsh me to stajerì ìro tou qarakthristikoÔ poluwnÔmou tou
'Askhsh 6.7.7 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me dim V = n kai T ∈ L(V ) .
To sÔnolo {T κ }κ∈N eÐnai grammik exarthmèno. Ac eÐnai r o mikrìteroc fusi-
2 r
kìc tètoioc ¸ste to {I, T, T , ..., T } na eÐnai grammik exarthmèno. Uprqoun
102
r−1
X
αi ∈ C me 0 ≤ i ≤ r−1 tètoia ¸ste αi T i + T r = 0 . DeÐxte ìti to p =:
i=0
r−1
X
xr + αi xi eÐnai to elqisto polu¸numo tou T .
i=0
'Askhsh 6.7.8 DÐnetai pÐnakac n×n A . DeÐxte ìti ta paraktw eÐnai iso-
dÔnama:
1. To elqisto polu¸numo tou A eÐnai pr¸to me thn pargwgo tou.
2. O A eÐnai diagwnopoi simoc.
3. Kje analloÐwtoc upìqwroc tou A èqei sumplhrwmatikì analloÐwto.
'Askhsh 6.7.9 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me dim V = n kai T ∈ L(V ) .
DeÐxte ìti ta paraktw eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. O T mhdenodÔnamoc.
2. To qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou T eÐnai xn , ìpou n = dim V .
3. H mìnadik idiotim tou T eÐnai to 0.
'Askhsh 6.7.10 DeÐxte ìti kje 2×2 pÐnakac eÐnai ìmoioc m' ènan pÐnaka
pou èqei mÐa apo tic paraktw morfèc:
1.
!
λ 1
0 λ
me λ∈C .
2.
!
λ 0
0 µ
me λ, µ ∈ C.
103
'Askhsh 6.7.11 DeÐxte ìti ènac pÐnakac A eÐnai ìmoioc me ton At .
'Askhsh 6.7.12 DeÐxte ìti ènac 3×3 mhdenodÔnamoc pÐnakac eÐnai ìmoioc m'
ènan apì touc paraktw pÐnakec:

     
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
     
0 0 1 ,
0 0 0 ,
0 0 0 .
     
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
'Askhsh 6.7.13 DeÐxte ìti an A eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc n×n pÐnakac kai o P

−1
ènac antistrèyimoc n×n pÐnakac , tìte P AP eÐnai mhdenodÔnamoc.
'Askhsh 6.7.14 BreÐte èna peperasmèno sÔnolo 4×4 pinkwn tètoio ¸ste
kje mhdenodÔnamoc 4×4 pÐnakac, na eÐnai ìmoioc m' ènan apì autoÔc kai
mìnon.
'Askhsh 6.7.15 DÐnetai to sÔnolo X twn 2×2 pinkwn me migadikoÔc su-
4
ntelestèc A pou ikanopoioÔn A =A . BreÐte èna uposÔnolo Y tou X me tic
idiìthtec:
1. An A∈X uprqei ènac pÐnakac B∈Y pou eÐnai ìmoioc me ton A .
2. An A∈Y kai B∈Y tìte o A kai o B den eÐnai ìmoioi.
'Askhsh 6.7.16 OrÐzoume ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì D pnw ston Pn =

{P ∈ R[x] : deg P ≤ n} me:
Dxκ = κ · xκ−1 , 1 ≤ κ ≤ n, D1 = 0.
BreÐte to elqisto kai to qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou D . BreÐte th
morf Jordan tou D , gia n = 2, 3, 4 .
'Askhsh 6.7.17 Kataskeuste ènan grammikì metasqhmatismì T pnw s'
èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc 7 tètoion ¸ste to elqisto polu¸numo
tou T na eÐnai x2 (x − 1)2 kai to qarakthristikì polu¸numo tou T na eÐnai
x3 (x − 1)4 .
104
'Askhsh 6.7.18 Pìsec eÐnai oi dunatèc morfèc Jordan gia èna 6×6 pÐnaka
A me elqisto polu¸numo (x − 2)2 (x + 1)3 ;
'Askhsh 6.7.19 BreÐte th morf Jordan enìc pÐnaka me elqisto polu¸numo
2
(x − 2) (x + 7) kai qarakthristikì (x − 2)3 (x + 7)2 .
'Askhsh 6.7.20 DeÐxte ìti kje stoiqei¸dhc λ -morf Jordan me λ 6= 0 èqei
rÐza.
'Askhsh 6.7.21 DeÐxte ìti kje antistrèyimoc pÐnakac èqei rÐza.
'Askhsh 6.7.22 DÐnetai o pÐnakac
 
2 1 0
 
3 0 0 .
 
0 0 1
BreÐte ìlec tic rÐzec tou.
'Askhsh 6.7.23 DÐnetai ènac antistrèyimoc 2×2 pÐnakac. BreÐte ìlec tic
rÐzec tou.
'Askhsh 6.7.24 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me dim V = n ≥ 2 kai
n−1 n
T ∈ L(V ) tètoioc ¸ste T 6= 0, T = 0. DeÐxte ìti o T den èqei rÐza sto
L(V ).
'Askhsh 6.7.25 JewroÔme ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou C3 tou o-
poÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) tou C3
eÐnai o  
3 1 1
 
0 1 0 .
 
6 2 4
BreÐte thn S+N anlush tou T .
105
Keflaio 7
Digrammikèc morfèc, Ermitianèc
morfèc
Se autì to keflaio to s¸ma F eÐnai to R to C kai ìloi oi dianusmatikoÐ
q¸roi pou jewroÔme eÐnai peperasmènhc distashc.
7.1 Digrammikèc Morfèc
Orismìc 7.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto s¸ma F . Mia
apeikìnish f :V ×V →F lègetai digrammik morf an ikanopoieÐ tic para-
ktw sunj kec:
1. f (αu, v) = αf (u, v), f (u + v, w) = f (u, w) + f (v, w)
2. f (u, αv) = αf (u, v), f (u, v + w) = f (u, v) + f (u, w)
gia kje u, v, w ston V , gia kje α sto F .
To sÔnolo twn digrammik¸n morf¸n ston V , eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc
pnw sto F . JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V kai mia digrammik
morf f sthn V . An u ∈ V, v ∈ V , èqoume:
106
n
X n
X
u= ui ei , v = vj ej
i=1 j=1
me ui ∈ F, vj ∈ F gia 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
'Eqoume:
n n
! n X
n
X X X
f (u, v) = f ui ei , vj ej = ui vj f (ei , ej ).
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
O n×n pÐnakac A = (aij ) me aij = f (ei , ej ) lègetai pÐnakac thc f wc proc
th bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ). 'Eqoume: f (u, v) = ut0 Av0 , ìpou u0 = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) ,
v0 = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ). JewroÔme mia llh bsh (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) tou V . Sumbo-
lÐzoume B ton pÐnaka thc f wc proc aut th bsh. An P eÐnai o pÐnakac
allag c bshc apì thn (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) sthn (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) , èqoume:
A = P t BP.
Pardeigma 7.1.1 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R3 . H apeikìnish
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
3
X
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = xi yi
i=1
eÐnai mi digrammik morf . O pÐnakac thc f wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou
R3 eÐnai o  
1 0 0
 
0 1 0 .
 
0 0 1
107
f : R3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = x1 y2 + x2 y3
eÐnai mi digrammik morf . O pÐnakac thc f wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou
3
R eÐnai o  
0 1 0
 
0 0 1 .
 
0 0 0
JewroÔme mia digrammik morf f ston V kai èna grammikì metasqhma-
tismì T tou V . SumbolÐzoume Tf th digrammik morf pou orÐzetai
T f (x, y) = f (T x, T y).
An (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou V A , o pÐnakac thc f wc proc aut th
bsh, T0 o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh tìte o pÐnakac thc Tf wc
proc aut th bsh eÐnai o T0t AT0 .
Orismìc 7.1.2 DÔo digrammikèc morfèc f, g s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V

lègontai isìtimec an uprqei antistrèyimoc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou
V tètoioc ¸ste Tf = g .
EÔkola blèpoume ìti h isotimÐa digrammik¸n morf¸n eÐnai sqèsh isodu-
namÐac. An (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou V kai A (antistoiq. B) eÐnai o
pÐnakac thc f (antist. g ) wc proc aut th bsh, tìte oi f, g eÐnai isìtimec an
kai mìno an uprqei antistrèyimoc pÐnakac T0 tètoioc ¸ste
T0t AT0 = B.
108
7.2 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc, Enal-
lssousec Digrammikèc Morfèc
Orismìc 7.2.1 Mia digrammik morf f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V lège-
tai summetrik an f (u, v) = f (v, u), ∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V. Mia digrammik morf
f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V lègetai enallssousa an f (u, u) = 0, ∀u ∈ V.
Prìtash 7.2.1 Mia digrammik morf f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V eÐnai
enallssousa an kai mìnon an f (u, v) = −f (v, u), ∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai enallssousa. Gia u, v ston V èqoume:
f (u + v, u + v) = 0 ⇒ f (u, u) + f (v, v) + f (u, v) + f (v, u) = 0 ⇒ f (u, v) +

f (v, u) = 0.
AntÐstrofa, an f (u, v) = −f (v, u), ∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V , tìte f (v, v) =
−f (v, v) = 0. 2
An f eÐnai mia summetrik diagrammik morf , o pÐnakac A thc f wc
proc mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V eÐnai summetrikìc pÐnakac. An f eÐnai
mia enallssousa digrammik morf , o pÐnakac A thc f wc proc mia bsh
(e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V eÐnai antisummetrikìc pÐnakac. Sth sunèqeia aut c thc
paragrfou sumbolÐzoume f mia digrammik morf s' èna q¸ro V , pou eÐnai
summetrik enallssousa.
Orismìc 7.2.2 An u, v an koun ston V , kai f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0 , lème ìti
ta u, v eÐnai kjeta. An W 1 , W2 eÐnai dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi tou V , lème ìti
oi W 1 , W2 eÐnai kjetoi an f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0, ∀u ∈ W1 , ∀v ∈ W2 .
An W 1 , W2 eÐnai kjetoi, grfoume: W1 ⊥W2 . An W eÐnai ènac dianusma-
tikìc upìqwroc tou V sumbolÐzoume
W ⊥ = {u ∈ V : f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0, ∀v ∈ W }.
109
O W⊥ eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V kai lègetai o kjetoc tou W .
SumbolÐzoume
Ker f = V ⊥ = {u ∈ V : f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0, ∀v ∈ V }.
O dianusmatikìc q¸roc Ker f lègetai pur nac thc f .
Orismìc 7.2.3 H f lègetai mh ekfulismènh an Ker f = {0} kai ekfulismè-
nh an Ker f 6= {0} .
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = x1 y2 + x2 y1
eÐnai mi summetrik digrammik morf . O pÐnakac thc f wc proc thn kano-
3
nik bsh tou R eÐnai o
 
0 1 0
 
1 0 0 .
 
0 0 0
H f eÐnai mi ekfulismènh digrammik morf . O pur nac thc eÐnai o
dianusmatikìc upìqwroc {(0, 0, z) : z ∈ R} tou R3 .
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = x1 y2 + x2 y1 + x3 y3
110
eÐnai mi summetrik digrammik morf . O pÐnakac thc f wc proc thn kano-
nik bsh tou R3 eÐnai o

 
0 1 0
 
1 0 0 .
 
0 0 1
H f eÐnai mi mh ekfulismènh digrammik morf .
An u∈V sumbolÐzoume fu th grammik morf pnw ston V pou orÐzetai
fu (v) = f (u, v) , gia v ∈ V.
Prìtash 7.2.2 H apeikìnish u → fu eÐnai grammik apeikìnish apì ton V

∗
ston duikì q¸ro V tou V kai pur nac thc eÐnai o Ker f .
Apìdeixh H grammikìthta thc apeikìnishc u → fu eÐnai mesh apì th di-
grammikìthta thc f . Eqoume:
fu = 0 an kai mìnon an f (u, v) = 0, ∀v ∈ V , an kai mìnon an u ∈ Ker f.

2
Prìtash 7.2.3 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. An W eÐnai dia-
nusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , èqoume:
dim W + dim W ⊥ = dim V.
Apìdeixh SumbolÐzoume U ton dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V∗ pou apoteleÐ-
tai apì tic grammikèc morfèc pnw ston V pou eÐnai 0 ston W . O U eÐnai
isìmorfoc me ton duikì (V /W )∗ . H apeikìnish u → fu eÐnai isomorfismìc
⊥
apì ton W ston U . 'Ara:
dim W ⊥ = dim U = dim(V /W ) = dim V − dim W. 2
Prìtash 7.2.4 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna
dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . Tìte o periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh
⊥
ekfulismènh morf an kai mìnon an W +W = V.
111
Apìdeixh 'Eqoume: dim W + dim W ⊥ = dim(W + W ⊥ ) + dim(W ∩ W ⊥ ).
Apì thn Prìtash 7.2.3 èqoume: dim V = dim(W + W ⊥ ) + dim(W ∩ W ⊥ ).
'Ara W + W⊥ = V an kai mìnon an W ∩ W⊥ = 0 , dhlad an kai mìnon o
periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf . 2
Pìrisma 7.2.1 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna
dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . O periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh
ekfulismènh morf an kai mìnon an o periorismìc thc f ston W⊥ eÐnai mh
ekfulismènh morf .
Apìdeixh Apì thn Prìtash 7.2.3 èqoume ìti dim(W ⊥ )⊥ = dim W . Epeid
o W perièqetai ston (W ⊥ )⊥ , èqoume (W ⊥ )⊥ = W . To sumpèrasma èpetai
apì thn Prìtash 7.2.4.
7.3 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc
S' aut thn pargrafo h f eÐnai mia summetrik digrammik morf s' èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V .
Orismìc 7.3.1 Lème ìti mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V eÐnai orjog¸nia gia
thn f an f (ei , ej ) = 0 gia i 6= j 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

, , Mia orjog¸nia
bsh gia thn f lègetai orjokanonik an f (ei , ei ) eÐnai Ðso me 1, −1 0 gia
1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Je¸rhma 7.3.1 Uprqei mia bsh tou V orjog¸nia gia thn f .
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. Ja deÐxoume to je¸-
rhma s' aut thn perÐptwsh me epagwg . Upojètoume ìti dim V = n > 1.
Uprqei u ∈ V, u 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste f (u, u) 6= 0 . Prgmati an f (v, v) = 0
v∈V tìte èqoume:
112
f (u + w, u + w) = 0 ⇒ f (u, u) + f (w, w) + 2f (u, w) = 0 ⇒ f (u, w) =
0, ∀u ∈ V, ∀w ∈ V. Autì eÐnai topo giatÐ Ker f = {0} . 'Ara uprqei u ∈
V, u 6= 0 tètoio ¸ste f (u, u) 6= 0 . SumbolÐzoume W ton dianusmatikì q¸ro
pou pargetai apì to u . O periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh ekfulismènh
morf kai apì thn Prìtash 7.2.4 èqoume ìti W ⊕W⊥ = V . Apì to Pìrisma
⊥
7.2.1 o periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf , ra apì
thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqei mia orjog¸nia bsh (e2 , e3 , ..., en ) gia ton
periorismì thc f ston W⊥ . H bsh (u, e2 , ..., en ) tou V eÐnai orjog¸nia gia
thn f .
Upojètoume t¸ra ìti h f eÐnai ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna sumplhrw-
matikì upìqwro V0 tou Ker f ston V . O periorismìc thc f ston V0 eÐnai
mh ekfulismènh morf . An (e1 , e2 , ..., ek ) eÐnai mia orjog¸nia bsh gia ton
periorismì thc f ston V0 kai (ek+1 , ek+2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou Ker f , tìte
h (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou V orjog¸nia gia thn f . 2
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = x1 y2 + x2 y1 + x3 y3
eÐnai mi mh ekfulismènh summetrik digrammik morf . H bsh
1 1
((1, , 0), (1, − , 0), (0, 0, 1))
2 2
tou R3 eÐnai orjokanonik gia thn f .
Pìrisma 7.3.1 JewroÔme mia bsh tou V (e1 , e2 , ..., en )

, orjog¸nia gia thn
f . Upojètoume ìti f (ei , ei ) > 0 gia 1 ≤ i ≤ k kai ìti f (ei , ei ) = 0 gia
113
k < i ≤ n. Tìte h (ek+1 , ek+2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou Ker f.
Pìrisma 7.3.2 Uprqei mia bsh tou V wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac thc f
eÐnai diag¸nioc.
Pìrisma 7.3.3 JewroÔme èna summetrikì n×n PÐnaka A . Uprqei anti-
strèyimoc n×n pÐnakac Q tètoioc ¸ste o Qt AQ na eÐnai diag¸nioc pÐnakac.
Je¸rhma 7.3.2 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh summetrik di-
grammik morf s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc n pnw sto R . U-
prqei ènac fusikìc r 0 ≤ r ≤ n

