Ecology and Ethology PDF

Ecology
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
•  Overview: The Scope of Ecology
•  Ecology
–  Is the scientific study of the interactions
between organisms and the environment
•  These interactions
–  Determine both the distribution of organisms
and their abundance

Organisms and the Environment
•  The environment of any organism includes
–  Abiotic, or nonliving components
–  Biotic, or living components
–  All the organisms living in the environment, the

biota

•  Environmental components
–  Affect the distribution and abundance of
organisms
Kangaroos/km2 Climate in northern Australia
> 20 is hot and wet, with seasonal
drought.
10–20
5–10
1–5
0.1–1
< 0.1 Red kangaroos
Limits of occur in most
distribution semiarid and arid
regions of the
interior, where
precipitation is
relatively low and
variable from
year to year.
Southeastern Australia
has a wet, cool climate.
Southern Australia has
cool, moist winters and
Figure 50.2 warm, dry summers.
Tasmania

Subfields of Ecology
•  Organismal ecology
–  Studies how an organism’s structure,
physiology, and (for animals) behavior meet
the challenges posed by the environment
Figure 50.3a
(a) Organismal ecology. How do humpback whales
select their calving areas?
•  Population ecology
–  Concentrates mainly on factors that affect how
many individuals of a particular species live in
an area
(b) Population ecology.
What environmental
factors affect the
reproductive rate of
deer mice?
Figure 50.3b

Density and Dispersion
•  Density
–  Is the number of individuals per unit area or
volume
•  Dispersion
–  Is the pattern of spacing among individuals
within the boundaries of the population

•  Density is the result of a dynamic interplay
–  Between processes that add individuals to a
population and those that remove individuals from it
Births and immigration add
individuals to a population.
Births Immigration
PopuIation
size
Emigration
Deaths
Deaths and emigration
remove individuals from a
population.
Figure 52.2

Patterns of Dispersion
•  Environmental and social factors
–  Influence the spacing of individuals in a
population

•  A clumped dispersion
–  Is one in which individuals aggregate in
patches
–  May be influenced by resource availability and

behavior
(a) Clumped. For many animals, such as these wolves, living

in groups increases the effectiveness of hunting, spreads
the work of protecting and caring for young, and helps
exclude other individuals from their territory.
Figure 52.3a

•  A uniform dispersion
–  Is one in which individuals are evenly
distributed
–  May be influenced by social interactions such

as territoriality
(b) Uniform. Birds nesting on small islands, such as these

king penguins on South Georgia Island in the South
Atlantic Ocean, often exhibit uniform spacing, maintained
by aggressive interactions between neighbors.
Figure 52.3b

•  A random dispersion
–  Is one in which the position of each individual
is independent of other individuals
(c) Random. Dandelions grow from windblown seeds that

land at random and later germinate.
Figure 52.3c

Demography
•  Demography is the study of the vital statistics
of a population
–  And how they change over time
•  Death rates and birth rates

–  Are of particular interest to demographers

Life Tables
•  A life table
–  Is an age-specific summary of the survival
pattern of a population
–  Is best constructed by following the fate of a

cohort

•  The life table of Belding’s ground squirrels
–  Reveals many things about this population
Table 52.1
Survivorship Curves
•  A survivorship curve
–  Is a graphic way of representing the data in a
life table

•  The survivorship curve for Belding’s ground squirrels
–  Shows that the death rate is relatively constant
1000
Number of survivors (log scale)
100
Females
10
Males
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Figure 52.4
•  Survivorship curves can be classified into three
general types
–  Type I, Type II, and Type III
1,000
Number of survivors (log scale)
100
II
10
III
1
0 50 100
Percentage of maximum life span
Figure 52.5

•  Concept 52.3: The exponential model
describes population growth in an idealized,
unlimited environment
•  It is useful to study population growth in an
idealized situation
–  In order to understand the capacity of species
for increase and the conditions that may
facilitate this type of growth

•  The equation of exponential population
growth is
dN =
dt rmaxN

•  Exponential population growth
–  Results in a J-shaped curve
2,000
dN
= 1.0N
dt
1,500
dN
Population size (N)
= 0.5N
dt
1,000
500
0
0 5 10 15
Figure 52.9 Number of generations

•  Concept 52.4: The logistic growth model
includes the concept of carrying capacity
•  Exponential growth
–  Cannot be sustained for long in any population
•  A more realistic population model

