Rotta, G. V., Consoli, N. C., Prietto, P. D. M., Coop, M. R. & Graham, J. (2003). Géotechnique 53, No.
5, 493–501
Isotropic yielding in an artificially cemented soil cured under stress
G . V. ROT TA ,
N. C . C O N S O L I ,
P. D. M . P R I E T TO, † M . R . C O O P { a n d J. G R A H A M }
The work simulates, in the laboratory, the formation of a
cemented sedimentary deposit in which cement bonding
occurs after burial and under geostatic stresses. Isotropic
compression tests were carried out on artificially ce-
mented specimens made with variable cement contents.
After consolidating the samples to the uncemented nor-
mal compression line, the specimens were allowed to cure
for 48 h before testing. The curing confining stresses
ranged from 50 to 2000 kPa, and were intended to
represent soil elements at different depths in the fictitious
sedimentary deposit when the cementing occurred. The
contribution of the cement bonds to soil compression and
the changes in the isotropic yield stress as a function of
void ratio and cement content were analysed. The results
showed the importance of the void ratio during the
formation of cement bonds and also of the degree of
cementation for the compressive behaviour of the ce-
mented soil, and demonstrated that the variation in yield
stress with void ratio and cement content is dependent on
the curing stress and independent of the stress history.
KEYWORDS: compressibility; laboratory tests; stiffness; struc-
ture of soils
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
For clayey soils, structure has been defined as the combina-
tion of bonding and fabric (Burland, 1990; Leroueil &
Vaughan, 1990). The effect of structure is to give the soil a
strength and stiffness that are greater and to allow the
natural soil to exist at a higher volumetric state than that of
the same material in a reconstituted state. In sands, structure
has often been equated solely with interparticle bonds,
although Dusseault & Morgenstern (1979) and Cuccovillo &
Coop (1999) have identified the influence that the fabric of
geologically aged sands may have on the peak strength. The
effect of structure has been observed on a wide range of
natural soils and weak rocks of both sedimentary and
residual origins, and also for artificially cemented soils, as
might be created, for example, by soil improvement.
Much of the literature investigating the effect of structure
is based on laboratory testing of natural soil specimens
retrieved from the field (e.g. Burland, 1989, 1990; Leroueil
& Vaughan, 1990; Airey & Fahey, 1991; Smith et al., 1992;
Clayton et al., 1992; Airey, 1993; Petley et al., 1993;
Cuccovillo & Coop, 1997, 1999; Kavvadas et al., 1993;
Lagioia & Nova, 1995; Consoli et al., 1998). This approach,
however, presents some difficulties resulting from the dis-
turbance to the structure that can occur during the sampling
process (Clayton et al., 1992). In natural sands, Stokoe &
Manuscript received 27 March 2002; revised 13 January 2003.
Discussion 1 December 2003.

Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Rio
Grande do Sul, Brazil.
† School of Engineering and Architecture, Catholic University of
Pelotas, Brazil.
{ Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Uni-
versity of London, UK.
} University of Manitoba, Canada.
493
Nos travaux simulent, en laboratoire, la formation d’un
dépôt sédimentaire cimenté dans lequel la cimentation se
produit après enfouissement et sous certaines contraintes
géostatiques. Des essais de compression isotrope ont été
pratiqués sur des spécimens artificiellement cimentés con-
tenant diverses quantités de ciment. Après avoir consolidé
les échantillons jusqu’à la ligne de compression normale
non cimentée, nous avons laissé ces spécimens durcir
pendant 48 h avant de pratiquer les essais. Les contraintes
confinantes dues au durcissement allaient de 50 à 2000
kPa et devaient représenter des éléments du sol à différ-
entes profondeurs dans le dépôt sédimentaire fictif pen-
dant la cimentation. Nous avons analysé le rôle des
agglomérats cimentés dans la compression du sol et dans
les changements d’efforts de tension isotrope comme fonc-
tion du taux de pores et de la teneur en ciment. Les
résultats ont montré l’importance du taux de pores pen-
dant la formation des agglomérats cimentés et également
du degré de cimentation quant au comportement compres-
sif du sol cimenté ; ils ont démontré aussi que la variation
des efforts de tension en fonction du taux de pores et de la
teneur en ciment dépend de la contrainte de durcissement
et ne dépend pas de l’historique de contrainte.
Santamarina (2000) have seen a loss of stiffness as a result
of sampling that they believed resulted from the disturbance
of interparticle contacts and breakage of cement bonds.
Similarly, Coop & Willson (2003) attributed lower than
expected stiffnesses, observed in triaxial tests for oil reser-
voir sandstones, to the breakage of the cement bonds as a
result of sampling as they were unloaded from in-situ states
at several kilometres depth. Fernandez & Santamarina
(2001) confirmed experimentally that a sand that had been
cemented under pressure could have its interparticle bonding
damaged by unloading.
The other principal problem associated with the testing of
natural sands is that, depending on their geological origin,
there can be a high spatial variability, both in the degree of
cementation and in the nature of the particles. An alternative
is therefore to use artificially cemented specimens made up
through the addition to the soil of a cementitious agent, such
as Portland cement, gypsum, or lime (e.g. Dupas & Pecker,
1979; Clough et al., 1981; Coop & Atkinson, 1993;
Cuccovillo & Coop, 1993; Huang & Airey, 1993, 1998; Zhu
et al., 1995; Prietto, 1996; Consoli et al., 2000, 2001;
Schnaid et al., 2001). This allows the simulation of natural
cemented soils in the laboratory and the qualitative under-
standing of the behaviour of structured soils without exces-
sive sample variability or any bias due to sample
disturbance.
Cementation may arise in natural sands through a variety
of processes. In some cases, the cement has been deposited
soon after deposition when the sand was at a shallow depth.
This is typical, for example, of carbonate sands with calcium
carbonate deposited from supersaturated pore fluid to form
calcarenites (Clough et al., 1981; Airey & Fahey, 1991;
Cuccovillo & Coop, 1993), so that Coop & Atkinson (1993)
formed their artificially bonded sands at zero confining
stress. For these soils, burial is therefore subsequent to
494 ROTTA, CONSOLI, PRIETTO, COOP AND GRAHAM
cement bonds formation. In other cases, such as the quartzi-
tic sandstone (Greensand) tested by Cuccovillo & Coop
(1999), cementation again occurred at shallow depths, but in
this case the cementitious agent was iron oxide deposited
from water flowing through the soil, which occurred after it
had undergone a strong overconsolidation through burial and
erosion. In contrast, many sands are bonded progressively
with burial to great depths, and this is more typical of the
silica and chlorite bonding of the quartzitic reservoir sand-
stones investigated by Coop & Willson (2003).
Fewer authors have investigated the effect of cementing a
sand while it is under a confining stress. An exception was
Zhu et al. (1995), although in this case the state of the sands
during the formation of the cement bonds was not on the
normal compression line as in the tests carried out here.
Cementation was otherwise achieved by mixing the soil and
cement prior to application of a curing confining stress. The
most common cements used have been gypsum (e.g. Coop
& Atkinson, 1993; Huang & Airey, 1998) and Portland
cement (e.g. Consoli et al., 2000; Schnaid et al., 2001).
Ismail (2000) has identified that gypsum provides a better
model of a carbonate bonding than Portland cement, but that
the percentage of cement required to achieve a given bond
strength is much higher than for natural cementing pro-
cesses. To simulate better the natural cementing process,
Ismail et al. (2000) therefore developed the CIPS process,
which allows a calcite cement to be deposited between the
soil particles while the soil is under a confining pressure.
The formation of cement bonds under a confining stress
means that the soil will have different void ratios at different
depths as a result of the current in-situ stresses and stress
history, and it is this effect that the research reported here
was aimed at investigating. Eighteen isotropic compression
