Review
I picinpar: the window environment
LATEX Seminar: Summer Semester, 2009
Clifford E. Weil1
1 Departmentof Mathematics
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI USA
weil@math.msu.edu
June 17, 2009
Text Mode vs Math Mode
In text mode the default font in most classes (not beamer) is
Roman/upright/medium. In math mode the default is
Roman/italics/medium. Compare text mode, f(x), to math mode
f (x ).
Also when typing in math mode, either in line or display, all spaces
are ignored as is one carriage return. But two or more consecutive
carriage returns will result in an error message. LATEX knows how
much horizontal space to put between consecutive alphabetic
characters and how much space to put before and after such
symbols such as <, >, =, etc. One exception is the small amount
Rof space that the user should insert before a differential such as in
f (x ) dx done by typing $\int f(x)\, dx$.
I parbox and the minipage environment
I the letter class file;
\address, \name, \date, \signature the letter
environment; \opening, \closing, \location,
\telephone,\cc, \encl, \makelables
I the msuphdthesis class; list of figures, and the bibliography
I the beamer class file;
I preamble: \title, \author, \inst, \institute, \date
I frames; \titlepage, \tableofcontents
I beamer commands:
\alert, \againframe, \begin{columns} with \cloumn
and overlay specifications
I slides; \pause, \only, \onslide and \beamercovered
I navigation bar
I beamer themes
Entering Mathematical and Technical Expressions
Before typing material of a technical nature, load the packages
amsmath, amssymb and amsthm. ALL characters used as
mathematical symbols should be typed in math mode. For example
if the letter v is to be used to denote velocity, type, “Let $v$ be
the velocity of the particle.” so it comes out as “Let v be the
. . . ”, rather than, “Let v be the . . . ”. When in math mode use the
commands for the common functions such as sine, logarithm etc.
For example type, “Let $f(x)=\sin x$, which produces, “Let
f (x )= sin x ”. When in math mode a word or abbreviation should
be entered as regular (not math) text using the \text command.
For example, type the $n^\text{th}$ term to get, “the n th
term”.
Typesetting Fractions Typesetting Binomial Coefficients
The basic command to produce a fraction, which can only be used Recall the conclusion of the Binomial Theorem.
in math mode, is $\frac{numerator }{denominator }$. In a case n  
2
such as $\frac{x^2}{z^e}$ the output zx e can be difficult to
X n k n−k
(b + a)n = b a
read. To use a larger font size, the one used in display math mode, k
k=1
x2
type instead $\dfrac{x^2}{z^e}$, which produces e and is the The so-called binomial coefficients are produced in a fashion
z
same as in display mode, $$\frac{x^2}{z^e}$$. To produce the analogous to fractions. Specifically $\binom{m}{n}$
  produces
smaller version in display mode type $$\tfrac{x^2}{z^e}$$. m

m
Compare n while $\dbinom{m}{n}$ produces . Likewise in display
 n
x2 2 m
to zx e . mode $$\binom{m}{n}$$ produces and
ze
n
m
$$\tbinom{m}{n}$$ produces n .

