ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with a feeling of great pleasure that we would like to express our most sincere
heartfelt gratitude to Er. Rohit Singh, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, UIT, Allahabad, for suggesting the topic for our thesis report and for
his ready and able guidance throughout the course of preparation. We thank you
Sir, for your help, inspiration and blessings. We express our sincere thanks to
Prof. B.K Pandey HOD, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering UIT, Allahabad for
providing us the necessary facilities in the department.
We would also take this opportunity to express our gratitude and sincere thanks to
our other faculty members for their invaluable advice, encouragement, inspiration
and blessings. Submitting this thesis would have been a herculean job, without the
constant help, encouragement, support and suggestions from our friends, for their
time to time help. It will be difficult to record our appreciation to each and every
one of them in this small space. We will relish your memories for years to come.
We would also like to thank our parents and other family members, for their
support and love, which has been a constant source of strength for us.

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 CONTENTS

Pages

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction 8-9
2. SPECIFICATIONS
2.1. Introduction 10
2.2. Design 10-13
3. SENSORS
3.1. Introduction 14
3.2. Criteria to choose sensors 12
3.3. Classification of Sensors 15-16
3.4. Infrared sensors
3.4.1. Infrared Radiation Theory 17-18
3.4.2. The Foundations of Infrared Science 18
3.4.3 The Types of Infrared Sensors 18
3.4.4 The Working Principle of Infrared Sensors 18-19
3.4.5 The Key Applications of Infrared Technology 19-20
3.5 Depth Warning Sensor 20-21

4. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
4.1 Introduction 22
4.2 Brushless vs. brushed motors 23-24
4.3 Controller implementations 24-25
4.4 Variations in construction 25-26
4.5 Applications 26-27

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5. ELECTRIC VEHICLE
5.1 Introduction 28
5.1.1. Electricity sources 28-29
5.2. Lithium-ion battery 29
5.3. Electric motor 29-30
5.4 Properties 30-31
5.5. Charging 31

5.5.1 Battery swapping 31-32

5.5.2 Chassis swapping 32
5.5.3 Other in-development technologies 32

5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of EVs 33-34

6. LEAD ACID BATTERY

6.1 Introduction 35
6.2 Electrochemistry 36-37
6.3 Charging 38
6.3.1 Ion motion 39
6.3.2 Measuring the charge level 39-41
6.4 Valve regulated (VRLA) 41-42

7. MATERIALS USED IN CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION

7.1 Iron
7.1.1 Mechanical Properties 43-44
7.1.2 Phase diagram and allotropes 45-46

7.2 Plywood

7.2.1 Structural characteristics 47-48

7.3 Types 48-57

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8.Manufacturing processes used
8.1 Electric Arc Welding 58-65
8.2 Grinding
8.2.1 Introduction 66
8.2.2 Processes 67-71
8.2.3 Grinding wheel 71
8.2.4 Lubrication 71-72
8.2.5 The workpiece 72-73
8.3 Machining 73-74

9. CONCLUSION 75
10. FUTURE SCOPE 76
11. REFRENCES 77

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 ABSTRACT
The basic theory or idea is to utilise the proximity warning system of a standard car parking

sensor to help a visually challenged person determine the obstacles up front.

The major time and effort is lost in determining the clearance of the path up front with the help

of stick. This proposed design will eliminate this wastage of time and effort. Hence the objective

is to develop a small vehicle for visually challenged people using car parking sensors to enable

them to move at normal running speed of humans.

The proposed vehicle will run on electrical power from batteries and provide a secureand fast

way of commuting for visually challenged people inside residential areas, airports, campuses and

also employment in freight moving duties inside factories.

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. No. Description Page No.

2.1 Blind Aid Vehicle 10
2.2 Steel Cage Chassis 11
2.3 Lead Acid Battery 11
2.4 BLDC Motor 12
2.5 Steering Mechanism 12
2.6 Wheels and Traction Motor 13
3.1 Parking assist motion sensor 17
4.1 Schematic for Delta and Wye winding styles 25
4.2 The 4 poles on the stator of a 2-phase BLDC motor 26
6.1 Fully discharged two identical lead sulphate plates 36
6.2 Fully recharged: Lead anode, lead oxide cathode and sulphuric acid 38
electrolyte
6.3 A hydrometer 39
7.1 Molar volume vs pressure of Alpha iron 44
7.2 Low pressure phase diagram of pure iron 45
7.2.1 De Havilland DH-98 49
8.1 Engine driven AC/DC welder 58
8.2 A diesel powered welding generator 59
8.3 Shielded metal arc welding 61
8.4 Welding safety checklist 64
8.5 Centerless grinding 69
8.6 A Schematic ELID grinding 70
8.7 Cutting Process 74

LIST OF TABLES
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Table No. Description Page No.

5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of Electric Vehicles 33-34

7.1 Properties of iron 43

8.2 Cutting fluids and their application 71-72

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CHAPTER – 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Blind aid vehicle is a new and innovative technology which has been designed to help people
who are visually disabled. With the help of car parking sensors, the vision has been to empower
the driver (blind person) so that he is aware of his surroundings.
The basic theory or idea is to utilise the proximity warning system of a standard car parking
sensor to help a visually challenged person determine the obstacles up front.The major time and
effort is lost in determining the clearance of the path up front with the help of stick. This
proposed design will eliminate this wastage of time and effort.

In order to bring the ideas discussed above to life, an iron L-bar frame, which has been welded at
four points, is used. The purpose of using the L-bar frame is to provide strength to the structure
as well as to provide enough space for battery and other accessories. The wheels has been
attached by four iron axles.

A 6V brushless DC motor has been used because of the fact that it requires lesser maintenance. It
is more efficient and reliable having a life expectancy of over 10,000 hours. It can operate at
speed above 10,000 rpm in both loaded and unloaded condition. It also operates at less noise.

In order to operate the motor, a 2.1 sealed lead acid battery has been used. Lead acid batteries are
more resistant to corrosion, overcharging, gassing, water usage and self-discharge, all of which
cab affect the battery life.

The most important device on which this entire project rests upon is the collision sensor or
commonly known as car parking sensors. It provides a range of 200 cm and uses a 2-channel
system with input power which is connected to the main switch.

Apart from the IR collision sensor, a depth warning sensor has also been included to give an idea
in case of any sudden change in depth. The system consists of an iron rod whose one end is
connected to a small wheel while the other end is provided with an electrical connection. When

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the surface is smooth, the wheel will move smoothly over the surface but in case of a change in
depth, the electrical connection will be broken and the vehicle will come to a halt.

A steering mechanism has been included which ensures the smooth turning of the wheels.

A 2.5 inch thick plywood has been used to provide the platform which will enable the driver to
sit comfortably and it can provide space to mount other accessories.

Suitable electrical connections have been made to ensure that the sensors and other parts function
accordingly.

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CHAPTER -2 SPECIFICATIONS

2.1 Introduction

The basic theory or idea is to utilise the proximity warning system of a standard car parking
sensor to help a visually challenged person determine the obstacles up front.

The major time and effort is lost in determining the clearance of the path up front with the
help of stick. This proposed design will eliminate this wastage of time and effort.

2.2 Design

Fig 2.1 Blind Aid Vehicle

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 The name of the parts in accordance with the numbering given in the design is as follows-

1. Wooden base platform – made up of 0.5 inch plywood

2. Steel cage chassis – made up of L-shaped iron bars joined together by electric arc welding

Fig 2.2 Steel cage chassis

3. Battery box - The motor and vehicle electronics are powered by a 6 volt, 2.1 Amp sealed
Lead Acid battery

Fig 2.3 – Lead Acid Battery

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 4. Motor box (prime mover) - Tractive power is provided by a 6 volt Brushless DC motor
attached to the rear left wheel via a gear train.

Fig 2.4 – Brushless DC motor

5. Depth Warning System (DWS) - It comprises of a rod which is movable up and down. It is
provided with electrical connection.

6. Sensors - The collision sensors are IR sensors with sound feed which are found on cars for
parking aid.

7. Steering mechanism – The Steering mechanism is provided by Iron bar connected to the
chassis by a movable attachment which control the steering.

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 Fig 2.5 – Steering Mechanism

8. Wheels – The wheels used are made up of hard plastic with rubber strap on the surface to
provide better gripping action.

Fig 2.6 – Wheels and Traction Motor

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CHAPTER – 3 SENSORS

3.1 Introduction

In the broadest definition, a sensor is an electronic component, module, or subsystem whose

purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment and send the information to other
electronics, frequently a computer processor. A sensor is always used with other electronics,
whether as simple as a light or as complex as a computer.

Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of which
most people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-to-use microcontroller
platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the traditional fields of temperature,
pressure or flow measurement, for example into MARG sensors. Moreover, analog sensors such
as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Applications include
manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine, robotics and many other
aspects of our day-to-day life.