, tètoioc ¸ste gia kje orjog¸nia bsh
(e1 , e2 , ..., en ) gia thn f, r apì touc arijmoÔc f (ei , ei ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n eÐnai gn sia
jetikoÐ kai n−r eÐnai gn sia arnhtikoÐ.
Apìdeixh Apì to Pìrisma 7.3.1, an (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia orjog¸nia bsh
gia thn f , oi arijmoÐ f (ei , ei ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n eÐnai mh mhdenikoÐ. JewroÔme dÔo
orjog¸niec bseic (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) kai (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) gia thn f . Upojètoume ìti:
f (ei , ei ) > 0 gia 1≤i≤r

f (ei , ei ) < 0 gia 1<i≤n
f (gi , gi ) > 0 gia 1≤i≤s
f (gi , gi ) < 0 gia r<i≤n
Ja deÐxoume ìti r = s . Gi' autì arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti ta e1 , e2 , ..., er ,
gs+1 , ..., gn eÐnai grammik anexrthta kai ìti ta g1 , g2 , ..., gs er+1 , ..., en
, eÐnai
grammik anexrthta.
Prgmati, tìte ja èqoume:
r+n−s≤n⇒r ≤s
s+n−r ≤n⇒s≤r kai ra r=s .
DeÐqnoume ìti ta e1 , e2 , ..., er gs+1 , ..., gn

, eÐnai grammik anexrthta. U-
pojètoume ìti:
r
X n
X
αi ei + βj gj = 0
i=1 j=s+1
114
gia αi ∈ R gia 1≤i≤r kai βj ∈ R gia s+1≤j ≤n . 'Eqoume:
r
X n
X
αi ei = − βj gj
i=1 j=s+1
kai
r r
! n n
!
X X X X
f αi ei , αi ei =f βj gj , βj gj ⇒
i=1 i=1 j=s+1 j=s+1
r
X n
X
αi2 f (ei , ei ) = βj2 f (gj , gj ).
i=1 j=s+1
To aristerì mèloc eÐnai jetikì kai to dexiì mèloc eÐnai arnhtikì. 'Ara,
r
X n
X
αi2 f (ei , ei ) = βj2 f (gj , gj ) = 0
i=1 j=s+1
kai αi = 0 gia 1 ≤ i ≤ r βj = 0 , gia s + 1 ≤ j ≤ n. 2
Orismìc 7.3.2 O arijmìc r lègetai upograf thc f .
Orismìc 7.3.3 Mia summetrik digrammik morf f lègetai jetik orismè-
nh an r=n kai arnhtik orismènh an r=0 .
EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti h f eÐnai jetik orismènh an kai mìnon an
f (x, x) > 0 ∀x ∈ V, x 6= 0 kai arnhtik orismènh an kai mìnon an f (x, x) <

0 ∀x ∈ V, x 6= 0.
Pìrisma 7.3.4 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh summetrik di-
grammik morf s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc n pnw sto R me
upograf r . Gia kje orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) gia thn f r , apì touc
arijmoÔc f (ei , ei ), 1 ≤ i ≤ n eÐnai Ðsoi me 1 kai n−r eÐnai Ðsoi me −1

.
115
Pìrisma 7.3.5 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh summetrik di-
grammik morf s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc n pnw sto R me
upograf r . Uprqoun sumplhrwmatikoÐ upìqwroi W 1 , W2 tou V , kjetoi
metaxÔ touc kai tètoioi ¸ste o periorismìc thc f ston W1 na eÐnai jetik
orismènh morf kai o periorismìc thc f ston W2 na eÐnai arnhtik orismènh
morf . Epiplèon dim W1 = r , gia kje tètoio zeÔgoc upìqwrwn.
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = x1 y2 + x2 y1 + x3 y3
eÐnai mi mh ekfulismènh summetrik digrammik morf . H bsh
1 1
((1, , 0), (1, − , 0), (0, 0, 1))
2 2
tou R3 eÐnai orjokanonik gia thn f . 'Eqoume
1. f (1, 12 , 0), (1, 12 , 0)) = 1
2. f (1, − 21 , 0), (1, − 12 , 0)) = −1
3. f ((0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 1)) = 1
'Ara h upograf thc f eÐnai 2 . Jètoume W1 = {(x, x2 , z) : x ∈ R, z ∈ R}

kai W2 = {(y, − y2 , 0) : y ∈ R} . EÔkola elègqoume ìti R3 = W 1 ⊕ W 2 kai ìti
o periorismìc thc f ston W1 eÐnai jetik orismènh morf kai o periorismìc
thc f ston W2 eÐnai rnhtik orismènh morf .
116
Orismìc 7.3.4 Upojètoume ìt h f eÐnai mi mh ekfulismènh summetrik
digrammik morf s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . Enac grammikìc metasqhma-
tismìc T tou V lègetai orjog¸nioc gia thn f an Tf = f .
Prìtash 7.3.1 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mi mh ekfulismènh summetrik
digrammik morf s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . Oi orjog¸nioi metasqhma-
tismoÐ gia thn f eÐnai upoomda twn antistrèyimwn grammik¸n metasqhmati-
sm¸n tou V .
Apìdeixh DeÐqnoume ìti an Tf = f , tìte Ker T = {0} . Prgmati, an
u ∈ Ker T , èqoume f (T u, T v) = 0, ∀v ∈ V ⇒ f (u, v) = 0, ∀v ∈ V , ra
u ∈ Ker f kai epeid h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh u=0 2
Prìtash 7.3.2 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐna mh ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou
V . An A (antist. T0 ) eÐnai o pÐnakac thc f (antist. T ) wc proc aut th bsh,
èqoume ìti: O T eÐnai orjog¸nioc gia thn f an kai mìnon an T0t AT0 = A.
Sth sunèqeia aut c thc paragrfou h f eÐnai mia jetik orismènh summe-
trik morf . Mia tètoia morf lègetai eswterikì ginìmeno. JewroÔme èna
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . An y∈V h apeikìnish ϕy pou orÐzetai
ϕy (x) = f (y, T x) eÐnai mia grammik morf pnw ston V . Apì thn Prìtash
7.2.2 èqoume ìti ϕy = fy∗ gia kpoio y∗ ∈ V . EÔkola blèpoume ìti h apei-
kìnish y → y∗ eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V. SumbolÐzoume autì
∗
ton grammikì metasqhmatismì T lème ìti eÐnai o suzug c tou T . 'Eqoume
∀x ∈ V, ∀y ∈ V :
ϕy (x) = fy∗ (x) , ra
f (y, T x) = (T ∗ y, x).
117
Prìtash 7.3.3 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R efodia-
smèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno. An T kai S eÐnai grammikoÐ metasqhmati-
smoÐ tou V kai λ∈R tìte:
1. (T + S)∗ = T ∗ + S ∗
2. (λT )∗ = λT ∗
3. (λS)∗ = S ∗ T ∗
4. (T ∗ )∗ = T
Orismìc 7.3.5 JewroÔme ènan dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R efodia-
smèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno. 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou
V lègetai summetrikìc an T = T∗ .
V . An A eÐnai o pÐnakac thc f kai T0 eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut
th bsh, èqoume ìti: O T eÐnai summetrikìc gia thn f an kai mìnon an
T0t A = AT0 .
7.4 Enallssousec Digrammikèc Morfèc
S' aut thn pargrafo h f eÐnai mia enallssousa digrammik morf s' èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V .
Orismìc 7.4.1 'Enac dianusmatikìc upìqwroc W tou V me dim W = 2 lè-
getai uperbolikì epÐpedo an o periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh ekfulismènh
morf .
Orismìc 7.4.2 Enac dianusmatikìc upìqwroc W tou V lègetai uperbolikìc
q¸roc an uprqoun dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi W1 , W2 , ..., Wk tou W tètoioi ¸ste
118
k
X
1. ⊕Wi = W.
i=1
2. Wi ⊥Wj gia i 6= j 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
, ,
3. O Wi eÐnai uperbolikì epÐpedo gia 1 ≤ i ≤ k.
Je¸rhma 7.4.1 JewroÔme mia enallssousa digrammik morf f s' èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V . Uprqei ènac dianusmatikìc upìqwroc W tou V tètoioc
¸ste
1. O W eÐnai uperbolikìc q¸roc.
2. W ⊕ Ker f = V.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. DeÐqnoume to je¸rhma
me epagwg s' aut thn perÐptwsh. JewroÔme u ∈ V kai v ∈ V tètoia
¸ste f (u, v) 6= 0. SumbolÐzoume W1 ton dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou
pargetai apì ta u, v . O W1 eÐnai uperbolikì epÐpedo. Prgmati, an αu+βv ∈

W1 me α ∈ F, β ∈ F kai f (αu + βv, w) = 0 ∀w ∈ W1 , èqoume:
f (αu + βv, u) = 0 ⇒ βf (v, u) = 0 ⇒ β = 0 kai
f (αu + βv, v) = 0 ⇒ αf (u, v) = 0 ⇒ α = 0

Apì thn Prìtash 7.2.4 èqoume ìti W1 ⊕W1⊥ = V kai apì to Pìrisma 7.2.1
èqoume ìti o periorismìc thc f ston W1⊥ eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf . Apì thn
upìjesh thc epagwg c o W1⊥ eÐnai uperbolikìc q¸roc. 'Ara o V = W1 ⊕ W1⊥

eÐnai uperbolikìc q¸roc.
Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì upì-
qwro W tou V tètoio ¸ste W ⊕ Ker f = V . O periorismìc thc f ston W

eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf kai ìpwc deÐxame parapnw o W eÐnai uperbolikìc
q¸roc. 2
119
Pìrisma 7.4.1 An h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh, o V eÐnai uperbolikìc q¸roc
kai h distash tou eÐnai rtia. JewroÔme èna uperbolikì epÐpedo W kai u, v
sto W tètoio ¸ste f (u, v) = 1 . Tìte o pÐnakac tou periorismoÔ thc f sto W
wc proc th bsh (u, v) tou W eÐnai:
!
0 1
.
−1 0
Prìtash 7.4.1 An f eÐnai mia enallssousa digrammik morf s' èna dia-
nusmatikì q¸ro V , uprqei r∈N kai mia bsh tou V wc proc thn opoÐa o
pÐnakac thc f eÐnai thc morf c:
 
A1 0 ··· ··· ··· ··· 0
 
 0
 A2 · · · ··· ··· ··· 0 
· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
 
,
· · · ··· ··· Ar ··· ··· · · ·

· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
0
 
· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
0 0 ··· ··· ··· ··· 0
ìpou
!
0 1
A1 = A2 = · · · = Ar = .
−1 0
f : R 3 × R3 → R
pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )) = 2x1 y2 − 2x2 y1 − 3x1 y3 + 3x3 y1 − 2x2 y3 + 2x3 y2
eÐnai mia enallssousa digrammik morf . O pÐnakac thc wc proc thn kano-
120
nik bsh tou R3 eÐnai o
 
2 −3
0
 
−2 0 −2 .
 
3 2 0
H f eÐnai ekfulismènh. 'Eqoume
3
Ker f = {(z, − z, −z) : z ∈ R}.
2
Jètoume W = {(x, y, 0) : x ∈ R, y ∈ R} . O W eÐnai uperbolikì epÐpedo.
'Eqoume
R3 = W ⊕ ker f.
JewroÔme thn bsh ((1, 0, 0), (0, 12 , 0), (1, − 32 , −1)) tou R3 . O pÐnakac thc f
wc proc aut th bsh eÐnai o
 
0 1 0
 
−1 0 0 .
 
0 0 0
Pìrisma 7.4.2 JewroÔme ènan antisummetrikì n×n pÐnaka A . Uprqei
antistrèyimoc n×n pÐnakac Q tètoioc ¸ste o Qt AQ na eÐnai thc morf c:
 
A1 0 ··· ··· ··· ··· 0
 
 0
 A2 · · · ··· ··· ··· 0 
· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
 
,
· · · ··· ··· Ar ··· ··· · · ·

· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
0
 
· · · ··· ··· ··· ··· ··· · · ·
 
0 0 ··· ··· ··· ··· 0
121
ìpou r∈N kai
!
0 1
A1 = A2 = · · · = Ar = .
−1 0
Orismìc 7.4.3 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. 'Enac grammikìc
metasqhmatismìc T tou V lègetai sumplektikìc an T f = f.
V . An A eÐnai o pÐnakac thc f kai T0 eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut
th bsh, èqoume ìti: O T eÐnai sumplektikìc gia thn f an kai mìnon an
T0t AT0 = A.
H Prìtash 7.4.3 apodeiknÔetai ìpwc h Prìtash 7.3.1.
Prìtash 7.4.3 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. Oi sumplektikoÐ
metasqhmatismoÐ gia thn f eÐnai upoomda twn antistrèyimwn grammik¸n
metasqhmatism¸n tou V .
7.5 Ermitianèc Morfèc
S' aut thn pargrafo o V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw sto s¸ma C .
An α ∈C sumbolÐzoume ᾱ ton suzug tou α . An v = (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) ∈ Cn

sumbolÐzoume v̄ to dinusma (v1 , v2 , ..., vn ) . An A = (aij ) eÐnai ènac n×
n pÐnakac me stoiqeÐa sto C sumbolÐzoume A ton pÐnaka tou opoÐou to ij
stoiqeÐo eÐnai to aij .
Orismìc 7.5.1 Mia apeikìnish f :V ×V →C lègetai ermitian morf an
ikanopoieÐ tic paraktw sunj kec:
1. f (αu, v) = αf (u, v), f (u, αv) = ᾱf (x, y)
122
2. f (u + v, w) = f (u, w) + f (v, w) f (u, v + w) = f (u, v) + f (u, w)
3. f (u, v) = f (v, u)
gia kje u, v, w ston V , gia kje α sto C .
Sth sunèqeia aut c thc paragrfou h f eÐnai mia ermitian morf ston
V .
JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou u ∈ V, v ∈ V

V . An èqoume:
Pn
1 ≤ i ≤ n v = nj=1 vj ej
P
u= i=1 ui ei , me ui ∈ C , gia , me vj ∈ C gia
1 ≤ j ≤ n. 'Eqoume:
n n
! n X
n
X X X
f (u, v) = f ui ei , vj ej = ui vj f (ei , ej ).
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
O n×n pÐnakac A = (aij ) me aij = f (ei , ej ) lègetai pÐnakac thc f wc proc
th bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ). O pÐnakac A eÐnai ermitianìc, ikanopoieÐ dhlad :
aij = aji , gia 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 ≤ j ≤ n. ,
'Eqoume: f (u, v) = ut0 Av0 , ìpou
u0 = (u1 , u2 , ..., un ), v0 = (v1 , v2 , ..n ).
JewroÔme mia llh bsh (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) tou V .
SumbolÐzoume B ton pÐnaka thc f wc proc aut th bsh. An P eÐnai o
pÐnakac allag c bshc apì thn (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) sthn (g1 , g2 , ..., gn ) èqoume:
A = P t BP .
JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou q¸rou V . SumbolÐzoume Tf

thn ermitian morf pou orÐzetai: T f (u, v) = f (T u, T v) . An (e1 , e2 , ..., en )
eÐnai mia bsh tou V A , o pÐnakac thc f wc proc aut th bsh, T0 o pÐnakac
tou T wc proc aut th bsh, tìte o pÐnakac thc Tf wc proc aut th bsh
eÐnai: T0t AT0 .
123
Orismìc 7.5.2 DÔo ermitianèc morfèc f, g s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V lè-
gontai isìtimec an uprqei antistrèyimoc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V

tètoioc ¸ste Tf = g .
Orismìc 7.5.3 An u, v an koun ston V kai f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0 lème ìti
ta u, v eÐnai kjeta. An W 1 , W2 eÐnai dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi tou V lème ìti
oi W 1 , W2 eÐnai kjetoi kai sumbolÐzoume W1 ⊥W2 an f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0

gia kje u ∈ W1 gia kje v ∈ W2 .
An W eÐnai ènac dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V sumbolÐzoume: W⊥ =

{u ∈ V : f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0, ∀v ∈ W } . O W⊥ eÐnai dianusmatikìc
upìqwroc tou V kai lègetai o kjetoc tou W .
⊥
SumbolÐzoume: Ker f = V = {u ∈ V : f (u, v) = f (v, u) = 0, ∀y ∈ V }.
O dianusmatikìc q¸roc Ker f lègetai pur nac thc f .
Orismìc 7.5.4 H f lègetai mh ekfulismènh an Ker f = {0} kai ekfulismè-
nh an Ker f 6= {0}.
Orismìc 7.5.5 JewroÔme dÔo dianusmatikoÔc upìqwrouc U kai W pnw sto
C . Mia apeikìnish g:U →W lègetai antigrammik an ikanopoieÐ:
1. g(x + y) = g(x) + g(y)
2. g(αx) = ᾱg(x)
gia kje u, v ston U , gia kje α sto C .
O pur nac Ker g miac antigrammik c apeikìnishc apì ton U ston W eÐnai
to sÔnolo {x ∈ U : g(x) = 0} . O Ker g eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou U .
Orismìc 7.5.6 Oi U kai W lègontai antiisìmorfoi an uprqei mia antigram-
mik apeikìnish g:U →W pou eÐnai 1−1 kai epÐ.
124
EÔkola deÐqnoume ìti an oi U kai W eÐnai antiisìmorfoi, tìte dim U =
dim W . An u ∈ V sumbolÐzoume fu th grammik morf pnw ston V pou
orÐzetai: fu (v) = f (v, u).