Modular Equivalence Typesetting Roots

LATEX provides four different way to express that x and y are Square roots are produced, only in math mode, with the command
equivalent modulo a positive integer n; that is, y−x = kn for $\sqrt{expression}$.
√ For example typing $\sqrt{x^3-8}$
some integer (positive or negative) k . They are presented in the produces x 3 − 8 for math modep in line and typing
following table. $$\sqrt{x^3-8}$$ produces x 3 − 8 in display math mode.
Note the extra space at the top of the expression. An optional
Typing Produces
argument for the command produces general
√ roots. For example
x\equiv y \mod{n} x ≡ y mod n
typing $\sqrt[7]{x^3-8}$ produces 7 x 3 − 8 forpmath mode in
x\equiv y \bmod{n} x ≡ y mod n 7
line and typing $$\sqrt[7]{x^3-8}$$ produces x 3 − 8 in
x\equiv y \pmod{n} x ≡ y (mod n)
display math mode.
x\equiv y \pod{n} x ≡ y (n)
Display Style in Line Matrices: Introduction
It’s possible to produce the display version of any mathematical The matrix environments are: matrix, pmatrix, bmatrix,
expression appearing in line with the declaration \displaystyle.
p Bmatrix, vmatrix, Vmatrix, and smallmatrix. The first 5
3 use the same syntax. For example
For example √ $\displaystyle\sqrt{x^3-8}$ produces x − 8
instead of x 3 − 8. The scope of the declaration can be limited to produce type
using a pair of braces. For example
1 2 3 4 $$\begin{matrix}
${\displaystyle\sqrt{x^3-8}}\;\frac{2}{3}$ which
p a b c d 1&2&3&4\\
produces x 3 − 8 23 .
−3 −2 −1 0 a&b&c&d\\
-3&-2&-1&0
\end{matrix}$$

If typed in line, the baseline of the line will be alined with the
center of the matrix. No optional argument is available to change
the alignment.

Matrix Examples Dots in Matrices

The first three matrices below were produced with the pmatrix Dots are often used in matrices. For example
the bmatrix and the Bmatrix environments. This matrix is produced by typing
 
a1 a2 . . . an
     
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 $\begin{matrix}
a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b c d  a b c d a b c d a_1&a_2&\dots&a_n\\%a_1&a_2&\dots&a_{n}\\
x1 x2 . . . xn
−3 −2 −1 0 −3 −2 −1 0 −3 −2 −1 0 \hdotsfor{4}\\
 
x_1&x_2&\dots&x_{n}
The next two examples were produced with the vmatrix and the \end{matrix}$
Vmatrix environments. Other dot command that can be used as entries in a matrix are
  \vdots and \ddots for vertical and diagonal dots respectively.
1 2 3 4  1 2 3 4

a b c d  a b c d

−3 −2 −1 0  −3 −2 −1 0
The smallmatrix Environment Single Line Displayed Formulas
The smallmatrix environment is intended for inline matrices. The easiest method to produce single line, unnumbered, displayed
The user must select in what delimiters (if any) the matrix will be formulas is with the formula bracketed by $$ and $$. For example
the displayed formula in an earlier slide,
 1 2 3 4
enclosed. For example  a b c d  is produced by typing
 
−3 −2 −1 0
$\left|\begin{smallmatrix}1&2&3&4\\a&b&c&d (a+b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 .
\\-3&-2&-1&0\end{smallmatrix}\right|$. (The \left and
\right commands are explained in the next frame.) The matrix was produced by typing
can be moved up or down with the \raisebox command
$$ (a+b)^3=a^3+3a^2b+ab^2+b^3. $$

Numbered formulas and multi-line formulas require special

environments, which are made available by the amsmath package.

The Displayed Formula Environments Numbering a Single Line Displayed Formula

The amsmath package provides environments that can be used to The equation environment is used to produce a single line,
display mathematical expression. numbered equation. Loading the {amsmath} package
Those that number displays are: Those that don’t number displays automatically creates the equation environment. So in the body
1. equation are: of the document type the formula inside an equation
5. equation* environment. For example
2. align
3. gather 6. align* \begin{equation}\label{eq1}
4. multline 7. gather* (a+b)^3= a^3+3a^2b+3ab^2+b^3
8. multline* \end{equation}
9. split produces
Numbers for any numbered formula come from the counter (a+b)3 = a 3 + 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 + b 3 (1)
equation.
Multi-Lined Displayed Formulas with align An align Example
The align environment is the one most frequently used for Typing
multi-lined formulas or expressions. Each line (except the last) is
ended with a \\ and an & in each line denotes the point of \begin{align}
alignment. In addition each line in the expression is assigned a \sin(x+\frac{\pi}{2})&=\sin x\cos\frac{\pi}{2}+
number. The & should always be placed before an relational \cos x\sin\frac{\pi}{2}\label{eq1}\\
symbol such as =, <, ≤, etc. Because each line is numbered, each &=\cos x\label{eq2}
line can be assigned a label. The \begin{align} automatically \end{align}
begins math mode; consequently don’t insert any dollar signs. produces
The numbers for all displayed equations come from the counter,
π π π
equation. sin(x + ) = sin x cos + cos x sin (2)
2 2 2
= cos x (3)

To eliminate all numbers, replace align with align*.

