CHAPTER 1

2 kinds of Science
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE 1. Specialize Science
- focus only in one field
Physical science, the systematic study of the Example:
inorganic world which ordinarily thought of as Analytical Chemistry
consisting of four broad areas: Astronomy, Physics,
Chemistry, and the Earth sciences. 2. Interdisciplinary Science
- combination of two or more Specialize Science
Science
– comes from a Latin word “Scientia” which Example:
means to know Biochemistry

- the intellectual and practical activity Scientific Method

encompassing the systematic study of the
structure and behavior of the physical and
natural world through observation and
experiment.
3 Classification of Science
1. Pure Science
- searching for knowledge/idea/ information
- a series of steps needed and strictly followed in
order to arrive a valuable and reliable
information
Steps in Scientific Method
1. Observation
- refers to the gathering of information through
the use of the senses.

2. Applied Science - leads to the identification of PROBLEM

- searching for the USES of the knowledge/idea/
information 2. Research
- gathering of additional information with
3. Technology regards to the problem
- the craft/tool/material/instrument/apparatus/
machine that are product of applying the - it may be through reading printed materials,
scientific knowledge surfing in the internet or by interviewing an
authority
Types of Science - general questions or the statement of the
1. Social Science problem is formulated here
 the scientific study of human society and social
relationships -leads to a wise decision

Example: 3. Hypothesis
Economics & Politics - an educated guess

2. Natural Science - acts as the preliminary answer to the question

 a branch of science that deals with the physical
world 2 kinds of Hypothesis
a. Null Hypothesis
- negative statement
3 Main Branch of Natural Science
1. Life Sciences b. Alternative Hypothesis
- study of all living things; their development, - positive statement
changes, features and history
4. Test or Experiment
2. Physical Science - the part where a task is performed to determine
- study all about matter and energy which statement in the hypothesis is true

3. Earth Science -VARIABLES are determine

- study all about the features and changes of the
Earth. -designing of set-ups

Skills Involved in Science Kinds of Variables

 Measuring a. Independent Variable
 Observing - factors changed or manipulate
1

 Analyzing
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 Experimenting b. Dependent Variable

 - factors want to observe or measures
c. Controlled Variables
- factors that held constant or kept the
same
Kinds of Set-Up
a. Experimental Set-up
- contains the subject of the study
b. Control Set-up
- a normal phenomenon to which the
experiment the experimental set-up is
compared
5. Analysis
- weighing of the data gathered is done on this
part to arrive into a concrete decision as to
accept or reject the hypothesis is done here
which will be presented then in a statement
called FINDINGS
6. Conclusion
- the general statement of the research based of
the findings of the results
7. Recommendation
- the part where suggestions either replacement
or adjustment in the variables or method is being
presented
CHAPTER 2
MEASUREMENTS
Scientists use many skills as they investigate the
world around them. They make observations by
gathering information with their senses. Some
observations are simple. For example, a simple
observation would be figuring out the color or texture of
an object. However, if scientists want to know more
about a substance, they may need to take measurements.
It is perhaps one of the most fundamental concepts in
science. Without the ability to measure, it would be
difficult for scientists to conduct experiments or form
theories. Not only is measurement important in science
and the chemical industry, it is also essential in farming,
engineering, construction, manufacturing, commerce,
and numerous other occupations and activities.
Measurement
- A collection of QUANTITAVE DATA
also known as numerical
data
- comes from the Greek word “metron,” which
means “limited proportion.”
- require tools and provide scientists with a
quantity
2 Components of Measurement
1. Magnitude (number)
2. Units (represents the type of quantitative property
being measured)
The International System of Units (SI )
Metric system
- Standard of measurement for a long time
SI Unit
- a system of unit which was established last
1960 bt the 11th General Conference on Weights
and Measurements
- derived from French words Systeme
Internationale, is built upon a set of seven
metric units called the BASE UNITS
SI Units use prefixes to indicate the size of the unit
relative to the standard unit.
Common Prefixes Used with SI units
Prefix Symbol Meaning
Tera- T 1 000 000 000 000 or 1012
Giga- G 1 000 000 000 or 109
Mega- M 1 000 000 or 106
Kilo- k 1 000 or 103
Deci- d 1/10 or 10-1
Centi- c 1/100 or 10-2
Milli- m 1/1 000 or 10-3
Micro- µ 1/1 000 000 or 10-6
2
Nano- n 1/1 000 000 000 or 10-9
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Pico- p 1/1 000 000 000 000 or 10-12
Quantitative Properties - there are three scales being used which have
- These are physical properties of matter that can the following units Degrees Celsius (°C),
be measured Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and Kelvin (K). Among
the three Kelvin (K) is the SI Unit and is used
- also called quantity in any experiment and calculations.