A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input quantity
being measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1 °C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/°C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming
a linear characteristic). Some sensors can also affect what they measure; for instance, a room
temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats
the thermometer. Sensors are usually designed to have a small effect on what is measured;
making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other
advantages.Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a
microscopic scale as microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor
reaches a significantly higher speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.

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3.2 Criteria to choose sensors
There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are as
given below:
1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor
4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost
7. Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment

3.3 Classification of Sensors

The sensors are classified into the following criteria:
1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application

Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient approach.
Usually, material and technology criteria are chosen by the development engineering group.

Classification based on property is as given below:

· Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, RTD’s, IC and many more.
· Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT, electronic.
· Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal mass, etc.
· Level Sensors - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal
displacement, etc.
· Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic, ultrasonic.
· Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance, Light
addressable potentio-metric.

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· Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
· Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conductance, Electrochemical.
· Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
· Others - Moisture, humidity sensor, Speed sensor, mass, Tilt sensor, force, viscosity.

Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable potentio-metric from the Bio-sensors group
are the new optical technology based sensors. CMOS Image sensors have low resolution as
compared to charge coupled devices. CMOS has the advantages of small size, cheap, less power
consumption and hence are better substitutes for Charge coupled devices. Accelerometers are
independently grouped because of their vital role in future applications like aircraft, automobiles,
etc and in fields of videogames, toys, etc. Magnetometers are those sensors which measure
magnetic flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or As/m2).

Classification based on Application is as given below:

· Industrial process control, measurement and automation
· Non-industrial use – Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer electronics, other
type of sensors.

Sensors can be classified based on power or energy supply requirement of the sensors:
· Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors. Example:
LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.
· Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive Sensors.
Example: Radiometers, film photography.

In the current and future applications, sensors can be classified into groups as follows:
· Accelerometers - These are based on the Micro Electro Mechanical sensor technology.
They are used for patient monitoring which includes pace makers and vehicle dynamic systems.
· Biosensors - These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used for food
testing, medical care device, water testing, and biological warfare agent detection.
· Image Sensors - These are based on the CMOS technology. They are used in consumer
electronics, biometrics, traffic and security surveillance and PC imaging.

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· Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infra Red, Ultrasonic, and Microwave / radar
technology. They are used in videogames and simulations, light activation and security detection.

Fig 3.1 – Parking assist motion sensor used in BAV

3.4 INFRARED SENSORS

An infrared sensor is an electronic instrument which is used to sense certain characteristics of its
surroundings by either emitting and/or detecting infrared radiation. Infrared sensors are also
capable of measuring the heat being emitted by an object and detecting motion.

3.4.1 Infrared Radiation Theory

Infrared waves are not visible to the human eye. In the electromagnetic spectrum, infrared
radiation can be found between the visible and microwave regions. The infrared waves typically
have wavelengths between 0.75 and 1000µm.

The wavelength region which ranges from 0.75 to 3µm is known as the near infrared regions.
The region between 3 and 6µm is known as the mid-infrared and infrared radiation which has a
wavelength greater higher than 6µm is known as far infrared.

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Infrared technology finds applications in many everyday products. Televisions use an infrared
detector to interpret the signals sent from a remote control. The key benefits of infrared sensors
include their low power requirements, their simple circuitry and their portable features.

3.4.2 The Foundations of Infrared Science

Infrared radiation was first discovered by the astronomer William Herschel. He conducted an
experiment in which he used a prism to refract light from the sun. Herschel was able to detect the
presence of infrared radiation beyond the red part of the visible spectrum using a thermometer to
measure an increase in temperature. In 1800 Herschel published his findings to the Royal Society
of London.

3.4.3 The Types of Infrared Sensors

Infrared sensors are broadly classified into two main types:

• Thermal infrared sensors – use infrared energy as heat. Their photo sensitivity is
independent of the wavelength being detected. Thermal detectors do not require cooling
but do have slow response times and low detection capabilities.

• Quantum infrared sensors – provide higher detection performance and faster response
speed. Their photo sensitivity is dependent on wavelength. Quantum detectors have to be
cooled in order to obtain accurate measurements.

3.4.4 The Working Principle of Infrared Sensors

All objects which have a temperature greater than absolute zero (0 Kelvin) posses thermal energy
and are sources of infrared radiation as a result.

Sources of infrared radiation include blackbody radiators, tungsten lamps and silicon carbide.
Infrared sensors typically use infrared lasers and LEDs with specific infrared wavelengths as
sources.

A transmission medium is required for infrared transmission, which can be comprised of either a
vacuum, the atmosphere or an optical fiber.

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Optical components, such as optical lenses made from quartz, CaF2, Ge and Si, polyethylene
Fresnel lenses and Al or Au mirrors, are used to converge or focus the infrared radiation. In order
to limit spectral response, band-pass filters can be used.

Next, infrared detectors are used in order to detect the radiation which has been focused. The
output from the detector is usually very small and hence pre-amplifiers coupled with circuitry are
required to further process the received signals.

3.4.5 The Key Applications of Infrared Technology

Night Vision Devices

Infrared technology is implemented in night vision equipment if there is not enough visible light
available to see unaided. Night vision devices convert ambient photons of light into electrons and
then amplify them using a chemical and electrical process, before finally converting them back
into visible light.

Infrared Astronomy

Infrared astronomy is a field of astronomy which studies astronomical objects which are visible
in infrared radiation. Using telescopes and solid state detectors, astronomers are able to observe
objects in the universe which are impossible to detect using light in the visible range of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Infrared observatories have been set up in space such as the Spitzer Space Telescope and the
Herschel Space Observatory, which are not affected by the absorption of infrared light by water
vapour in the Earth's atmosphere.

Infrared Tracking

Infrared tracking, or infrared homing, is a missile guidance system which operates using the
infrared electromagnetic radiation emitted from a target in order to track it. These missile
systems are often known as 'heat-seekers' as infrared is radiated strongly by hot bodies such as
people, vehicles and aircraft.

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Art History and Restoration

Art Restoration Technology

Infrared reflectography is used by art historians in order to reveal hidden layers in paintings. This
technique is useful in order to decide whether a painting is an original version or a copy, and
whether it has been altered by restoration work.

Hyperspectral Imaging

Hyperspectral imaging accumulates and processes information from across the electromagnetic
spectrum and can be used to track nanoparticles inside large living organisms.

Other Key Application Areas

• Climatology
• Meteorology
• Night vision
• Photobiomodulation
• Gas detectors
• Water analysis
• Anesthesiology testing
• Petroleum exploration
• Rail safety

3.5 Depth Warning Sensor

• The depth warning sensor prevents the vehicle from going into a depth.
• It comprises of a rod which is movable up and down. It is provided with electrical
connection.
• As the depth sensors goes into some depth, the circuit is complete and a buzzer sounds.
• The buzzer is a 6 volt unit.

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CHAPTER - 4 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

4.1 Introduction

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Brushless DC electric motor (BLDC motors, BL motors) also known as electronically
commutated motors (ECMs, EC motors) are synchronous motors powered by DCelectricity via
an inverter/switching power supply which produces an AC/bi-directional electric current to drive
each phase of the motor via a closed loop controller. The controller times commutation (hence
rpm) and creates current waveforms (hence torque). In this context alternating current does not
imply but does include a sinusoidalwaveform, with minimal restriction on waveform; it must be
periodic, and its frequency will determine motor rpm, and the waveform does affect how smooth
the generated torque is as well as the motors efficiency at transforming electrical to mechanical
energy. In a well designed PMSM the air gap magnetic flux is spatial sinusoidal and the phase
commutation currents are sinusoidal, ninety degrees out of phase.

The motor structural elements of a brushless motor system is typically permanent magnet
synchronous motor, but can also be a switched reluctance motor, or induction motor[1].

Brushless motors may be implemented as stepper motors as well; however, the term "stepper
motor" tends to be used for motors with a radically different design and controlled with an open
loop (hence the controller cannot detect when the stepper does not step due to too high shaft
load; there is no shaft position sensor). They are frequently stopped with the rotor in a defined
angular position while still producing torque. A well design power supply/controller/PMSM can
also be held at zero rpm and finite torque. Two key performance parameters of brushless DC
motors are the motor constants Kt ( torque constant) and Ke ( BEMF constant also known as
speed constant Kv = 1/Ke ).

In SI units Kt and Ke are the same constant:

4.2 Brushless vs. brushed motors

Brushed DC motors have been around since the mid-19th century, but brushless motors are a
fairly recent arrival; a first step in the 1960s thanks to advances in solid state technology, with
further improvements in the 1980s thanks to better permanent magnet materials.

Brushed DC motors develop a maximum torque when stationary, linearly decreasing as velocity
increases.[4] Some limitations of brushed motors can be overcome by brushless motors; they

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include higher efficiency and a lower susceptibility to mechanical wear. These benefits come at
the cost of potentially less rugged, more complex, and more expensive control electronics.

