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Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761

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Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet

Research report

Beverages containing soluble fiber, caffeine, and green tea catechins


q,qq,w,ww
suppress hunger and lead to less energy consumption at the next meal
Brett E. Carter ⇑, Adam Drewnowski
Center for Public Health Nutrition, 327 Raitt Hall, University of Washington, Box 353410, Seattle, WA 98195, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Previous research has shown that beverages containing soluble fibers can decrease energy intake at the
Received 13 February 2012 next meal among normal weight participants. Caffeine and green tea catechins have separately been
Received in revised form 13 August 2012 associated with increased satiety. The present study examined the satiating power of a beverage contain-
Accepted 14 August 2012
ing soluble fiber as well as a beverage containing the same fiber, caffeine and green tea catechins. These
Available online 23 August 2012
two test beverages were evaluated in comparison to an equal calorie control beverage as well as a no-
beverage control condition. All beverage preloads were presented three times for a total of 0.28–
Keywords:
0.35 MJ and 0–30 g fiber. Dependent measures were appetite ratings and calorie intake at a test meal.
Satiety
Appetite
The no-beverage condition was associated with the highest ratings for hunger and the lowest ratings
Fiber for fullness when compared to the other three beverage conditions. Of the three beverage conditions,
Overweight the beverage containing the fiber, green tea catechins, and caffeine created the lowest hunger and the
Caffeine highest fullness ratings. That condition was also associated with the lowest energy intake at the next
Catechins meal. The present findings indicate that the beverage containing caffeine and green tea catechins in com-
bination with soluble fiber decrease appetite and energy intake relative to a beverage with equal caloric
content.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction and increased satiety (Slavin, 2005). More recent studies have
pointed towards fermentable fibers as active regulators of satiety.
The role of dietary fiber in satiety and its implications for For example, oligofructose added to a diet at doses of 16 g/day,
weight management has been intensively researched (Burton- resulted in increased satiety, reduced hunger, and reduced post-
Freeman, 2000; Rolls & Barnett, 2000; Slavin, 2005; Whelan, meal food intake after a 2 week exposure (Cani, Joly, Horsmans,
Efthymiou, Judd, Preedy, & Taylor, 2006). Besides fiber dosage, & Delzenne, 2006).
other factors such as the type of fiber, fermentability, and form The exact mechanisms by which fiber may promote satiety are
in which it is consumed (i.e., whole food vs. liquid form) may play not yet fully understood, although need for mastication, gastric
an important role in satiety (Almiron-Roig, Chen, & Drewnowski, emptying, absorption rate and glycemic effects have been
2003). Early studies from Haber, Heaton, Murphy, and Burroughs suggested (Bolton et al., 1981; Burton-Freeman, 2000; Slavin,
(1977) and Bolton, Heaton, and Burroughs (1981), demonstrated 2005). Recent research has also shown that the presence of soluble
that consuming whole fruit was more satiating than consuming fibers in beverages can reduce energy intake at a test lunch,
similar amounts of fiber in the form of fruit juices (Bolton et al., although effects of soluble fibers on motivational ratings used to
1981; Haber et al., 1977). The presence of particular fibers was mark hunger and satiety over time have been mixed (Monsivais,
further linked with a reduction in the rate of gastric emptying Carter, Christiansen, Perrigue, & Drewnowski, 2011; Perrigue, Car-
ter, Roberts, & Drewnowski, 2010).
In addition to fiber, the food constituents caffeine and green tea
q
Acknowledgements: Pablo Monsivais assisted with the design of this research catechins, such as epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) may contribute
study. Fiona O’Farrell and Stephanie Schafer assisted with the daily research
to the satiating power of foods and beverages (Jessen, Buemann,
activities.
qq
From the Nutritional Sciences Program, School of Public Health, University of Toubro, Skovgaard, & Astrup, 2005; Reinbach, Smeets, Martinus-
Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, United States. sen, Moller, & Westerterp-Plantenga, 2009; Tremblay, Masson,
w
Reprints not available. Leduc, Houde, & Despres, 1988; Yoshioka, Doucet, Drapeau, Dion-
ww
Supported by a research grant from The Coca-Cola Company to the University of ne, & Tremblay, 2001). Although there have only been a few
Washington.
⇑ Corresponding author. research studies conducted on human subjects concerning the
E-mail address: brettc2@u.washington.edu (B.E. Carter). effect that EGCG or caffeine on hunger or satiety, the existing