tests were carried out to simulate, in the laboratory, the
formation of the cemented matrix in soil elements situated
at different depths in a fictitious natural soil deposit. The
soil specimens were cemented under a variety of confining
stresses, in this case using Portland cement and isotropic
stresses, as the aim was to establish a conceptual framework
for such soils rather than model a specific cementing pro-
cess. The creation of cement bonds in this way models a soil
in which cementation occurred as a single event with a
constant confining stress during the cementing process. This
is distinct from the gradual evolution of cement bonds with
burial discussed above, which would be difficult to repro-
duce artificially, but represents a first step in the conceptual
modelling of such processes. The process used might model,
for example, the deposition of cement from a pore fluid
flowing through a sand stratum, or the cement stabilisation
of a soil layer as a method of soil improvement. The use of
a range of confining stresses during cementing and the
variety of cement contents investigates the interaction be-
tween the effects of the in-situ stress, void ratio, and
quantity of cement deposited on the subsequent behaviour.
The compressive response of the cemented soil was then
evaluated, principally in terms of the variation of yield stress
as a function of the void ratio existing during cementing, the
stress history, and the cement content.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Materials
The soil samples used in the present work, derived from
weathered sandstone, were obtained from the region of Porto
Alegre, in southern Brazil. The soil is classified as non-plastic
silty sand (SM) according to the Unified Soil Clas-
sification System. The grain size distribution is 27·8%
medium sand (0·2 mm , D , 0·6 mm), 33·4% fine sand
(0·06 mm , D , 0·2 mm), 31·3% silt (0·002 mm , D , 0·06
mm), and 7·5% clay (D , 0·002 mm). The Atterberg limits of
the portion passing a no. 40 sieve are liquid limit of 22 and
plastic limit of 15. The specific gravity of solids is 2·70, and
X-ray diffraction showed that the fine portion is predomi-
nantly kaolinite. The cement agent used was rapid-hardening
Portland cement (initial setting time of 3·25 h), which allows
homogeneous cementing in the specimens in a very short
period. The grain size curves for the soil and the Portland
cement used are shown in Fig. 1.
Specimen preparation, curing and testing procedures
The specimens (50 mm diameter 3 100 mm high) were
prepared by initially mixing the relevant quantities of dry
soil and powdered Portland cement; the water was then
added to the mixture and further mixing was performed until
it was homogeneous in appearance. Next, following the
undercompaction method proposed by Ladd (1978), the
soil–cement mixture was compacted in three layers into a
50 mm diameter cylindrical split-mould, to a target void
ratio of 0·65, moisture content of 19%, and cement contents
of 0 (uncemented), 1, 2 and 3% by weight of dry soil. The
artificially cemented specimens prepared as described are
characterised as weakly to moderately cemented soils de-
pending on the classification criteria considered (e.g.
Beckwith & Hansen, 1982; Rad & Clough, 1985;
Hardingham, 1994), and reflect the actual conditions of
many naturally cemented soil deposits and cement-stabilised
soil layers.
For any experimental work that requires artificially ce-
mented specimens to be prepared, reproducibility is crucial
to the consistency of the test results. In the present work,
the reproducibility of the specimens was evaluated in terms
of both density and degree of cementation by examining the
experimental variability of their physical characteristics and
unconfined compressive strengths. For the whole set of 18
specimens prepared (see Table 1), the average values of the
moulding moisture content, the void ratio, and the degree of
saturation were 0·194, 0·66 and 0·797, with coefficients of
variation of 1·5%, 0·8% and 1·3% respectively. The uncon-
fined compressive strengths, averaged from three indepen-
dent values, were 120, 180 and 271 kPa respectively for the
cement contents of 1%, 2% and 3%, with coefficients of
variation that decreased with increasing strength from 8·3%
for the lowest cement content to 4·4% for the highest.
The unconfined compression tests were performed follow-
ing the general procedure recommended by the ASTM
standard (ASTM, 1991a). Before being tested at a strain rate
of 1·14%/min, the specimens were cured under zero confin-
100
80
Percent finer by weight
60
40
20
Soil
Portland cement
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
Grain size: mm
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution
 ISOTROPIC YIELDING IN AN ARTIFICIALLY CEMENTED SOIL 495
Table 1. Summary of the isotropic compression tests
Notation Cement content: Curing/initial isotropic Curing/initial Incremental yield Initial bulk
% stress: kPa void ratio stress: kPa modulus: MPa
ISO(0)0-3000 0 – 0·65 – 6·0
ISO(1)100-6000 1 98 0·62 80 25·9
ISO(1)250-6000 246 0·57 159 45·7
ISO(1)500-6000 499 0·53 216 57·0
ISO(1)1000-6000 998 0·47 385 79·8
ISO(2)100-6000 2 104 0·62 190 36·4
ISO(2)250-6000 254 0·57 267 68·0
ISO(2)500-6000 494 0·54 380 147·0
ISO(3)100-6000 3 99 0·62 260 48·4
ISO(3)250-6000 245 0·57 315 167·0
ISO(3)500-6000 492 0·54 498 267·2
ISO(3)600-6000 596 0·51 587 393·9
ISO(3)700-6000 733 0·49 572 395·0
ISO(3)1000-6000 974 0·48 679 440·2
ISO(3)2000-6000 1960 0·43 989 563·9
ISO(3)500-6000
484 0·54 476 237·0
ISO(3)50-6000