A typical brushless motor has permanent magnets which rotate around a fixed armature,
eliminating problems associated with connecting current to the moving armature. An electronic
controller replaces the brush/commutator assembly of the brushed DC motor, which continually
switches the phase to the windings to keep the motor turning. The controller performs similar
timed power distribution by using a solid-state circuit rather than the brush/commutator system.

Brushless motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including high torque to
weight ratio, more torque per watt (increased efficiency), increased reliability, reduced noise,
longer lifetime (no brush and commutator erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from the
commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With no windings on
the rotor, they are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the windings are supported by
the housing, they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow inside the motor for cooling.
This in turn means that the motor's internals can be entirely enclosed and protected from dirt or
other foreign matter.

Brushless motor commutation can be implemented in software using a microcontroller or

microprocessor computer, or may alternatively be implemented in analogue hardware, or in
digital firmware using an FPGA. Commutation with electronics instead of brushes allows for
greater flexibility and capabilities not available with brushed DC motors, including speed
limiting, "micro stepped" operation for slow and/or fine motion control, and a holding torque
when stationary. Controller software can be customized to the specific motor being used in the
application, resulting in greater commutation efficiency.

The maximum power that can be applied to a brushless motor is limited almost exclusively by
heat; too much heat weakens the magnets[5] and may damage the winding's insulation.

When converting electricity into mechanical power, brushless motors are more efficient than
brushed motors. This improvement is largely due to the frequency at which the electricity is
switched determined by the position sensor feedback. Additional gains are due to the absence of
brushes, which reduces mechanical energy loss due to friction. The enhanced efficiency is

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greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance curve. Under high
mechanical loads, brushless motors and high-quality brushed motors are comparable in
efficiency.

Environments and requirements in which manufacturers use brushless-type DC motors include

maintenance-free operation, high speeds, and operation where sparking is hazardous (i.e.
explosive environments) or could affect electronically sensitive equipment.

4.3 Controller implementations

In a brushless DC motor, two coils are energized at a time with equal and opposite polarities: one
pushes the rotor away from it while the other attracts the rotor towards it. This increases the
overall torque capacity of the motor and Hall effect sensors or a rotary encoder determine which
two coils have to be energized to achieve this strategy.

A typical controller contains 3 bi-directional outputs (i.e., frequency controlled three phase
output), which are controlled by a logic circuit. Simple controllers employ comparators to
determine when the output phase should be advanced, while more advanced controllers employ a
microcontroller to manage acceleration, control speed and fine-tune efficiency.

Controllers that sense rotor position based on back-EMF have extra challenges in initiating
motion because no back-EMF is produced when the rotor is stationary. This is usually
accomplished by beginning rotation from an arbitrary phase, and then skipping to the correct
phase if it is found to be wrong. This can cause the motor to run briefly backwards, adding even
more complexity to the startup sequence. Other sensorless controllers are capable of measuring
winding saturation caused by the position of the magnets to infer the rotor position.

4.4 Variations in construction

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Fig 4.1 Schematic for delta and wye winding styles. (This image does not illustrate the motor's
inductive and generator-like properties)

Brushless motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the

'conventional' (also known as inrunner) configuration, the permanent magnets are part of the
rotor. Three stator windings surround the rotor. In the outrunner (or external-rotor)
configuration, the radial-relationship between the coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils
form the center (core) of the motor, while the permanent magnets spin within an overhanging
rotor which surrounds the core. The flat or axial flux type, used where there are space or shape
limitations, uses stator and rotor plates, mounted face to face. Outrunners typically have more
poles, set up in triplets to maintain the three groups of windings, and have a higher torque at low
RPMs. In all brushless motors, the coils are stationary.

There are two common electrical winding configurations; the delta configuration connects three
windings to each other (series circuits) in a triangle-like circuit, and power is applied at each of
the connections. The Wye (Y-shaped) configuration, sometimes called a star winding, connects
all of the windings to a central point (parallel circuits) and power is applied to the remaining end
of each winding.

A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low speed, but can give higher
top speed. Wye configuration gives high torque at low speed, but not as high top speed.

Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the Wye winding is normally
more efficient. In delta-connected windings, half voltage is applied across the windings adjacent
to the driven lead (compared to the winding directly between the driven leads), increasing
resistive losses. In addition, windings can allow high-frequency parasitic electrical currents to

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circulate entirely within the motor. A Wye-connected winding does not contain a closed loop in
which parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses.

From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same.

4.5 Applications

Fig 4.2 The four poles on the stator of a two-phase brushless motor.

Brushless motors fulfill many functions originally performed by brushed DC motors, but cost
and control complexity prevents brushless motors from replacing brushed motors completely in
the lowest-cost areas. Nevertheless, brushless motors have come to dominate many applications,
particularly devices such as computer hard drives and CD/DVD players. Small cooling fans in
electronic equipment are powered exclusively by brushless motors. They can be found in
cordless power tools where the increased efficiency of the motor leads to longer periods of use
before the battery needs to be charged. Low speed, low power brushless motors are used in
direct-drive turntables for gramophone records.

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CHAPTER – 5 ELECTRIC VEHICLE

5.1 Introduction

An electric vehicle, also called an electric drive vehicle, uses one or more electric motors or

traction motors for propulsion. An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector system

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by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-contained with a battery, solar panels or a

generator to convert fuel to electricity.[1] EVs include road and rail vehicles, surface and

underwater vessels, electric aircraft and electric spacecraft.

5.1.1 Electricity sources

There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological
desirability.

Onboard storage

These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary),
and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until
needed.

• on-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS), called Full Electric Vehicles
(FEV). Power storage methods include:
o chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: Battery electric
vehicle (BEV)
o kinetic energy storage: flywheels
o static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors

Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable
on-board electrical storage. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion
efficiency can be improved over the hybrids already discussed, by avoiding unnecessary energy
conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are easy to reverse, allowing
electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.

5.2 Lithium-ion battery

Most electric vehicles use lithium ion batteries. Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density,
longer life span and higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating

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factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used
within safe temperature and voltage ranges in order to operate safely and efficiently.[38]

Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs. One technique is to operate a subset of
the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.

5.3 Electric motor

The power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kilowatts (kW).
100 kW is roughly equivalent to 134 horsepower, although electric motors can deliver their full
torque over a wide RPM range, so the performance is not equivalent, and far exceeds a 134
horsepower (100 kW) fuel-powered motor, which has a limited torque curve.

Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to
alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.

Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are
directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Electric traction allows the use of regenerative
braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion
of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is
particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large
portion of the power required for those ascending. This regenerative system is only viable if the
system is large enough to utilise the power generated by descending vehicles.

In the systems above motion is provided by a rotaryelectric motor. However, it is possible to

"unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used
in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for
almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track.
In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks
becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed
point to point services.

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5.4 Properties

Components

The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to
the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or
wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles,
industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.

Energy sources

Although EVs have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through electricity
generation, and will usually emit pollution and generate waste, unless it is generated by
renewable source power plants. Since EVs use whatever electricity is delivered by their electrical
utility/grid operator, EVs can be made more or less efficient, polluting and expensive to run, by
modifying the electrical generating stations. This would be done by an electrical utility under a
government energy policy, in a timescale negotiated between utilities and government.

Fossil fuel vehicle efficiency and pollution standards take years to filter through a nation's fleet
of vehicles. New efficiency and pollution standards rely on the purchase of new vehicles, often
as the current vehicles already on the road reach their end-of-life. Only a few nations set a
retirement age for old vehicles, such as Japan or Singapore, forcing periodic upgrading of all
vehicles already on the road.

EVs will take advantage of whatever environmental gains happen when a renewable energy
generation station comes online, a fossil-fuel power station is decommissioned or upgraded.
Conversely, if government policy or economic conditions shifts generators back to use more
polluting fossil fuels and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), or more inefficient
sources, the reverse can happen. Even in such a situation, electrical vehicles are still more
efficient than a comparable amount of fossil fuel vehicles. In areas with a deregulated electrical
energy market, an electrical vehicle owner can choose whether to run his electrical vehicle off
conventional electrical energy sources, or strictly from renewable electrical energy sources
(presumably at an additional cost), pushing other consumers onto conventional sources, and
switch at any time between the two.

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Efficiency

Because of the different methods of charging possible, the emissions produced have been
quantified in different ways.[67] Plug-in all-electric and hybrid vehicles also have different
consumption characteristics.[68]

Electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electrical motors has been claimed to be
associated with some human ailments, but such claims are largely unsubstantiated except for
extremely high exposures. Electric motors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday cage, but
this reduces efficiency by adding weight to the vehicle, while it is not conclusive that all
electromagnetic radiation can be contained.