–  Limits growth by incorporating carrying
capacity

•  The logistic growth equation
–  Includes K, the carrying capacity
dN (K - N )
= rmaxN
dt K

•  The logistic model of population growth
–  Produces a sigmoid (S-shaped) curve
2,000
dN
= 1.0N Exponential
dt
growth
1,500
Population size (N)
K = 1,500
Logistic growth
1,000 dN 1,500 - N
= 1.0N
dt 1,500
500
0
0 5 10 15
Number of generations
Figure 52.12

•  Community ecology
–  Deals with the whole array of interacting
species in a community
(c) Community ecology.
What factors influence
the diversity of species
that make up a
particular forest?
Figure 50.3c

•  Concept 53.1: A community’s interactions
include competition, predation, herbivory,
symbiosis, and disease
•  Populations are linked by interspecific
interactions
–  That affect the survival and reproduction of the
species engaged in the interaction

•  Interspecific interactions
–  Can have differing effects on the populations
involved
Table 53.1
Competition
•  Interspecific competition
–  Occurs when species compete for a particular
resource that is in short supply
•  Strong competition can lead to competitive

exclusion
–  The local elimination of one of the two
competing species

Ecological Niches
•  The ecological niche
–  Is the total of an organism’s use of the biotic
and abiotic resources in its environment

•  However, ecologically similar species can
coexist in a community
–  If there are one or more significant difference
in their niches
EXPERIMENT Ecologist Joseph Connell studied two barnacle RESULTS When Connell removed Balanus from the lower
species⎯Balanus balanoides and Chthamalus stellatus ⎯that have a strata, the Chthamalus population spread into that area.
stratified distribution on rocks along the coast of Scotland.
High tide High tide

Chthamalus
Chthamalus
Balanus realized niche
Chthamalus
fundamental niche
Balanus
realized niche
Ocean Ocean
Low tide Low tide
In nature, Balanus fails to survive high on the rocks because it is

unable to resist desiccation (drying out) during low tides. Its realized
niche is therefore similar to its fundamental niche. In contrast,
Chthamalus is usually concentrated on the upper strata of rocks. To CONCLUSION The spread of Chthamalus when Balanus was
determine the fundamental of niche of Chthamalus, Connell removed removed indicates that competitive exclusion makes the realized
Balanus from the lower strata. niche of Chthamalus much smaller than its fundamental niche.
Figure 53.2

•  Concept 53.2: Dominant and keystone species
exert strong controls on community structure
•  In general, a small number of species in a
community
–  Exert strong control on that community’s
structure

Species Diversity
•  The species diversity of a community
–  Is the variety of different kinds of organisms
that make up the community
–  Has two components

•  Species richness
–  Is the total number of different species in the
community
•  Relative abundance
–  Is the proportion each species represents of
the total individuals in the community

•  Two different communities
–  Can have the same species richness, but a
different relative abundance
A
B
Community 1
A: 25% B: 25% C: 25% D: 25%
Community 2
Figure 53.11 A: 80% B: 5% C: 5% D: 10%

•  A community with an even species abundance
–  Is more diverse than one in which one or two
species are abundant and the remainder rare

Ecological Succession
•  Ecological succession
–  Is the sequence of community and ecosystem
changes after a disturbance

•  Primary succession
–  Occurs where no soil exists when succession
begins
•  Secondary succession
–  Begins in an area where soil remains after a
disturbance

•  Ecosystem ecology
–  Emphasizes energy flow and chemical cycling
among the various biotic and abiotic
components
(d) Ecosystem ecology. What

factors control photosynthetic
productivity in a temperate
grassland ecosystem?
Figure 50.3d

•  Landscape ecology
–  Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they
are arranged in a geographic region
Figure 50.3e
(e) Landscape ecology. To what extent do the trees lining the
drainage channels in this landscape serve as corridors of
dispersal for forest animals?