48 0·54 498 –
ISO(3)50-6000


48 0·49 662 –
ISO(3)500–6000
was consolidated up to 500 kPa, cured, and unloaded to 50 kPa before isotropic loading.
ISO(3)50–6000

was consolidated up to 500 kPa, unloaded to 50 kPa, and then cured before isotropic loading.
ISO(3)50–6000


was consolidated up to 1000 kPa, unloaded to 50 kPa, and then cured before isotropic loading.

ing stress for a 48 h period and soaked in water during the
last hour to saturate them. This procedure resulted in an
average of 19·4% moisture content and 79·7% degree of
saturation. To assess the effect of non-saturation on the
unconfined compression response, suction measurements
were made for a number of specimens prior to soaking.
Values of only 10–15 kPa and 22 kPa were obtained, respec-
tively, by using the paper filter technique (ASTM, 1991b)
and the miniature suction probe, as described by Ridley &
Burland (1993). Considering that these values were expected
to have reduced significantly due to soaking, any suction
effects were considered to have only a marginal influence on
soil strength.
For the isotropic compression tests, the specimens were
moulded with the same moisture content and degree of
saturation as for the unconfined tests, and with a void ratio
of 0·66. They were placed in the triaxial cell and submitted,
prior to the onset of the cementitious bonds, to confining
stresses ranging from 50 to 2000 kPa, before being cured for
48 h at a constant confining stress. The time it took to
prepare (mix and compact) and set up the specimen in the
triaxial cell was always less than 1 h, which is much shorter
than the initial setting time of the Portland cement used. To
increase saturation and reduce suction effects, de-aired water
was percolated through the specimens during the curing
period, under a maximum hydraulic head equivalent to a
15 kPa pressure difference between the ends of the speci-
mens. Although full saturation was not guaranteed, suction
effects, which had already been evaluated as negligible for
the unconfined compression tests, were expected to reduce
even more as the saturation increased during the initial
consolidation of the specimens.
Isotropic compression was then carried out by applying
consecutive, but not necessarily equal, increments of stress.
A new increment was applied only after the remaining
excess pore pressure was smaller than 5% of the stress
increment. At this point, further increases in volumetric
strain were not significant. The pore pressure was monitored
by an electrical transducer connected to the bottom of the
specimen while drainage was permitted only through an
outlet line connected to the top cap. Since the specimens
were not fully saturated, the volumetric strains were calcu-
lated from axial and radial strains measured inside the
triaxial cell using a set of linear variable differential trans-
formers (LVDTs) with a 25 mm linear range and 0·001%
resolution, using a 12-bit data logger and 10 V power supply.
These internal devices were mounted on the top cap and
directly on the specimen following the arrangement de-
scribed by Lingnau et al. (1995) and Blatz & Graham
(2000). Corrections were made to the axial strain measure-
ments to take into account both porous stone and paper filter
compliance errors. The curing stresses were applied only
after the LVDTs had been mounted and set at their electrical
zero, so all the volumetric strains that occurred during
curing were monitored and the void ratio at the end of the
curing stage could be calculated.
TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Figures 2–4 present the results obtained from the isotropic
compression tests carried out on specimens cured under
different confining stresses and for cement contents of 1%,
2% and 3% respectively. A summary of the test results is
given in Table 1. The identification of the tests follows the
general nomenclature ISO(x)y-z, where x is the cement
content, y is the curing confining stress, and z is the maxi-
mum isotropic stress reached in the test.
The curve ISO(0)0-3000, presented in all graphs, was
obtained from a specimen moulded without the addition of
cement and represents the intrinsic soil response in its
destructured (uncemented) state. All the other curves were
obtained from specimens moulded with cement addition and
cured at different confining stresses, prior to cement bonds
formation. The first point plotted on each curve, for the
cemented specimens, represents the void ratio and the iso-
tropic stress at the end of the curing procedure and the
beginning of isotropic compression. The subsequent points
represent the end of each stress increment. It can be readily
noticed that the first point of each curve lies approximately
on the isotropic compression curve obtained for the unce-
mented specimen. This shows that, when submitted to the
curing confining stress, the specimens with cement addition
behaved similarly to the uncemented reference specimen,
regardless of the cement content. This supports the supposi-
tion that the cementitious bonds were formed only after the
initial consolidation of the specimens, and indicates that any
496 ROTTA, CONSOLI, PRIETTO, COOP AND GRAHAM

0.65 0.65
Primary yield point
Primary yield point
ISO(0)0-3000
0.60 ISO(0)0-3000 0.60
ISO(2)100-6000
ISO(1)100-6000
ISO(2)250-6000
ISO(1)250-6000
0.55 0.55 ISO(2)500-6000

Void ratio
Void ratio

ISO(1)500-6000
ISO(1)1000-6000
0.50 0.50

0.45 0.45

0.40 0.40

0 10 100 1000 10000 0 10 100 1000 10 000

p′: kPa p′: kPa
(a) (a)

0.65 0.65

Primary yield point Primary yield point

ISO(0)0-3000 0.60 ISO(0)0-3000
0.60
ISO(1)100-6000 ISO(2)100-6000
ISO(1)250-6000 ISO(2)250-6000
0.55 0.55
Void ratio
ISO(2)500-6000
Void ratio

ISO(1)500-6000
ISO(1)1000-6000
0.50 0.50

0.45 0.45

0.40 0.40

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
p′: kPa p′: kPa
(b) (b)

Fig. 2. Isotropic compression response for the 1% cement Fig. 3. Isotropic compression response for the 2% cement
content specimens: (a) log scale; (b) linear scale content specimens: (a) log scale; (b) linear scale