5.5 Charging

5.5.1 Battery swapping

Instead of recharging EVs from electric socket, batteries could be mechanically replaced on
special stations in a couple of minutes (battery swapping).

Batteries with greatest energy density such as metal-air fuel cells usually cannot be recharged in
purely electric way. Instead, some kind of metallurgical process is needed, such as aluminum
smelting and similar.

Silicon-air, aluminum-air and other metal-air fuel cells look promising candidates for swap
batteries. Any source of energy, renewable or non-renewable, could be used to remake used
metal-air fuel cells with relatively high efficiency. Investment in infrastructure will be needed.
The cost of such batteries could be an issue, although they could be made with replaceable
anodes and electrolyte.

5.5.2 Chassis swapping

Instead of replacing batteries, it is possible to replace the entire chassis (including the batteries,
electric motor and wheels) of an electric Modular vehicle.

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Such a system was patented in 2000[82] by Dr Gordon Dower and three road-licensed prototypes
have been built by the Ridek Corporation in Point Roberts, Washington.

Dr Dower has proposed that an individual might own only the body (or perhaps a few different
style bodies) for their vehicle, and would lease the chassis from a pool, thereby reducing the
depreciation costs associated with vehicle ownership.

5.5.3 Other in-development technologies

Conventional electric double-layer capacitors are being worked to achieve the energy density of
lithium ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. High-K
electric double-layer capacitors, such as EEStor's EESU, could improve lithium ion energy
density several times over if they can be produced. Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250
Wh/kg.[83] Sodium-ion batteries promise 400 Wh/kg with only minimal expansion/contraction
during charge/discharge and a very high surface area.[84] Researchers from one of the Ukrainian
state universities claim that they have manufactured samples of pseudocapacitor based on Li-ion
intercalation process with 318 Wh/kg specific energy, which seem to be at least two times
improvement in comparison to typical Li-ion batteries.

5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of EVs

Sustainable energy

Energy conservation

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 • Cogeneration
• Efficient energy use
• Green building
• Heat pump
• Low-carbon power
• Microgeneration
• Passive solar building design

Renewable energy

• Anaerobic digestion
• Geothermal
• Hydroelectricity
• Solar
• Tidal
• Wind

Sustainable transport

• Carbon-neutral fuel
• Electric vehicle
• Fossil fuel phase-out
• Green vehicle
• Plug-in hybrid

Sustainable development portal

• Renewable energy portal

• Environment portal

Table 5.1 Advantage and disadvantages of EV

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CHAPTER – 6 LEAD ACID BATTERY

6.1 Introduction

The lead-acid battery was invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Planté and is the oldest
type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-
to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells have a relatively
large power-to-weight ratio. These features, along with their low cost, makes it attractive for use
in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors.

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As they are inexpensive compared to newer technologies, lead-acid batteries are widely used
even when surge current is not important and other designs could provide higher energy
densities. Large-format lead-acid designs are widely used for storage in backup power supplies
in cell phone towers, high-availability settings like hospitals, and stand-alone power systems. For
these roles, modified versions of the standard cell may be used to improve storage times and
reduce maintenance requirements. Gel-cells and absorbed glass-mat batteries are common in
these roles, collectively known as VRLA (valve-regulated lead-acid) batteries.

In 1999 Lead–acid battery sales accounted for 40–45% of the value from batteries sold
worldwide excluding China and Russia, and a manufacturing market value of about $15 billion.[

6.2 Electrochemistry

Discharge

Fig 6.1 Fully discharged: two identical lead sulfate plates

In the discharged state both the positive and negative plates become lead(II) sulfate (PbSO
4), and the electrolyte loses much of its dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The
discharge process is driven by the conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the
cell at the positive plate in the external circuit.

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Negative plate reaction

Pb(s) + HSO−
4(aq) → PbSO
4(s) + H+
(aq) + 2e− Release of two conducting electrons gives lead electrode a net negative charge

Eq. 6.1 – Electrochemistry of battery

• As electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels
sulfate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the charged
electrode from the solution which limits further reactions unless charge is allowed to flow out of
electrode.

Positive plate reaction

PbO
2(s) + HSO−
4(aq) + 3H+
(aq) + 2e− → PbSO
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)

The total reaction can be written as

Pb(s) + PbO
2(s) + 2H
2SO
4(aq) → 2PbSO
4(s) + 2H
2O(l)

Eq. 6.2 - Reactions

The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a cell can
produce two faradays of charge (192,971 coulombs) from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-

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hours per kilogram (or 13.9 ampere-hours per kilogram for a 12-volt battery). For a 2 volts cell,
this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a lead–acid cell in practice gives only
30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the mass of the water and other constituent
parts.

6.3 Charging

Fig 6.2 - Fully recharged: Lead anode, Lead oxide cathode and sulfuric acid electrolyte

In the fully charged state, the negative plate consists of lead, and the positive plate lead dioxide,
with the electrolyte of concentrated sulfuric acid.

Overcharging with high charging voltages generates oxygen and hydrogen gas by electrolysis of
water, which is lost to the cell. The design of some types of lead-acid battery allow the
electrolyte level to be inspected and topped up with any water that has been lost.

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Due to the freezing-point depression of the electrolyte, as the battery discharges and the
concentration of sulfuric acid decreases, the electrolyte is more likely to freeze during winter
weather when discharged.

6.3.1 Ion motion

During discharge, H+
produced at the negative plates moves into the electrolyte solution and then is consumed into the
positive plates, while HSO−
4 is consumed at both plates. The reverse occurs during charge. This motion can be by
electrically driven proton flow or Grotthuss mechanism, or by diffusion through the medium, or
by flow of a liquid electrolyte medium. Since the density is greater when the sulfuric acid
concentration is higher, the liquid will tend to circulate by convection. Therefore, a liquid-
medium cell tends to rapidly discharge and rapidly charge more efficiently than an otherwise
similar gel cell.

6.3.2 Measuring the charge level

Fig 6.3 A hydrometer

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Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery has one major
advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by
merely measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte; the specific gravity falls as the battery
discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored floating balls of
differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the specific gravity was regularly
measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much longer the boat
could remain submerged.[11]

The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge.[12] If the
connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be
determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole,
otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.

Note that neither technique gives any indication of charge capacity, only charge level. Charge
capacity of any rechargeable battery will decline with age and usage, meaning that it may no
longer be fit for purpose even when nominally fully charged. Other tests, usually involving
current drain, are used to determine the residual charge capacity of a battery.

Voltages for common usages

For the three-stage charging procedure of lead acid batteries, see IUoU battery charging. The
theoretical voltage of a lead acid battery is 12 V for 6 cages and 2 V for one cage. These are
general voltage ranges per cell:

• Open-circuit (quiescent) at full charge: 2.10 V

• Open-circuit at full discharge: 1.95 V
• Loaded at full discharge: 1.8 V
• Continuous-preservation (float) charging: 2.23 V for gelled electrolyte; 2.25 V for
absorbed glass mat (AGM) and 2.32 V for flooded cells. Float voltage recommendations
vary among manufacturers due to different lead acid concentration and positive plate grid
alloy. Precise float voltage (±0.05 V) is critical to longevity; insufficient voltage (causes
sulfation) is almost as detrimental as excessive voltage (causes positive plate corrosion,
expansion and electrolyte loss.)

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 • Typical (daily) charging: 2.28–2.4 V (depending on temperature and manufacturer's
recommendation)
• Equalization charging (for flooded lead acids): 2.5–2.67 V[13] (5 A per 100 Ah,[14] Battery
temperature must be absolutely monitored very closely, check manufacturers
recommendation)
• Charging in sulfated state (stored discharged for days or weeks) not accepting small
charge current: > 3 V[15] (only until a charge current is flowing)
• Charging in sulfated state: up to 2.6–2.66 V[16]
• Discharging in sulfated state: 1.6 V (when charging at low rates doesn't improve,
discharge rate approximately 5 A per 10 Ah)[16]
• Gassing threshold: 2.415 V[17]–2.48 for sealed, 2.41 V for PzS, 2.36–2.41 V for GiS,
PzV, GiV (the value is manufacturer specific, gas is always produced even in storage,
99% of the gas production recombines under normal charging conditions, the higher the
voltage exponentially more gas is produced: from 2.3 to 2.5 is factor 1 to > 20, charging
above the gassing voltage with high charging current the side reaction will occur
enhanced)

All voltages are at 20 °C (68 °F), and must be adjusted for temperature changes. The open-circuit
voltage cannot be adjusted with a simple temperature coefficient because it is non-linear
(coefficient varies with temperature).