0195-6663/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.08.015
756 B.E. Carter, A. Drewnowski / Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761

research points to a satiating effect of both. When EGCG has been by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Washington
administered to participants in combination with other bioactive and all participants provided informed consent. All subjects com-
ingredients, it has been shown to decrease energy intake (Reinbach pleting the study were compensated for their time.
et al., 2009). In addition, caffeine alone has been shown to decrease
appetite in men (Tremblay et al., 1988) and has also been shown to Study design
be an effective appetite suppressant in combination with other
natural ingredients (Jessen et al., 2005; Yoshioka et al., 2001). The study followed a within-subjects design, with each partici-
In the present study, we expanded the observational time- pant returning for four separate test sessions over 5 weeks. The
period previously used to assess the impact of soluble fibers study was double-blinded, in that all beverages were provided to
present in beverages on appetite to approximately 6.5 h to accom- study staff with code numbers by The Coca-Cola Company and
modate a multiple preload design and allow for possible longer condition identification was not applied until data analysis was
term effects of fiber and other ingredients on satiety. We also complete. The order of presentation of the beverage conditions
recruited overweight participants exclusively to assess whether was counterbalanced across sessions using a Latin Square. To min-
the previous appetite suppressing effects of a soluble fiber in bev- imize variability, all participants were asked to report to the lab on
erages could be expanded to an overweight sample. In addition, the same day of the week, to keep evening meals and activity levels
caffeine and EGCG were added to one of the fiber containing bev- on the day before the test as similar as possible and to refrain from
erages to assess the impact of adding these two beverage constit- drinking alcohol the day before the test. Testing sessions lasted
uents. The energy content of the preload beverages was kept from 0800 to 1430 h and were spaced at least one week apart.
within a narrow range (0.09–0.12 MJ). Each serving was presented Motivational ratings were obtained on arrival at 0800 h (baseline)
in the form of three preloads over the course of each testing ses- and every 30 min thereafter. A tray lunch was served at 1400 h and
sion. The total fiber dose for each fiber containing preload condi- a final set of ratings was collected after lunch, at 1430 h. During
tion was of 30 g per session. The question investigated, was each testing session, participants were allowed to leave the room
whether the soluble dextrin fiber alone, as well as in combination briefly to stretch or use the restroom, read, listen to music with
with caffeine and EGCG, would reduce hunger ratings or lead to earphones, or use their portable computers.
lower energy intakes at lunch relative to a beverage of similar en-
ergy (0.12 MJ) or a no-beverage control condition.
Motivational ratings