influence of the grading alteration due to cement addition,
up to the 3% maximum used here, and creep effects, if they
occurred at all, had negligible effects on the compression
data at this stage of the test. This also illustrates one
advantage of using Portland cement over gypsum cement as
the cementitious agent in the present work. Coop & Atkin-
son (1993) found that the quantities of gypsum that had to
be added to achieve realistic strengths were so great that the
change of fines content had a significant impact on the
intrinsic behaviour.
The isotropic compression curves obtained for the ce-
mented specimens are similar in shape to those reported
in the literature for structured and naturally/artificially
cemented soils (e.g. Leroueil & Vaughan, 1990). The speci-
mens are initially much stiffer than the soil in its des-
tructured state, then becoming gradually softer as the
isotropic stress increases.
From the isotropic compression curves presented in Figs
2–4, it can be observed that, for the specimens prepared
with the same cement content, the stress increment neces-
sary to cause a given reduction in void ratio increases as the
curing stress increases. This is corroborated by the initial
bulk moduli reported in Table 1 and plotted in Fig. 5, which
also shows an interactive effect of the curing void ratio, at
the moment of formation of the cement bonds, and the
cement content on the pre-yield volumetric stiffness of the
cemented soil. From Fig. 5 it can be seen that the increase
in the initial bulk modulus caused by an increase in cement
content is much more pronounced at lower void ratios, and
that, for the cement content range investigated, the bulk
moduli tend to a unique low value as the curing void ratio
increases. This clearly demonstrates the coupled effect of
density and cementation on the mechanical behaviour of
bonded soils (e.g. Huang & Airey, 1998).
Determination of yield stresses in isotropic compression
In contrast to some examples reported in the literature
(e.g. Leroueil & Vaughan, 1990; Cuccovillo & Coop, 1997),
there is no clearly defined yield in the curves presented in
Figs 2–4. Difficulties in determining the yield point have
also been reported by other authors, for example Barksdale
& Blight (1997) for residual soils, Kavvadas et al. (1993)
for the Corinth marl, and Cecconi et al. (1998) for soft
rocks. This has often been explained as a result of a gradual
onset of the breakage of the cement bonds. Also, the grading
of the soil (e.g. Martins et al., 2001), a silty sand in the
present work, and the micro-features of the cementitious
agent (e.g. Ismail et al., 2002) can significantly add difficul-
ties in identifying the yield point for cemented soils.
Here the primary yield—that is, the point at which break-
age of the cement bonds commences—was considered to be
when, in the linear scale, the stress–strain curve deviates
from the initial linear behaviour (Fig. 6). This definition is
consistent with that used in other work (e.g. Cuccovillo &
Coop, 1997). The arrows plotted in Figs 2–4 indicate the
primary yield stresses of the cemented materials.
 ISOTROPIC YIELDING IN AN ARTIFICIALLY CEMENTED SOIL 497
0.50
0.65
Primary yield point
Primary yield point
ISO(3)1000-6000
0.60 ISO(0)0-3000 0.48
ISO(3)100-6000
ISO(3)250-6000 a
0.55
Void ratio

ISO(3)500-6000 0.46

Void ratio
ISO(3)600-6000
0.50 ISO(3)700-6000
ISO(3)1000-6000 0.44
ISO(3)2000-6000
0.45

0.42
0.40

0 10 100 1000 10000 0.40

p′: kPa 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
(a) p′: kPa

Fig. 6. Determination of the primary yield stress in isotropic

0.65 Primary yield point compression
ISO(0)0-3000
0.60 ISO(3)100-6000
ISO(3)250-6000
Yield locus
ISO(3)500-6000
0.55
Void ratio

ISO(3)600-6000
ISO(3)700-6000
ISO(3)1000-6000
0.50
ISO(3)2000-6000
Void ratio

0.45
Post-yield
compression line
0.40 (PYCL)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

p′: kPa Intrinsic
(b) compression line
(ICL)
Fig. 4. Isotropic compression response for the 3% cement
ln p′
content specimens: (a) log scale; (b) linear scale
Fig. 7. Patterns of behaviour observed in the isotropic compres-
sion tests
0.70

feature had also been observed by Cuccovillo & Coop

1% cement content
(1999) for natural calcarenites of variable initial void ratio.
2% cement content The zone between the post-yield compression line and the
0.60 3% cement content ICL defines the structure permitted space (Leroueil &
Curing void ratio

Vaughan, 1990).
Figure 8 summarises the locations of the post-yield com-
pression line (PYCL) for each cement content, showing how

0.50
0.65 1% cement content
Yield loci 2% cement content
0.60 3% cement content

0.40
0 200 400 600 0.55 1% 2% 3%
Void ratio

Post-yield
Bulk modulus: MPa compression lines
(PYCL)
Fig. 5. Variation of initial bulk modulus with curing void ratio 0.50

General patterns of behaviour 0.45

Figure 7 shows a schematic diagram illustrating the Intrinsic
patterns of behaviour observed in Figs 2–4, and defines the compression line
0.40
terms that will be used to describe the behaviour. After (ICL)
primary yield, the paths of the specimens of a variety of 100 1000 10 000
different initial void ratios all follow a post-yield compres- p′: kPa
sion line that is unique for each degree of cementation and
which converges with the intrinsic compression line (ICL) of Fig. 8. Summary of primary yield points, yield loci, and post-
the uncemented soil as the isotropic stress increases. This yield compression lines
498 ROTTA, CONSOLI, PRIETTO, COOP AND GRAHAM
it both expands and steepens as the cement content in- Fitting equation: ecure ⫽ A ln(∆p′y) ⫹ B
0.65
creases. By extrapolating the PYCLs and the ICL shown in Cement content A B R2
Fig. 8, it can be seen that convergence would occur even- 1% ⫺0.1026 1.0832 0.995
tually, but not before an isotropic stress as high as 30 MPa 0.60 2% ⫺0.1297 1.2988 0.994
had been reached, regardless of the cement content. This 3% ⫺0.1376 1.3771 0.959
slow convergence may seem surprising, given the relatively