6.4 Valve regulated (VRLA)

In a valve regulated lead acid battery (VRLA) the hydrogen and oxygen produced in the cells
largely recombine into water. Leakage is minimal, although some electrolyte still escapes if the
recombination cannot keep up with gas evolution. Since VRLA batteries do not require (and
make impossible) regular checking of the electrolyte level, they have been called maintenance
free batteries. However, this is somewhat of a misnomer. VRLA cells do require maintenance.
As electrolyte is lost, VRLA cells "dry-out" and lose capacity. This can be detected by taking
regular internal resistance, conductance or impedance measurements. Regular testing reveals
whether more involved testing and maintenance is required. Recent maintenance procedures
have been developed allowing "rehydration", often restoring significant amounts of lost capacity.

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VRLA types became popular on motorcycles around 1983, because the acid electrolyte is
absorbed into the separator, so it cannot spill. The separator also helps them better withstand
vibration. They are also popular in stationary applications such as telecommunications sites, due
to their small footprint and installation flexibility.

The electrical characteristics of VRLA batteries differ somewhat from wet-cell lead–acid
batteries, requiring caution in charging and discharging.

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CHAPTER – 7 MATERIALS USED IN CHASSIS
CONSTRUCTION

7.1 Iron

7.1.1 Mechanical Properties

Characteristic values of tensile strength (TS) and Brinell hardness (BH) of different forms of
iron.
Material TS BH
(MPa) (Brinell)
Iron whiskers 11000

Ausformed (hardened) 2930 850–1200

steel
Martensitic steel 2070 600

Bainitic steel 1380 400

Pearlitic steel 1200 350

Cold-worked iron 690 200

Small-grain iron 340 100

Carbon-containing iron 140 40

Pure, single-crystal iron 10 3

Table 7.1 Properties of Iron

The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests,
including the Brinell test, Rockwell test and the Vickers hardness test. The data on iron is so

42 | P a g e
consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests.[6][7] However, the
mechanical properties of iron are significantly affected by the sample's purity: pure, single
crystals of iron are actually softer than aluminium,[5] and the purest industrially produced iron
(99.99%) has a hardness of 20–30 Brinell.[8] An increase in the carbon content will cause a
significant increase in the hardness and tensile strength of iron. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is
achieved with a 0.6% carbon content, although the alloy has low tensile strength. [9] Because of
the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and
osmium.[10]

Fig. 7.1- Molar volume vs. pressure for α iron at room temperature

Because of its significance for planetary cores, the physical properties of iron at high pressures
and temperatures have also been studied extensively. The form of iron that is stable under
standard conditions can be subjected to pressures up to ca. 15 GPa before transforming into a
high-pressure form, as described in the next section.

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7.1.2 Phase diagram and allotropes

Iron represents an example of allotropy in a metal. There are at least four allotropic forms of
iron, known as α, γ, δ, and ε; at very high pressures and temperatures, some controversial
experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase.[11]

Fig 7.2 - Low-pressure phase diagram of pure iron

As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which
has a body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure. As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its
γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite. At 912 °C and below,
the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope, or ferrite. Finally, at 770 °C (the
Curie point, Tc) iron's magnetic ordering changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic. As the
iron passes through the Curie temperature there is no change in crystalline structure, but there is
a change in "domain structure", where each domain contains iron atoms with a particular
electronic spin. In unmagnetized iron, all the electronic spins of the atoms within one domain
have the same axis orientation; however, the electrons of neighboring domains have other
orientations with the result of mutual cancellation and no magnetic field. In magnetized iron, the
electronic spins of the domains are aligned and the magnetic effects are reinforced. Although
each domain contains billions of atoms, they are very small, about 10 micrometres across.[12]

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This happens because the two unpaired electrons on each iron atom are in the dz2 and dx2 − y2
orbitals, which do not point directly at the nearest neighbors in the body-centered cubic lattice
and therefore do not participate in metallic bonding; thus, they can interact magnetically with
each other so that their spins align.[13]

At pressures above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-
iron changes into a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron; the
higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. The β-phase,
if it exists, would appear at pressures of at least 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K and
have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure.[11] These high-pressure phases of iron are
important as endmember models for the solid parts of planetary cores. The inner core of the
Earth is generally presumed to be an iron-nickelalloy with ε (or β) structure.[14] Somewhat
confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point,
when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has
not changed.[13]

The melting point of iron is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For
greater pressures, studies put the γ-ε-liquid triple point at pressures that differ by tens of
gigapascals and 1000 K in the melting point. Generally speaking, molecular dynamics computer
simulations of iron melting and shock wave experiments suggest higher melting points and a
much steeper slope of the melting curve than static experiments carried out in diamond anvil
cells.[15] The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization, are lower
than those of the earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium, showing the lessened
contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the
inert core by the nucleus;[16] however, they are higher than the values for the previous element
manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d subshell and consequently its d-electrons are
not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium.

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7.2 PLYWOOD

Plywood is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or "plies" of wood veneer that are
glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees to one
another. It is an engineered wood from the family of manufactured boards which includes
medium-density fibreboard (MDF) and particle board (chipboard).

All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets (cellulose cells are long, strong and thin) to form
a composite material. This alternation of the grain is called cross-graining and has several
important benefits: it reduces the tendency of wood to split when nailed at the edges; it reduces
expansion and shrinkage, providing improved dimensional stability; and it makes the strength of
the panel consistent across all directions. There is usually an odd number of plies, so that the
sheet is balanced—this reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against
one another and with an odd number of composite parts, it is very hard to bend it perpendicular
to the grain direction of the surface ply.

Smaller thinner plywoods and lower quality plywoods (see Average-quality plywood photo
below and right) may only have their plies (layers) arranged at right angles to each other, though
some better quality plywood products will by design have five plies in steps of 45 degrees (0, 45,
90, 135, and 180 degrees), giving strength in multiple axes.

Etymology

The word "ply" derives from the French verb plier, "to fold", from the Latin verb plico, from the
ancient Greek verb πλέκω.

7.2.1 Structural characteristics

A typical plywood panel has face veneers of a higher grade than the core veneers. The principal
function of the core layers is to increase the separation between the outer layers where the
bending stresses are highest, thus increasing the panel's resistance to bending. As a result, thicker
panels can span greater distances under the same loads. In bending, the maximum stress occurs
in the outermost layers, one in tension, the other in compression. Bending stress decreases from

46 | P a g e
the maximum at the face layers to nearly zero at the central layer. Shear stress, by contrast, is
higher in the center of the panel, and at the outer fibres.

7.3 Types

Softwood plywood

Softwood panel is usually made either of cedar, Douglas fir or spruce, pine, and fir (collectively
known as spruce-pine-fir or SPF) or redwood and is typically used for construction and industrial
purposes.

The most common dimension is 1.2 by 2.4 metres (3 ft 11 in × 7 ft 10 in) or the slightly larger
imperial dimension of 4 feet × 8 feet. Plies vary in thickness from 1.4 mm to 4.3 mm. The
number of plies—which is always odd—depends on the thickness and grade of the sheet.
Roofing can use the thinner 5/8" (15 mm) plywood. Subfloors are at least 3/4" (18 mm) thick,
the thickness depending on the distance between floor joists. Plywood for flooring applications is
often tongue and groove; This prevents one board from moving up or down relative to its
neighbor, so providing a solid-feeling floor when the joints do not lie over joists. T&G plywood
is usually found in the 1/2" to 1" (12–25 mm) range.

Hardwood plywood

Hardwood plywood is made out of wood from angiosperm trees and used for demanding end
uses. Hardwood plywood is characterized by its excellent strength, stiffness and resistance to
creep. It has a high planar shear strength and impact resistance, which make it especially suitable
for heavy-duty floor and wall structures. Oriented plywood construction has a high wheel-
carrying capacity. Hardwood plywood has excellent surface hardness, and damage- and wear-
resistance.

Tropical plywood

Tropical plywood is made of mixed species of tropical wood. Originally from the Asian region,
it is now also manufactured in African and South American countries. Tropical plywood is

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superior to softwood plywood due to its density, strength, evenness of layers, and high quality. It
is usually sold at a premium in many markets if manufactured with high standards. Tropical
plywood is widely used in the UK, Japan, United States, Taiwan, Korea, Dubai, and other
countries worldwide. It is the preferred choice for construction purposes in many regions due to
its low cost. However, many countries’ forests have been over-harvested, including the
Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia, largely due to the demand for plywood production and
export.

Aircraft plywood

Fig 7.2.1 De Havilland DH-98 Mosquito was custom-made of curved and glued veneers.

High-strength plywood also known as aircraft plywood, is made from mahogany and/or birch,
and uses adhesives with increased resistance to heat and humidity. It was used for several World
War IIfighter aircraft. Although the British-built Mosquito bomber, nicknamed "The Wooden
Wonder", was constructed of a plywood monocoque, this was formed in molds from individual
veneers of birch and balsa, rather than machined from pre-laminated plywood sheets.