Types of Quantity - these scale can be converted from one to the

Mass (m) other using the following conversion factors
- the amount of matter in an object

-the SI Unit is kilogram (kg) but there are also To express °C in °F, use
other units that describe the quantity such as 𝟗
TF = TC + 32
pounds (lb), ounce (oz) and tonne (ton) 𝟓

To express °F in °C, use

- platform balance, electronic balance, triple
𝟓
beam balance, analytical balance are the TC = (TF - 32)
𝟗
instrument used in measuring the mass of the
object To express °C in °F, use
TK = TC + 273
Weight (w)
- is equal to the force of gravity on the object
Derived Quantities/ Units
- varies with location - combination of the basic units which is used to
explain one phenomenon
- the unit use is Newton (N) means kg·m/s2
Example:
Length (L) Speed
- Distance between two points - shows the relationship between length and time

- can be measured using a meter stick, ruler, tape - the ratio of a distance covered by a body to the
measure, steel tape, etc. time taken

- the SI Unit is meter (m), there are also other - when direction id involved speed will be called
units such as foot (ft), inch (in), yard (yd), mile VELOCITY
(mi), and light-year (ly).
- its unit is m/s
Volume (V)
-refers to the space occupied by the object 𝒙 𝒙
v = or v =
𝒕 𝒕
3
- its SI Unit is cubic meter (m ) but in many
calculations and laboratory experiments Litre
(L) is used other units are barrel (bbl), gallon Density
(gal). - shows the relationship of mass to the volume
of an objects
- it can be measured using a beaker, graduated - the ratio of mass and volume under a specified
cylinder or measuring cups. temperature and pressure which has a unit of
m/s
Time
𝑚
- refers to the interval between two events ρ= 𝑣

- can be measured using a stop watch or simply Precision and Accuracy

a watch Precision
- determines how close the data are to each other
- Its unit are second(s), minute (min), hour (hr),
day, week, month, year, or decade Accuracy
- determines how close the data are to the true or
Temperature theoretical value
- measures the hotness and coldness of the
matter
3
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- can be measured using a thermometer

Illustration: CHAPTER 3

MOTION

The general study of the relationships

between motion, forces, and energy is called
mechanics. It is a large field and its study is essential to
the understanding of physics, which is why these
chapters appear first. The study of motion without
Degree of Uncertainty regard to the forces or energies that may be involved is
- due to experimental error called kinematics.
- the last digit in every measurement is uncertain
Motion
Significant Figures  the act or process of changing position relative
- includes all certain and uncertain digits of to some reference point during a period of time
number
Three Types of Motion:
Rules in Determining the Number of Significant Figures 1. Horizontal Straight-line Motion
1. all nonzero digits are significant 2. Vertical Motion of Dropped Objects
2. all captured zeroes are significant 3. Compound Motion/Projectile Motion
3. trailing zeroes are significant *Vertical Projectiles
4. starting zeroes are not significant *Horizontal Projectiles
5. ending zeroes are not significant
Two important Aspects of Motion
Rules in Rounding –off 1. a change in position
1. numbers followed by 1 – 4, stays as is 2. passage of time
2. numbers followed by 5 is conditional
- if even as is Describing Motion
-if odd, add 1 Speed
3. numbers followed by 6 – 9, add 1  a quantitative description of motion where it
expresses the connection of the distance relative
Scientific Notation to time
- numbers that are too large are express in this
manner for accuracy and convenience 𝑥 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑣 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) =
𝑡 (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
Parts of the Scientific Notation
N x 10y 1. Instantaneous Speed
N - must have a value that ranges from 1.0 to 9.9  the speed of an object at a particular moment
y - a power of ten that can be positive or negative (instant) in time

Dimensional Analysis or Factor-Label Method 2. Constant Speed

Formula:  a speed over equal distance in equal periods
of time
Unit of Unknown = (given) x (conversion factor)
3. Average Speed
 a distance covered during some period of
time

Velocity
 a quantitative description of motion where it
expresses the connection of the displacement
(distance and direction) relative to time

𝑥 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑣 (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑) = 𝑡 (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