Participants used computerized, semi-anchored visual analogue


Methods
scales (VAS) to rate hunger, fullness, thirst, nausea, and desire to
eat at 30 min intervals. The VAS software was custom-written
Participants
using the graphical programming software LabView version 6.1
(National Instruments, Austin TX) running on ten identical Apple
Participants were recruited at the University of Washington
Macintosh G3 computers (Apple, Cupertino, CA). The system has
using advertisements and flyers. A telephone-administered pre-
been used in previously-published work (P. Monsivais, Perrigue,
screen was used to verify eligibility criteria. Following the pre-
& Drewnowski, 2007). Motivational scales were presented on the
screen, eligible participants were invited to come to a lab for a
computer monitor, one scale per screen. For example, in response
30 min screening session. During this screening, each participant’s
to the question ‘‘How full are you right now?’’ each participant
height and weight was measured and body mass index (BMI) cal-
positioned a cursor along the 100 mm bar displayed on a flat-panel
culated. In addition, questionnaires assessing eating attitudes, as
LCD computer monitor using a mouse. The VAS bars were anchored
well as daily caffeine consumption were administered to assure
at each extreme with labels ‘‘not at all hungry’’ and ‘‘extremely
eligibility. Studies have shown that the energy and macronutrient
hungry’’.
composition of the baseline diet may mask potential effects of cer-
Palatability and taste qualities of the three beverages were also
tain fibers on satiety (Pittaway et al., 2007); as a result, a fiber con-
measured using computerized, semi-anchored VAS. Participants
sumption questionnaire was also administered to assure that all
were asked to rate the attributes ‘‘Like’’ and ‘‘Pleasant’’ for the bev-
participants were consuming fewer than 30 g of fiber per day on
erages. The sensory attributes of ‘‘Sweetness,’’ ‘‘refreshing,’’
a regular basis. A total of 77 subjects, aged 18–45 years, were en-
‘‘smoothness,’’ and ‘‘caloric content’’ of each beverage were also
rolled into the study. Seventy-five subjects completed the trial.
rated.
One of those subjects failed to follow directions and was thus ex-
cluded from the analysis. The final data set, for which results are
shown, consisted of 74 adults (30 males, 44 females). Preload conditions
Eligible participants were overweight (BMI = 25.0–35.0 kg/m2),
were not following a diet to gain or lose weight, did not smoke, There were two fiber containing beverage preloads; a fiber-free
consumed caffeine regularly (between 100 and 400 mg daily), but equicaloric control condition, and a no-beverage control condi-
and consumed breakfast regularly. Persons with food allergies or
food restrictions, those who disliked the beverages to be served
Table 1
in the study, those on prescription medications or supplements Preload composition.
likely to affect taste, smell or appetite, athletes in training, preg-
Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev
nant or lactating women, and persons reporting recent weight loss
or weight cycling were excluded. Energy (MJ) 0.10 0.09 0.12 0
Volume (ml) 355 355 355 0
The Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) (Garner, Olmstead, & Poli-
Fiber (g) 10 10 0 0
vy, 1983) and the Eating Inventory (EI) (Stunkard & Messick, Caffeine (mg) 100 46 0 0
1985) were administered to screen participants for potential eating Catechins (mg) 167 0 0 0
disorders. Persons who met all eligibility criteria including a score Sucrose (g) 0 0 7.5 0
of <8 in the EDI (excluding the body image portion) and of <10 in Nutriose+, Nutriose, caffeine and catechins; Nutriose, Nutriose only; ECC, equal
the cognitive restraint subscale of the EI, were invited to partici- calorie control condition; No Bev, no beverage condition; Each preload was pro-
pate via email correspondence. The study protocol was approved vided three times.
B.E. Carter, A. Drewnowski / Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761 757