•  Concept 54.1: Ecosystem ecology emphasizes
energy flow and chemical cycling
•  Ecosystem ecologists view ecosystems
–  As transformers of energy and processors of
matter

Ecosystems and Physical Laws
•  The laws of physics and chemistry apply to
ecosystems
–  Particularly in regard to the flow of energy
•  Energy is conserved
–  But degraded to heat during ecosystem
processes

Trophic Relationships
•  Energy and nutrients pass from primary
producers (autotrophs)
–  To primary consumers (herbivores) and then to
secondary consumers (carnivores)

•  Energy flows through an ecosystem
–  Entering as light and exiting as heat
Tertiary
consumers
Microorganisms
and other
detritivores Secondary
consumers
Detritus Primary consumers
Primary producers
Heat
Key
Chemical cycling Sun

Energy flow
Figure 54.2
The Global Energy Budget
•  The amount of solar radiation reaching the
surface of the Earth
–  Limits the photosynthetic output of ecosystems
•  Only a small fraction of solar energy

–  Actually strikes photosynthetic organisms

Gross and Net Primary Production
•  Total primary production in an ecosystem
–  Is known as that ecosystem’s gross primary
production (GPP)
•  Not all of this production

–  Is stored as organic material in the growing
plants

•  Net primary production (NPP)
–  Is equal to GPP minus the energy used by the
primary producers for respiration
•  Only NPP
–  Is available to consumers

•  Different ecosystems vary considerably in their net
primary production
–  And in their contribution to the total NPP on Earth
Open ocean 65.0 125 24.4
Continental shelf 5.2 360 5.6
Estuary 0.3 1,500 1.2
Algal beds and reefs 0.1 2,500 0.9
Upwelling zones 0.1 500 0.1
Extreme desert, rock, sand, ice 4.7 3.0 0.04
Desert and semidesert scrub 3.5 90 0.9
Tropical rain forest 3.3 2,200 22
Savanna 2.9 900 7.9
Cultivated land 2.7 600 9.1
Boreal forest (taiga) 2.4 800 9.6
Temperate grassland 1.8 600 5.4
Woodland and shrubland 1.7 700 3.5
Tundra 1.6 140 0.6
Tropical seasonal forest 1.5 1,600 7.1
Temperate deciduous forest 1.3 1,200 4.9
Temperate evergreen forest 1.0 1,300 3.8
Swamp and marsh 0.4 2,000 2.3
Lake and stream 0.4 250 0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 0 5 10 15 20 25

Key
(a) Percentage of Earth’s (b) Average net primary (c) Percentage of Earth’s net
surface area production (g/m2/yr) primary production
Marine
Terrestrial
Freshwater (on continents) Figure 54.4a–c
•  Concept 54.3: Energy transfer between trophic
levels is usually less than 20% efficient
•  The secondary production of an ecosystem
–  Is the amount of chemical energy in
consumers’ food that is converted to their own
new biomass during a given period of time

Production Efficiency
•  When a caterpillar feeds on a plant leaf
–  Only about one-sixth of the energy in the leaf is
used for secondary production
Plant material
eaten by caterpillar
200 J
67 J Cellular
100 J respiration
Feces
33 J
Figure 54.10 Growth (new biomass)

Pyramids of Production
•  This loss of energy with each transfer in a food chain
–  Can be represented by a pyramid of net production
Tertiary
10 J
consumers
Secondary
consumers 100 J
Primary 1,000 J
consumers
Primary
producers 10,000 J
Figure 54.11 1,000,000 J of sunlight

Pyramids of Biomass
•  One important ecological consequence of low
trophic efficiencies
–  Can be represented in a biomass pyramid

•  Most biomass pyramids
–  Show a sharp decrease at successively higher
trophic levels
Trophic level Dry weight

(g/m2)
Tertiary consumers 1.5
Secondary consumers 11
Primary consumers 37
Primary producers 809
(a) Most biomass pyramids show a sharp decrease in biomass at

successively higher trophic levels, as illustrated by data from
a bog at Silver Springs, Florida.
Figure 54.12a

•  Certain aquatic ecosystems
–  Have inverted biomass pyramids
Trophic level Dry weight

(g/m2)
Primary consumers (zooplankton) 21
Primary producers (phytoplankton) 4
(b) In some aquatic ecosystems, such as the English Channel,

a small standing crop of primary producers (phytoplankton)
supports a larger standing crop of primary consumers (zooplankton).
Figire 54.12b