Curing void ratio

modest cement contents. As discussed above, such a small
amount of cement fines would have a negligible effect on
the location of the intrinsic compression line, but the gradual
convergence indicates a much slower destructuration than
has been seen, for example, for some naturally cemented
sands (e.g. Lagioia & Nova, 1995; Cuccovillo & Coop,
1999). However, Coop & Atkinson (1993) also found a slow
convergence for an artificially cemented sand. The slow
convergence may also be a function of the base material
used, which is gap graded (e.g. Thevanayagam & Mohan,
2000). Martins et al. (2001) have shown how, for these soils,
initial differences in void ratio are not readily removed by
compression, even to high stresses. For the uncemented
samples they tested, the initial differences in void ratio were
created by varying degrees of compaction. Here the initial
difference is essentially created by the delay in compression
brought about by the cement bonding.
Also shown in Fig. 8 are the primary yield loci, which,
for this soil, lie between the ICL and PYCL and again
converge with the ICL as the isotropic stress increases. For
the natural calcarenite tested by Cuccovillo & Coop (1999)
the yield locus practically coincided with the PYCL, perhaps
because it had been cemented at a shallow depth prior to
burial and not under a confining stress as was done here.
Since the specimens were cemented at states on the ICL, the
yield locus necessarily lies to the right of the ICL, but for
some soils this is not the case. For example, the Greensand
tested by Cuccovillo & Coop had its yield point in compres-
sion below the ICL as it had been cemented after a strong
geological overconsolidation.
In Fig.8 the yield loci and the PYCL are represented
simply as straight lines. However, they cannot be straight
over an extended pressure range, as clearly the lines cannot
cross the ICL, and it might be expected that—no matter
what the stress is when the cement cures—there should
always be some positive effect on the yield stress. The shape
of the yield locus is examined in greater detail in the
following section.
Factors determining the size of the primary yield surface
The increases in primary yield stresses in isotropic com-
pression for the artificially cemented soil are presented in
Fig. 9 as a function of the curing void ratio and cement
content. For this soil and cement, and for the method of
specimen preparation used, the points plotted can be satis-
factorily fitted by logarithmic functions such as:


ecure ¼ Aln ˜ p9y þ B (1)
0.55 R S T
0.50
R′ S′ T′
0.45
0.40
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Incremental yield stress: kPa
Fig. 9. Variation of incremental yield stress with curing void
ratio
void ratio of 0·54 on the normal compression line (˜ p9y
¼ 0). By increasing the cement content at the same curing
void ratio, the increment in the yield stress in isotropic
compression is shifted to the right up to the corresponding
cement content (point S for 1% and T for 3% cement
content). In Fig. 10, the variation in the primary yield stress
( p9y ¼ p9cure þ ˜ p9y ) is plotted against cement content, for
four different curing void ratios. It can again be observed
that, for specimens cured at the same density, the primary
yield stresses increase with the increase in cement content.
(b) For specimens with the same cement content, the
primary yield stress increases with reducing void ratio
during curing.
For example, the specimen cured at the void ratio of 0·54
and cement content of 3% (point T) will have an incremental
yield stress in isotropic compression lower than the value
obtained for the specimen cured with the same cement
content but at the void ratio of 0·48 (point T9). Again, this
can also be observed in Fig. 10, where the primary yield
stresses increase with the curing void ratio for the specimens
cured at the same cement content. This may arise from an
increase in density resulting in an increase in the number of
contact points between the soil particles where the cement
can form a bond.
(c) The relative contribution of cementation to the primary
yield stress in isotropic compression decreases with
reducing void ratio during curing.
10000
Curing void ratio
0.47
Primary yield stress: kPa