tion (see Table 1). The no-beverage condition was included rather 0.35 MJ total. In designing the study, we expected differences in en-
than an equal volume control because previous studies have ergy intake on the order of 0.33–0.42 MJ. Our power calculations
indicated that there is no effect of volume on energy intake at an were based on a standard formula for within-subjects (i.e., cross-
ad-lib meal served at least 120 min after the last preload serving over) studies where the variance, r2, is measured from our previous
(Monsivais, Perrigue et al., 2007). During each testing session, satiety studies (Almiron-Roig & Drewnowski, 2003; Carter, Monsiv-
participants received three servings of a preload: at 0800 h, at ais, Perrigue, & Drewnowski, 2011; Monsivais, Carter et al., 2011;
1000 h and at 1200 h. At 0800 h, the beverage preload was served Monsivais, Perrigue et al., 2007; Perrigue et al., 2010; Tsuchiya, Alm-
alongside a 12 oz bowl of puffed rice cereal (KelloggÒ Co., Battle iron-Roig, Lluch, Guyonnet, & Drewnowski, 2006). We estimated
Creek, MI) (0.68 MJ) served with a 6 oz serving of low fat milk that a sample of 71 subjects would be sufficient to detect a difference
(LucerneÒ Co., Pleasanton, CA) (0.44 MJ), for a total of 1.12 MJ. of P0.42 MJ in compensation, with a power of 80% and alpha = 0.05.
The beverage preload served at 1000 h was served alongside two Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17 for
fat-free fig cookies (Kraft Foods Inc., Northfield, IL) (0.38 MJ) and Windows was used for data analysis. Because motivational ratings
a portion of chocolate pudding snack cup (Kraft Foods Inc., North- are normally distributed (Almiron-Roig, Flores, & Drewnowski,
field, IL) (0.43 MJ), for a total of 0.81 MJ. The three-preload design 2004; Monsivais, Perrigue et al., 2007; Tsuchiya et al., 2006), anal-
was used to provide a total dose of 30 g of fiber prior to lunch. This yses used a nested repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA)
preload design provided more than the minimum recommended with preload condition type and time (Monsivais, Perrigue et al.,
value for fiber (25 g) and kept the fiber levels in the beverages 2007) as the within-subjects factors, and gender as the between-
and snacks within the limits that are realistic for commercial prep- subjects factor. Analyses of energy intakes, as well as the weight
aration. The fiber used in this study was the soluble dextrin fiber of foods and water consumed at lunch also used a repeated mea-
Nutriose which was supplied by Roquette Co. (Lestrem, France). sures ANOVA with preload condition as the within subject factor
The standardized green tea extract used in this study was Sunphe- and gender as between subject factor. All within subjects compar-
non 90LB which was supplied by Taiyo Kagaku Co. Ltd. (Yokkaichi, isons were subject to the Bonferroni correction for multiple
Japan). All beverages were provided by The Coca-Cola Company, comparisons.
Atlanta, GA. As there were no significant gender-related interactions
Participants were asked to consume the entire beverage and so- (p > 0.05 for all tests), the data for men and women were com-
lid snack within 20 min at each serving. The beverages were served bined. Food intake data displayed sphericity of variance across pre-
chilled in 12 fl oz (355 mL, 370 g) portions, without ice, in silver load conditions. However, variance of motivational ratings violated
soda containers with a straw. Caloric and non- caloric sweeteners the sphericity assumption, so univariate tests of within-subject
were used to adjust the energy density of the beverages to match effects were subject to the Huynh–Feldt correction (Huynh & Feldt,
the calories delivered by the fiber. The energy density of the bever- 1976). In reporting the ANOVA results for the motivational ratings,
ages ranged between 0.06 and 0.08 kcal/g (<0.001 MJ/g), less than degrees of freedom in the F statistics are rounded to the nearest
half the energy density of most juices and carbonated soft drinks. integer to reflect the correction.
Participants were not allowed to eat or drink anything other than
the preloads and snacks provided during the testing session prior
Results
to lunch.

Participants
Test lunch

These data are based on seventy-four subjects (30 males, 44 fe-


The lunch, served at 1400 h, included a variety of foods, both
males). Mean BMI was 29.8 (±3.3) kg/m2 for the whole group (30.4
savory and sweet for a total of 7.65 MJ. Each lunch consisted of a
(±3.5) kg/m2 for males; 29.5 (±3.1) kg/m2 for females). Mean age
selection of two grains (30 g Reduced Fat TriscuitÒ Crackers and
was 30.4 (±7.8) years for the whole group (31.6 (±7.7) years for
83 g pita bread), one whole medium banana (150–180 g), 71 g ap-
males; 29.5 (±7.8) years for females). One participant reported an
ple slices, two vegetables (85 g sugar snap peas and 85 g baby car-
increase in bowl movements on one study day and one participant
rots), two cheeses (22 g Cheddar and 30 g Havarti cheeses), two
reported increased intestinal gas. There were no other adverse
meats (28 g ham and 34 g turkey), two sweets (19 g package of
events reported by participants.
M & M’sÒ and 23 g of Rice Krispies TreatÒ), one yogurt (171 g),
one ice cream cup (54 g), hummus (109 g garbanzo bean spread),
potato chips (26 g), and water. A large cup containing 591 ml Motivational ratings
(20 fl oz) of still water was served with the test lunch. Participants
were told that they could have as much or as little as they would The motivational rating results are based on all time-points col-
like of any food or water and could request unlimited additional lected from 0800 to 1430 h.
portions. Participants were allowed 30 min for lunch. All foods For the four preload conditions, hunger and desire to snack rat-
and water were pre-weighed at the time of serving. Plate waste ings were reduced after breakfast, gradually increased during
was collected and weighed by the experimenters. Food energy mid-morning and again were reduced with consumption of the
and nutrient values were calculated with The Food Processor soft- second preload serving and snack at 1000 h. Following the third
ware 8.1 (ESHA Research, Salem, OR), and from the manufacturer’s preload (1200 h), only the beverage conditions reduced Hunger
food labels. and desire to snack. Hunger and desire to snack were suppressed al-
most completely by the ad-lib lunch in all conditions (see Fig. 1).
Sample size, data analyses and statistical tests In the analysis of hunger and desire to snack, there was a signif-
icant effect of condition (F[3, 70] = 21.0, p < 0.001 and
The necessary sample size is based on expected largest difference F[3, 70] = 15.9, p < 0.001 respectively), of time (F[13, 60] = 85.8,
in caloric compensation between any two preload conditions. For p < 0.001 and F[13, 60] = 47.7, p < 0.001 respectively) and an inter-
the present study, we expected higher energy intake associated with action between condition and time (F[39, 34] = 3.7, p < 0.001 and
the no-beverage control condition relative to any of the equal energy F[39, 34] = 5.6, p < 0.001 respectively). The beverage containing
control condition. The difference in total energy content between the Nutriose, green tea catechins, and caffeine (Nutriose+) was associ-
no-beverage control and the equal energy control condition was ated with the lowest hunger and desire to snack ratings while the no
758 B.E. Carter, A. Drewnowski / Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761

Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev condition and the Nutriose condition (p < 0.01), as well as a signif-
icant difference between the Nutriose+ condition and the equal
PRELOAD 1 PRELOAD 2 PRELOAD 3
LUNCH
calorie control condition (p < 0.01). There was no significant differ-
100 (beverage and (beverage and (beverage only)
breakfast) snack) ence between the Nutriose condition and the equal calorie control
90 condition (see Fig. 2).
80 Fullness ratings followed a mirror image of the hunger and desire
Hunger (100 mm VAS)

70 to snack temporal profiles. Significant effects of beverage condition


(F[3, 70] = 25.2, p < 0.001), time (F[12, 61] = 77.8, p < 0.001) and an
60
interaction between condition and time (F[36, 37] = 3.1, p < 0.001)
50
were also detected for fullness. Again, pair-wise comparisons
40 showed that the no beverage condition was significantly different
30 from all other conditions (p < 0.001 for all comparisons). However,
20 the difference between the Nutriose+ condition and the Nutriose
10 condition failed to reach significance (p = 0.10). The difference be-
tween the Nutriose+ condition and the equal calorie control condi-
0
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 tion also failed to reach significance (p = 0.10).
A composite appetite score, calculated as the mean of hunger,
Time (h)
desire to snack, and 100-fullness (see Methods) yielded profiles that
Fig. 1. Temporal profiles of mean hunger ratings for all participants (n = 74). VAS, were similar to hunger and desire to snack (see Fig. 2). There was a
visual analog scale. significant effect of beverage condition (F[3, 70] = 21.6, p < 0.001),
time (F[13, 60] = 95.8, p < 0.001), and an interaction between con-
dition and time (F[39, 34] = 6.5, p < 0.001). Pair-wise comparisons
beverage condition was associated with the highest hunger and showed that there was a significant difference between the
desire to snack ratings (see Fig. 1). Pair-wise comparisons of the no-beverage condition and all other conditions (p < 0.001 for all
hunger ratings revealed that there was a significant difference be- conditions). There was also a significant difference between the
tween the no-beverage condition and the three other conditions Nutriose+ condition and the Nutriose condition (p < 0.05) as well
(p < 0.05 for all conditions) with the largest difference appearing as a significant difference between the Nutriose+ condition and
between Nutriose condition with a mean hunger VAS (± SEM) of the control condition (p < 0.05). There was again no difference
33.5 (± 2.1) mm and the no beverage condition with a mean hun- between the Nutriose condition and the equal calorie control
ger VAS (± SEM) of 52.1(± 2.0) mm. There was also a significant dif- condition (see Fig. 2).
ference between the Nutriose+ condition and the equal calorie
control condition as well as the Nutriose+ condition and the Nutri- Thirst ratings
ose only condition (p < 0.01). There was not a significant difference
between the beverage condition containing equivalent calories and There was a significant effect of beverage condition on thirst
the Nutriose only condition (see Fig. 2). ratings (F[3, 70] = 28.8, p < 0.001). There was also a significant ef-
These pair-wise comparisons were complemented by those for fect of time (F[13, 60] = 38.4, p < 0.001) and an interaction between
desire to snack. Again, there was a significant difference between time and condition (F[39, 34] = 4.4, p < 0.001). Pair-wise compari-
the no-beverage condition and all beverage conditions (p < 0.01). sons showed that these effects were driven by the higher thirst rat-
There was also a significant difference between the Nutriose+ ings in the no-beverage condition and the 3 beverage conditions