Multi-Lined Formula with One Number A Better Way

Numbering every line of a multi-lined formula is often excessive.
The number at the end of any line may be eliminated with the
command \notag before the \\ command. For example typing
\begin{align}
\sin(x+\frac{\pi}{2})&=\sin x\cos\frac{\pi}{2}+
\cos x\sin\frac{\pi}{2}\notag\\
&=\cos x\label{eq3}
\end{align}
An often better method to assign a single number to a multi-line
expression is to combine the equation environment with the
split environment. The split environment must be used in
conjunction with another environment, usually the equation
environment. It works the same way that the align environment
works as will be demonstrated in the following example.

produces
π π π
sin(x + ) = sin x cos + cos x sin
2 2 2
= cos x (4)
A split Environment Example Locating and Changing the Tags
For example typing Equations, like assertions, may be numbered according to the
section in which they appear with the preamble command
\begin{equation}\label{eq4} \numberwithin{equation}{section}
\begin{split} The user may override the number tags with a personal choice
\sin(x+\frac{\pi}{2})&=\sin x\cos\frac{\pi}{2}+ using the command \tag{label} or \tag*{label}. These
\cos x\sin\frac{\pi}{2}\\ commands are placed before the \\ command. The first results in
&=\cos x the user’s choice surrounded by parentheses while the second omits
\end{split} the parentheses.
\end{equation} By choosing the option[tbtags] for the amsmath package the
produces number in the preceding example is moved to the bottom of the
displayed formula (and flush to the right margin), or if, in addition
π π π the option [leqno] for the documentclass has been selected, the
sin(x + ) = sin x cos + cos x sin
2 2 2 (5) number will appear at the top flush with the left margin.
= cos x

BREAK TIME!!

Other Multi-Lined Environments Two or More Columns of Equations

The gather and gather* environments center all lines and, in the The align and align* environments may be used to align the
case of gather, numbers each line. The multline and equations (or expressions) in two or more columns of equations (or
multline* environments place the first line flush to the left expressions). The first & aligns the equations in the first column
margin, place the last line flush to the right margin and centers all and the second & separates the first and second columns while the
other lines. In the case of multline a number appears after the next & aligns the equations in the second column, etc.
last line flush to the right margin unless the class option leqno has
been selected in which case the number is placed before the first
line flush with the left margin. The alignment character & must
not appear in any line of any of these environments.
A Two Column Example Alternate Numbering
For example typing When the expressions are closely related as in the previous
example, it’s convenient to have a method of numbering them to
\begin{align*} reflect that fact. The subequations environment provides this
6&\equiv 0\bmod{6}&9&\equiv 3\bmod{6}\\ method. To produce
7&\equiv 1\bmod{6}&10&\equiv 4\bmod{6}\\
8&\equiv 2\bmod{6}&11&\equiv 5\bmod{6}\\ sin(x ± y) = sin x cos y ± cos x sin y (6a)
\end{align*} cos(x ± y) = cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y (6b)
produces
type
6 ≡ 0 mod 6 9 ≡ 3 mod 6 \begin{subequations}
7 ≡ 1 mod 6 10 ≡ 4 mod 6 \begin{align}
8 ≡ 2 mod 6 11 ≡ 5 mod 6 \sin(x \pm y)&=\sin x \cos y \pm\cos x \sin y \\
\cos(x \pm y)&=\cos x \cos y \mp\sin x \sin y
\end{align}
\end{subequations}