Oi Protseic 7.5.1, 7.5.2, 7.5.3 kai to Pìrisma 7.5.1 paraktw, apodei-
knÔontai ìpwc oi Protseic 7.2.2, 7.2.3, 7.2.4 kai to Pìrisma 7.2.1.
Prìtash 7.5.1 H apeikìnish u → fu eÐnai antigrammik apeikìnish apì ton
V ston duikì V∗ tou V kai pur nac thc eÐnai o Ker f .
Prìtash 7.5.2 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. An W eÐnai dia-
nusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V , èqoume:
dim W + dim W ⊥ = dim V.
Prìtash 7.5.3 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. JewroÔme èna
dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . Tìte o periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh
ekfulismènh morf an kai mìnon an W + W⊥ = V .
Pìrisma 7.5.1 O periorismìc thc f ston W eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf
an kai mìnon an o periorismìc thc f ston W⊥ eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf .
Orismìc 7.5.7 MÐa bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V lègetai orjog¸nia gia thn f
an f (ei , ej ) = 0 gia i 6= j 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 ≤ j ≤ n
, , .
MÐa bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V , orjog¸nia gia thn f , lègetai orjokanonik
an f (ei , ei ) eÐnai Ðso me 1 −1

, , 0 gia kje i me 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
To Je¸rhma 7.5.1 apodeiknÔetai ìpwc to Je¸rhma 7.3.1.
Je¸rhma 7.5.1 Uprqei mia bsh tou V orjog¸nia gia thn f .
Pìrisma 7.5.2 JewroÔme mia bsh tou V (e1 , e2 , ..., en )

, orjog¸nia gia thn
f . Upojètoume ìti f (ei , ei ) 6= 0 gia 1 ≤ i ≤ k kai ìti f (ei , ei ) = 0 gia
k≤i≤n . Tìte h (ek+1 , ..., en ) eÐnai mia bsh tou Ker f .
125
Pìrisma 7.5.3 Uprqei mia bsh tou V wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac thc f
eÐnai diag¸nioc.
Pìrisma 7.5.4 JewroÔme ènan ermitianì n×n pÐnakac A . Uprqei anti-
strèyimoc n×n pÐnakac Q tètoioc ¸ste o Qt AQ na eÐnai diag¸nioc pÐnakac.
To Je¸rhma 7.5.2 apodeiknÔetai ìpwc to Je¸rhma 7.3.2.
Je¸rhma 7.5.2 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh. Uprqei è-
nac fusikìc arijmìc r 0 ≤ r ≤ n

, tètoioc ¸ste gia kje orjog¸nia bsh
(e1 , e2 , ..., en ) gia thn f r , apì touc arijmoÔc f (ei , ei ) 1 ≤ i ≤ n

, eÐnai gn sia
jetikoÐ kai n−r eÐnai gn sia arnhtikoÐ.
Orismìc 7.5.8 O arijmìc r lègetai upograf thc f . H f lègetai jetik
orismènh an r=n kai arnhtik orismènh an r=0 .
EÐnai eÔkolo na doÔme ìti h f eÐnai jetik orismènh an kai mìnon an
f (u, u) > 0, ∀u ∈ V, u 6= 0 kai arnhtik orismènh an kai mìnon an f (u, u) <

0, ∀u ∈ V, u 6= 0 .
Pìrisma 7.5.5 JewroÔme mia mh ekfulismènh ermitian morf f se èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V . Uprqoun sumplhrwmatikoÐ upìqwroi W 1 , W2 tou V ,
kjetoi metaxÔ touc kai tètoioi ¸ste o periorismìc thc f ston W1 na eÐnai
jetik orismènh morf kai o periorismìc thc f ston W2 na eÐnai arnhtik
orismènh morf . Epiplèon dim W1 = r , gia kje tètoio zeÔgoc upìqwrwn,
ìpou r h upograf thc f .
H Prìtash 7.5.4 apodeiknÔetai ìpwc h Prìtash 7.3.1.
Prìtash 7.5.4 JewroÔme mia mh ekfulismènh ermitian morf f se èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V . To sÔnolo twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n T tou
V pou ikanopoioÔn Tf = f eÐnai upoomda twn antistrèyimwn grammik¸n
metasqhmatism¸n tou V .
126
Prìtash 7.5.5 JewroÔme mia mh ekfulismènh ermitian morf f se èna
dianusmatikì q¸ro V . JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V .
An A eÐnai o pÐnakac thc f kai T0 eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh,
èqoume ìti: Tf = f an kai mìnon an
T0t AT0 = A.
Sth sunèqeia aut c thc paragrfou h f eÐnai mia jetik orismènh ermi-
tian morf . Mia tètoia morf lègetai eswterikì ginìmeno. JewroÔme èna
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . An u∈V , h apeikìnish φu pou orÐzetai
φu (v) = f (T v, u) eÐnai mia grammik morf pnw ston V . Apì thn prìtash
7.5.1 èqoume ìti φu = fu0 gia kpoio u0 ∈ V . EÔkola blèpoume ìti h apei-
kìnish u → u0 eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V . SumbolÐzoume autì
∗
to grammikì metasqhmatismì T kai lème ìti eÐnai o suzug c tou T . Eqoume
∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V
φu (v) = f (v, u0 ) , ra
f (T v, u) = f (v, T ∗ u).
Prìtash 7.5.6 An T S , eÐnai grammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ tou V kai α∈C ,
èqoume:
1. (T + S)∗ = T ∗ + S ∗ .
2. (T ∗ )∗ = T .
3. (αT )∗ = ᾱT ∗ .
4. (T S)∗ = S ∗ T ∗ .
Orismìc 7.5.9 Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V lègetai autosu-
zug c an T = T∗ .
127
Prìtash 7.5.7 JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . Jew-
roÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V . An A eÐnai o pÐnakac thc f kai T0 eÐnai
o pÐnakac tou T wc proc aut th bsh, èqoume ìti: O T eÐnai autosuzug c
gia thn f an kai mìnon an T0t A = AT0 .
Prìtash 7.5.8 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V eÐnai autosuzu-
g c an kai mìnon an f (T v, v) ∈ R , gia kje v ∈ V.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti o T eÐnai autosuzug c. 'Eqoume:
f (T v, v) = f (v, T v) = f (T v, v), ∀v ∈ V.
Upojètoume ìti f (T v, v) ∈ R, ∀v ∈ V . 'Eqoume:
f (T v, v) = f (T v, v) = f (v, T v) = f (T ∗ v, v).
'Ara f ((T − T ∗ )v, v) = 0, ∀v ∈ V.

ArkeÐ loipìn na deÐxoume ìti an S eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou
V kai f (Sv, v) = 0, ∀v ∈ V , tìte S=0 . 'Eqoume gia u ∈ V, v∈V :
f (S(u + v), u + v) − f (S(u − v), (u − v)) = 2(f (Su, v) + f (Sv, u)).
f (S(iu + v), iu + v) − f (S(iu − v), iu − v)) = 2(f (Siu, v) + f (Sv, iu)).
Ara:
f (Su, v) + f (Sv, u) = 0
if (Su, v) − if (Sv, u) = 0
kai sunep¸c f (Su, v) = 0, ∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V. 'Ara ∀u ∈ V to Su ∈ Ker f .
Epeid h f eÐnai mh ekfulismènh S=0 . 2
Prìtash 7.5.9 Oi idiotimèc enìc autosuzugoÔc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ
T eÐnai pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ. IdiodianÔsmata pou antistoiqoÔn se diaforetikèc
idiotimèc tou T eÐnai kjeta.
128
Apìdeixh An λ eÐnai mia idiotim tou T me idiodinusma v , èqoume:
f (T v, v) = f (v, T v) ⇒ λf (v, v) = λf (v, v) , ra λ = λ.

An λ, µ eÐnai diaforetikèc idiotimèc tou T me idiodianÔsmata v, u èqoume:
f (T v, u) = f (v, T u) ⇒ λf (v, u) = µf (v, u) , ra f (v, u) = 0. 2
Je¸rhma 7.5.3 JewroÔme ènan autosuzug grammikì metasqhmatismì T .
Uprqei mia bsh tou V orjog¸nia gia thn f pou apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔ-
smata tou T .
Apìdeixh ApodeiknÔoume to je¸rhma me epagwg sth distash tou V . Je-
wroÔme èna idiodinusma v, v 6= 0 tou T me idiotim λ . SumbolÐzoume W ton
dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou pargei to v . DeÐqnoume ìti an u ∈ W⊥ ,
tìte Tu ∈ W⊥ . 'Eqoume:
f (T u, v) = f (u, T v) = f (u, λv) = λf (u, v) = 0.
Epeid h f eÐnai jetik orismènh, o periorismìc thc ston W eÐnai mh ekfu-
lismènh ermitian morf . Apì thn Prìtash 7.5.3 èqoume ìti: W ⊕ W⊥ = V

kai apì to Pìrisma 7.5.1 o periorismìc thc f ston W⊥ eÐnai jetik ori-
smènh morf . Opwc deÐxame parapnw o periorismìc tou T ston W⊥ orÐzei
⊥
èna grammikì metasqhmatismì tou W . Autìc o grammikìc metasqhmati-
smìc eÐnai autosuzug c. Apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqei mia bsh
(e2 , e3 , ..., en ) tou W⊥ orjog¸nia gia ton periorismì thc f ston W⊥ pou a-
poteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T . H bsh (v, e2 , e3 , ..., en ) tou V eÐnai
orjog¸nia gia thn f kai apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T . 2
Pìrisma 7.5.6 Uprqei mia bsh tou V orjokanonik gia thn f pou apote-
leÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T .
Orismìc 7.5.10 Upojètoume ìti h f eÐnai mi jetik orismènh ermitian
morf . Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V lègetai monadiaÐoc gia
thn f an Tf = f .
129
Pìrisma 7.5.7 JewroÔme mia bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V orjokanonik gia
thn f . 'Enac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V eÐnai monadiaÐoc an kai
mìnon an o pÐnakac tou T0 wc proc th bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) ikanopoieÐ th sqèsh:
T0t T̄0 = I.
Je¸rhma 7.5.4 JewroÔme èna monadiaÐo grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou
V . Uprqei mia bsh tou V orjog¸nia gia thn f pou apoteleÐtai apì idiodia-
nÔsmata tou T .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme èna idiodinusma u tou T u 6= 0

, me idiotim λ . SumbolÐ-
zoume W ton dianusmatikì upìqwro tou V pou pargei to u . Ja deÐxoume ìti
⊥ ⊥
an v∈W , tìte Tv ∈ W . ParathroÔme ìti to u eÐnai idiodinusma tou T −1
me idiotim λ−1 . Eqoume: f (T v, u) = f (v, T ∗ u) = f (v, T −1 u) = λ−1 f (v, u) =
0. Oloklhr¸noume thn apìdeixh me epagwg ìpwc sto Je¸rhma 7.5.3. 2
7.6 Ask seic
'Askhsh 7.6.1 DÐnetai h digrammik morf f ston R2 pou orÐzetai:
f ((x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 .
BreÐte ton pÐnaka thc f se kajemÐa apì tic paraktw bseic tou R2
((1, 0), (0, 1)) ((1, −1), (1, 1)).
,
'Askhsh 7.6.2 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V twn 2×2 pragmatik¸n
pinkwn. DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish f :V ×V →R pou orÐzetai
f (X, Y ) = tr(XAY t ),
ìpou:
130
!
1 2
A=
3 4
eÐnai mia digrammik morf pnw ston V . BreÐte ton pÐnaka thc f sthn
kanonik bsh E!= {E11 , E12 , E21

!, E22 } tou V ! ìpou:
!
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
E11 = E12 = , E21 = , , E22 = .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
'Askhsh 7.6.3 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V twn n×n migadik¸n
pinkwn. JewroÔme thn apeikìnish pou orÐzetai:
f (A, B) = ntr(AB) − tr(A)tr(B) .
1. DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai mia summetrik digrammik morf .
2. Perigryte ton Ker f
3. DeÐxte ìti an W = {A ∈ V : tr A = 0} , o periorismìc thc f ston W

eÐnai mh ekfulismènh morf .
'Askhsh 7.6.4 JewroÔme mia digrammik morf f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro
V pou eÐnai summetrik enallssousa. DeÐxte ìti an W eÐnai ènac dianu-
smatikìc upìqwroc tou V , èqoume
dim W + dim W ⊥ = dim V + dim(W ∩ Ker f ) .
'Askhsh 7.6.5 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc me dim V = n . UpologÐste th
distash tou dianusmatikoÔ q¸rou twn summetrik¸n digrammik¸n morf¸n
pnw ston V .
'Askhsh 7.6.6 BreÐte èna sÔnolo A summetrik¸n digrammik¸n morf¸n ston
R3 tètoiec ¸ste
1. Ta stoiqeÐa tou A na mhn eÐnai isìtima an dÔo.
131
2. Kje summetrik digrammik morf ston R3 na eÐnai isìtimh me èna
stoiqeÐo tou A .
'Askhsh 7.6.7 BreÐte èna sÔnolo A summetrik¸n mh ekfulismènwn digram-
mik¸n morf¸n ston Rn tètoiec ¸ste
1. Ta stoiqeÐa tou A na mhn eÐnai isìtima an dÔo.
2. Kje summetrik mh ekfulismènh digrammik morf ston Rn na eÐnai
isìtimh me èna stoiqeÐo tou A .
'Askhsh 7.6.8 DeÐxte ìti dÔo enallssousec digrammikèc morfèc f1 f2

, s' è-
na dianusmatikì q¸ro V eÐnai isìtimec an kai mìnon an dim Ker f1 = dim Ker f2 .
'Askhsh 7.6.9 DÐnetai mia mh ekfulismènh summetrik digrammik morf
f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V . DÐnetai summetrik digrammik morf g ston
V . DeÐxte ìti uprqei ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V tètoioc
¸ste:
g(u, v) = f (T u, v), ∀u ∈ V, ∀v ∈ V.
'Askhsh 7.6.10 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V kai dÔo grammikèc morfèc
f1 f2
, tou V . DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish f :V ×V →F pou orÐzetai:
f (u, v) = f1 (u)f2 (v) − f1 (v)f2 (u)

eÐnai mia enallssousa digrammik morf ston V . DeÐxte ìti f =0 an
kai mìnon an oi f1 f2
, eÐnai grammik exarthmènec.
'Askhsh 7.6.11 JewroÔme mia enallssousa digrammik morf f ston R3 .
DeÐxte ìti uprqoun dÔo grammikèc morfèc f1 f2

, ston R3 tètoiec ¸ste
f (x, y) = f1 (x)f2 (y) − f1 (y)f2 (x), ∀x ∈ R3 , ∀y ∈ R3 .
'Askhsh 7.6.12 DÐnetai mia digrammik morf f s' èna dianusmatikì q¸ro
V . Upojètoume ìti:
An f (u, v) = 0 gia u, v ston V tìte f (v, u) = 0.

DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai summetrik enallssousa.
132
'Askhsh 7.6.13 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me eswterikì ginìmeno f
kai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V . DeÐxte ìti h eikìna tou T∗
⊥
eÐnai o dianusmatikìc upìqwroc (Ker T ) tou V .
'Askhsh 7.6.14 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me eswterikì ginìmeno f .
DeÐxte ìti to ginìmeno dÔo autosuzug¸n grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n tou
V eÐnai autosuzug c grammikìc metasqhmatismìc an kai mìnon an oi dÔo
grammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ metatÐjentai.
'Askhsh 7.6.15 DÐnetai o dianusmatikìc q¸roc V twn n×n migadik¸n pi-
nkwn. DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish f :V ×V →C , pou orÐzetai:
f (X, Y ) = tr(XY ∗ )
eÐnai èna eswterikì ginìmeno ston V . JewroÔme ènan antistrèyimo pÐnaka A

kai sumbolÐzoume TA ton grammikì metasqhmatismì tou V pou orÐzetai:
TA (X) = AXA−1 .
UpologÐste ton TA∗ .
'Askhsh 7.6.16 DÐnetai dianusmatikìc q¸roc V me eswterikì ginìmeno f .
'Enac autosuzug c grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V lègetai jetikìc an:
f (T x, x) ≥ 0 . DeÐxte ìti:
1. O T eÐnai jetikìc an kai mìnon an oi idiotimèc tou eÐnai jetikoÐ pragma-
tikoÐ.
2. O T eÐnai jetikìc an kai mìnon an uprqei jetikìc grammikìc metasqh-
matismìc S tou V tètoioc ¸ste S 2 = T.
133
'Askhsh 7.6.17 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc 3 pnw sto
C efodiasmèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno f . JewroÔme ton grammikì meta-
sqhmatismì T tou V tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc mia bsh tou V orjokano-
nik gia thn f eÐnai:
 
α 1 1
 
 1 0 0 .
 
1 0 0
DeÐxte ìti o T eÐnai jetikìc an kai mìnon an α > 0.
'Askhsh 7.6.18 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto C efodiasmè-
no me èna eswterikì ginìmeno f . JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì
A tou V . DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish g : V × V → C, g(u, v) = f (Au, v) eÐnai
eswterikì ginìmeno an kai mìnon an o A eÐnai jetikìc kai antistrèyimoc.
'Askhsh 7.6.19 An V eÐnai q¸roc me eswterikì ginìmeno pnw sto C , deÐxte
ìti dÔo dianÔsmata u, v tou V eÐnai orjog¸nia an kai mìnon an:
kαu + βvk2 = kαuk2 + kβvk2
gia kje α∈C , gia kje β∈C .
'Askhsh 7.6.20 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R efodia-
smèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno f . DeÐxte ìti uprqei grammikìc metasqh-
matismìc T tou V tètoioc ¸ste f (T u, u) = 0 gia kje u ston V .
'Askhsh 7.6.21 JewroÔme mia digrammik morf f ston R2 thc opoÐac o
2
pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R eÐnai o
!
a b
A= .
c d
134
DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai eswterikì ginìmeno an kai mìnon an:
det A > 0, a > 0, d > 0, A = At .
'Askhsh 7.6.22 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R . DeÐxte
ìti dÔo isìtimec digrammikèc morfèc pnw ston V èqoun thn Ðdia upograf .
'Askhsh 7.6.23 DÐnetai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T ∈ L(C2 ) pou orÐ-
zetai: T (1, 0) = (1 + i, 2) T (0, 1) = (i, i).

, BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc th
bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)). Qrhsimopoi¸ntac to eswterikì ginìmeno
((x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )) → x1 ȳ1 + x2 ȳ2 ,
breÐte ton pÐnaka tou T∗ wc proc thn parapnw bsh. Exetste an oi T kai
T∗ metatÐjentai.
'Askhsh 7.6.24 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto C efodia-
smèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno f . JewroÔme èna autosuzug grammikì
metasqhmatismì T tou V . DeÐxte ìti o I − iT eÐnai antistrèyimoc kai ìti o
U = (I + iT )(I − iT )−1 eÐnai monadiaÐoc.
'Askhsh 7.6.25 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto C efodia-
smèno me èna eswterikì ginìmeno f .
1. JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V . OrÐzoume ènan grammikì
metasqhmatismì P tou V : Pu = u an u ∈ W, P u = 0 an u ∈ W⊥ .
DeÐxte ìti o P eÐnai autosuzug c kai ìti P = P2 .
2. JewroÔme èna autosuzug grammikì metasqhmatismì P tou V tètoion
¸ste P = P2 . DeÐxte ìti uprqei dianusmatikìc upìqwroc W tou V

tètoioc ¸ste Pu = u gia kje u∈W , kai Pu = 0 gia kje u ∈ W ⊥.
135
Keflaio 8
EukleÐdeioi Q¸roi
8.1 Q¸roi me Eswterikì Ginìmeno
Orismìc 8.1.1 'Enac dianusmatikìc q¸roc V peperasmènhc distashc p-
nw sto R , efodiasmènoc me èna eswterikì ginìmeno lègetai EukleÐdeioc q¸-
roc.
An V eÐnai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc kai u, v eÐnai dianÔsmata tou V , sum-
bolÐzoume hu, vi to eswterikì ginìmeno twn u kai v .
Prìtash 8.1.1 (Anisìthta Cauchy - Schwarz ) JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio
q¸ro V kai u∈V v∈V , . 'Eqoume:
| hu, vi | ≤ hu, ui1/2 hv, vi1/2 .
Epiplèon, | hu, vi | = hu, ui1/2 hv, vi1/2 an kai mìno an ta u kai v eÐnai
grammik exarthmèna.
Apìdeixh An u = 0 ta dÔo mèlh thc anisìthtac eÐnai 0. Upojètoume ìti
hv,ui
u 6= 0 . Jètoume w=v− hu,ui
u. 'Eqoume:
136
hv,ui hv,ui
hw, wi =< v − hu,ui
u, v − hu,ui
u>
hv,ui hv,ui hv,ui2
= hv, vi − hu,ui
hu, vi − hu,ui
hv, ui + hu,ui 2 hu, ui
hv,ui2
= hv, vi − hu,ui
.
Epeid hw, wi ≥ 0 , èqoume:
hv,ui2
hv, vi − hu,ui
≥ 0 ⇒ |hv, ui| ≤ hu, ui1/2 hv, vi1/2
An ta u, v eÐnai grammik exarthmèna, eÔkola deÐqnoume ìti
|hu, vi| = hu, ui1/2 hv, vi1/2

AntÐstrofa, an |hu, vi| = hu, ui1/2 hv, vi1/2
hv,ui
tìte apì parapnw èpetai ìti w=0 kai ra v= hu,ui
u. 2
Orismìc 8.1.2 An V eÐnai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc kai u∈V lème nìrma
1/2
( m koc) tou u ton arijmì hu, ui . Ja sumbolÐzoume kuk th nìrma tou u .
Prìtash 8.1.2 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V . Tìte
1. kλxk = |λ||uk ∀u ∈ V ∀λ ∈ R
, ,
2. kuk ≥ 0 ∀u ∈ V
, kai kuk = 0 ⇔ u = 0
3. | hu, vi | ≤ kukkvk ∀u ∈ V ∀v ∈ V, ,
4. ku + vk ≤ kuk + kvk ∀u ∈ V ∀v ∈ V , ,
Apìdeixh Oi (1), (2) èpontai apì ton orismì thc nìrmac. H (3) èpetai apì
thn prìtash 8.1.1. DeÐqnoume thn (4).
ku + vk ≤ kuk + kvk ⇔ ku + vk2 ≤ (kxk + kyk2 ) ⇔

ku + vk2 ≤ kuk2 + kvk2 + 2kxkkyk ⇔
hu + v, u + vi ≤ hu, ui + hv, vi + 2kukkvk ⇔
hu, ui + hv, vi + 2 hu, vi ≤ hu, ui + hv, vi + 2kuk · kvk ⇔ hu, vi ≤ kukkvk .
H teleutaÐa anisìthta èpetai apì thn (3). 2

JumÐzoume ìti se ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V dÔo dianÔsmata x, y lègontai
kjetai ( orjog¸nia) an hx, yi = 0 .
137
Prìtash 8.1.3 (Pujagìreio Je¸rhma) JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V
kai dÔo dianÔsmata u, v tou V . 'Eqoume:
2 2 2
ku + vk = kuk + kvk ⇔ hu, vi = 0 .
Apìdeixh
ku + vk2 = kxk2 + kyk2 ⇔ hu + v, u + vi = hu, ui + hv, vi ⇔

hu, ui + hv, vi + 2 hu, vi = hu, ui + hv, vi ⇔ hu, vi = 0 . 2
L mma 8.1.1 JewroÔme m dianÔsmata e1 , e2 , ...em s' ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro
V . Upojètoume ìti ei 6= 0 ∀i 1 ≤ i ≤ m
, , kai ìti hei , ej i = 0 gia i 6= j, 1 ≤
i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ m . Tìte ta e1 , e2 , ...em eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti ta e1 e2 , ...em eÐnai grammik exarthmèna. Tìte
uprqoun m pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ λ1 , λ2 , ...λm ìqi ìloi Ðsoi me 0 tètoioi ¸ste:
m
X
λi ei = 0.
i=1
Gia kje k me 1≤k≤m , èqoume:
* m
+ m
X X
ek , λi ei =0⇒ λi hek , ei i = 0 ⇒ λk hek , ek i = 0 ⇒ λk = 0
i=1 i=1
'Ara λk = 0 ∀k, 1 ≤ k ≤ m . Autì eÐnai topo giatÐ upojèsame ìti ta λi

den eÐnai ìla 0. 'Ara ta e1 , e2 , ...em eÐnai grammik anexrthta. 2
Je¸rhma 8.1.1 (OrjogwniopoÐhsh kat Gram-Schmidt ) JewroÔme ènan Eu-
kleÐdeio q¸ro V . JewroÔme mia bsh (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) tou V . Uprqoun dianÔ-
smata v1 , v2 , ..., vn tou V tètoia ¸ste:
1. vi 6= 0, ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n .
138
2. hvi , vj i = 0 gia i 6= j, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n .
3. Gia kje m, 1 ≤ m ≤ n to vm eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn u1 , u2 , ...um .
Apìdeixh
DeÐqnoume ton isqurismì me epagwg sto n : Gia n=1 , jètoume v 1 = u1 .
0
JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro V pou prgetai apo ta u1 , u2 , ..., un−1 kai
thn bsh (u1 , u2 , ..., un−1 ) tou V0 . Apo thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqoun
n−1 dianÔsmata v1 , v2 , ..., vn−1 pou ikanopoioÔn tic sunj kec tou Jewr ma-
toc. JewroÔme ton EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai thn bsh (u1 , u2 , ..., un ) tou V .
Jètoume
n−1
X hun , vi i
v n = un − vi
i=1
hvi , vi i
DeÐqnoume ìti ta v1 , ..., vn ikanopoioÔn tic sunj kec tou Jewr matoc. Oi
(2) kai (3) epalhjeÔontai mesa.
DeÐqnoume ìti vn 6= 0 . Prgmati an, vn = 0 tìte èpetai apì thn upìjesh
thc epagwg c ìti to un eÐnai grammikìc sunduasmìc twn u1 , u2 , ..., un−1 , pou
eÐnai topo. 2
To Pìrisma 8.1.1 eÐnai mia eidik perÐptwsh tou Jewr matoc 7.5.1. DÐ-
noume mia apìdeixh tou pou qrhsimopoieÐ to Je¸rhma 8.1.1
Pìrisma 8.1.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V . Uprqei mia orjokano-
nik bsh tou V .
Apìdeixh Apì to Je¸rhma 8.1.1 uprqei mia orjog¸nia bsh (v1 , v2 , ...vn )
tou V . Jètoume wi = vi /kvi k, ∀i me 1≤i≤n . H (w1 , w2 , ..., wn ) eÐnai mia
orjokanonik bsh tou V . 2
139
Prìtash 8.1.4 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai mia orjokanonik
bsh (e1 , e2 , ...en ) tou V . An u∈V , tìte
n
X
u= hu, ei i ei .
i=1
Apìdeixh Uprqoun λ1 , λ2 , ...λn sto R tètoia ¸ste
n
X
u= λi ei
i=1
'Eqoume:
* n +
X
hu, ej i = λi ei , ej = λj
i=1
∀j me 1≤j≤n 2
8.2 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ se ènan Eu-
kleÐdeio q¸ro
bsh (e1 , e2 , ...en ) tou V . JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V .
An A eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn (e1 , e2 , ...en ) tìte o pÐnakac tou T∗
wc proc thn (e1 , e2 , ...en ) eÐnai o At .
Apìdeixh An B eÐnai o pÐnakac tou T∗ èqoume: βij = hT ∗ ej , ei i = hei , T ∗ ej i =

hT ei , ej i = aji gia 1≤i≤n 1≤j≤n , . 2
bsh (e1 , e2 , ...en ) tou V . JewroÔme èna grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V

kai sumbolÐzoume A ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc thn bsh (e1 , e2 , ...en )
.
140
1. O T eÐnai summetrikìc an kai mìnon an o A eÐnai summetrikìc.
2. O T eÐnai orjog¸nioc an kai mìnon an o A eÐnai orjog¸nioc.
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì thn prìtash 7.3.4 kai thn prìtash 7.3.2. 2
Prìtash 8.2.3 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V .
1. To sÔnolo twn summetrik¸n grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n tou V eÐnai
grammikìc q¸roc.
2. To sÔnolo twn orjog¸niwn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n tou V eÐnai
omda.
Apìdeixh To (1) eÐnai meso. To (2) prokÔptei apo thn Prìtash 7.3.1.
8.3 Orjèc probolèc, Orjèc SummetrÐec
Prìtash 8.3.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai èna dianusmatikì
⊥
upìqwro W tou V . Tìte W ⊕W =V .
Apìdeixh Apì to Pìrisma 2.5.3 èqoume. dim(W + W ⊥ ) + dim(W ∩ W ⊥ ) =

dim W + dim W ⊥ . Apìthn Prìtash 7.2.3 dim V = dim W + dim W ⊥ kai ra
dim(W + W ⊥ ) + dim W ∩ W ⊥ ) = dim V . Epeid W ∩ W ⊥ = {0} , èqoume
⊥ ⊥
V =W +W kai ra V =W ⊕W . 2
Orismìc 8.3.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai ènan dianusmatikì
upìqwro W tou V . An x∈V , tìte x = x1 + x2 me x1 ∈ W x2 ∈ W ⊥

, kai
ta x 1 , x2 eÐnai monadik me autèc tic idiìthtec. H apeikìnish P :V →V pou
orÐzetai: P x = x1 lègetai orj probol tou V tou W .
141
Prìtash 8.3.2 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V , èna dianusmatikì upì-
qwro W tou V kai mia orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ...ek ) tou W . SumbolÐzoume
P thn orj probol tou V epÐ tou W . Tìte:
k
X
Px = hx, ei i ei , ∀x ∈ V.
i=1
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì thn Prìtash 8.1.4. 2
Pardeigma 8.3.1 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 efodiasmèno me to
eswterikì ginìmeno:
h(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )i = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .
kai ton dianusmatikì upìqwro W = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x + y = 0} tou R2 .
UpologÐzoume thn orj probol P pnw ston W . To dinusma
1 −1
(√ , √ )
2 2
eÐnai mia orjokanonik bsh tou W kai apo thn Prìtash 8.3.2 èqoume

1 −1 1 −1
P (x, y) = (x, y), ( √ , √ ) ( √ , √ )
2 2 2 2
x−y y−x
( , )
2 2
Prìtash 8.3.3 JewroÔme èna EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai èna dianusmatikì u-
pìqwro W tou V . SumbolÐzoume P thn orj probol tou V epÐ tou W . Tìte:
1. H P eÐnai grammik apeikìnish.
2. P2 = P .
3. P = P∗ .
142
4. Im P = W Ker P = W ⊥
, .
5. An x∈V tìte kx − P xk ≤ kx − yk ∀y ∈ W , .
6. kxk2 = kP xk2 + k(IV − P )xk2 ∀x ∈ V , .
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apo thn Prìtash 8.3.2.
Orismìc 8.3.2 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai èna dianusmatikì
upìqwro W tou V . An x∈V , tìte x = x1 + x2 me x1 ∈ W x2 ∈ W ⊥

, kai
ta x 1 , x2 eÐnai monadik me autèc tic idiìthtec. H apeikìnish S:V →V pou
orÐzetai Sx = x1 − x2 lègetai orj summetrÐa wc proc ton W .
Prìtash 8.3.4 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V , èna dianusmatikì upì-
qwro W tou V , mia orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ...ek ) tou W kai mia orjokano-
nik bsh (ek+1 , ...en ) tou W⊥ . SumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc
ton W . Tìte
k
X n
X
Sx = hx, ei i ei − hx, ei i ei
i=1 i=k+1
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x ∈ V . H (e1 , e2 , ...en ) eÐnai mia orjokanonik bsh
tou V , ra apì thn Prìtash 8.1.4 èpetai ìti
n
X
x= hx, ei i ei
i=1
T¸ra, an
k
X k
X
x1 = hx, ei i ei , x2 = hx, ei i ei
i=1 i=k+1
èqoume: x = x1 + x2 x1 ∈ W x2 ∈ W ⊥
, , . 'Ara
143
k
X n
X
Sx = x1 − x2 = hx, ei i ei − hx, ei i ei
i=1 i=k+1
Prìtash 8.3.5 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai èna dianusmatikì
q¸ro W tou V . SumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc ton W . Tìte:
1. H S eÐnai grammik apeikìnish.
2. S 2 = IV .
3. S = S∗ .
4. SS ∗ = S ∗ S = IV .
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì thn prìtash 8.3.4. 2
8.4 DiagwnopoÐhsh SummetrikoÔ GrammikoÔ Me-
tasqhmatismoÔ
L mma 8.4.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai ènan summetrikì gram-
mikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . Oi idiotimèc tou T eÐnai pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ.
IdiodianÔsmata pou antistoiqoÔn se diaforetikèc idiotimèc eÐnai kjeta.
Apìdeixh SumbolÐzoume A ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc mia orjokanonik
bsh tou V . Ja deÐxoume ìti oi idiotimèc tou A eÐnai pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ.
JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Cn efodiasmèno me to eswterikì ginìmeno
n
X
hx, yiCn = xi yi ,
i=1
144
ìpou x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) kai y = (y1 , y2 , ..., yn ) eÐnai sto Cn . OrÐzoume ènan
grammikì metasqhmatismì tou T̃ tou Cn wc ex c: T̃ x = Ax . O pÐnakac tou
n
T̃ wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou C eÐnai o A . O T̃ eÐnai autosuzug c kai
apo thn Prìtash 7.5.9 oi idiotimèc tou eÐnai pragmatikèc. 'Ara oi idiotimèc
tou T eÐnai pragmatikèc.
DeÐqnoume ìti idiodianÔsmata pou antistoiqoÔn se diaforetikèc idiotimèc
eÐnai kjeta. An λ, µ eÐnai diaforetikèc idiotimèc tou T me idiodianÔsmata v, u

èqoume:
hT v, ui = hv, T ui ⇒ λ hv, ui = µ hv, ui , ra hv, ui = 0.