(a) (b)
75 75
65
Fullness Ratings

65
Hunger Ratings

(100mm VAS)
(100 mm VAS)

c a
55 55 a a
45 b b 45
a b
35 35

25 25
Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev
(c) (d)
75 75
Composite Appetite Score
Desire to Snack Ratings

65 65
(100mm VAS)

c
c
55 55
b b b
45 b 45 a
a
35 35

25 25
Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev

Fig. 2. Mean (± SEM) for hunger (a), fullness (b), desire to snack (c) and composite appetite (d). Values are overall means for the 74 participants between 0830 and 1400 h.
Different letters indicate significant differences among preload conditions. VAS, visual analog scale; Nutriose+, Nutriose, caffeine, and green tea catechins; Nutriose, Nutriose
only; ECC, equal calorie control; No bev, No beverage control.
B.E. Carter, A. Drewnowski / Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761 759

6 conditions). There were no differences observed between the other


conditions.
5
b b b
Taste ratings
Energy Intake (MJ)

a
4
The Nutriose beverage was rated as the most palatable followed
3 by Nutriose+ and the equal calorie control beverage was rated the
lowest. For pleasantness and liking, there was a significant effect of
2 beverage condition (F[2, 71] = 36.2, p < 0.001 and (F[2, 71] = 32.2,
p < 0.001 respectively). Pair-wise comparisons showed that each
1 condition was significantly different from each other in terms of
liking (p < 0.001 for all conditions) and for pleasantness
0 (p < 0.001 for all conditions). These findings were identical for
Nutriose+ Nutriose ECC No Bev the rating categories of refreshing and sweetness with the Nutriose
beverage being rated as the highest on those sensory attributes.
Fig. 3. Mean (± SEM) energy consumption in MJ, at ad-lib test lunch as a function of
The results for smoothness and perception of caloric content
preload condition for all participants (n = 74). Different letter superscripts indicate
significant differences among preload conditions. also indicate a significant effect of beverage condition. In these
cases, the Nutriose and Nutriose+ beverages were rated as signifi-
cantly higher than the control beverage (p < 0.001 for all
(p < 0.001 for all conditions). There were no differences among the comparisons).
three beverage conditions.