Structural aircraft-grade plywood is more commonly manufactured from African mahogany or

American birch veneers that are bonded together in a hot press over hardwood cores of basswood
or poplar or from European Birch veneers throughout. Basswood is another type of aviation-
grade plywood that is lighter and more flexible than mahogany and birch plywood but has
slightly less structural strength. Aviation-grade plywood is manufactured to a number of
specifications including those outlined since 1931 in the Germanischer Lloyd Rules for
Surveying and Testing of Plywood for Aircraft and MIL-P-607, the latter of which calls for shear

48 | P a g e
testing after immersion in boiling water for three hours to verify the adhesive qualities between
the plies and meets specifications.

Decorative plywood (overlaid plywood)

Usually faced with hardwood, including ash, oak, red oak, birch, maple, mahogany, Philippine
mahogany (often called lauan, luan or meranti and having no relation to true mahogany),
rosewood, teak and a large number of other hardwoods.

Flexible plywood

Flexible plywood is designed for making curved parts, a practice which dates back to the 1850s
in furniture making.

Aircraft grade plywood, often Baltic birch, is made from 3 plies of birch, as thin as 1/16" thick in
total, and is extremely strong and light. At 3/8" thick, mahogany 3-ply "wiggle Board" or "Bendy
Board" come in 4' x 8' sheets with a very thin cross grain central ply and two thicker exterior
plies, either long grain on the sheet, or cross grain. Wiggle board is often glued together in two
layers once it is formed into the desired curve, so that the final shape will be stiff and resist
movement. Often, decorative wood veneers are added as a surface layer.

In the UK single ply sheets of veneer were used to make stovepipe hats in Victorian times, so
flexible modern plywood is sometimes known there as "Hatters Ply", although the original
material was not strictly plywood, but a single sheet of veneer.

Marine plywood

Marine plywood is manufactured from durable face and core veneers, with few defects so it
performs longer in both humid and wet conditions and resists delaminating and fungal attack. Its
construction is such that it can be used in environments where it is exposed to moisture for long
periods. Each wood veneer will be from tropical hardwoods, have negligible core gap, limiting
the chance of trapping water in the plywood and hence providing a solid and stable glue bond. It
uses an exterior Water and Boil Proof (WBP) glue similar to most exterior plywoods.

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Marine plywood can be graded as being compliant with BS 1088, which is a British Standard for
marine plywood. There are few international standards for grading marine plywood and most of
the standards are voluntary. Some marine plywood has a Lloyd's of London stamp that certifies it
to be BS 1088 compliant. Some plywood is also labeled based on the wood used to manufacture
it. Examples of this are Okoumé or Meranti.

Other plywoods

Other types of plywoods include fire-retardant, moisture-resistant, wire mesh, sign-grade, and
pressure-treated. However, the plywood may be treated with various chemicals to improve the
plywood's fireproofing. Each of these products is designed to fill a need in industry.

Baltic Birch plywood is a product of an area around the Baltic Sea. Originally manufactured for
European cabinet makers but now popular in the United States as well. It is very stable
composed of an inner void-free core of cross-banded birch plys with an exterior grade adhesive.
The face veneers are thicker than traditional cabinet grade plywood.

Production

Plywood production requires a good log, called a peeler, which is generally straighter and larger
in diameter than one required for processing into dimensioned lumber by a sawmill. The log is
laid horizontally and rotated about its long axis while a long blade is pressed into it, causing a
thin layer of wood to peel off (much as a continuous sheet of paper from a roll). An adjustable
nosebar, which may be solid or a roller, is pressed against the log during rotation, to create a
"gap" for veneer to pass through between the knife and the nosebar. The nosebar partly
compresses the wood as it is peeled; it controls vibration of the peeling knife; and assists in
keeping the veneer being peeled to an accurate thickness. In this way the log is peeled into sheets
of veneer, which are then cut to the desired oversize dimensions, to allow it to shrink (depending
on wood species) when dried. The sheets are then patched, graded, glued together and then baked
in a press at a temperature of at least 140 °C (284 °F), and at a pressure of up to 1.9 MPa
(280 psi) (but more commonly 200 psi) to form the plywood panel. The panel can then be
patched, have minor surface defects such as splits or small knot holes filled, re-sized, sanded or
otherwise refinished, depending on the market for which it is intended.

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Plywood for indoor use generally uses the less expensive urea-formaldehyde glue, which has
limited water resistance, while outdoor and marine-grade plywood are designed to withstand
moisture, and use a water-resistant phenol-formaldehyde glue to prevent delamination and to
retain strength in high humidity.

Anti-fungal additives such as Xyligen (Furmecyclox) may sometimes be added to the glueline to
provide added resistance to fungal attack.

The adhesives used in plywood have become a point of concern. Both urea formaldehyde and
phenol formaldehyde are carcinogenic in very high concentrations. As a result, many
manufacturers are turning to low formaldehyde-emitting glue systems, denoted by an "E" rating
("E0" possessing the lowest formaldehyde emissions). Plywood produced to "E0" has effectively
zero formaldehyde emissions.

In addition to the glues being brought to the forefront, the wood resources themselves are
becoming the focus of manufacturers, due in part to energy conservation, as well as concern for
natural resources. There are several certifications available to manufacturers who participate in
these programs. Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED),
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI), and Greenguard are all certification programs that ensure
that production and construction practices are sustainable. Many of these programs offer tax
benefits to both the manufacturer and the end user.

Sizes

The most commonly used thickness range is from 1⁄8 to 3.0 inches (3.2 to 76.2 mm). The sizes of
the most commonly used plywood sheets are 4 by 8 feet (1,200 by 2,400 mm), which was first
used by the Portland Manufacturing Company, who developed what we know of as modern
veneer core plywood for the 1905 Portland World Fair. 5 × 5 feet (1,500 × 1,500 mm) is also a
common European size for Baltic birch ply, and aircraft ply.[12] A common metric size for a sheet
of plywood is 1,220 × 2,440 millimetres or 4.003 × 8.005 feet (4ft-5/16in × 8ft-5/8in).

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Sizes on specialised plywood for concrete-forming can range from 15
⁄64 to 13
⁄16 in (6 to 21 mm),
and a multitude of formats exist, though 15 × 750 × 1,500 mm (.059 inch × 30 × 59 in)
(19/32in × 2ft-6in × 4ft-11in) is very commonly used.

Aircraft plywood is available in thicknesses of 1⁄8 inch (3 mm) (3 ply construction) and upwards;
typically aircraft plywood uses veneers of 0.5 mm (approx 1/64 in) thickness although much
thinner veneers such as 0.1 mm are also used in construction of some of the thinner panels.

Grades

Grading rules differ according to the country of origin. The most popular standards are the
British Standard (BS) and the American Standard (ASTM). Joyce (1970), however, list some
general indication of grading rules:[13]

Grade Description

A Face and back veneers practically free from all defects.

Face veneers practically free from all defects. Reverse veneers with only a few small
A/B
knots or discolorations.

A/BB Face as A but reverse side permitting jointed veneers, large knots, plugs, etc.

B Both side veneers with only a few small knots or discolorations.

Face veneers with only a few small knots or discolorations. Reverse side permitting
B/BB
jointed veneers, large knots, plugs, etc.

BB Both sides permitting jointed veneers, large knots, plugs, etc.

For structural plywood, this grade means that the face has knots and defects filled in and
the reverse may have some that are not filled. Neither face is an appearance grade, nor are
C/D
they sanded smooth. This grade is often used for sheathing the surfaces of a building prior
to being covered with another product like flooring, siding, concrete, or roofing materials.

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WG Guaranteed well glued only. All broken knots plugged.

X Knots, knotholes, cracks, and all other defects permitted.

WBP Weather and Boil Proof used in Marine Ply. Designation replaced by EN 314-3.

JPIC Standards

Grade Description

Face as BB, back as CC. BB as very little knots of less than 1/4 inches, slight
BB/CC discoloration, no decay, split and wormholes mended skillfully, matched colors, no
blister, no wrinkle. Most popular choice for most applications.

Applications

Plywood is used in many applications that need high-quality, high-strength sheet material.
Quality in this context means resistance to cracking, breaking, shrinkage, twisting and warping.

Exterior glued plywood is suitable for outdoor use, but because moisture affects the strength of
wood, optimal performance is achieved in end uses where the wood's moisture content remains
relatively low. On the other hand, subzero conditions don't affect plywood's dimensional or
strength properties, which makes some special applications possible.

Plywood is also used as an engineering material for stressed-skin applications. It has been used
for marine and aviation applications since WWII. Most notable is the British de Havilland
Mosquito bomber, which was primarily made using a moulded sandwich of two layers of birch
plywood around a balsa core. Plywood was also used for the hulls in the hard-chineMotor
Torpedo Boats (MTB) and Motor Gun Boats (MGB) built by the British Power Boat Company
and Vosper's. Plywood is currently successfully used in stressed-skin applications. The American
designers Charles and Ray Eames are known for their plywood-based furniture, as is Finnish
Architect Alvar Aalto and his firm Artek, while Phil Bolger has designed a wide range of boats
built primarily of plywood. Jack Köper of Cape Town designed the plywood Dabchick sailing
dinghy, which as of 2015 is still sailed by large numbers of teenagers.