2
Prìtash 8.4.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai èna summetrikì gram-
mikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . Uprqei mia orjokanonik bsh tou V pou
apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T .
Apìdeixh Me epagwg sthn distash tou V . JewroÔme èna idiodinusma x

tou T pou antistoiqeÐ se mia idiotim λ tou T . Jètoume W = Rx . DeÐqnoume
⊥ ⊥
ìti an y∈W , tìte Ty ∈ W . Eqoume hx, T yi = hT x, yi = λ hx, yi . Ara
an to y eÐnai kjeto sto x tìte to Ty eÐnai kjeto sto x . O periorismìc
tou T ston W⊥ orÐzei èna grammikì metasqhmatismì tou W⊥ o opoÐoc eÐnai
summetrikìc. Apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqei mia orjokanonik bsh
(e1 , e2 , ...ek ) tou W⊥ pou apoteleÐtai apì idiodianÔsmata tou T . Jètoume
eκ+1 = x/ kxk .
H (e1 , e2 , ...ek , ek+1 ) eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou V kai apoteleÐtai apì
idiodianÔsmata tou T . 2
Pìrisma 8.4.1 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V kai ènan summetrikì
grammikì metasqhmatismì T tou V . Uprqei mia orjokanonik bsh tou
V wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac tou T eÐnai diag¸nioc.
145
Apìdeixh 'Amesh apì thn prìtash 8.4.1.
Pìrisma 8.4.2 JewroÔme èna summetrikì n×n pÐnaka A me pragmatikoÔc
suntelestèc. Uprqei ènac orjog¸nioc n×n pÐnakac Q tètoioc ¸ste o Qt AQ

na eÐnai diag¸nioc.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Rn efodiasmèno me eswterikì
ginìmeno
n
X
h(x1 , x2 , ...xn ), (y1 , y2 , ...yn )i = xi yi
i=1
SumbolÐzoume (e1 , e2 , ...en ) thn kanonik bsh tou Rn kai T ton grammikì
metasqhmatismì tou Rn tou opoÐou o pÐnakac wc proc thn (e1 , e2 , ...en ) eÐnai
o A . O T eÐnai summetrikìc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc. Apì to Pìrisma
8.4.1 uprqei mia orjokanonik bsh (g1 , g2 , ...gn ) tou Rn wc proc thn opoÐa
o pÐnakac tou T eÐnai diag¸nioc. Ara, an Q eÐnai pÐnakac allag c bshc apì
thn (g1 , g2 , ...gn ) sthn (e1 , e2 , ...en ) o pÐnakac Qt AQ eÐnai diag¸nioc.
Gia na apodeÐxoume to Pìrisma arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti o Q eÐnai orjog¸nioc.
'Eqoume Q = (qij ) gia 1≤i≤n 1≤j≤n , kai ta qij ikanopoioÔn tic sqèseic:
n
X
gj = qij ei
i=1
∀j me 1≤j≤n .
UpologÐzoume ton Qt Q . To stoiqeÐo sthn (i, j) jèsh tou pÐnaka autoÔ
eÐnai to
n
X
qki qkj = hgi , gj i
k=1
Epeid h (g1 , g2 , ...gn ) eÐnai orjokanonik bsh, Qt Q = I . 2
146
8.5 Ask seic
'Askhsh 8.5.1 An u, v eÐnai dianÔsmata s' èna EukleÐdeio q¸ro, tètoia ¸ste
kuk = kvk deÐxte ìti ta u + v, u − v eÐnai kjeta. D¸ste gewmetrik eikìna
autoÔ tou apotelèsmatoc.
'Askhsh 8.5.2 An V eÐnai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc kai u, v eÐnai ston V , tìte:
ku + vk2 + ku − vk2 = 2kuk2 + 2kvk2 .
'Askhsh 8.5.3 An V eÐnai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc kai U, W upìqwroi tou V ,
deÐxte ìti:
(U + W )⊥ = U ⊥ ∩ W ⊥ , (U ∩ W )⊥ = U ⊥ + W ⊥ .
'Askhsh 8.5.4 Pn = {p(x) ∈ R[x] : deg p(x) ≤ n}

Jètoume . DeÐxte ìti h
R1
apeikìnish (p(x), q(x)) → −1 p(x)q(x)dx eÐnai èna eswterikì ginìmeno ston
Pn . Gia n=3 , h (1, x, x2 , x3 ) eÐnai bsh tou Pn . BreÐte thn orjokanonik
bsh pou prokÔptei me thn orjokanonikopoÐhsh kat Gram-Schmidt .
'Askhsh 8.5.5 BreÐte èna eswterikì ginìmeno ston R2 tètoio ¸ste
h(1, 0)(0, 1)i = 2.
'Askhsh 8.5.6 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai ènac autosuzug c grammi-
kìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V . DeÐxte ìti: Ker T 2 = Ker T.
'Askhsh 8.5.7 An V eÐnai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc kai T ∈ L(V ) eÐnai tètoioc
¸ste T ∗ = −T , deÐxte ìti: dim Im T eÐnai rtioc.
'Askhsh 8.5.8 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai T ∈ L(V ) tètoioc ¸ste
∗
T = −T. DeÐxte ìti (T u, u) = 0, ∀u ∈ V.
147
'Askhsh 8.5.9 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai dÔo summetrikoÐ grammikoÐ
metasqhmatismoÐ T kai S tou V . DeÐxte ìti o TS eÐnai summetrikìc an kai
mìnon an T S = ST .
'Askhsh 8.5.10 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai T ∈ L(V ) . DeÐxte ìti:
Im T ∗ = (Ker T )⊥ .
'Askhsh 8.5.11 JewroÔme pnw ston R2 to eswterikì ginìmeno
((x1 , x2 )(y1 , y2 )) → x1 x2 + y1 y2 .
DeÐxte ìti an Tθ eÐnai o grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou R2 pou èqei gia
pÐnaka
!
cos θ − sin θ
sin θ cos θ
wc proc th bsh ((1, 0), (0, 1)) tou R2 , tìte kTθ xk = kxk , ∀x ∈ R2 .
'Askhsh 8.5.12 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V . DeÐxte ìti mia probol P

eÐnai orj probol an kai mìnon an P = P∗ .
'Askhsh 8.5.13 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai T ∈ L(V ) . DeÐxte ìti ta
paraktw eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. O T eÐnai orjog¸nioc.
2. Uprqei mi orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou V tètoia ¸ste h
(T e1 , T e2 , ..., T en ) na eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou V .
3. An (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mi orjokanonik bsh tou V , tìte h (T e1 , T e2 , ..., T en )

eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou V .
148
'Askhsh 8.5.14 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro Rn efodiasmèno me to
n
X
h(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ), (y1 , y2 , ..., yn )i = xi yi .
i=1
DeÐxte ìti ta paraktw eÐnai isodÔnama gia ènan n×n pÐnaka A me pragma-
tikoÔc suntelestèc:
1. O A eÐnai orjog¸nioc.
2. Oi grammèc tou A eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou Rn .
3. Oi st lec tou A eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou Rn .
4. Uprqei mi orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) tou Rn tètoia ¸ste h
(Ae1 , Ae2 , ..., Aen ) na eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou Rn .
5. An (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) eÐnai mi orjokanonik bsh tou Rn , tìte h (Ae1 , Ae2 , ..., Aen )
n
eÐnai orjokanonik bsh tou R .
'Askhsh 8.5.15 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V , ènac dianusmatikìc upìqwroc
W tou V kai ènac grammikìc metasqhmatismìc P tou V . DeÐxte ìti ta
paraktw eÐnai isodÔnama:
1. O P eÐnai h orj probol pnw ston W .
2. 'Eqoume: Im P = W Ker P = W ⊥ P 2 = P
, , .
3. 'Eqoume: Im P = W P 2 = P P = P ∗
, , .
W tou V . BreÐte grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc P1 , P2 , P3 tou V tètoiouc
¸ste:
149
1. Im P1 = W Ker P1 = W ⊥ P12 6= P1
, , .
2. Im P2 = W Ker P2 6= W ⊥ P22 = P2
, , .
3. Im P3 6= W Ker P3 = W ⊥ P32 = P3
, , .
W tou V . BreÐte grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc P1 , P2 tou V tètoiouc ¸ste:
1. Im P1 = W P12 = P1 P1 6= P1∗
, , .
2. Im P2 = W P22 6= P2 P2 = P2∗
, , .
'Askhsh 8.5.18 DÐnetai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai dÔo orjèc probolèc P1 kai
P2 tou V . Jètoume W1 = Im P1 W2 = Im P2 , , V1 = W1 ∩ (W1 ∩ W2 )⊥ kai
⊥
V2 = W2 ∩ (W1 ∩ W2 ) . DeÐxte ìti: P1 P2 eÐnai orj probol an kai mìnon an
hu, vi = 0 gia kje u ∈ V1 gia kje v ∈ V2 .
'Askhsh 8.5.19 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 efodiasmèno me to
h(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )i = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .
JewroÔme to dinusma (3, 4) tou R2 . SumbolÐzoume W ton dianusmatikì upì-
2
qwro tou R pou pargetai apo to (3, 4) .
1. BreÐte thn orj probol P pnw ston W .
2. BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou P wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 .
3. BreÐte ton dianusmatikì upìqwro W⊥ tou R2 .
4. BreÐte mia bsh tou R2 wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac tou P eÐnai o
!
1 0
.
0 0
150
'Askhsh 8.5.20 JewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R3 efodiasmèno me to
h(x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 )i = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3 .
JewroÔme ta dinusmata (1, 0, 0) kai (0, 1, 2) tou R3 . SumbolÐzoume W ton
3
dianusmatikì upìqwro tou R pou pargetai apo ta dianÔsmata (1, 0, 0) kai
(0, 1, 2) tou R3 .
1. BreÐte thn orj probol P pnw ston W .
2. BreÐte ton pÐnaka tou P wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R3 .
3. BreÐte ton dianusmatikì upìqwro W⊥ tou R3 .
4. BreÐte mia bsh tou R3 wc proc thn opoÐa o pÐnakac tou P eÐnai o
 
1 0 0
 
0 1 0 .
 
0 0 0
'Askhsh 8.5.21 JewroÔme ton 2×2 pÐnaka A me pragmatikoÔc suntelestèc:
!
a b
A= .
b c
BreÐte ènan orjog¸nio 2×2 pÐnaka B tètoio ¸ste o pÐnakac BAB t na eÐnai
diag¸nioc.
151
Keflaio 9
Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi
Se autì to keflaio ìloi oi dianusmatikoÐ q¸roi pou jewroÔme eÐnai dianu-
smatikoÐ q¸roi peperasmènhc distashc pnw sto R .
9.1 Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi
Orismìc 9.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R . Ena upo-
sÔnolo A tou V lègetai susqetismènoc upìqwroc tou V an:
x ∈ A y ∈ A λ ∈ R µ ∈ R λ + µ = 1 ⇒ λx + µy ∈ A
, , , ,
Prìtash 9.1.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R kai èna
uposÔnolo A tou V . O A eÐnai susqetismènoc upìqwroc tou V an kai mìno
an gia kje n∈N :
Pn Pn
xi ∈ A, λi ∈ R, ∀i me 1≤i≤n ,
i=1 λi = 1 ⇒ i=1 λi x i ∈ A
Apìdeixh EÐnai fanerì ìti an isqÔei h sunj kh tìte o A eÐnai susqetismènoc
upìqwroc tou V . Upojètoume ìti o A eÐnai susqetismènoc upìqwroc tou V .
152
DeÐqnoume ìti isqÔei h sunj kh me epagwg sto n . Upojètoume ìti h sunj kh
isqÔei gia n kai ja deÐxoume ìti isqÔei gia n+1 .
JewroÔme x1 , x2 , ...xn+1 sto A kai λ1 , ...λn+1 sto R tètoia ¸ste
n+1
X
λi = 1
i=1
Gia k ∈N 1≤k ≤n+1

, jètoume
n+1
X
σk = λi
i=1,i6=k
Uprqei k ∈ N σk 6= 0
, . Prgmati, an σk = 0 gia kje k me 1 ≤ k ≤ n+1
,
èqoume
n+1
X
σk = 0.
k=1
All
n+1
X n+1
X
σk = n λk = n.
k=1 k=1
'Ara uprqei k∈N , tètoio ¸ste σk 6= 0 . 'Eqoume:
n+1
X n+1
X
λi xi = λk xk + σk λi xi /σk .
i=1 i=1,i6=k
Epeid xi ∈ A gia kje i me 1≤i≤n+1 kai
n+1
X
λi σk = 1
i=1,i6=k
èpetai apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c ìti:
n+1
X
λi xi /σk ∈ A.
i=1,i6=k
153
Epeid o A eÐnai susqetismènoc upìqwroc kai λk + σk = 1 èpetai ìti:
n+1
X n+1
X
λk xk + σk λi xi /σk = λi xi ∈ A.
i=1,i6=k i=1
An V eÐnai ènac dianusmatikìc q¸roc, W èna uposÔnolo tou V kai x∈V ,
sumbolÐzoume x+W to sÔnolo {x + y : y ∈ W } .
dianusmatikì upìqwro W tou V kai x∈V . Tìte o x+W eÐnai susqetismènoc
upìqwroc tou V .
susqetismèno upìqwro A tou V . JewroÔme a ∈ A . Tìte o A−a eÐnai
dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou V .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x ∈ A, y ∈ A . Ja deÐxoume ìti x−a+y−a∈A−a .
'Eqoume: x − a + y − a = (x + y − a) − a . Epeid ta x, y, α an koun ston
A kai x + y − a = 1x + 1y − 1a èpetai ìti to x+y−a ∈ A . 'Ara to
(x + y − a) − a ∈ A − a .
JewroÔme x∈A kai λ∈R . Ja deÐxoume ìti: λ(x − a) ∈ A − a . 'Eqoume:
λ(x − a) = λx + (1 − λ)a − a .
Epeid ta x, a an koun sto A kai λ+1−λ = 1 , èpetai ìti to λx+(1−λ)a ∈

A . 'Ara to λx + (1 − λ)a − a = λ(x − a) an kei sto A−a . 2
susqetismèno upìqwro A tou V . JewroÔme a ∈ A, b ∈ A . Tìte A−a = A−b .
154
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x∈A . 'Eqoume x−a = x−a+b−b . Epeid ta x, a, b
an koun sto A kai x − a + b = 1x − 1a + 1b èpetai ìti to x−a+b∈A ra
to (x − a + b) − b = x − a an kei sto A−a . 'Ara A−a ⊆ A−b . 'Omoia
deÐqnoume ìti: A−b⊆A−a . 'Ara A−a=A−b . 2
Orismìc 9.1.2 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc pnw sto R A , , susqeti-
smènoc upìqwroc tou V lème distash tou A thn distash tou dianusmatikoÔ
upìqwrou A−a tou V , gia a∈A .
Orismìc 9.1.3 An V eÐnai dianusmatikìc q¸roc sto R distashc n kai A

susqetismènoc upìqwroc tou V distashc n−1 tìte lème ìti o A eÐnai èna
uperepÐpedo.
Orismìc 9.1.4 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R kai ta dia-
nÔsmata x0 , x1 , ...xn tou V . Lème ìti ta x0 , x1 , ...xn eÐnai susqetismèna ane-
xrthta an:
Pn Pn
λi ∈ R ∀i 0 ≤ i ≤ n
, ,
i=0 λi = 0 ,
j6=0 λi xi = 0 ⇒ λi = 0, 0 ≤ i ≤ n
Prìtash 9.1.5 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R kai ta dia-
nÔsmata x0 , x1 , ...xn tou V . Tìte: Ta x0 , x1 , ...xn eÐnai susqetismèna anexr-
thta an kai mìnon an ta x1 − x0 , x2 − x0 , ...xn − x0 eÐnai grammik anexrthta.
Apìdeixh DeÐqnoume ìti an ta x0 , x1 , ...xn den eÐnai susqetismèna anexrthta
tìte ta x1 −x0 , x2 −x0 , ...xn −x0 den eÐnai grammik anexrthta. Upojètoume
ìti uprqoun λ0 , λ1 , ...λn sto R , ìqi ìla 0 tètoia ¸ste
n
X
λi = 0
i=0
kai
n
X
λi xi = 0.
i=0
155
Tìte:
Pn Pn Pn Pn
i=0 λ i x i = 0 ⇒ i=1 λ i x i + λ 0 x 0 = 0 ⇒ i=1 λ i x i − ( i=1 λi ) x0 = 0
Pn
⇒ i=1 λi (xi − x0 ) = 0
Epeid ta λi me 0≤i≤n den eÐnai ìla 0 kai epeid
n
X
λi = 0
i=0
èpetai ìti ta λi me 1≤i≤n den eÐnai ìla 0 . 'Ara ta x1 −x0 , xr −x0 , ...xn −
x0 eÐnai grammik exarthmèna.
DeÐqnoume t¸ra ìti an ta x1 − x0 , x2 − x0 , ...xn − x0 den eÐnai grammik a-
nexrthta tìte ta x0 , x1 ...xn den eÐnai susqetismèna anexrthta. Upojètoume
ìti uprqoun λ1 , λ2 , ...λn sto R , ìqi ìla 0 tètoia ¸ste
n
X
λi (xi − x0 ) = 0
i=1
Tìte:
Pn Pn
λi xi − ( ni=1 λi ) x0 = 0
P
i=1 λi (xi − x0 ) = 0 ⇒ i=1
Epeid
n
X n
X
λi − λi = 0
i=1 i=1
kai epeid ta λi me 1 ≤ i ≤ n den eÐnai ìla 0 , ta x0 , x1 , ...xn den eÐnai
susqetismèna anexrthta. 2
9.2 Susqetismènec ApeikonÐseic
Orismìc 9.2.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R kai dÔo
susqetismènouc upìqwrouc A kai B tou V . Mia apeikìnish f : A → B
156
lègetai susqetismènh an:
x∈A y∈A λ∈R

, , , me R λ + µ = 1 ⇒ f (λx + µy) = λf (x) + µf (y
Prìtash 9.2.1 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro pnw sto R kai dÔo su-
sqetismènouc upìqwrouc A kai B tou V . Mia apeikìnish f :A→B eÐnai
susqetismènh an kai mìnon an
n
X
n ∈ N, x ∈ A, λi ∈ R, ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, λi = 1
i=1
n
! n
X X
⇒f λi x i = λi f (xi ) .
i=1 i=1
Prìtash 9.2.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R , dÔo su-
sqetismènouc upìqwrouc A kai B tou V α∈A