1000 0.54
where ecure is the curing void ratio (obtained at the end of
curing stage), ˜ p9y is the incremental yield stress, defined as 0.57
the difference between the primary yield stress in isotropic 0.62
compression, p9y , and the isotropic curing stress, p9cure , and A
and B are fitting constants.
100
From the analysis of Fig. 9, three basic conclusions are
possible:
(a) For specimens cured at the same void ratio, the primary
yield stress in isotropic compression increases with
increasing cement content. 10
0 1 2 3 4
This behaviour can be observed from Fig. 9 through the Cement content: %
straight line RST. The point R represents the value of the
incremental yield stress for an uncemented specimen with Fig. 10. Variation of primary yield stress with cement content
 ISOTROPIC YIELDING IN AN ARTIFICIALLY CEMENTED SOIL
Observing two specimens prepared with the same cement
content but cured at different void ratios (points S and S9 in
Fig. 9), the stresses resisted by interparticle friction can be
obtained directly from the uncemented isotropic compression
curve given in Figs 2–4, and the stresses resisted by
interparticle bonding by the straight lines RS and R9S9 in
Fig. 9, for 1% cement content. It can be observed that the
ratio between the stresses resisted by bonding and by friction
decreases with reducing curing void ratio, demonstrating that
the contribution of cementation is less effective in denser
specimens. A better visualisation is provided in Fig. 10.
Taking the example of the specimen at a void ratio of 0·57,
the increase in cement content up to 3% caused an increase
of about 106% in the primary yield stress (from 276 kPa to
560 kPa). However, for the specimens cured at a void ratio
of 0·47, the increase in cement content increased the primary
yield stress from 1139 kPa to 1653 kPa, representing an
increase of only 46%. Cuccovillo & Coop (1999) made
similar observations for the natural calcarenite they tested,
for which the effect of cementation is proportionately much
greater at higher void ratios than at lower ones, so that the
post-yield compression line and yield locus converged with
the intrinsic normal compression line, as indicated in Fig.7.
Figure 10 also indicates that an increase in density, for
example by an increase in compaction energy, can be more
effective in increasing the primary yield stress, and hence
soil stiffness, than an increase in cement content. This might
be of paramount importance to engineering practice in
relation to the use of artificially cemented soils in earth-
works.
The changes in the incremental yield stress in isotropic
compression as a function of the curing void ratio and
cement content can be conveniently expressed by a simple
mathematical expression derived from the equations pre-
sented in Fig. 9. From a simple linear regression analysis of
the values presented in the table embedded in Fig. 9, the
coefficients A and B can be expressed as linear functions of
cement content (CC):
A ¼ 0:0175 3 CC  0:0883, R2 ¼ 0:909 (2)
B ¼ 0:1470 3 CC þ 0:9591, R2 ¼ 0:932 (3)
Introducing the expressions for A and B in equation (1), the
value of the incremental yield stress (˜ p9y in kPa) in
isotropic compression is then given by
 
0:147 3 CC þ 0:9591  ecure
˜ p9y ¼ exp (4)
0:0175 3 CC þ 0:0883
where ecure is the curing void ratio and CC is the percentage
cement content.
The primary yield stress in isotropic compression
( p9y ¼ p9cure þ ˜ p9y ) obtained from Fig. 9 or using equation
(4) provides the intersection between the primary yield sur-
face and the isotropic axis (p9-axis) in p9:q9 stress space. So,
decreasing the curing void ratio and/or increasing the cement
content causes an increase in the primary yield isotropic
stress and, therefore, the expansion of the primary yield
surface. So, in a normally consolidated deposit that has been
cemented while under a geostatic stress through the precipi-
tation of a cementitious agent, it might be expected that there
will be an expansion of the primary yield surface with depth,
the magnitude of which depends on the variation of both the
curing density and the amount of cementitious agent.
Influence of stress history after curing
To assess the effect of stress history after curing on the
primary yield stress, an additional specimen containing 3%
499
cement was tested in isotropic compression. The specimen
was consolidated up to 500 kPa, cured for 48 h, and then
unloaded to 50 kPa (ISO(3)500-6000
). In this way, it was
possible to obtain a specimen with a void ratio comparable
to that obtained for the normally consolidated specimen
ISO(3)500-6000, but with a different OCR. The results are
reported in Table 1 and presented in Fig. 11, along with the
isotropic compression curve for the reference-uncemented
soil.
It can be readily noticed that, for one unloading/reloading
cycle, the behaviour in isotropic compression is independent
of the unloading applied to the specimen after curing, even
with an overconsolidation ratio as high as 10. This clearly
demonstrates that both the curing void ratio and the degree
of cementation control the stress–strain behaviour of the
cemented soil in isotropic compression, and not the stress
history after bonds formation. In this case, unloading clearly
had no effect on the cement bonds. This is in contrast to the
findings of Fernandez & Santamarina (2001), who found that
sands cemented under a confining stress yielded more easily
in swelling than in compression. Here the soil was unloaded
by 450 kPa, which is similar to the incremental yield stress
in compression of 476 kPa, and yet there was no apparent
adverse effect.
Influence of stress history prior to curing
To evaluate the influence of stress history prior to curing,
two additional specimens using 3% cement content (see
Table 1) were tested in isotropic compression. The first
specimen (ISO(3)50-6000

) was consolidated up to
500 kPa, unloaded to 50 kPa, and then cured for 48 h before
being isotropically compressed up to 6000 kPa. The second
specimen (ISO(3)50-6000