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Plywood is often used to create curved surfaces because it can easily bend with the grain.
Skateboard ramps often utilize plywood as the top smooth surface over bent curves to create
transition that can simulate the shapes of ocean waves.

Softwood plywood applications

Typical end uses of spruce plywood are:

• Floors, walls and roofs in home constructions

• Wind bracing panels
• Vehicle internal body work
• Packages and boxes
• Fencing

There are coating solutions available that mask the prominent grain structure of spruce plywood.
For these coated plywoods there are some end uses where reasonable strength is needed but the
lightness of spruce is a benefit e.g.:

• Concrete shuttering panels

• Ready-to-paint surfaces for constructions

Hardwood plywood applications

Phenolic resin film coated (Film Faced) plywood is typically used as a ready-to-install
component e.g.:

• Panels in concrete form work systems

• Floors, walls and roofs in transport vehicles
• Container floors
• Floors subjected to heavy wear in various buildings and factories
• Scaffolding materials

("Wire" or other styles of imprinting available for better traction)

Birch plywood is used as a structural material in special applications e.g.:

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 • Wind turbine blades
• Insulation boxes for liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers

Smooth surface and accurate thickness combined with the durability of the material makes birch
plywood a favorable material for many special end uses e.g.:

• High-end loud speakers

• Die-cutting boards
• Supporting structure for parquet
• Playground equipment
• Furniture
• Signs and fences for demanding outdoor advertising
• Musical instruments
• Sports equipment

Tropical plywood applications

Tropical plywood is widely available from the South-East Asia region, mainly from Malaysia
and Indonesia. Tropical plywood boasts premium quality, and strength. Depending on
machinery, tropical plywood can be made with high accuracy in thickness, and is a highly
preferable choice in America, Japan, Middle East, Korea, and other regions around the world.[14]

• Common plywood
• Concrete panel
• Floor base
• Structure panel
• Container flooring
• Lamin board
• Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

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CHAPTER 8 - MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

USED

8.1 Electric Arc Welding

Arc welding is a process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create enough
heat to melt metal, and the melted metals when cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a type
of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and
the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or
alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is
usually protected by some type of shielding gas, vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be
manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century,
arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the Second World War.
Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel structures and vehicles.

Power supplies

Fig 8.1 Engine driven welder capable of AC/DC welding.

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Fig 8.2 A diesel powered welding generator (the electric generator is on the left) as used in
Indonesia.

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power
supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and
constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the
arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are
most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded
metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies.
This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly
steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power
supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for
automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and
submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in
the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly
increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to
its original separation distance.[1]

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The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable
electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use
direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the
positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration (around 60%)[2] and, as a result,
changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively
charged, it will melt more quickly, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively,
a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.[3] Non-consumable electrode
processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as
alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc
and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a
negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.[4] Alternating current rapidly moves between
these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc
must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special
power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-
voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[5]

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a
10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A
welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of
continuous welding.[6] Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder.
Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.

Consumable electrode methods

Main articles: Shielded metal arc welding, Gas metal arc welding, Flux-cored arc welding, and
Submerged arc welding

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 Fig 8.3 Shielded metal arc welding

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is
also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used
to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode
rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered
with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as
filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little
operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the
consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux,
must be chipped away after welding.[7] Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding
ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron,
nickel, aluminium, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a
number of applications including repair work and construction.

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-
automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both
electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire
to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is
most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well.
With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however
the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the

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SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials in
the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used
in industries such as the automobile industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the
need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to
use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually
a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is
sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from
the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and
portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck
beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the
atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself
and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working
conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and
no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large
products.[10] As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F
(flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.

Non-consumable electrode methods

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding
process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method
is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill
and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable
metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when
quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval applications.

A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to
make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more

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critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable
current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW
process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except
magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A
variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.

Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag
welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues

Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminium, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to
hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water
decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material,
causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are
delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight from the can,
but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking (usually at 450
to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as well.[13]

Some austeniticstainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion.
When subjected to temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a time, chromium reacts
with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of
chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized
steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable
for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.

Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized
by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some
cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like
unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several
millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the
corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about 1,000 °C

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(1,830 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate
after this treatment is not important.

Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make
them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode
composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar
themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded
joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically
joined.

Safety issues

Fig 8.4 Welding safety checklist

Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however,
with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with
welding can be greatly reduced.

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard

Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of
burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in
the form of heavy leathergloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme
heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes

62 | P a g e
also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of
oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.[16]

Eye damage

Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in which
ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding
goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-fuel
goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new helmet models have been
produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens electronically. To protect
bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These curtains, made
of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from exposure to the UV light from
the electric arc.

Inhaled matter

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-
cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various
types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes,
with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various
gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if
ventilation is inadequate.

Interference with pacemakers

Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have been
found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the
weld site.

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8.2 GRINDING

8.2.1 Introduction

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.

A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

• Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)

• Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
• Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
• Bench grinders often found in residential garages and basements

Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce
very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also
rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of
very hard materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools
such as tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to
machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually better
suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half a thousandth of an
inch or 12.7 μm.

Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of abrasive
functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and
shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a "cut" chip (turning,
milling, drilling, tapping, etc.). However, among people who work in the machining fields, the
term cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting operations, and grinding is
often mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why the terms are usually used in
separately in shop-floor practice.

Lapping and sanding are subsets of grinding.

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8.2.2 Processes
Selecting which of the following grinding operations to be used is determined by the size, shape,
features and the desired production rate.

Surface grinding

Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove material, creating a flat surface. The
tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ± 2 × 10−4 inches for grinding a flat
material, and ± 3 × 10−4 inches for a parallel surface (in metric units: 5 μm for flat material and
8 μm for parallel surface).

The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as a chuck,
either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.

Grinding is commonly used on cast iron and various types of steel. These materials lend
themselves to grinding because they can be held by the magnetic chuck commonly used on
grinding machines, and they do not melt into the wheel, clogging it and preventing it from
cutting. Materials that are less commonly ground are Aluminum, stainless steel, brass & plastics.
These all tend to clog the cutting wheel more than steel & cast iron, but with special techniques it
is possible to grind them.

Cylindrical grinding

Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used to grind the cylindrical surfaces
and shoulders of the workpiece. The workpiece is mounted on centers and rotated by a device
known as a drive dog or center driver. The abrasive wheel and the workpiece are rotated by
separate motors and at different speeds. The table can be adjusted to produce tapers. The wheel
head can be swiveled. The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter (OD) grinding,
inside diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and centerless grinding.[2]

A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the workpiece, and a
chuck, grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the work. Most cylindrical grinding machines
include a swivel to allow for the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and workpiece move
parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive wheel can
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have many shapes. Standard disk-shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or straight
workpiece geometry while formed wheels are used to create a shaped workpiece. The process
using a formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular disk-shaped wheel.[3]

Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within five ten-thousandths of an inch (± 0.0005)
(metric: ± 13 um) for diameter and one ten-thousandth of an inch(± 0.0001) (metric: 2.5 um) for
roundness. Precision work can reach tolerances as high as fifty millionths of an inch (± 0.00005)
(metric: 1.3 um) for diameter and ten millionths (± 0.00001) (metric: 0.25 um) for roundness.
Surface finishes can range from 2 to 125 microinches (metric: 50 nm to 3 um), with typical
finishes ranging from 8 to 32 microinches. (metric: 0.2 um to 0.8 um)

Creep-feed grinding

Creep-feed grinding (CFG) was invented in Germany in the late 1950s by Edmund and Gerhard
Lang. Unlike normal grinding, which is used primarily to finish surfaces, CFG is used for high
rates of material removal, competing with milling and turning as a manufacturing process choice.
Depths of cut of up to 6 mm (0.25 inches) are used along with low workpiece speed. Surfaces
with a softer-grade resin bond are used to keep workpiece temperature low and an improved
surface finish up to 1.6 micrometres Rmax

With CFG it takes 117 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, whereas precision grinding would take
more than 200 sec to do the same. CFG has the disadvantage of a wheel that is constantly
degrading, and requires high spindle power, 51 hp (38 kW), and is limited in the length of part it
can machine.[4]

To address the problem of wheel sharpness, continuous-dress creep-feed grinding (CDCF) was
developed in the 1970s. It dresses the wheel constantly during machining, keeping it in a state of
specified sharpness. It takes only 17 sec. to remove 1 in3 of material, a huge gain in productivity.
38 hp (28 kW) spindle power is required, and runs at low to conventional spindle speeds. The
limit on part length was erased.