, kai β∈B . Tìte an L eÐnai
mia grammik apeikìnish: L:A−α →B−β , h apeikìnish fL : A → B pou
orÐzetai: fL (x) = L(x − α) + β eÐnai susqetismènh.
Prìtash 9.2.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R , dÔo su-
sqetismènouc upìqwrouc A kai B tou V kai mia susqetismènh apeikìnish
f :A→B . Tìte:
1. An a∈A h apeikìnish Lαf : A − a → B − f (a) pou orÐzetai Laf (x) =

f (x + a) − f (a) eÐnai grammik apeikìnish.
2. An a∈A b∈A , tìte Laf = Lbf .
157
Apìdeixh (1) JewroÔme x∈A−a y ∈A−a , . Ja deÐxoume ìti:
Laf (x + y) = Laf (x) + Laf (y) . 'Eqoume:
Lαf (x + y) = f (x + y + a) − f (a) = f (x + a + y + a − a) − f (a)

Epeid ta x+a y+a a
, , an koun ston A kai
x + a + y + a − a = 1(x + a) + 1(y + a) − 1a èqoume
f (x + a + y + a − a) − f (a) = f (x + a) + f (y + a) − f (a) − f (a)

= Laf (x) + Laf (y) .
'Ara Laf (x + y) = Laf (x) + Laf (y) .
JewroÔme x∈A λ∈R , . Ja deÐxoume ìti: Laf (λx) = λLaf (x) . 'Eqoume
Laf (λx) = f (λx + a) − f (a) = f (λ(x + a) + (1 − λ)a) − f (a) .
Epeid ta x+a a
, an koun ston A èqoume:
f (λ(x + a) + (1 − λ)a) − f (a) = λf (x + a) + (1 − λ)f (a) − f (a) =

λ(f (x + a) − f (a)) = λLaf (x) . 'Ara Laf (λx) = Laf (x) .
(2) JewroÔme x∈A−a . Ja deÐxoume ìti: Laf (x) = Lbf (x) . 'Eqoume:
Laf (x) = f (x + a) − f (a) = f (x + a + x + b − (x + b)) − f (a)

Epeid ta x+a x+b
, an koun ston A kai:
x + a + x + b − (x + b) = 1(x + a) + 1(x + b) − 1(x + b) èqoume:
f (x + a + x + b − (x + b)) − f (a) = f (x + a) + f (x + b) − f (x + b) − f (a)

= f (x + b) − (−f (x + a) + f (x + b) + f (a))
Epeid ta x+a x+b , an koun ston A kai −(x + a) + (x + b) + a =
−1(x + a) + 1(x + b) + 1a èqoume
f (x + b) − (−f (x + a) + f (x + b) + f (a)) =
f (x + b) − f (−(x + a) + x + b + a) = f (x + b) − f (b)
'Ara Laf (x) = Lbf (x) . 2
Orismìc 9.2.2 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V pnw sto R , dÔo su-
sqetismènouc upìqwrouc A kai B tou V kai mia susqetismènh apeikìnish:
f :A→B . An a∈A ja sumbolÐzoume Lf thn apeikìnish Laf kai ja lème ìti
eÐnai to grammikì mèroc thc f .
158
9.3 Ask seic
'Askhsh 9.3.1 Exetste poia apì ta paraktw uposÔnola tou R2 eÐnai su-
2
sqetismènoi upìqwroi tou R :
1. R2
2. {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x − y = 2}
3. {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x2 + y 2 = 1}
4. {(x, y) ∈ R2 : 3x − y = 1}
5. {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x ≥ 0}
'Askhsh 9.3.2 DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai susqetismènh apeikìnish apì ton R2

ston R2 an kai mìnon an uprqoun pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ α1 , α2 , α3 , β1 , β2 , β3
tètoioi ¸ste
f (x, y) = (α1 x + α2 y + α3 , β1 x + β2 y + β3 ), ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 .
'Askhsh 9.3.3 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai mia susqetismènh
apeikìnish f :V →V pou eÐnai 1−1 kai epÐ. DeÐxte ìti h f −1 eÐnai susqe-
tismènh apeikìnish.
'Askhsh 9.3.4 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V kai mia susqetismènh
apeikìnish f : V → V. DeÐxte ìti
1. H f eÐnai 1−1 an kai mìnon an to grammikì mèroc thc eÐnai 1−1
2. H f eÐnai epÐ an kai mìnon an to grammikì mèroc thc eÐnai epÐ.
'Askhsh 9.3.5 JewroÔme ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro V distashc 2 kai mia orjo-
kanonik bsh (e1 , e2 ) tou V . DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish f :V →V pou orÐzetai:
f (x) = hx, e1 i e1 − hx, e2 i e2 + 2e1 ∀x ∈ V eÐnai susqetismènh apeikìnish kai
breÐte to grammikì mèroc thc.
159
'Askhsh 9.3.6 DÐnetai h apeikìnish f : R2 → R 2 pou orÐzetai: f (x, y) =
(3x + 1, −x), ∀(x, y) ∈ R2 . DeÐxte ìti h f eÐnai susqetismènh kai breÐte to
grammikì mèroc thc.
'Askhsh 9.3.7 DÐnetai ènac dianusmatikìc q¸roc V . DeÐxte ìti:
1. An f, g eÐnai susqetismènec apeikonÐseic apì ton V ston V tìte h f +g

eÐnai susqetismènh apeikìnish apì ton V ston V.
2. An f eÐnai susqetismènh apeikìnish apì ton V ston V kai λ∈R , tìte
h λf eÐnai susqetismènh apeikìnish apì ton V ston V .
'Askhsh 9.3.8 DÐnetai ènac dianusmatikìc q¸roc V . DeÐxte ìti:
1. An f, g, h eÐnai susqetismènec apeikonÐseic apì ton V ston V tìte: (f +

g)h = f h + gh.
2. H isìthta h(f + g) = hf + hg den isqÔei pnta gia susqetismènec
apeikonÐseic f, g, h apì ton V ston V.
3. An f, g eÐnai susqetismènec apeikonÐseic apì ton V ston V kai λ∈R

tìte λ(f g) = (λf )g
4. H Ðsìthta λ(f g) = f (λg) den isqÔei pnta gia susqetismènec apeikonÐ-
seic f, g apì ton V ston V kai λ ∈ R.
'Askhsh 9.3.9 DÐnontai 3 susqetismèna anexrthta dianÔsmata x 1 , x2 , x3

2 2
tou R kai 3 dianÔsmata y 1 , y 2 , y3 tou R. DeÐxte ìti uprqei mia susqetismènh
apeikìnish f : R 2 → R2 tètoia ¸ste f (xi ) = yi , ∀i , 1 ≤ i ≤ 3.
'Askhsh 9.3.10 JewroÔme èna dianusmatikì q¸ro V distashc n pnw sto
R kai n+1 susqetismèna anexrthta dianÔsmata x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn tou V .
DeÐxte ìti ∀x ∈ V , uprqoun pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ λ0 , λ1 , λ2 , ..., λn tètoioi ¸ste
n
X Xn
λi = 1 kai λi xi = x.
i=0 i=0
160
'Askhsh 9.3.11 DeÐxte ìti mia eujeÐa sto R2 den mporeÐ na perièqei 3 su-
sqetismèna anexrthta dianÔsmata.
161
Keflaio 10
IsometrÐec enìc EukleÐdeiou
q¸rou
10.1 IsometrÐec
S' aut thn pargrafo o V eÐnai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc.
Orismìc 10.1.1 An x∈V g∈V , lème apìstash twn x kai y kai sumbolÐ-
zoume d(x, y) ton arijmì kx − yk .
Prìtash 10.1.1 IsqÔoun ta paraktw:
1. d(x, y) = d(y, x) ∀x ∈ V ∀y ∈ V , .
2. d(x, y) ≥ 0 ∀x ∈ V ∀y ∈ V
, kai d(x, y) = 0 ⇔ x = y .
3. d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y, z) ∀x ∈ V ∀y ∈ V ∀z ∈ V , , .
Apìdeixh 'Amesh apì thn Prìtash 8.1.2.
Orismìc 10.1.2 Mia apeikìnish F :V →V lègetai isometrÐa an
d(F (x), F (y)) = d(x, y),
162
∀x ∈ V ∀y ∈ V , .
Prìtash 10.1.2 H sÔnjesh isometri¸n eÐnai isometrÐa.
Prìtash 10.1.3 An T eÐnai orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V ,
tìte o T eÐnai isometrÐa.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x∈V y∈V , . 'Eqoume:
d(T x, T y) = kT x − T yk = kT (x − y)k =
hT (x − y), T (x − y)i1/2 = hx − y, x − yi1/2 = kx − yk = d(x, y) . 2
Orismìc 10.1.3 JewroÔme a∈V . Lème metafor kat a kai sumbolÐzoume
Ta thn apeikìnish apì ton V ston V pou orÐzetai: Ta (x) = x + a ∀x ∈ V , .
Prìtash 10.1.4 An a∈V , tìte h Ta eÐnai isometrÐa.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x∈V g∈V , . 'Eqoume:
d(Ta (x), Ta (y)) = kTa (x) − Ta (y)k = kx + a − (y + a)k

= kx − yk = d(x, y) . 2
Je¸rhma 10.1.1 JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou V . Uprqei mia metafor
T kai ènac orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc G tou V tètoioc ¸ste F =

TG . Epiplèon, an T1 eÐnai mia metafor kai G1 ènac orjog¸nioc grammikìc
metasqhmatismìc tou V tètoioc ¸ste F = T1 G1 , tìte T1 = T G1 = G

, .
Apìdeixh DeÐqnoume pr¸ta ìti an F eÐnai mia isometrÐa tou V tètoia ¸ste
F (0) = 0 , tìte h F eÐnai orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V .
1. DeÐqnoume ìti kF (x)k = kxk ∀x ∈ V , . 'Eqoume: kxk = d(0, x) =

d (F (0), F (x)) = d (0, f (x)) = kF (x)k
163
2. DeÐqnoume ìti hF (x), F (y)i = hx, yi ∀x ∈ V , , ∀y ∈ V . 'Eqoume:
d (F (x), F (y)) = d(x, y) ⇒ kF (x) − F (y)k = kx − yk . 'Ara:
hF (x) − F (y), F (x) − F (y)i = hx − y, x − yi ⇒

hF (x), F (x)i + hF (y), F (y)i − 2 hF (x), F (y)i
= hx, xi + hy, yi − 2 hx, i ⇒ kF (x)k2 + kF (y)k2
−2 hF (x), F (y)i = kxk2 + kyk2 − 2 hx, yi .
Apì to (1) èpetai ìti hF (x), F (y)i = hx, yi ∀x ∈ V ∀y ∈ V , .
3. DeÐqnoume ìti h F eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc. JewroÔme mia
orjokanonik bsh (e1 , e2 , ...en ) tou V . Apì ta (1) kai (2) èpetai ìti:
hF (ei ), F (ej )i = 1 an i=j 1≤i≤n 1≤j≤n

, ,
hF (ei ), F (ej )i = 0 an i 6= j 1 ≤ i ≤ n 1 ≤ j ≤ n
, ,
Apì to L mma 8.1.1 èpetai ìti h (F (e1 ), ...F (en )) eÐnai mia orjokanonik
bsh tou V .
JewroÔme x∈V . 'Eqoume:
n
X
x= xi ei
i=1
me xi ∈ R gia 1≤i≤n kai
n
X
F (x) = λi F (ei )
i=1
me λi ∈ R gia 1≤i≤n . 'Eqoume gia k , me 1 ≤ k ≤ n hF (ek ), F (x)i = λk

: kai
hek , xi = xk . Apì to (2) hF (ek ), F (x)i = hek , xi , ra λk = xk ∀k 1 ≤ k ≤ n

, , .
'Ara
n
! n
X X
F xi ei = xi F (ei )
i=1 i=1
164
kai h F eÐnai grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V .
DeÐqnoume t¸ra to Je¸rhma.
SumbolÐzoume T thn metafor kat F (0) . H apeikìnish T −1 F eÐnai iso-
metrÐa tou V kai T −1 F (0) = T −1 (F (0)) = 0 . 'Ara apì ton isqurismì èpetai
ìti h T −1 F eÐnai ènac orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc G tou V .
−1
'Eqoume: T F = G ⇒ F = TG . Upojètoume ìti uprqei mia metafor
T1 kai ènac orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc G1 tou V tètoioc ¸ste
F = T1 F1 . 'Eqoume: T G = T1 G1 ⇒ T1−1 T = G1 G−1 . H T1−1 T eÐnai metafor
kai T1−1 T (0) =0 . 'Ara T1−1 T =I kai T1 = T G1 = G , . 2
Pìrisma 10.1.1 An h F eÐnai isometrÐa, tìte h F eÐnai susqetismènh apei-
kìnish apì ton V ston V .
Pìrisma 10.1.2 Mia isometrÐa F tou V eÐnai 1−1 kai epÐ apeikìnish. E-
piplèon h F −1 eÐnai isometrÐa.
Apìdeixh Uprqei mia metafor T kai ènac orjog¸nioc grammikìc meta-
sqhmatismìc G tou V tètoioc ¸ste F = TG . Sunep¸c h F eÐnai 1−1 kai
epÐ san sÔnjesh 1−1 kai epÐ apeikonÐsewn. 'Eqoume F −1 = G−1 T −1 kai ra
−1
h F eÐnai isometrÐa san sÔnjesh isometri¸n. 2
Pìrisma 10.1.3 To sÔnolo twn isometri¸n tou V eÐnai omda me prxh thn
sÔnjesh apeikonÐsewn.
Pìrisma 10.1.4 JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou V . 'Eqoume F (0) = 0 an
kai mìnon an h F eÐnai orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc tou V .
Je¸rhma 10.1.2 Upojètoume ìti dim V = n . JewroÔme ta dianÔsmata
a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an kai b0 , b1 , b2 , ..., bn tou V . Upojètoume ìti ta a0 , a1 , ..., an eÐnai
susqetismèna anexrthta, kai ìti d(ai , aj ) = d(bi , bj ) ∀i, ∀j me 0 ≤ i ≤ n ,
0≤j≤n . Tìte uprqei mia isometrÐa F tou V tètoia ¸ste F (ai ) = bi, ∀i me
165
0≤i≤n . Epiplèon, an G eÐnai mia isometrÐa tou V tètoia ¸ste G(ai ) = bi , ∀i
me 0≤i≤n tìte G=F .
Apìdeixh Jètoume xi = ai − a0 yi = bi − b0 ∀i
, me 1 ≤ i ≤ n . Apì thn
Prìtash 9.1.5 èpetai ìti h (x1 , x2 , ...xn ) eÐnai bsh tou V . 'Ara uprqei ènac
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc T tou V tètoioc ¸ste T xi = yi ∀i , me 1≤i≤n .
DeÐqnoume ìti o T eÐnai orjog¸nioc. ArkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti an λ1 , λ2 , ...λn kai
µ1 , µ2 , ...µn eÐnai pragmatikoÐ arijmoÐ, tìte:
* n n
+ * n n
+
X X X X
T( λi xi ), T ( µj x j ) = λi x i , µj x j .
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
'Eqoume:
* n n
+
X X
T( λi xi ), T ( µj x j ) =
i=1 j=1
* n n
+ n X
n
X X X
= λi y i , µj y j = λi µj hyi , yj i
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
kai
* i n
+ n X
n
X X X
λi x i , µj x j = λi µj hxi , xj i .
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
'Ara arkeÐ na deÐxoume ìti hxi , xj i = hyi , yj i ∀i , ∀j me 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n .
Apì thn upìjesh èqoume: d(xi , xj ) = d(yi , yj ) ∀i , ∀j me 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤

j≤n . 'Ara:
kxi − xj k = kyi − yj k ⇒ hxi − xj , xi − xj i =

= hyi − yj , yi − yj i ⇒ kxi k2 + kxj k2 − 2 hxi , xj i
= kyi k2 + kyj k2 − 2 hyi , yj i .
'Eqoume: kxi k = d(ai , a0 ) = d(bi , b0 ) = kyi k ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n . 'Ara hxi , xj i =

hyi , yj i ∀i, ∀j, 1 ≤ i ≤ n, 1 ≤ j ≤ n . 'Ara o T eÐnai orjog¸nioc.
Jètoume F = Tb0 T T−a0 . H F eÐnai isometrÐa kai F (ai ) = bi ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n