Average Velocity
 a displacement covered during some period
of time
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Acceleration
 a change of velocity per unit of time
∆𝑣 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝑎 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) = 𝑡(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
(𝑣𝑓−𝑣𝑖)
𝑎= 𝑡
Theories of Motion
1. Aristotle’s Theory of Motion
Aristotle
 was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist
born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidiki, in the
north of Classical Greece
 considered the "Father of Western Philosophy"
 joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained
there until the age of thirty-seven
 His writings cover many subjects – including
physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic,
ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music,
rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics,
politics and government – and constitute the first
comprehensive system of Western philosophy
Two Types of Motion:
A. Natural Motion
 a movement where objects return to their natural
places (center of the Earth)
 heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones
 objects fall faster in air that water
B. Violent Motion
 when object moves away from their natural
position caused by an outside force
Force
 usually considered as a push and pull
2. Galileo’s Theory of Motion
Galileo Galilee
 a professor at the University of Pisa in Italy and
studied a variety of physical science topics
 he suggested the theory done by Aristotle to be
tested and argued that it is just as natural for an
object to be moving and attempted to explain
why they come to rest
 dropped two objects with different weights (a
cannon ball made of wood and metal) from the
leaning tower of Pisa
Acceleration due to Gravity
 falling objects accelerate toward the
earth’s surface and that the acceleration is
independent of the weight of the object
 which has a value of - g = 9.8 m/s
 he wrote “Two New Sciences” that was secretly
published in Holland in 1638 which discusses
about Uniform Motion, Accelerated Motion, and
Projectile Motion
3. Newton’s Law of Motion
Isaac Newton
 Born on Christmas day in 1642. A farm
boy who seemed more interested in
Math than farming
 Entered at Trinity College of Cambridge
University at the age of 18 and enrolled
math
 At the ages of 23 and 24, he invented
“calculus” and clarified his ideas on
motion and gravitation
 He became a professor of math at 26 in
Cambridge
 He built his theory of motion from the
previous work of Galileo and others that
according to him “it was by standing
upon the shoulders of giants”.
His Three Laws of Motion
1. Law of Inertia
 the tendency of an object to resist change in
motion
 every object retains its state of rest or its state of
uniform straight line motion unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force
 the greater the mass, the greater the inertia. The
lesser the mass, the lesser the inertia
 F=0
2. Law of Acceleration
 it is a relationship between net force,
acceleration, and mass that describes the cause
of a change of motion
 the acceleration is therefore directly proportional
to the unbalanced force applied α ∞ F
 the acceleration of an object is therefore
inversely proportional to its mass α ∞ 1/mass
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Page
F(force) = m (mass) x a (acceleration)
3. Law of Interaction
 for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction
 FA (force of action) = FR (force of reaction)
Types of Forces
A. Contact Forces
1. Friction
 is the force resisting the relative motion
of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and
material elements sliding against each
other
2. Tension
 is the force that is transmitted through a
string, rope, cable or wire when it is
pulled tight by forces acting from
opposite ends
 is directed along the length of the wire
and pulls equally on the objects on the
opposite ends of the wire
3. Normal Force
 is that component of the contact force
that is perpendicular to the surface that
an object contacts
4. Air Resistance
 is the frictional force air exerts against a
moving object
5. Applied Force
 is a force that is applied to an object by
a person or another object
6. Spring Force
 is the force exerted by a compressed or
stretched spring upon any object that is
attached to it
 an object that compresses or stretches a
spring is always acted upon by a force
that restores the object to its rest or
equilibrium position.
B. Action-at-a-Distance Forces
1. Gravitational (Weight)
 is a force that attracts any two objects
with mass
 it is called attractive because it always
tries to pull masses together, it never
pushes them apart
2. Electric Force
 is the repulsive or attractive interaction
between any two charged bodies (static
particles)
3. Magnetic Force
 is the attraction or repulsion that arises
between electrically charged particles
because of their motion
APPLICATION OF NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton's laws of motion are very important
because they tie into almost everything we see in
everyday life. Newton's laws speak very generally all
forces, but to use them for any specific problem, you
have to actually know all the forces involved, like
gravity, friction, and tension.
INSERT PROBLEM SOLVING
Momentum
 a property of movement in which it is the