High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) uses plated superabrasive wheels, which never need
dressing and last longer than other wheels. This reduces capital equipment investment costs.

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HEDG can be used on long part lengths, and removes material at a rate of 1 in 3 in 83 sec. It
requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.

Peel grinding, patented under the name of Quickpoint in 1985 by Erwin Junker
Maschinenfabrik, GmbH in Nordrach, Germany, uses a tool with a superabrasive nose and can
machine cylindrical parts.

Ultra-high speed grinding (UHSG) can run at speeds higher than 40,000 fpm (200 m/s), taking
41 sec to remove 1 in.3 of material, but is still in the R&D stage. It also requires high spindle
power and high spindle speeds.

Others

Fig 8.5 Centerless grinding

Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where the grinding wheel has the
exact shape of the final product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.[5]

Internal grinding is used to grind the internal diameter of the workpiece. Tapered holes can be
ground with the use of internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.

Centerless grinding is when the workpiece is supported by a blade instead of by centers or

chucks. Two wheels are used. The larger one is used to grind the surface of the workpiece and
the smaller wheel is used to regulate the axial movement of the workpiece. Types of centerless
grinding include through-feed grinding, in-feed/plunge grinding, and internal centerless grinding.

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Pre-grinding When a new tool has been built and has been heat-treated, it is pre-ground before
welding or hardfacing commences. This usually involves grinding the OD slightly higher than
the finish grind OD to ensure the correct finish size.

Electrochemical grinding is a type of grinding in which a positively charged workpiece in a

conductive fluid is eroded by a negatively charged grinding wheel. The pieces from the
workpiece are dissolved into the conductive fluid.

Fig 8.6 A schematic of ELID grinding

Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding is one of the most accurate grinding
methods. In this ultra precision grinding technology the grinding wheel is dressed
electrochemically and in-process to maintain the accuracy of the grinding. An ELID cell consists
of a metal bonded grinding wheel, a cathode electrode, a pulsed DC power supply and
electrolyte. The wheel is connected to the positive terminal of the DC power supply through a
carbon brush whereas the electrode is connected to the negative pole of the power supply.
Usually alkaline liquids are used as both electrolytes and coolant for grinding. A nozzle is used
to inject the electrolyte into the gap between wheel and electrode. The gap is usually maintained
to be approximately 0.1mm to 0.3 mm. During the grinding operation one side of the wheel takes
part in the grinding operation whereas the other side of the wheel is being dressed by
electrochemical reaction. The dissolution of the metallic bond material is caused by the dressing
which in turns results continuous protrusion of new sharp grits.

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8.2.3 Grinding wheel

A grinding wheel is an expendable wheel used for various grinding and abrasive machining
operations. It is generally made from a matrix of coarse abrasive particles pressed and bonded
together to form a solid, circular shape, various profiles and cross sections are available
depending on the intended usage for the wheel. Grinding wheels may also be made from a solid
steel or aluminium disc with particles bonded to the surface.

8.2.4 Lubrication

The use of fluids in a grinding process is often necessary to cool and lubricate the wheel and
workpiece as well as remove the chips produced in the grinding process. The most common
grinding fluids are water-soluble chemical fluids, water-soluble oils, synthetic oils, and
petroleum-based oils. It is imperative that the fluid be applied directly to the cutting area to
prevent the fluid being blown away from the piece due to rapid rotation of the wheel.

Work
Cutting Fluid Application
Material

Aluminum Light-duty oil Flood

Brass Light-duty oil Flood

Cast Iron Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, light-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood

Mild Steel Heavy-duty water-soluble oil Flood

Stainless Steel Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, heavy-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood

Water-soluble oil, heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, dry, light-duty

Plastics Flood
chemical oil, synthetic oil

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 Table 8.2 – Cutting Fluids amd their application

8.2.5 The workpiece

Workholding methods

The workpiece is manually clamped to a lathe dog, powered by the faceplate, that holds the piece
in between two centers and rotates the piece. The piece and the grinding wheel rotate in opposite
directions and small bits of the piece are removed as it passes along the grinding wheel. In some
instances special drive centers may be used to allow the edges to be ground. The workholding
method affects the production time as it changes set up times.

Workpiece materials

Typical workpiece materials include aluminum, brass, plastics, cast iron, mild steel, and stainless
steel. Aluminum, brass and plastics can have poor to fair machinability characteristics for
cylindrical grinding. Cast Iron and mild steel have very good characteristics for cylindrical
grinding. Stainless steel is very difficult to grind due to its toughness and ability to work harden,
but can be worked with the right grade of grinding wheels.

Workpiece geometry

The final shape of a workpiece is the mirror image of the grinding wheel, with cylindrical wheels
creating cylindrical pieces and formed wheels creating formed pieces. Typical sizes on
workpieces range from .75 in. to 20 in. (metric: 18mm to 1 m) and .80 in. to 75 in. in length
(metric: 2 cm to 4 m), although pieces between .25 in. and 60 in. in diameter (metric: 6 mm to
1.5 m) and .30 in. and 100 in. in length (metric: 8 mm to 2.5 m) can be ground. Resulting shapes
can range from straight cylinders, straight edged conical shapes, or even crankshafts for engines
that experience relatively low torque.

Effects on workpiece materials

Mechanical properties will change due to stresses put on the part during finishing. High grinding
temperatures may cause a thin martensitic layer to form on the part, which will lead to reduced
material strength from microcracks.

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Physical property changes include the possible loss of magnetic properties on ferromagnetic
materials.

Chemical property changes include an increased susceptibility to corrosion because of high

surface stress.

8.3 Machining

Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into a desired final
shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes that have this common
theme, controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive
manufacturing, in distinction from processes of controlled material addition, which are known
as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the "controlled" part of the definition implies can vary,
but it almost always implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just power tools and hand
tools).

Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be used on
materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites. A person who specializes in machining
is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where machining is done is called a machine
shop. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or both. Much of modern-day machining is carried
out by computer numerical control (CNC), in which computers are used to control the movement
and operation of the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.

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 Fig 8.7 Cutting Process

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CONCLUSION

Blind aid vehicle has been successfully developed and implemented successfully for practical
purposes. The design has been tested and response of the sensors to obstructions has been
observed. The battery and motor have been mounted with precision and in accordance to the
specified design of the frame. All electrical connections have been done with proper coding so as
to ensure proper understanding of its working.
Some points are worth noting here:
• The motor will work on battery power.
• It will provide power for the vehicle to carry the subject at a speed of about 20 kmph and
up to a gradient of 15 degrees.
• There will be three sensors placed one on front, one on left and one on right.
• Any upcoming obstacle (large stone, wall, another person etc.) will cause the sensors to
produce beeps to alert the rider.
• A depth warning system is also present.
• This system comprises of a rod with a ball to follow the contours of the road.
• In case a depth large enough to topple the vehicle comes, this rod will leave the electrical
contact on the steering shaft and cause beeping.

With these devices in place the Blind aid vehicle will be able to Visually Challenged people to
move speedily in large public campuses like airports, colleges, etc.

It can bring employment to them by freight moving duty inside factories.

They can move freely inside housing schemes and societies where roads are well defined and
devoid of traffic.

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 FUTURE SCOPE

This is an innovative idea of a vehicle which when developed properly, has multiple uses:

will help Visually Challenged people to move speedily in large public campuses like
airports, colleges, etc.

It can bring employment to them by freight moving duty inside factories.

They can move freely inside housing schemes and societies where roads are well defined
and devoid of traffic.

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 REFERENCES

1. Cowie, Ivan (13 January 2014). "All About Batteries, Part 3: Lead-Acid Batteries". UBM Canon.
Retrieved 3 November 2015.

2. Bǎnicǎ, Florinel-Gabriel (2012). Chemical Sensors and Biosensors:Fundamentals and Applications.

Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 576. ISBN 978-1-118-35423-0.

3. M. Gopal. Control systems: principles and design. 2nd ed. Tata McGraw-Hill, 2002. Page e65

4. Kalpakjian & Schmid (2008). Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th Ed. University
of Notre Dame. p. 33 – via https://www3.nd.edu/~manufact/MPEM_pdf.html.

5. "Welding Metallurgy: Arc Physics and Weld Pool Behaviour" (PDF). Canteach.

6. Nealer, Rachael; Reichmuth, David; Anair, Don (November 2015). "Cleaner Cars from Cradle to
Grave: How Electric Cars Beat Gasoline Cars on Lifetime Global Warming Emissions" (PDF). Union of
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8. "Plywood". Gale's How Products are Made. The Gale Group Inc. Retrieved 26 November 2013.

9. Matthew, Sam. "The basics of abrasive cutting". Retrieved 17 December 2016.

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