, .
DeÐqnoume ìti an G eÐnai mia isometrÐa tètoia ¸ste G(ai ) = bi ∀i, 0 ≤ i ≤ n ,
166
tìte G=F . Jètoume H = T−a0 F −1 F Ta0 . H H eÐnai isometrÐa kai: H(0) = 0 ,
H(xi ) = xi ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n
, . Apì to Pìrisma 10.1.4 h H eÐnai orjog¸nioc
grammikìc metasqhmatismìc kai epeid H(xi ) = xi ∀i, 1 ≤ i ≤ n H = I , .
'Ara T−a0 F −1 GTa0 = I ⇒ F = G . 2
10.2 H IsometrÐa san SÔnjesh Summetri¸n
S' aut thn pargrafo o V eÐnai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc.
Orismìc 10.2.1 JewroÔme èna uperepÐpedo H tou V kai h∈H . An x∈V

lème ìti to x eÐnai kjeto ston H kai sumbolÐzoume x⊥H , an to x eÐnai kjeto
ston dianusmatikì upìqwro H −h .
Prìtash 10.2.1 JewroÔme èna uperepÐpedo H tou V kai x ∈ V . Tìte
uprqoun x 1 , x2 ston V me x1 ∈ H, x2 ⊥H tètoia ¸ste x = x1 + x2 . Epiplèon
ta x 1 , x2 eÐnai monadik me tic parapnw idiìthtec.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme h ∈ H kai sumbolÐzoume P thn orj probol ston
H −h . Jètoume x1 = P (x − h) + h x2 = (I − P )(x − h) , . Ta x 1 , x2
ikanopoioÔn tic sunj kec thc prìtashc. Upojètoume ìti uprqoun x01 , x02 ston
V me x01 ∈H , x02 ⊥H tètoia ¸ste x= x01 + x02 . 'Eqoume: x1 − x01 = x02 − x2 .
JewroÔme h ∈ H .Tote x1 − x01 ∈ H−h kai to x02 − x2 eÐnai kjeto ston
H −h . Ara x1 − x01 = x02 − x2 = 0 kai x1 = x01 , x2 = x02 . 2
Orismìc 10.2.2 JewroÔme èna uperepÐpedo H tou V kai x ∈ V . Tìte
x = x1 + x2 me x1 ∈ H, x2 ⊥H kai ta x 1 , x2 eÐnai monadik orismèna me autèc
tic idiìthtec. Ja lème orj summetrÐa wc proc H kai ja sumbolÐzoume RH

thn apeikìnish apì ton V ston V pou orÐzetai:
RH (x) = x1 − x2
167
Parat rhsh An 0∈H , tìte h RH eÐnai h orj summetrÐa wc proc ton
dianusmatikì upìqwro H .
Prìtash 10.2.2 JewroÔme èna uperepÐpedo H tou V kai h∈H . SumbolÐ-
zoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc ton dianusmatikì q¸ro H −h . Tìte:
RH = Th ST−h
Apìdeixh JewroÔme x∈V . SumbolÐzoume P thn orj probol sto H −h .
Jètoume: x1 = P (x − h) + h x2 = (I − P )(x − h)
, . 'Eqoume x1 ∈ H x2 ⊥H ,
kai x = x1 + x2 . 'Ara
RH (x) = x1 − x2 = P (x − h) + h − (I − P )(x − h)
EpÐshc
Th ST−h (x) = Th S(x − h) = Th (P (x − h) − (I − P )(x − h)) =

P (x − h) − (I − P )(x − h) + h
'Ara: RH = Th ST−h . 2
Pardeigma 10.2.1 JewroÔme ton R2 efodiasmèno me to eswterikì ginì-
meno:
h(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )i = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .
JewroÔme to uperepÐpedo H = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : x + y = 1} tou R2 . Upolo-
2
gÐzoume thn RH . To h = (1, 0) ∈ H . O H − h = {(x, y) ∈ R : x + y = 0}
eÐnai dianusmatikìc upìqwroc tou R2 . H orj summetrÐa tou R2 wc proc ton
H −h eÐnai h
S(x, y) = (−y, −x).
'Ara telik èqoume
RH (x, y) = Th ST−h (x, y) = Th S(x − 1, y) = Th (−y, 1 − x) = (1 − y, 1 − x)
168
Prìtash 10.2.3 JewroÔme èna uperepÐpedo H tou V . Tìte h RH eÐnai
2
isometrÐa kai RH =I .
Apìdeixh 'Amesh apì thn Prìtash 8.3.5.
Prìtash 10.2.4 JewroÔme a ∈ V, b ∈ V . Jètoume
H = {x ∈ V : d(x, a) = d(x, b)}.
Tìte:
1. To H eÐnai uperepÐpedo.
2. RH (a) = b
Apìdeixh
a+b
1. Jètoume G=H− 2
. Tìte
G = {x ∈ V : d(x, c) = d(x, −c}

α−β
ìpou c= 2
.
'Eqoume:
x ∈ G ⇔ d(x, c) = d(x, −c) ⇔ kx − ck = kx + ck ⇔

hx − c, x − ci = hx + c, x + ci ⇔ hx, ci = 0
'Ara G = {x ∈ V : hx, ci = 0} . An W = Rc , tìte G = W⊥ kai
dim G = dim V − 1 .
a+b
2. Jètoume h= 2
kai sumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc ton
a+b
G = H −h = H − 2
. Apì thn Prìtash 10.2.2 èqoume: RH = Th ST−h
kai ra:
(a+b)
RH = Th ST−h (a) = Th S(a − 2
) = Th S( a−b
2
) .
a−b
Apì to (1) èpetai ìti to
2
eÐnai kjeto sto G . 'Ara
(a+b)
RH (a) = Th ( b−a
2
)= b−a
2
+ 2
=b
169
2
Je¸rhma 10.2.1 Upojètoume ìti dim V = n . JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou
V . Upojètoume ìti uprqei r∈N me 0 ≤ r ≤ n+1 kai n+1−r susqetismèna
anexrthta dianÔsmata tou V a0 , a1 , ..., an−r tètoia ¸ste F (ai ) = ai ∀i me
0 ≤ i ≤ n−r . Tìte uprqei s ∈ N me 0 ≤ s ≤ r kai s uperepÐpeda
H1 , H2 , ...Hs tou V me a0 , a1 , ..., an−r ⊆ Hj , ∀j, 1 ≤ j ≤ s tètoia ¸ste
F = IRH1 RH2 ...RHs .
Apìdeixh Ja deÐxoume to je¸rhma me epagwg sto r . An r = 0 , apì
to Je¸rhma 10.1.2 èpetai ìti F = I . 'Ara to je¸rhma isqÔei me s = 0 .
JewroÔme r∈N me 0≤r≤n . Upojètoume ìti to Je¸rhma isqÔei gia to
r kai deÐqnoume ìti isqÔei gia to r+1 . JewroÔme loipìn mia isometrÐa F
tou V kai upojètoume ìti uprqoun n + 1 − (r + 1) susqetismèna anexrthta
dianÔsmata a0 , a1 , ..., an−r−1 tou V tètoia ¸ste F (ai ) = ai ∀i , me 0 ≤ i ≤

n−r−1 . Apì thn Prìtash 9.1.5 èpetai ìti mporoÔme na epekteÐnoume to
sÔnolo {a0 , a1 , ..., an−r } se èna mègisto sÔnolo susqetismèna anexrthtwn
dianusmtwn a0 , a1 , ..., an .
An F (an−r ) = an−r , uprqoun n+1−r susqetismèna anexrthta dia-
nÔsmata a0 , a1 , ..., an−r tètoia ¸ste F (ai ) = ai ∀i , me 0 ≤ i ≤ n−r . Apì
thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqei s ∈ N me 0≤ s ≤ r kai s uperepÐpeda
tou V H1 , H2 , ...Hs
, tètoia ¸ste {a0 , a1 , ..., an−r } ⊆ Hj ∀j , me 1≤j≤s kai
F = IRH1 ...RHs . Profan¸c to sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc isqÔei se aut
thn perÐptwsh.
Upojètoume ìti F (an−r ) 6= an−r . Jètoume b = F (an−r ) . SumbolÐzoume
H0 = {x ∈ V : d(x, an−r ) = d(x, b)} . Apì thn prìtash 10.2.4 to H0 eÐnai
uperepÐpedo. Epiplèon,
d(ai , an−r ) = d(F (ai ), F (an−r )) = d(ai , b),
170
∀i me 0≤i≤n−r−1 , ra {a0 , ..., an−r−1 } ⊆ H0 .
Jètoume G = RH0 F . H G eÐnai isometrÐa kai G(ai ) = ai ∀i , me 0 ≤ i ≤ n−

r . Prgmati: An 0 ≤ i ≤ n − r − 1 G(ai ) = RH0 F (ai ) = RH0 (ai ) = ai
, , epeid
ai ∈ H 0 kai G(an−r ) = RH0 (F (an−r )) = RH0 (b) = an−r apì thn prìtash
10.2.4. 'Ara, apì thn upìjesh thc epagwg c uprqei s ∈ N me 0 ≤ s ≤ r

kai s uperepÐpeda H1 , H2 , ...Hs tou V tètoia ¸ste {a0 , a1 , ..., an−r } ⊆ Hj ∀j
me 1 ≤ j ≤ s kai G = RH1 ...RHs . 'Eqoume RH0 F = RH1 ...RHs ⇒ F =
RH0 RH1 ...RHs . 'Ara uprqoun s+1 uperepÐpeda H0 , H1 , ..., Hs tou V tètoia
¸ste {a0 , a1 , ..., an−r−1 } ⊆ Hj ∀j , , me 0 ≤ j ≤ s kai F = RH0 RH1 ...RHs .
Epeid s≤r , èqoume s+1 ≤ r+1 kai ra to sumpèrasma tou Jewr matoc.
Pìrisma 10.2.1 JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou V . Tìte uprqei s ∈ N ,
0 ≤ s ≤ dim V + 1 kai s uperepÐpeda H1 , H2 , ..., Hs tou V tètoia ¸ste F =

IRH1 ...RHs .
10.3 IsometrÐec tou R2

S' aut thn pargrafo jewroÔme ton dianusmatikì q¸ro R2 efodiasmèno me
to eswterikì ginìmeno h(x1 , x2 ), (y1 , y2 )i = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .
Prìtash 10.3.1 JewroÔme ènan orjog¸nio grammikì metasqhmatismì T

2 2
tou R . Tìte o pÐnakac tou T wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R èqei mia apì
tic paraktw morfèc
1.
!
cos φ − sin φ
sin φ cos φ
φ∈R .
171
2.
!
cos φ sin φ
sin φ − cos φ
φ∈R .
Apìdeixh SumbolÐzoume
!
a b
c d
ton pÐnaka tou T wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 . Apì thn Prìtash 8.2.2
èpetai ìti:
! ! !
a c a b 1 0
= ⇒
b d c d 0 1
a2 + c2 = 1, ab + cd = 0, b2 + d2 = 1.
Epeid a2 +c2 = 1 , uprqei φ∈R tètoia ¸ste a = cos φ c = sin φ

, . Epeid
2 2
b +d = 1 , èpetai ìti uprqei θ∈R tètoio ¸ste b = cos θ d = sin θ
, . Epeid
ab + cd = 0 , èqoume:
cos φ cos θ + sin φ sin θ = 0 ⇒ cos(φ − θ) = 0 .
π 3π
'Ara φ − θ = 2kπ + 2
φ − θ = 2kπ + 2
. An φ − θ = 2kπ + 3π
2
o pÐnakac
tou T eÐnai o
!
cos φ − sin φ
.
sin φ cos φ
π
An φ − θ = 2kπ + 2
o pÐnakac tou T eÐnai o
!
cos φ sin φ
.
sin φ − cos φ
172
Prìtash 10.3.2 JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou R2 . Tìte h F èqei mia apì
tic paraktw morfèc:
1.
F (x, y) = (cos φx − sin φy + a, sin φx + cos φ + b)
gia φ∈R kai (a, b) ∈ R2 .
2.
F (x, y) = (cos φx + sin φy + a, sin φx − cos φy + b)
gia φ∈R kai (a, b) ∈ R2 .
Apìdeixh 'Epetai apì to Je¸rhma 10.1.1 kai thn Prìtash 10.3.1. 2
Orismìc 10.3.1 JewroÔme φ∈R . Lème strof me kèntro 0 kat gwnÐa φ

kai sumbolÐzoume R(0, φ) ton grammikì metasqhmatismì tou R2 tou opoÐou o
2
pÐnakac wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R eÐnai o:
!
cos φ − sin φ
.
sin φ cos φ
Orismìc 10.3.2 JewroÔme α ∈ R2 kai φ ∈ R . Lème strof me kèntro
a kat gwnÐa φ kai sumbolÐzoume R(a, φ) ton metasqhmatismì Ta R(0, φ)T−a

tou R2 .
Prìtash 10.3.3 JewroÔme a ∈ R2 . To {R(a, φ) : φ ∈ R} eÐnai upoomda
thc omdac twn isometri¸n tou R2 .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme α ∈ R2 kai φ, ψ sto R . 'Eqoume
R(a, φ)R(a, ψ) = Ta R(0, φ)T−a Ta R(0, ψ)T−a = Ta R(0, φ+ψ)T−a = R(a, φ+ψ).
173
Prìtash 10.3.4 JewroÔme mia strof R(a, φ) tou R2 kai mia eujeÐa (upe-
repÐpedo) H1 tou R2 pou perièqei to a . Jètoume: H2 = R(a, φ2 )H1 . Tìte:
R(a, φ) = RH2 RH1
Prìtash 10.3.5 JewroÔme dÔo eujeÐec H 1 , H2 tou R2 . An H1 ∩ H2 = ∅

tìte h RH1 RH2 eÐnai metafor.
Apìdeixh JewroÔme a ∈ H1 , b ∈ H2 . Uprqoun dianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi
W 1 , W2 tou R2 tètoioi ¸ste H1 = a + W 1 H2 = b + W 2 , . Epeid H1 ∩ H2 = ∅ ,
èpetai ìti W1 = W2 . SumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc ton W1 .
2
'Eqoume: RH1 = Tα ST−a RH2 = Tb ST−b
, . An x∈R , tìte:
RH1 RH2 (x) = Ta ST−a Tb ST−b (x) =

= Ta STb−a S(x − b) = Ta S(S(x − b) + b − a)
= Ta (S 2 (x − b) + S(b − a)) = S 2 (x − b) + S(b − a) + a
= x − b + S(b − a) + a
'Ara h RH2 RH2 eÐnai metafor kat a − b + S(b − a) . 2
Orismìc 10.3.3 JewroÔme mia eujeÐa H tou R2 kai h∈H . Lème ìti èna
dinusma a ∈ R2 eÐnai parllhlo sto H an a∈H −h .
Prìtash 10.3.6 JewroÔme mia eujeÐa H tou R2 kai èna dinusma a ∈ R2

parllhlo sthn H . Tìte: Ta RH = RH Ta .
Apìdeixh JewroÔme h∈H . SumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc
ton H −h . Tìte: RH = Th ST−h . An x ∈ R2 , èqoume:
Ta RH (x) = Ta Th ST−h (x) = Ta+h S(x − h) = S(x − h) + a + h
kai
RH Ta (x) = Th ST−h Ta (x) = Th S(x + a − h)
= S(x − h + a) + h = S(x − h) + Sa + h = S(x − h) + a + h
174
epeid a∈H −h . 'Ara
Ta RH = RH Ta .
Orismìc 10.3.4 JewroÔme mia eujeÐa H tou R2 kai èna dinusma a ∈ R2

parllhlo sthn H . Lème olisjaÐnousa summetrÐa kai sumbolÐzoume G(H, a)
thn apeikìnish Ta RH .
Prìtash 10.3.7 JewroÔme mia eujeÐa H tou R2 kai a ∈ R2 . Tìte:
1. An to a den eÐnai kjeto sthn H h Ta RH eÐnai olisjaÐnousa summetrÐa.
2. An to a eÐnai kjeto sthn H h Ta RH eÐnai summetrÐa.
Apìdeixh
(2) JewroÔme h ∈ H kai sumbolÐzoume S thn orj summetrÐa wc proc to
2
H −h . 'Eqoume: RH = Th ST−h . JewroÔme x∈R . 'Eqoume:
Ta RH (x) = Ta Th ST−h (x) = Ta Th S(x − h) =

a a
S(x − h) + h + a = S(x − h) + h + 2
+ 2
=
a
= S(x − h) + h + 2
+ S(− a2 ) =
S(x − (h + a2 )) + h + a2 ,
epeid to
a
2
eÐnai kjeto sto H −h . Jètoume h0 = h + a
2
. 'Eqoume:
Ta RH (x) = Th0 ST−h0 .
a
'Ara h Ta RH eÐnai summetrÐa wc proc thn eujeÐa H+ 2
.
(1) 'Eqoume a = a1 + a2 me a1 parllhlo sto H kai a2 kjeto sto H .
'Eqoume: Ta RH = Ta1 Ta2 RH . Apì to (2) h Ta2 RH eÐnai summetrÐa wc proc
0 a2
H =H+ 2
. To a1 eÐnai parllhlo sto H , ra eÐnai parllhlo kai sto H0 .
'Ara h Ta RH = Ta1 RH 0 eÐnai olisjaÐnousa summetrÐa. 2
Prìtash 10.3.8 JewroÔme φ ∈ R . Jètoume H = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : y =

xtan( y2 )} . Tìte o pÐnakac thc RH wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 eÐnai o :
175
!
cos φ sin φ
.
sin φ − cos φ
Je¸rhma 10.3.1 JewroÔme mia isometrÐa F tou R2 . Tìte h F eÐnai meta-
for, strof , summetrÐa olisjaÐnousa summetrÐa.
Apìdeixh Upojètoume ìti uprqei a ∈ R2 tètoia ¸ste F (a) = a . Jètoume
G = T−a F Ta . Tìte G(0) = 0 kai apì tì pìrisma 10.1.4 èpetai ìti h G eÐnai
orjog¸nioc grammikìc metasqhmatismìc. Apì thn prìtash 10.3.1, o pÐnakac
A thc G wc proc thn kanonik bsh tou R2 eÐnai o :
!
cos φ − sin φ
sin φ cos φ
o
!
cos φ sin φ
.
sin φ − cos φ
An
!
cos φ − sin φ
A=
sin φ cos φ
tìte h G eÐnai h strof R(0, φ) kai ra h F eÐnai h strof R(a, φ) . An
!
cos φ sin φ
A=
sin φ − cos φ
èpetai apì thn prìtash 10.3.8 ìti h G eÐnai summetrÐa wc proc mia eujeÐa H
tou R2 . Tìte epeid F = Ta RH T−a , h F eÐnai summetrÐa wc proc thn eujeÐa
H +a .
Upojètoume ìti F (a) 6= a ∀a ∈ R2