The \intertext Command Spacing Hint

The command\intertext{text to insert} is used to insert a line When aligning on a relationship and a line must be broken before
or more of text between lines of any of the multi-lined the next relationship, break and align on a + or −, but put extra
environments introduced. For example space after the &. For example to produce
to produce type
(a + b + c) × (A + B + C ) = aA + aB + aC + bA + bB + bC
f (x ) = x 2 \begin{align*} + cA + cB + cC
f(x)&= x^2
and \intertext{and} type
g(x)&=6x-7
g(x ) = 6x − 7 \end{align*} \begin{align*}
(a+b+c)\times(A+B+C)&=aA+aB+aC+bA+bB+cB\\
Note that there is no newline command after the first formula nor
&\phantom{=}+cA+cB+cC
after the intertext command.
\end{align*}
The aligned and gathered Environments An aligned Example
Unlike the previous environments, these two can be used in line For example the sentence
and don’t automatically change to math mode. Hence each must u xx + u yy = 0 for x 2 + y 2 < 1
“The pair is a boundary value
be preceded with a $. The formatting rules for each of these u(x,y) = f (x,y) for x 2 + y 2 = 1
environments are the same as those of their namesakes. The problem.”
example to follow uses the command \text which is a convenient is produced by typing
way to insert text mode text while in math mode. Note that the
extra space needed to separate x from the text is done with a The pair
space in the argument of \text where a space is recognized. $\begin{aligned}
u_{xx}+u_{yx}&=0\text{ for }x^2+y^2<1\\
u(x,y)&=\f(x,y)\text{ for }x^2+y^2=1
\end{aligned}$ is a boundary value problem.

The gathered environment works the same way.

The cases Environment An All to Common Problem

To produce the type of structure Sometimes when trying to number a multi-line expression, the
( following situation occurs.
0 if x is a rational number
f (x ) = Z b
1 if x is an irrational number π (R(x ))2 − (r (x ))2 dx


Volume of solid =
a
type Z 1
π (−x + 3)2 − (x 2 + 1)2 dx


=
$$f(x)=\begin{cases} −2
Z1
0&\text{if } x \text{ is a rational number}\\
= π(8 − 6x − x 2 − x 4 ) dx
1&\text{if } x \text{ is an irrational number} −2
\end{cases}$$ h x 3 x 5 i1 117π
= π 8x − 3x 2 − − = = 23.4 × π
The cases environment can be used in line in the same way as the 3 5 −2 5
(7)
aligned environment.
The Solution: The Command \raisetag The Result
The command \raisetag{length} can be used to force LATEX to
put the tag where it should be. Specifically type Z b
π (R(x ))2 − (r (x))2 dx


Volume of solid =
\begin{equation}\label{eq6} a
\begin{split} Z 1
π (−x + 3)2 − (x 2 + 1)2 dx


\text{\textit{Volume of solid}}&=\int_a^b \pi =
−2
\big((R(x))^2-(r(x))^2\big)\,dx\\ Z1
(7)
&=\int_{-2}^1\pi\big((-x+3)^2-(x^2+1)^2\big)\,dx\\ = π(8 − 6x − x 2 − x 4 ) dx
&=\int_{-2}^1\pi(8-6x-x^2-x^4)\,dx\\ −2
&=\pi\Big[8x-3x^2-\frac{x^3}{3}-\frac{x^5}{5}\Big]_{-2}^1
h x 3 x 5 i1 117π
= π 8x − 3x 2 − − = = 23.4 × π
=\frac{117\pi}{5}=23.4\times \pi 3 5 −2 5
\raisetag{4\baselineskip}
\end{split}
\end{equation}