product of the mass of an object and its velocity
p (momentum) = m (mass) • v (velocity)
Law of Conservation of Momentum
 the total momentum of a group of interacting
objects remains the same in the absence of
external forces
Two Aspects of Momentum:
1. The symbol for momentum (p) does not give a
clue about the quantity it represents
2. The combination of metric units that results
from a momentum calculation (kg.m/s) does not
have a name of its own
Work
 concerned with the application of a force to an
object and the distance the object moves as a
result of the force
 it is the magnitude of the applied force
multiplied by the distance through which the
force acts
W (work) = F (force) • x (distance)
Two important considerations to remember about this
definition:
1. Something must move whenever work is done
and;
2. The movement must be in the same direction as
the direction of the force.
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Unit:
W (work) = Fx
= (kg•m/s2)(m) or (newton)(meter)
= kg•m2/s2 or (N)(m) or J (Joule)
1 Joule = 1 N (kg.m/s) m
Power
 The rate at which energy is transformed or the
rate at which work is done
 It is define as work per unit of time
𝐖 (𝐰𝐨𝐫𝐤)
𝐏 (𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫) =
𝐭 (𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞)
Units:
P = W/t
= J/s (Watt)
 was a Scottish inventor,
mechanical engineer, and
chemist who improved on
Thomas Newcomen's 1712
Newcomen Steam Engine
with his Watt Steam Engine in
1781, which was fundamental
to the changes brought by the
Industrial Revolution
CHAPTER 4
ENERGY
Energy is the basis of our existence. In our day
to day life, some of the key areas where we cannot
survive without energy include transportation, food,
communication, lighting, heating/cooling, etc.
Energy
 the ability to do work.
Potential Energy
 the energy that an object has because of its
position.
Types:
1. Gravitational Potential Energy
2. Compressed or Stretched Spring Potential
Energy
Units:
PE (potential energy) = m (mass) • g (acceleration due
to gravity) • h (heights)
= w (weight) • h (height)
Kinetic Energy
 energy of motion.
KE (kinetic energy) = ⅟2 m (mass) • v (velocity)
= (kg) (m/s)
= kg.m/ s
= (kg.m//s) (m)
= N.m/ J
Forms of Energy:
1. Mechanical Energy – form of energy of familiar
objects and machines.
2. Chemical Energy – form of energy involved in
chemical reactions.
3. Radiant Energy – form of energy that travels
through space.
4. Electrical Energy – form of energy from
electromagnetic interactions.
5. Nuclear Energy – form of energy used as an
energy source in power plants.
Heat Energy
 is the result of the movement of tiny particles
called atoms, molecules or ions in solids, liquids
and gases
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 can be transferred from one object to another
Units of Heat:
1. Joule (J)
2. Calorie (cal)
3. BTU (British Thermal Unit)
 Less often used
Three Ways of Transferring Heat:
1. Conduction
 is the transfer of heat by microscopic
collisions of particles
2. Convection
 the movement caused within a fluid by the
tendency of hotter and therefore less dense
material to rise, and colder, denser
material to sink under the influence of
gravity, which consequently results in
transfer of heat
3. Radiation
 a method of heat transfer that does not rely
upon any contact between the heat source
and the heated object, where heat can be
transmitted through empty space by
thermal radiation often called infrared
radiation
Effects of Heat
1. raise the temperature
2. Changes the phase/state of matter (Latent Heat)
3. Expands objects (Thermal Expansion)
4. Increase solubility of substances
Specific Heat
 the heat required to raise the temperature of the
unit mass of a given substance by a given
amount (usually one degree)
Heat Capacity
 the ability of a substance to hold heat
CHAPTER 5
ATOMIC THEORY
Everything in this world is made up of matter
which in turn is made up of atoms. These atoms, held
closely together to form a molecule.
Search of Atoms
Atom
- in Ancient Greek it literally means
“uncuttable” or “indivisible”
Leucippus
- a Greek philosopher who first conceive and
develop the idea about atom with his student
Democritus
Democritus
- said that atoms were invisible, indestructible,
and the smallest particle of matter; that they
differ in shape, size, weight, sequence, and
position
Empedocles
- he believe that the world was composed of air,
earth, fire and water
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- authored by John Dalton an English chemist
and physicist
- stated that this theory was based on
approximately 150 years of investigation by
scientists such as Robert Boyle, Joseph
Priestley, and Antoine Lavoisier
The 4 Hypotheses (or Postulates)
1. Matter is composed of tiny indivisible spheres called
atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical, but atoms of
one element are different from those all other elements.
3. Atoms cannot created nor destroyed in a chemical
change/reaction.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole
number rations to form compounds.
-This theory of Dalton was supported for about
100 years because he used it to support Two
Fundamental Laws of Nature.
Fundamental Laws of Nature
8
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
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 - states that the mass of the reacting agent must
be equal to the mass of the product