, . JewroÔme a ∈ R2 kai jètoume
b = F (a) H = {x ∈ R2 : d(x, a) = d(x, b)}

, . Apì thn Prìtash 10.2.4 èpetai
ìti to H eÐnai uperepÐpedo kai ìti RH (b) = a . 'Ara an G = RH F , èqoume:
176
G(a) = a . Apì to pr¸to mèroc thc apìdeixhc èpetai ìti h G eÐnai summetrÐa
strof . Upojètoume ìti h G eÐnai summetrÐa wc proc mia eujeÐa H0 tou R2 .
0 0
'Eqoume tìte, F = RH RH 0 . An c ∈ H ∩H , tìte F (c) = c . 'Ara H ∩H = ∅ .
'Ara apì thn prìtash 10.3.5 èpetai ìti h F eÐnai metafor. Upojètoume ìti
h G eÐnai h strof R(y, φ) . JewroÔme h∈H . Jètoume:
H1 = R(y, − φ2 )(H − h + y)
H2 = H − h + y
Tìte y ∈ H1 kai R(y, y2 )H1 = H2 . 'Ara apì thn Prìtash 10.3.4 èqoume:
G = R(y, φ) = RH2 RH1 kai ra F = RH RH2 RH1 . Epeid H ∩ H2 = ∅ ,
èpetai apì thn Prìtash 10.3.5 ìti h RH RH2 eÐnai mia metafor Tz . 'Ara
F = Tz RH1 . An to z eÐnai kjeto sto H1 , apì thn prìtash 10.3.7 èpetai ìti
h F eÐnai summetrÐa. Autì den mporeÐ na sumbeÐ diìti den uprqei a ∈ R2

tètoio ¸ste F (a) = a . 'Ara to z den eÐnai kjeto sto H1 kai apì thn Prìtash
10.3.7, èqoume ìti h F eÐnai olisjaÐnousa summetrÐa. 2
10.4 Ask seic
Stic ask seic o Rn eÐnai EukleÐdeioc q¸roc me eswterikì ginìmeno:
n
X
h(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ), (y1 , y2 , ..., yn )i = xi yi .
i=1
'Askhsh 10.4.1 DÐnetai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai x, y, z, t ston V .
DeÐxte ìti:
d(x, t) + d(y, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(z, t) + d(x, z) + d(y, t)
'Askhsh 10.4.2 DÐnetai ènac EukleÐdeioc q¸roc V kai x, y, z, t ston V .
DeÐxte ìti:
d(x, y)d(z, t) ≤ d(x, z)d(y, t) + d(x, t)d(y, z) (Anisìthta tou PtolemaÐou)
177
'Askhsh 10.4.3 Upojètoume ìti h F eÐnai mia isometrÐa tou Rn kai ìti u-
prqei k > 0 tètoia ¸ste d(F x, x) < k, ∀x ∈ Rn . DeÐxte ìti h F eÐnai
metafor.
'Askhsh 10.4.4 DÐnontai α, β sto R . JewroÔme thn apeikìnish F : R2 →

R2 , F (x, y) = (αx, βy). Gia poia zeÔgh (α, β) eÐnai h F isometrÐa;
'Askhsh 10.4.5 JewroÔme thn apeikìnish F : R2 → R2 F (x, y) = (−x +

3, −y − 8). DeÐxte ìti h F eÐnai isometrÐa. BreÐte ènan orjog¸nio grammikì
metasqhmatismì G kai mia metafor T tètoia ¸ste F = T G.
'Askhsh 10.4.6 DÐnetai h eujeÐa H tou R2 me exÐswsh y = −2x + 3 . Upo-
logÐste thn RH .
'Askhsh 10.4.7 DÐnetai h eujeÐa H tou R2 me exÐswsh y = 2x − 5 . BreÐte
ta shmeÐa RH (0, 0), RH (1, −3), RH (−2, 1).
'Askhsh 10.4.8 DÐnontai oi eujeÐec H1 , H2 tou R2 me exis¸seic y = −2x +

3, y = −2x + 8. BreÐte thn RH1 RH2 .
'Askhsh 10.4.9 DÐnontai dÔo shmeÐa x kai y tou R2 . BreÐte ìlec tic isome-
2
trÐec F tou R tètoiec ¸ste F (x) = y.
'Askhsh 10.4.10 JewroÔme mia èlleiyh S ston R2 . BreÐte tic isometrÐec F

tou R2 tètoiec ¸ste F (S) = S.
'Askhsh 10.4.11 DeÐxte ìti h apeikìnish F : R2 → R 2 , F (x, y) = (x, 2c −

y) eÐnai isometrÐa tou R2 . BreÐte mia metafor T kai ènan orjog¸nio grammikì
metasqhmatismì G tètoion ¸ste T G = F.
'Askhsh 10.4.12 SumbolÐzoume T1 to tetrgwno me korufèc (0,0),(0,1),(1,1),(0,1)
kai T2 to tetrgwno me korufèc (0,0),(1,0),(1,-1),(0,1).
BreÐte tic isometrÐec F tou R2 tètoiec ¸ste F (T1 ) = T2 .

3
BreÐte tic isometrÐec F tou R tètoiec ¸ste F (T1 ) = T2 .
178
'Askhsh 10.4.13 JewroÔme mia eujeÐa l tou R2 . BreÐte tic isometrÐec F tou
R2 tètoiec ¸ste F (l) = l.
'Askhsh 10.4.14 DÐnontai ta shmeÐa x 1 , x2 , y 1 , y 2 tou R2 . Upojètoume ìti:
d(x1 , x2 ) = d(y1 , y2 ). BreÐte ìlec tic isometrÐec tou F tou R2 tètoiec ¸ste
F (x1 ) = y1 , F (x2 ) = y2 .
'Askhsh 10.4.15 DÐnontai dÔo eujeÐec H1 , H2 tou R2 . DeÐxte ìti RH1 RH2 =
RH2 RH1 ⇒ H1 kai H2 kjetec.
'Askhsh 10.4.16 DÐnontai treÐc eujeÐec H1 , H2 , H3 tou R2 . DeÐxte ìti h
2
(RH1 RH2 RH3 ) eÐnai metafor.
'Askhsh 10.4.17 DeÐxte ìti h omda twn isometri¸n tou R2 den eÐnai meta-
jetik .
'Askhsh 10.4.18 DÐnetai h apeikìnish F : R2 → R 2 :
F (x, y) = (cos φx − sin φy, sin φx + cos φy).

DeÐxte ìti h F eÐnai isometrÐa. BreÐte uperepÐpeda H1 , H2 , H3 tou R2 tètoia
¸ste F = RH1 RH2 RH3 .
'Askhsh 10.4.19 DÐnontai a, b ston R2 me kak = kbk = 1.
1. DeÐxte ìti uprqei mia strof F tètoia ¸ste F (a) = b
2. Gryte to F (b) san èkfrash twn a, b, ha, bi .
3. Gia x∈V gryte to F (x) san èkfrash twn a, b, x, ha, bi , ha, xi , hb, xi .
'Askhsh 10.4.20 DÐnetai h apeikìnish F : R2 → R 2

F (x, y) = (−y + 2, x + 1).
1. BreÐte ènan orjog¸nio grammikì metasqhmatismì tou R2 kai mia meta-
for T tètoia ¸ste F = TG
179
2. Gryte thn F san sÔnjesh summetri¸n wc proc uperepÐpeda tou R2 .
'Askhsh 10.4.21 An (x, y) ∈ R2 jètoume k(x, y)k∞ = sup{|x|, |y|} . BreÐte
2
touc grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc T tou R me thn idiìthta
kT (x, y)k∞ = k(x, y)k∞
gia kje (x, y) ∈ R2 .
180
BibliografÐa
1. K. Hoffman kai R. Kunze

Linear algebra
Prentice-Hall
2. S. Lang
Linear algebra
Springer-Verlag
3. S. A. Andreadkhc
Grammik Algebra
SummetrÐa
181

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Grammik 'Algebra

1.1 Omdec, DaktÔlioi, S¸mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.2 Diairetìthta ston Poluwnumikì DaktÔlio . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.3 H Summetrik Omda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.1 DianusmatikoÐ q¸roi, DianusmatikoÐ upìqwroi . . . . . . . . . 21

2.2 GrammikoÐ MetasqhmatismoÐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.3 Logismìc Upoq¸rwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.4 Duðkìc Q¸roc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2.5 Q¸roi PhlÐka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.2 Grammik Sust mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.3 H 'Algebra twn Pinkwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.1 OrÐzousec Sunart seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

5.1 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.2 PÐnakac GrammikoÔ MetasqhmatismoÔ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

5.3 Qarakthristikì Polu¸numo, Idiotimèc, IdiodianÔsmata . . . . . 70

5.4 AnalloÐwtoi Upìqwroi, Probolèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5.5 MetasqhmatismoÐ PhlÐka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

6.2 Elqisto Polu¸numo, Prwtarqik Anlush . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.3 Stoiqei¸deic Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

6.4 Kanonikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

6.6 H S+N Anlush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

6.7 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

7 Digrammikèc morfèc, Ermitianèc morfèc 106

7.1 Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

7.2 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc, Enallssousec Digrammi-

kèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

7.3 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

7.4 Enallssousec Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

7.5 Ermitianèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

8 EukleÐdeioi Q¸roi 136

8.1 Q¸roi me Eswterikì Ginìmeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

8.2 GrammikoÐ metasqhmatismoÐ se ènan EukleÐdeio q¸ro . . . . . 140

8.3 Orjèc probolèc, Orjèc SummetrÐec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

8.4 DiagwnopoÐhsh SummetrikoÔ GrammikoÔ MetasqhmatismoÔ . . 144

8.5 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

9 Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi 152

9.1 Susqetismènoi Upìqwroi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

9.2 Susqetismènec ApeikonÐseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

9.3 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

10 IsometrÐec enìc EukleÐdeiou q¸rou 162

10.1 IsometrÐec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

10.2 H IsometrÐa san SÔnjesh Summetri¸n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

10.4 Ask seic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

nusmatikoÔc q¸rouc kai touc grammikoÔc metasqhmatismoÔc twn dianusma-

Sto uperkeÐmeno autì anaptÔssontai o basikìc kormìc thc Grammik c

'Algebrac kaj¸c kai orismènec efarmogèc sthn GewmetrÐa. To uperkeÐme-

no apeujÔnetai stouc foithtèc thc Jematik c Enìthtac MSM 50 {Basikèc

Mèjodoi kai JewrÐec sta Majhmatik} tou Progrmmatoc {Metaptuqiakèc

Spoudèc sta Majhmatik} tou EllhnikoÔ AnoiktoÔ PanepisthmÐou.

Sto pr¸to keflaio {Eisagwgikèc ènnoiec} upenjumÐzontai orismènec ba-

EpÐshc anaptÔssetai h JewrÐa Diairetìthtac ston daktÔlio poluwnÔmwn p-

nw se èna s¸ma, h opoÐa ja qrhsimopoihjeÐ sto keflaio 6 gia thn kataskeu

thc kanonik c morf c enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ. Parousizontai kai

orismèna apotelèsmata apo thn JewrÐa twn Summetrik¸n Omdwn ta opoÐa

Sto keflaio {DianusmatikoÐ Q¸roi} anaptÔssontai oi basikèc ènnoiec

twn dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn kai parousizontai ta basik jewr mata.

keflaio 4 parousizetai h JewrÐa twn Orizous¸n.

Sto keflaio 5 gÐnetai mia melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n twn

smoÔ, oi analloÐwtoi upìqwroi enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ, oi idiotimèc

kai ta idiodianÔsmata enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.

H melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n oloklhr¸netai sto keflaio

6 ìpou kataskeuzetai h morf Jordan enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.

Sto keflaio 7 parousizontai kai melet¸ntai oi digrammikèc kai ermi-

1.1 Omdec, DaktÔlioi, S¸mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.3 H Summetrik Omda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3.2 Grammik Sust mata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.3 H 'Algebra twn Pinkwn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.2 Elqisto Polu¸numo, Prwtarqik Anlush . . . . . . . . . . 88

6.6 H S+N Anlush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7.2 Summetrikèc Digrammikèc Morfèc, Enallssousec Digrammi-

7.4 Enallssousec Digrammikèc Morfèc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Mèjodoi kai JewrÐec sta Majhmatik} tou Progrmmatoc {Metaptuqiakèc

Spoudèc sta Majhmatik} tou EllhnikoÔ AnoiktoÔ PanepisthmÐou.

Sto pr¸to keflaio {Eisagwgikèc ènnoiec} upenjumÐzontai orismènec ba-

EpÐshc anaptÔssetai h JewrÐa Diairetìthtac ston daktÔlio poluwnÔmwn p-

nw se èna s¸ma, h opoÐa ja qrhsimopoihjeÐ sto keflaio 6 gia thn kataskeu

thc kanonik c morf c enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ. Parousizontai kai

orismèna apotelèsmata apo thn JewrÐa twn Summetrik¸n Omdwn ta opoÐa

Sto keflaio {DianusmatikoÐ Q¸roi} anaptÔssontai oi basikèc ènnoiec

twn dianusmatik¸n q¸rwn kai parousizontai ta basik jewr mata.

keflaio 4 parousizetai h JewrÐa twn Orizous¸n.

Sto keflaio 5 gÐnetai mia melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n twn

H melèth twn grammik¸n metasqhmatism¸n oloklhr¸netai sto keflaio

6 ìpou kataskeuzetai h morf Jordan enìc grammikoÔ metasqhmatismoÔ.

Sto keflaio 7 parousizontai kai melet¸ntai oi digrammikèc kai ermi-

To epìmeno keflaio eÐnai afierwmèno sthn parousÐash twn EukleÐdeiwn

Sto keflaio 9 gÐnetai mia parousÐash twn susqetismènwn upìqwrwn

EukleÐdeiou q¸rou. EpÐshc parousizontai oi isometrÐec tou R2 .

Ja jèlame na epishmnoume stouc foithtèc ta akìlouja

1. Merikèc apodeÐxeic jewrhmtwn, protsewn h porismtwn den perilam-

bnontai sto uperkeÐmeno. Autì gÐnetai ìtan h apìdeixh eÐnai mesh

sunèpeia prohgoumènwn protsewn ìtan èqei gÐnei prohgoÔmena mia

mìnoi touc tic apodeÐxeic pou den perilambnontai sto uperkeÐmeno

2. EÐnai qr simo na melet soun ta paradeÐgmata pou uprqoun sto uper-

keÐmeno kaj¸c kai na prospaj soun na kataskeusoun nèa.

meglo arijmì apo tic proteinìmenec ask seic.

thtèc na katano soun tic basikèc ènnoiec kai ta basik apotelèsmata thc

Tèloc ja jèlame na shmei¸soume ìti se sqèsh me to uprqon ekpaideutikì

'Algebrac sthn Arijmhtik Anlush, ston Grammikì Programmatismì, stic

Diaforikèc Exis¸seic, sthn JewrÐa Grafhmtwn, sthn JewrÐa PaignÐwn kai

JewroÔme qr simo na parousisoume merikoÔc sumbolismoÔc pou ja qrhsi-

1.1 Omdec, DaktÔlioi, S¸mata

Orismìc 1.1.1 'Ena sÔnolo G efodiasmèno me mi prxh · lègetai omda an

3. Gi kje a ∈ G uprqei èna stoiqeÐo a−1 ∈ G tètoio ¸ste a · a−1 =

Orismìc 1.1.2 JewroÔme mi omda G . 'Ena uposÔnolo H thc G lègetai

upoomda an isqÔoun ta ex c:

Pardeigma 1.1.1 To sÔnolo R me prxh thn prìsjesh eÐnai metajetik

Pardeigma 1.1.2 To sÔnolo Z me prxh thn prìsjesh eÐnai metajetik

Pardeigma 1.1.3 JewroÔme èna sÔnolo X me X 6= ∅ . To sÔnolo twn 1−1

Orismìc 1.1.4 'Ena sÔnolo R efodiasmèno me dÔo prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai

1. To R efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai metajetik omda.

Orismìc 1.1.5 JewroÔme ènan daktÔlio R me prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai

1. To I efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai upoomda tou R .

Orismìc 1.1.6 'Ena sÔnolo F efodiasmèno me dÔo prxeic (a, b) 7→ a + b kai

1. To F efodiasmèno me thn prxh + eÐnai metajetik omda. SumbolÐ-

zoume 0 to oudètro stoiqeÐo thc omdac aut c.

Se aut n thn pargrafo to s¸ma F eÐnai to R to C .

SumbolÐzoume me F [x] ton daktÔlio twn poluwnÔmwn mic metablht c me

an lègetai suntelest c tou megistobjmiou ìrou tou p(x) kai o a0 lègetai

qoun monadik polu¸numa r(x) kai s(x) tètoia ¸ste

bjmiou ìrou tou q(x) . Tìte to s(x) − an b−1