Discussion
Nausea ratings
This double-blinded study used a beverage preload design and
There was no significant effect of condition in nausea ratings. recorded motivational ratings and food consumption in a test
lunch. Controls included an equivalent calorie beverage condition
Energy, macronutrient, and water intakes that lacked fiber and a no beverage condition. All analyses were
conducted blinded to the preload condition.
Mean energy consumed (MJ) in the test lunch under each pre- Un-blinding revealed that the three beverage conditions were
load condition are shown in Fig. 3. Gender had a significant effect significantly more satiating than the no beverage condition, based
on energy intake at lunch, with men consuming significantly more on motivational ratings. Nutriose+ was significantly more satiating
energy at lunch than women (F[1, 72] = 1087.9, p < 0.001). Bever- than the Nutriose beverage or the equal calorie control beverage.
age condition was also significantly associated with energy con- This study also found that consumption of Nutriose+ resulted in
sumed at lunch (F[3, 70] = 15.0, p < 0.001). However, there was no significantly less calorie intake at lunch than either the no bever-
preload-by-gender interaction. Analysis of the pair-wise compari- age condition or the other two beverage conditions. The only effect
sons showed that there was a significant difference between the on thirst was observed because participants reported being thirst-
Nutriose+ beverage condition and all other conditions (p < 0.001 ier when in the no-beverage condition. There was no difference in
for all conditions). No other significant differences were observed. macronutrient intake at lunch among the four conditions.
The combined energy consumed (MJ) of the preload and the test The satiating power of the Nutriose+ beverage was of most
lunch was also significantly associated with energy consumed at interest since it combines fiber, green tea catechins (EGCG) and
lunch (F[3, 70] = 13.55, p < 0.001). Analysis of the pair-wise com- caffeine, which each have been found to promote satiety alone or
parisons showed that there was a significant difference between in combination with other food constituents (Jessen et al., 2005;
the Nutriose+ beverage condition and all other conditions Kovacs et al., 2002; Reinbach et al., 2009; Samra & Anderson,
(p < 0.001 for all conditions) accept the no-beverage condition, 2007). The other three preload conditions controlled for various
where the effect was marginal (p = 0.53). There was also a signifi- factors. The no-beverage condition controlled for the effects of cal-
cant difference between the ECC and the no-beverage condition ories and volume on satiety. The equal calorie control allowed an
(p < 0.05). evaluation of the satiating effects of fiber, catechins and increased
We examined the intake of protein, fat, sugars and total carbo- caffeine above and beyond the effects of calories. Finally, the Nutri-
hydrates at lunch in order to determine whether preload condition ose condition allowed a test of the effects of catechins and in-
could affect the balance of macronutrients consumed. Since men creased caffeine above and beyond the effects of fiber. The no
and women consumed significantly different amounts of energy beverage condition also showed that the study included an ade-
in this study, we compared the percent energy from each nutrient, quate number of subjects to detect differences in motivational rat-
as opposed to the absolute intake (grams) of each nutrient. ings and food intake related to the caloric manipulation (0.29 MJ
Repeated measures ANOVA showed that the balance of protein, total).
fat, sugars and total carbohydrates did not differ significantly be- Previous studies have established an association between fiber,
tween men and women. Furthermore, there were no differences satiety, food intake, and weight loss. Fiber contributes to satiety
in percent energy intakes from any of the macronutrients among through a variety of mechanisms including stomach distension, de-
preload conditions, nor was there a preload-by-gender interaction. layed gastric emptying, and reduced postprandial glycemia (Rolls &
There was a significant effect of condition on the amount of Barnett, 2000). Dietary fiber passes through the small intestine lar-
water consumed (F[3, 70] = 3.3, p < 0.05). There was also a signifi- gely undigested, and is fermented in the colon by bacteria (Pereira
cant effect of gender with men consuming more than women & Ludwig, 2001). These fermentation products have unique meta-
(F[2, 72] = 421.4, p < 0.001), but no interaction between gender bolic roles that vary significantly from those formed by the break-
and condition. Pair-wise comparisons revealed that the difference down of digestible starches (Higgins, 2004). Ingestion of digestible
was driven by the fact that the no-beverage condition led to more starches and other carbohydrates may lead to feelings of satiety
water consumption than the other conditions (p < 0.01 for all and decrease food intake in the short term (i.e., 60 min or less)
760 B.E. Carter, A. Drewnowski / Appetite 59 (2012) 755–761