2. Law of Definite Composition

- states that the composition of every compound
is unique

3. Law of Multiple Proportions

- atoms may combine in different proportions

Discovery of the Subatomic Particles

1. Electrons (Cathode Ray Experiment)

William Crookes
- an English chemist who invented the “cathode
ray tube”, he used a powerful vacuum pump to
nearly evacuate glass tubes fitted with metal
electrodes. When these were connected to an
external source of electricity he noticed a flash
of light or “ray” coming from the negative
electrode (cathode) and moving to the positive
electrode (anode). This ray was called cathode
ray.

Joseph John “JJ” Thomson

- observe the cathode ray tubes made by William
Crookes and suggested the existence of
negatively charged particles which were later
called ELECTRONS
The same term (electron) was used
by George Stoney earlier, in 1874, to
describe the charge of a single unit of
electricity.
- he added that the properties of the cathode ray
suggested that inside the atom are scattered
particle of electron and he said it looks like a
watermelon where the red part represents the
cloud of positively charge and the seeds are the
electrons.
Wilhelm Roentgen
- discovered that highly energetic rays could
penetrate matter. These rays could not be
deflected by a magnet and do not consists of
charged particles like the cathode rays. He called
it X-rays
Henri Becquerel
- associated x-rays with fluorescent materials.
He use a uranium ore containing fluorescent
material and found that it emitted radiation
continuously, even when it’s not fluorescing.
Marie Curie
- suggested the name “radioactivity” for the
phenomenon where ELEMENTS

- she along with her husband Pierre Curie

isolated the radioactive component of uranium –
RADIUM AND POLONIUM

2. Proton (Gold Foil Experiment)

Ernest Rutherford
- he identified two types of radiation from
radioactive materials – alpha (α) and beta (β)
rays while Paul Villard discovers the gamma
rays (γ)

- he gave assignment to his student (Ernest

Marsden) to verify Thomson’s model of atom
where he along with Rutherford’s assistant Hans
Geiger conducted the Gold Foil Experiment
(shown below)
9

- he explained that the few ray that deflects and

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even bounced back at larger angles must have

 collided with the tiny but concentrated mass of
positive charge.
- he proposed that most of the mass and
positively charged parts of the atom, which he
calls as PROTONS, must be concentrated in a
small region called NUCLEUS
- he thought that electrons are distributed in the
space outside the nucleus of the atom.
3. Neutron
James Chadwick
- proposed the presence of the third subatomic
particle called NEUTRON. He showed that
each uncharged particle emitted by radioactive
atoms has a mass approximately equal to proton.
Atomic Number
- is the number of protons in the atom
Mass Number
- the total number of protons and neutrons
Isotope
- atoms of same number of protons but has
different number of neutron
Mass Number
Atomic Number
CHAPTER 6
MATTER: ITS COMPOSITION AND
ORGANIZATION
Everywhere around us we see “thing”. These
“things” are made up of matter. MATTER is anything
that occupies space and has a mass.
Phases of Matter
1. Solid
- has a definite volume and definite shape. It’s a
particles are held together in fixed position and
their motion is restricted.
- expand lightly when heated
2. Liquid
- has a fixed volume but does not have a fixed
shape. It takes the shape of the container it
occupies.
- its particles are free to move because they are
held together less tightly
- very slightly compressible
3. Gas
10
- has neither a fixed volume nor shape because
its particles are far apart and have complete
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 freedom of motion to assume the shape of a
closed container and to fill its entire volume.
- highly compressible
4. Plasma
- is a gaseous state of matter in which a part or
all of the atoms or molecules are stripped off of
electrons to form positive ions and negative and
electrons
Properties of Matter
Physical Properties of Matter
- are characteristics of a substance which can be
observe without changing the composition of the
substance.
Types of Physical Properties of Matter
1. Intensive Properties
- do not depend on the amount of sample
2. Extensive Properties
- depend on the amount of the sample
Chemical Properties of Matter
- are characteristics that a substance exhibits
when it undergoes changes in composition
Changes in Matter
Physical Change
- a change that do not alter the composition of
matter
Chemical Change
- involves changes in the composition of
substances
Types of Matter
1. Pure Substance
- a material that is composed of only one type of
particle
- these elements are named in different manner,
some were named after famous scientists
(Einsteinium from Einstein), country
(Americium from America), states (Californium
from California), planets (Plutonium from
Pluto), Greek words (Chlorine from chloros
meaning greenish yellow), Latin words (Gold
from aurum meaning shiny) and minerals
(Magnesium from magnesia)
- the name of the elements were represented by a
chemical symbols, these symbols are composed
of one or two letters where the first letter is
always capitalized (H for hydrogen and Po for
Polonium)
b. Compound
- a substance formed when two or more different
elements are chemically bonded together
- these are the substances that can be broken
down into simpler substances through chemical
reaction
Molecules
- are made up of atoms that are held together by
chemical bonds
2. Mixture
- combinations of two or more substances that
can be separated by physical methods
- they have variable compositions
Classification of Mixtures
a. homogeneous mixture
- uniform com position and properties as seen by
the naked eye
Solution
- the only type of homogeneous mixture