•  Concept 54.4: Biological and geochemical
processes move nutrients between organic and
inorganic parts of the ecosystem
•  Life on Earth
–  Depends on the recycling of essential chemical
elements
•  Nutrient circuits that cycle matter through an

ecosystem
–  Involve both biotic and abiotic components and
are often called biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical Cycles
•  The water cycle and the carbon cycle
THE WATER CYCLE THE CARBON CYCLE
CO2 in atmosphere
Transport
over land Photosynthesis
Solar energy
Cellular
Net movement of respiration
water vapor by wind
Precipitation
Precipitation Evaporation over land
over ocean from ocean
Burning of
fossil fuels
Evapotranspiration
from land and wood
Higher-level
Primary consumers
consumers
Percolation Carbon compounds Detritus
through in water
soil
Runoff and
groundwater
Decomposition
Figure 54.17
•  The nitrogen cycle and the phosphorous cycle
THE NITROGEN CYCLE THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
N2 in atmosphere
Rain
Geologic Weathering Plants

uplift of rocks
Assimilation Runoff
Denitrifying
bacteria Consumption
NO3-
Nitrogen-fixing Sedimentation
bacteria in root Plant uptake
Decomposers of PO43-
nodules of legumes Nitrifying Soil
Nitrification bacteria
Ammonification Leaching
NH3 NH4+ NO2 -

Nitrogen-fixing Nitrifying
soil bacteria bacteria
Decomposition
Figure 54.17
Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling Rates
•  Decomposers (detritivores) play a key role
–  In the general pattern of chemical cycling
Consumers
Producers
Decomposers
Nutrients
available
to producers
Abiotic
reservoir
Geologic
processes
Figure 54.18
•  The biosphere
–  Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the
planet’s ecosystems

Biotic Factors
•  Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
–  Interactions with other species
–  Predation
–  Competition

•  A specific case of an herbivore limiting
distribution of a food species
EXPERIMENT W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed
abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.
RESULTS Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
Removing both
100 limpets and
Sea
urchins or
urchin Both limpets removing only
and urchins urchins increased
80
removed seaweed cover
Seaweed cover (%)
dramatically.
60 Only
urchins
Limpet removed
Almost no
40 seaweed grew
Only limpets removed in areas where
both urchins and
Control (both limpets were
20 urchins and present, or where
limpets present) only limpets were
removed.
0
August February August February
1982 1983 1983 1984
Figure 50.8 CONCLUSION Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating that both
species have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased seaweed growth while
removing only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much greater effect than limpets in limiting
seaweed distribution.

Abiotic Factors
•  Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
–  Temperature
–  Water
–  Sunlight
–  Wind
–  Rocks and soil

Climate
•  Four major abiotic components make up
climate
–  Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
•  Climate
–  Is the prevailing weather conditions in a
particular area

•  Climate patterns can be described on two
scales
–  Macroclimate, patterns on the global, regional,
and local level
–  Microclimate, very fine patterns, such as those

encountered by the community of organisms
underneath a fallen log

Global Climate Patterns
•  Earth’s global climate patterns
–  Are determined largely by the input of solar
energy and the planet’s movement in space

•  Sunlight intensity
–  Plays a major part in determining the Earth’s
climate patterns
LALITUDINAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
North Pole
60°N
Low angle of incoming sunlight
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Sunlight directly overhead 0° (equator)
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S
Low angle of incoming sunlight

60°S
South pole
Figure 50.10 Atmosphere

SEASONAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
March equinox: Equator faces sun directly;

neither pole tilts toward sun; all regions on Earth
60°N experience 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
June solstice: Northern 30°N darkness.
Hemisphere tilts toward 0° (equator)
sun; summer begins in
Northern Hemisphere;
winter begins in 30°S
Southern Hemisphere.
December solstice: Northern

Hemisphere tilts away from sun;
Constant tilt winter begins in Northern
of 23.5° Hemisphere; summer begins
September equinox: Equator faces sun in Southern Hemisphere.
directly; neither pole tilts toward sun; all
regions on Earth experience 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of darkness.
Figure 50.10
Microclimate
•  Microclimate
–  Is determined by fine-scale differences in
abiotic factors

•  Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors
influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic
biomes
•  Varying combinations of both biotic and abiotic
factors
–  Determine the nature of Earth’s many biomes
•  Biomes
–  Are the major types of ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
•  The examination of biomes will begin with
Earth’s aquatic biomes
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Continental
Tropic of shelf
Capricorn
30°S
Key
Lakes Rivers Estuaries Abyssal zone

Intertidal zone (below oceanic
Figure 50.15 Coral reefs Oceanic pelagic
pelagic zone)
zone