Stating Assertions with the amsthm Package Creating a New Environment

The amsthm package several new environments available for
producing assertions such as definitions, lemmas, propositions,
theorems, and remarks, etc. with either of two commands
\newtheorem or \newtheorem*. Each has two mandatory
arguments and the first command has two optional ones as well.
Both commands must occur in the preamble. In its simplest form
the first command has the form
\newtheroem{environment name}{assertion designation}. This
action also creates a counter named environment name.
For example placing \newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem} in the
preamble creates a new environment theorem whose designation is
Theorem and a new counter called theorem. In the body of the
document when \begin{theorem} is typed, LATEX produces,
Theorem followed by a number identifying the theorem; 1 for the
first use, 2 for the second, etc. The numbers are assigned from the
counter named theorem. Any assertion can be referred to at any
point in the text by including the command
\label{statement name}.
A Simple Example A Numbering Option
For example typing In the case of a long article containing numerous theorems,
numbering them consecutively can become unruly. In such a
\begin{theorem}\label{th1} situation numbering them according to section is an attractive
This is the first theorem. alternative. To do so add the option [section] to the command
\end{theorem} creating the environment. Specifically in the preamble type
\begin{theorem}\label{th2} \newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}[section]. (The position of
This is the second theorem. this option is important.) Assuming the theorems are being
\end{theorem} created in the fourth section the outcome would be
produces Theorem 4.1. This is the first theorem.
Theorem 1. This is the first theorem. Theorem 4.2. This is the second theorem.
Theorem 2. This is the second theorem.

Additional Types of Assertions Numbering Lemmas and Theorems Consecutively

To include lemmas as well as theorems in the preamble type
\newtheorem{lemma}{Lemma}. Then in the document typing
\begin{lemma}\label{lem1}
This is the first lemma.
\end{lemma}
produces
Lemma 1. This is the first lemma.
Of course this particular \newtheorem command produces a new
environment and a new counter each named lemma.
Using the option [theorem] causes lemmas to be numbered using
the same counter that numbers theorems; specifically
\newtheorem{lemma}[theorem]{Lemma}. (Note the different
location of the option.) Then what might be seen is
Lemma 1. This is the first lemma.
Theorem 2. This is the first theorem.
Theorem 3. This is the second theorem.
If theorems are numbered according to section number, the same
would be true of lemmas. Additional assertions such as
propositions and corollaries may also be numbered using the same
counter as is used by theorem. With an optional argument in the
position of this one, no new counter is created.
Other Styles
The amsthm package also provides two additional theorem styles
besides the default one already exhibited. They are definition and
remark. They are changed in the preamble by typing
\theoremstyle{style} before the \newtheorem command that
creates the assertion type. For example typing
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{definition}{Definition}
\theoremstyle{remark}
\newtheorem{remark}{Remark}
permits
Definition 1. This is an assertion in definition style.
Remark 1. This is an assertion in remark style.
Named Assertions
The preamble command \newtheorem* is used to produce
assertions that are named rather than numbered. Consequently it
produces a new environment, but no new counter. These assertion
can have any theorem style desired. This command permits only
two mandatory arguments. For example the command
\newtheorem*{WO}{Well Ordering Principle} allows the
typing of
\begin{WO}
Every non-empty set can be well-ordered.
\end{WO}
to produce
Well Ordering Principle. Every non-empty set can be
well-ordered.
Numbering and Styles
An assertion can be numbered with another assertion’s counter
even if the two assertions are in different styles. For example
typing in the preamble
\newtheorem{theorem}{Theorem}[section]
\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem{definition}theorem]{Definition}
could produce something like
Definition 3.1. This assertion is in definition style.
Theorem 3. 2. This assertion is in theorem style.
An Option for All Assertion Environments
All of the environments created with either of the preamble
commands \newtheorem or \newtheorem* have an optional
argument that can be used for inserting additional information
about the assertion before its statement. For example, typing
\begin{lemma}[see \cite{T}]
If $f$ is differentiable at $x$, then $f$ is
continuous at $x$.
\end{lemma}
will produce
Lemma 2. (see [7]) If f is differentiable at x, then f is
continuous at x.
assuming that the famous text book by George Thomas is the
seventh item in the bibliography and that the default method of
identifying bibliographic references is used.