Types of Pure Substance - comes in one phase only

a. Elements
- is a specie of atoms having the same number of Types of Solutions
protons in their atomic nuclei System Example
Gas in gas Air
- a substance that cannot be broken down to Gas in liquid Carbonated beverages
simpler substance by a chemical change Liquid in gas Vapor in the air
Liquid in liquid 70% ethyl alcohol
- there are 118 known elements as of 2016; the Liquid in solid Dental amalgam
four new identified elements were given the Solid in liquid Salt in water
following names: Nihonium (113), Moscovium Solid in solid alloys
(115), Tennessine (117) and Oganesson (118)
but these names are for public review which will b. heterogeneous mixture
expire this November 8, 2016, these elements - not uniform in composition
where previously known as ununtrium(113),
ununpentium(115), ununseptium(117) and - consist of two or more phases
ununoctium (118) ; the first 94 elements occur
11

naturallky on Earth with the remaining 24 being Phase

synthetic elements. - any part of a system with uniform
Page

composition and particles

 - is the pouring of the liquid from a mixture to
Types of Heterogeneous Mixture separate the liquid (decantate) from the solid
COLLOIDS particles
- a mixture with particles bigger that of a
solution but smaller that a suspension 2. Filtration
- pouring of mixture to a piece of paper (filter
- can pass through filters paper) which lets the liquid (filtrate) pass
through but catches the solid
- the word colloid came from the Greek word
kola which means “glue-like” 3. Flotation
- the removal of suspended particles either by
Properties of Colloid sedimentation or coagulation
Turbidity
-cloudy and muddy 4. Centrifugation
- the settling of tiny suspended particles using a
Viscosity centrifuge
-resistance to flow
5. Distillation
Brownian Movement -it makes use of the differences of boiling point
-rapid, haphazard motion
Types of Distillation
- observed under a special microscope by a. simple distillation
Robert Brown, a Scottish Botanist, this is the - a procedure used to separate
reason why colloidal particles do not settle two liquids with different
boiling points
Tyndall Effect
- scattering of light in a colloidal solution b. fractional distillation
- separating liquids that differ in
- named after the British Physicist John Tyndall boiling points by just few
who discovered it in the course of his study into degrees
light beams

6. Crystallization
- happens when the solid particle are
Some Examples of Colloids recrystallizes
Type Colloidal Dispersion Example 7. Chromatography
Particles Medium - solutions are separated by allowing them to
Emulsion Liquid Liquid Mayo flow along a stationary substance.
Gel Liquid Solid Gelatin
Liquid Gas Fog 8. Osmosis
Aerosol
Solid Gas Dust - movement of a solvent (as water) through a
Gas Liquid Whipped semipermeable membrane (as living cell) into a
Foam Cream solution of higher solute concentration that
Gas Solid Styrofoam tends to equalize the concentrations of solute on
Solid Liquid Paints the two sides of the membrane
Sol
Solid Solid Cement
Example:
SUSPENSION
Dialysis
- where the suspended particles can be seen and
- the separation of substance in solution
are large enough to be trapped in a filter, after a
by means of their unequal diffusion
while the suspended particles settle at the bottom
through a semipermeable membranes
COARSE MIXTURE
- where the particles can be separated
mechanically and its components are quite
visible