•  Many aquatic biomes
–  Are stratified into zones or layers defined by
light penetration, temperature, and depth
Intertidal zone
Neritic zone Oceanic zone
Littoral
zone Limnetic 0
zone Photic zone
200 m
Continental Pelagic
shelf zone
Benthic Aphotic
Photic zone zone
zone
Pelagic
Benthic
zone
zone
Aphotic
zone
2,500–6,000 m
Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
(a) Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified on the basis (b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is generally
of three physical criteria: light penetration (photic and aphotic zones), classified on the basis of light penetration (photic and aphotic zones),
distance from shore and water depth (littoral and limnetic zones), and distance from shore and water depth (intertidal, neritic, and oceanic
whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone). zones), and whether it is open water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic
and abyssal zones).
Figure 50.16a, b
•  Lakes
LAKES
An oligotrophic lake in A eutrophic lake in Okavango

Figure 50.17 Grand Teton, Wyoming delta, Botswana

•  Wetlands
WETLANDS
Figure 50.17 Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia

•  Streams and rivers
STREAMS AND RIVERS
A headwater stream in the The Mississippi River far

Figure 50.17 Great Smoky Mountains form its headwaters

•  Estuaries
ESTUARIES
Figure 50.17 An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia

•  Intertidal zones
INTERTIDAL ZONES
Figure 50.17 Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast

•  Oceanic pelagic biome
OCEANIC PELAGIC BIOME
Figure 50.17 Open ocean off the island of Hawaii

•  Coral reefs
CORAL REEFS
Figure 50.17 A coral reef in the Red Sea

•  Marine benthic zone
MARINE BENTHIC ZONE
Figure 50.17 A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community

•  Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines the
distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes
•  Climate
–  Is particularly important in determining why
particular terrestrial biomes are found in certain
areas

Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
•  Climate has a great impact on the distribution
of organisms, as seen on a climograph
Desert Temperate grassland Tropical forest
30
Annual mean temperature (ºC)
Temperate
broadleaf
15
forest
Coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
-15
100 200 300 400
Annual mean precipitation (cm)

Figure 50.18

•  The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S
Key Chaparral Tundra

Temperate grassland High mountains
Tropical forest
Temperate broadleaf forest Polar ice
Savanna
Coniferous forest
Figure 50.19 Desert

General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
•  Terrestrial biomes
–  Are often named for major physical or climatic
factors and for their predominant vegetation
•  Stratification
–  Is an important feature of terrestrial biomes

•  Tropical forest
TROPICAL FOREST
Figure 50.20 A tropical rain forest in Borneo

•  Desert
DESERT
Figure 50.20 The Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona

•  Savanna
SAVANNA
Figure 50.20
A typical savanna in Kenya

•  Chaparral
CHAPARRAL
Figure 50.20 An area of chaparral in California

•  Temperate grassland
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
Figure 50.20
Sheyenne National Grassland in North Dakota

•  Coniferous forest
CONIFEROUS FOREST
Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado
Figure 50.20

•  Temperate broadleaf forest
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FOREST
Figure 50.20
Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina

•  Tundra
TUNDRA
Figure 50.20 Denali National Park, Alaska, in autumn

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Ecology

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– All the organisms living in the environment, the

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– May be influenced by resource availability and

(a) Clumped. For many animals, such as these wolves, living

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– May be influenced by social interactions such

(b) Uniform. Birds nesting on small islands, such as these

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(c) Random. Dandelions grow from windblown seeds that

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Death rates and birth rates

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Is best constructed by following the fate of a

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• A more realistic population model

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Strong competition can lead to competitive

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

High tide High tide

In nature, Balanus fails to survive high on the rocks because it is

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Has two components

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(d) Ecosystem ecology. What

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Detritus Primary consumers

Chemical cycling Sun

• Only a small fraction of solar energy

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Not all of this production

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 0 5 10 15 20 25

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

–  All the organisms living in the environment, the

–  May be influenced by resource availability and

–  May be influenced by social interactions such

•  Death rates and birth rates

–  Is best constructed by following the fate of a

•  A more realistic population model

•  Strong competition can lead to competitive

–  Has two components

•  Only a small fraction of solar energy

•  Not all of this production

•  Nutrient circuits that cycle matter through an

–  Microclimate, very fine patterns, such as those