(Anderson, Catherine, Woodend, & Wolever, 2002). However, more Almiron-Roig, E., & Drewnowski, A. (2003). Hunger, thirst, and energy intakes
following consumption of caloric beverages. Physiology & Behavior, 79(4–5),
persistent effects on satiety have been linked to ingestion of resis-
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tant starches or other fibers (Anderson et al., 2010; Monsivais, Almiron-Roig, E., Flores, S. Y., & Drewnowski, A. (2004). No difference in satiety or in
Carter et al., 2011). In the long-term, higher fiber diets have also subsequent energy intakes between a beverage and a solid food. Physiology &
been associated with weight loss. This link has been attributed to Behavior, 82(4), 671–677. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.06.003.
Anderson, G. H., Catherine, N. L., Woodend, D. M., & Wolever, T. M. (2002). Inverse
the low energy density of high fiber diets and reduced calorie association between the effect of carbohydrates on blood glucose and
intake (Howarth, Saltzman, & Roberts, 2001). subsequent short-term food intake in young men. American Journal of Clinical
Behavioral studies have shown that soluble and insoluble fiber Nutrition, 76(5), 1023–1030.
Anderson, G. H., Cho, C. E., Akhavan, T., Mollard, R. C., Luhovyy, B. L., & Finocchiaro,
as well as resistant starch suppresses appetite. A 75 min trial of E. T. (2010). Relation between estimates of cornstarch digestibility by the
healthy men given 33 g of fiber resulted in higher satiety ratings Englyst in vitro method and glycemic response, subjective appetite, and short-
and decreased food intake (Samra & Anderson, 2007). A longer- term food intake in young men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 91(4),
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at a time (Kovacs et al., 2002). Both long- and short-term regula- satiety, glucose, and insulin. Studies with fruit and fruit juice. American Journal
tion of appetite and food intake by fiber has been attributed to of Clinical Nutrition, 34(2), 211–217.
Brand-Miller, J. C., Holt, S. H., Pawlak, D. B., & McMillan, J. (2002). Glycemic index
fiber’s effects on postprandial glucose levels (Higgins, 2004). The and obesity. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76(1), 281S–285S.
literature on glycemic index shows that stimuli that elicit high Buckley, J. D., Thorp, A. A., Murphy, K. J., & Howe, P. R. (2006). Dose-dependent
postprandial glycemia (high glycemic index) are linked to higher inhibition of the post-prandial glycaemic response to a standard carbohydrate
meal following incorporation of alpha-cyclodextrin. Annals of Nutrition and
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Metabolism, 50(2), 108–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000090498.
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Holt, Pawlak, & McMillan, 2002; Warren, Henry, & Simonite, 2003). 130(Suppl. 2S), 272S–275S.
While numerous studies have shown an association between fi- Cani, P. D., Joly, E., Horsmans, Y., & Delzenne, N. M. (2006). Oligofructose promotes
satiety in healthy human. A pilot study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition,
ber, satiety, weight loss, and food intake, others have not (Howarth 60(5), 567–572.
et al., 2001; Pereira & Ludwig, 2001; Slavin, 2005). Experimental Carter, B. E., Monsivais, P., Perrigue, M. M., & Drewnowski, A. (2011). Supplementing
studies that have failed to find an association might have used chicken broth with monosodium glutamate reduces hunger and desire to snack
but does not affect energy intake in women [FirstView]. British Journal of
either too small of a fiber dose (<5 g) or had too small of a differ- Nutrition, 1–8.
ence between the control and test conditions (<10 g between Garner, D., Olmstead, M., & Polivy, J. (1983). The eating disorder inventory. A
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loss, and food intake has been shown to be dose-dependent (Buck- disruption of dietary fibre. Effects on satiety, plasma-glucose, and serum-
ley, Thorp, Murphy, & Howe, 2006), but the threshold and shape of insulin. Lancet, 2(8040), 679–682.
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This study failed to show any effect on appetite or energy intake Howarth, N. C., Saltzman, E., & Roberts, S. B. (2001). Dietary fiber and weight
that was solely due to fiber. However, the combination of the fiber, regulation. Nutrition Reviews, 59(5), 129–139.
Huynh, H., & Feldt, L. S. (1976). Estimation of the box correction for degrees of
caffeine, and green tea catechins in the Nutriose+ condition pro-
freedom from sample data in randomized block and split-plot designs. Journal of
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lib lunch. These findings are consistent with other studies showing Jessen, A., Buemann, B., Toubro, S., Skovgaard, I. M., & Astrup, A. (2005). The
that the synergy between green tea catechins and other bioactive appetite-suppressant effect of nicotine is enhanced by caffeine. Diabetes, Obesity
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these results are consistent with research showing that there may Keogh, J. B., Lau, C. W., Noakes, M., Bowen, J., & Clifton, P. M. (2007). Effects of meals
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show any calorie compensation effects. This was likely due to the Kovacs, E. M., Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S., Saris, W. H., Melanson, K. J., Goossens, I.,
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This study presented some novel findings that a combination of Clinical Nutrition, 56(8), 771–778. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601407.
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