Separating Mixture
1. Decantation
12
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 CHAPTER 7
OBSERVING AND EXPLORING SPACE
The space exploration helps address
fundamental questions about our place in the Universe
and the history of the solar system. Through addressing
the challenges related to human space exploration it
expand technology, create new industries, and help to
foster a peaceful connection with other nations.
Light-Years
 is good for expressing those large distances
 is a unit of distance that is defined as the
distance that light travels in one year.
 1 LY = 9,500,000,000,000 (9.5 trillion)
kilometers, or 5,900,000,000,000 (5.9 trillion)
miles.
Telescopes
 is an optical instrument that aids in the
observation of remote objects by
collecting electromagnetic radiation (such
as visible light).
Types of Telescope
 Optical Telescopes
 Radio Telescopes
 Space Telescopes
Early Space Exploration
Rockets
 is a device propelled by particles flying out of it
at high speed.
Satellites
 is an object that orbits a larger object.
The Space Race
 The launch of Sputnik 1 started the Space
Race between the Soviet Union and the United
States
The International Space Station
 The International Space Station is a joint project
between the space agencies of the United States
(NASA), Russia (RKA), Japan (JAXA), Canada
(CSA) and several European countries (ESA)
and the Brazilian Space Agency (BSA) also
contributes.
Space Shuttles
 The result of NASA’s endeavor to acquire a
space vehicle that is able to carry large pieces of
equipment, such as satellites, space telescopes,
or sections of a space station
 the U.S. has actually had five working space
shuttles—Columbia, Challenger, Discovery,
Atlantis, and Endeavor. The Soviet Union built
a similar shuttle called Buran, but it never flew
a mission with humans aboard.
 dark and back again
The ancient Greeks were aware of five of the
planets. They did not know what these objects were;
they just noticed that they moved differently than the
stars did. They seemed to wander around in the sky,
changing their position against the background of stars.
They named these objects after gods from their
mythology. These are Hermes, Aphrodite, Ares, Zeus &
Cronus.
Uniform Circular Motion
 proposed by Plato, where he argued that the
heavens were perfect, that the perfect
geometrical shape is sphere which carries a
point in its surface around in a circle and
that the perfect motion is uniform motion,
therefore all motion in the heavens must be
made up of combinations of circles turning
at uniform rates
The Geocentric Universe
 the ancient Greeks believed that Earth was at the
center of the universe
 The model described the sky, or heavens, as
having a set of spheres layered on top of one
another. Each object in the sky was attached to
one of these spheres, and moved around Earth as
that sphere rotated
 Model of a geocentric universe. This diagram of
the universe from the Middle Ages shows Earth
at the center, with the Moon, the Sun, and the
planets orbiting Earth
 the first concept of this idea was proposed by
Aristotle (Aristotelian Universe) where he
argued with his teacher Plato that Earth was
imperfect and lay at the center of the universe
 it contain 55 spheres turning at different rates
and at different angles to carry the seven known
planets (the moon, Mercury, Venus, the sun,
13
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) across the sky
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  the refined idea was proposed by Claudius
Ptolemy
 in his model planets followed a small circle
called epicycle that slid around a larger circle
called deferent
After the Big Bang
 The universe was extremely hot and dense. As
the universe expanded, it became less dense and
it cooled until it cooled enough that protons,
neutrons, and electrons could form to allow
nuclear fusion, creating atoms.

 The matter in the early universe was not

smoothly distributed across space. Some parts of
the universe were denser than others. These
clumps of matter were held close together by
gravity which became the gas clouds.

Formation of the Solar System: The Solar Nebula

Theory
The Heliocentric Universe
 Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus
 this model put the Sun at the center, it is called
the heliocentric model' of the
universe. Heliocentric means "sun-centered".

The Universe
 contains all these systems (stars, galaxies, solar
system and other celestial objects), including all
the matter and energy that exists now, that
existed in the past, and that will exist in the
 As gravity pulled matter into the center of the
future.
disk, the density and pressure increased at the
 also includes all of space and time.
center. When the pressure in the center was high
enough that nuclear fusion reactions started in
the center, a star was born—the Sun.
Expansion of the Universe  Meanwhile, the outer parts of the disk were
 Edwin Hubble went on to measure the distance
cooling off. Small pieces of dust in the disk
to hundreds of other galaxies and formulated the
started clumping together called planetesimals.
Hubble's Law which states that the farther away
These clumps collided and combined with each
a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us
other forming larger clumps called
which means the universe is expanding.
protoplanets, it then attracted smaller clumps
with their gravity. Eventually, the protoplanets
Formation of the Universe: The Big Bang Theory
formed the planets and moons that we find in
 Is the most widely accepted scientific
our solar system.
explanation of how the universe formed.
The Planet’s Motion
 According to the Big Bang theory, the universe
1. Revolution
began about 13.7 billion years ago, when
 happens when planet moves around the sun in
everything in the universe was squeezed into a
orbits that lie close to a common plane
very small volume. There was an enormous
explosion—a big bang—which caused the
2. Rotation
universe to start expanding rapidly. All the
 when planets turn in their own axis
14