) was consolidated up to
1000 kPa, unloaded to 50 kPa, and then cured. In this way, it
was possible to obtain two specimens with void ratios
comparable to those obtained for the normally consolidated
specimens ISO(3)500-6000 and ISO(3)1000-6000 respec-
tively, but cured under different confining stresses and with
different overconsolidation ratios.
The results are presented in Figs 12 and 13, along with
the isotropic compression curve for the reference-uncemen-
ted soil. Different slopes in the unloading and reloading
lines of tests ISO(3)50-6000

and ISO(3)50-6000


can
be readily seen, reflecting the different states of the speci-
men at each stage of the test: uncemented during unloading
prior to curing, and cemented during reloading. Using the
procedure previously described, similar incremental yield
0.65
ISO(0)0-3000
0.60 ISO(3)500-6000
ISO(3)500-6000*
Curing point
0.55
Void ratio
Primary yield
point
0.50
0.45
0.40
1 10 100 1000 10 000
p′: kPa
Fig. 11. Effect of stress history after curing (OCR 10)
500 ROTTA, CONSOLI, PRIETTO, COOP AND GRAHAM
the increase of isotropic stress supported before primary
0.65
yielding will be the same for both specimens, as the incre-
ISO(0)0-3000 ment of loading beyond the curing stress will be carried
0.60 ISO(3)500-6000 entirely by the soil bonds, which are much stiffer than the
ISO(3)500-6000** soil skeleton.
Curing point
0.55
Void ratio

Primary yield
point SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
0.50 Eighteen isotropic compression tests were carried out on
artificially cemented specimens cured under different confin-
0.45
ing stresses and prepared with different cement contents.
The specimens were first consolidated to various confining
stresses along the normal compression line of the uncemen-
0.40 ted soil, simulating the formation of soil elements at differ-
ent depths in a fictitious sedimentary deposit. After
1 10 100 1000 10000 consolidation, the specimens were then allowed to cure and
p′: kPa cement. Isotropic compression was then applied incremen-
tally after curing. The test results allowed the evaluation of
Fig. 12. Effect of stress history prior to curing (OCR 10) the contribution of cementitious bonds to the volumetric
behaviour of the cemented soil as well as the variation in
primary and incremental yield stresses in isotropic compres-
sion as a function of curing void ratio. The conclusions can
be summarised as follows:
0.65
(a) For the artificially cemented specimens studied, the
ISO(0)0-3000 primary yield stress in isotropic compression is a
0.60 ISO(3)500-6000 function of the curing void ratio and cement content; it
ISO(3)500-6000*** is also dependent on the curing stresses, but is
0.55 Curing point independent of any increase in the OCR after curing.
Void ratio

Primary yield (b) The relative contribution of cementation to the soil

point behaviour in isotropic compression reduces with de-
0.50
creasing curing void ratio.
(c) A decrease in the void ratio existing during formation
0.45 of the cement bonds and/or an increase in the degree of
cementation causes an increase in the primary yield
stress in isotropic compression and, consequently, the
0.40
expansion of the primary yield surface of the cemented
1 10 100 1000 10000
soil.
(d ) At similar void ratios, the curing confining stress
p′: kPa
influences the primary yield stress, but does not affect
Fig. 13. Effect of stress history prior to curing (OCR 20)
the incremental yield stress.
(e) According to the simulation carried out in this study, it
is expected that there will be an expansion in the
primary yield surface with increasing depth in a
stresses were obtained for the specimens cured at similar
sedimentary deposit that is cemented uniformly at all
void ratios, but at different overconsolidation ratios (see
depths in a single event.
Table 1). At a given void ratio, the curing confining stress
( p9cure ) therefore influences the primary yield stress ( p9y ), but
not the incremental yield stress (˜ p9y ), as defined in equation
(1), which is kept practically unchanged. These tests confirm ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
that not only the amount of cement controls the size and The authors wish to express their gratitude to CNPq
location of the yield envelope, but also the stress acting (National Council of Scientific and Technological Research)
when the cement bond is created. (Projects 520610/95–4 and 479804/01–0), the British Coun-
However, even if the yield stress is affected by the curing cil, and CAPES (Coordination of Training of High Educa-
confining pressure, the location of the post-yield compres- tion Graduate) (Project CAPES-British Council 088/99) for
sion line seems to remain unchanged. It may be that while the financial support to the research group.
primary yield represents the onset of bond degradation, the
strains in reloading are not sufficient to completely destroy
the bonds, the influence of which is only gradually reduced NOTATION
as the post-yield compression line converges with the intrin- A, B constant coefficients
sic compression line at large strains. D grain diameter (size)
The independence of the incremental yield stresses, at a e void ratio
given void ratio, from the curing confining stresses can be ecure curing void ratio
R2 coefficient of determination
explained by analysing the contribution of bonding to soil
p9 mean isotropic stress
behaviour during isotropic compression. When two identical p9cure mean isotropic stress at curing
soil specimens (that is, with similar cement contents and p9y primary yield stress in isotropic compression
void ratios) are cured under different confining stresses, the ˜ p9y incremental yield stress in isotropic compression
bonds are actually formed under no stress, as the curing CC cement content
stress, which is applied before bonding formation, is entirely ICL intrinsic compression line
supported by the uncemented soil skeleton. Consequently, PYCL post-yield compression line
 ISOTROPIC YIELDING IN AN ARTIFICIALLY CEMENTED SOIL
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