matter and energy in the universe—and even

space itself—came out of this explosion.
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Note:
The Sun and Planets where tilted in some extent (Sun is  the part of Earth's surface that consists of
tilted by 7.2°, mmkthe planets are tipped less than 30° water.
specifically, Earth - 24°)
Biosphere
 the part of the Earth that supports life.
Two Types of Planets:
1. Terrestrial Planets Lithosphere
 these are the four inner planets, they are solid  the solid part of the Earth.
and small
includes: The Earth’s Motion
*Mercury 1. Earth's Rotation
*Venus  It takes 23 hours, 59 minutes and 4 seconds for
*Earth the Earth to make one complete rotation on its
*Mars axis (tilted by about 23 1/2 degrees) at a speed
of about 1,700 kph
2. Jovian Planets
 these are the four outer planets, they are big and 2. Earth's Revolution
gaseous  One complete revolution takes 365.26 days
Includes:
*Jupiter 3. Earth's Precession (Wobbling)
*Saturn  The gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon on
*Uranus the gyroscopic Earth bulge produces torque on
*Neptune its rotational axis causing it to drift periodically
from East to West completing a turn in 25,800
Cosmic Debris years.
 Asteroids – sometimes called minor planets, are
small rocky, most of which orbits the sun in a  Observed by a Greek philosopher Hipparchus in
belt between Mars and Jupiter (Asteroid Belt) 134 BC.

 Kuiper Belt Objects – small, dark, icy bodies The Moon

orbiting in the outer fringes of the solar system  Earth's only natural satellite called Luna
beyond Neptune. It was predicted by the
astronomer, Gerard Kuiper in the 1950s.  The Moon has craters.

 Comets - are small, icy objects that orbit the  It is 3,476 kilometers in diameter, about one-
Sun in very elliptical orbits. fourth the size of Earth.

 Meteoroid – a meteor in space, before its fiery  is not as dense as the Earth, gravity on the Moon
plunge to the Earth’s atmosphere. is only one-sixth as strong as it is on Earth.

Meteors - are not stars, rather, they are small pieces of
matter burning up as they enter Earth's atmosphere from
space.
Meteorite - a meteor that touches the surface of the
Earth, or any part of the meteor that survives its fiery
passage to Earth’s surface
 makes one complete orbit around the Earth
every 27.3 days.
 also rotates on its axis once every 27.3 days.
 makes no light of its own, but instead only
reflects light from the Sun.

The Planet Earth  has no atmosphere

 Earth is a sphere
 its mass is approximately 6.0×1024 kilograms  The average surface temperature during the day
 has a Gravity is approximately 107 °C and can reach
 also has a Magnetic Field temperatures as high as 123°C. At night the
average temperature drops to -153°C and has
been measured as low as -238.333°C.
Layers of the Earth
Atmosphere  There are no lakes, rivers, or even small puddles
 the thin layer of air that surrounds the anywhere
Earth.
15

 no "naturally occurring" signs of life on the

Hydrosphere Moon
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  there is no wind or rain C. Corona
 is the outermost layer of the Sun
 The lunar landscape is covered called the "crown".
by craters caused by the impacts of asteroids
and meteorites  has a temperature of 2 to 5M °C

 The dark areas are called Maria and the lighter  extends millions of kilometers into
parts are called Terrae or highlands space.

The Sun Surface Features of the Sun

 It is a sphere of gas  sunspots, which are cooler, darker areas on the
Sun's surface which is only visible with special
 Most atoms exist as plasma light-filtering lenses that usually occur in pairs

 consists almost entirely of hydrogen and helium
Layers of the Sun
1. Core
 The central layer
 Is a plasma
 Where nuclear reaction occurs
 Its temperature is around 27M °C
2. Radiation Zone
 temperature of about 7 M °C
3. Convection Zone
 Where hot material from near the Sun's
center rises, cools at the surface, and then
plunges back downward to receive more heat
 Solar flare, created when the loop of the sun’s
magnetic field breaks which release streams of
highly energetic particles that make up the solar
wind.
The Sun and the Earth-Moon System
Solar Eclipse
 occurs when the new moon passes directly
between the Earth and the Sun
Lunar Eclipse
 occurs when the full moon moves through the
shadow of the Earth

4. The Sun's "Atmosphere“

 Which are divided into three (3) more layers

A. Photosphere
 is the visible surface of the Sun.
 The region of the Sun that emits
sunlight.
 It's also one of the coolest layers of
the Sun—only about 6700°C.

B. Chromosphere Phases of the Moon

 is the zone about 2,000 kilometers As the Moon moves around the Earth, different side of
thick that lies directly above the the Moon is illuminated by the Sun that causes the
photosphere. changes in the shape of the Moon from fully lit to

 a thin region of the Sun's

atmosphere that glows red as it is
heated by energy from the
photosphere.

 Temperatures in the chromosphere

range from about 4000°C to about
10,000°C.

 Jets of gas fire up through the

chromosphere at speeds up to
72,000 kilometers per hour,
reaching heights as high as 10,000
16

kilometers.
completely
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