Qualitative Research Method

Name :
Norshakilah Bt Abdul Karim (2019909313)
Nur Safiza Binti Isnin (2019961243)
Nor Haziani Binti Mustaffa (201995443)
Haryani Binti Md Nordin (2018824006)
 One finds a number of
approaches to qualitative
research.
Approaches
to
Qualitative
Research
Identified 5 creswell :
Narrative Grounded
Phenomenology Case Studies Ethnography
Research Theory
1. Narrative Research
Study of the life experiences of an individual as told researcher or
found in documents and archival material.

Important aspect of some narrative research that the participant

recalls one or more special events (an “epiphany”) in his or
herlife,thesetting or content within which epiphany occurred.

The researchers is actively present during the studt and openly

acknowledges that his or her repot an interpation of the
participant’s experiences.

“ A life story portrays an individual entire life,while a personal

experience story is a narrative study of an individual’s personal
experiences found in single or multiple episodes, private
situations, or communal folklore” – Denzin, 1989
 2. Phenomenology
Researcher undertaking a
phenomenological study
e.g. ., the experience of teachers
investigates reactions
orperceptionsofparticular
phenomenon
Data are usually collected through
e.g., what it is like to teach in an
inner- city high school
in an inner-city high school
in-depth interviewing and the
researcher attempts to identify
,describes
The researcher hopes to gain
some insight into the world of his
or her participants and to describe
their perceptions and reactions.
Data are collected through in-
depth interviewing and the
researcher attempts to identify
,describe aspects of each
individual’s perceptions and
reactions to his or her experience
in some detail.
3. Grounded Theory

“ The researcher intend to generate a theory that is “

grounded’ in data from participants who have
experienced the process” – Strauss & Corbin, 1998.

Grounded theories is to generated before study begin.but

are formed inductively from the data that are collected
during the study itself.

In other words, researchers start with the data they have

collected and then develop generalizations ofter they look
at the data.
4. Case Studies
What is a case ?

A case to comprises just one individual, classroom, school or program.

Typical cases are a student who has trouble learning to read , a social studies
classroom, a private school or national curriculum project.
What is case study?
Researchers have in common that they call the objects of their researchers in common
that they call objects of their cases studies.
Often study cases as part of training in students in Law,business, and the social
sciences and medicine.
3 Types of case studies

i. Intrinsic Case Study-understanding specific individual orsituatuions

Ii. Instrumental case study – understanding something more than just a particular case
Iii. Multiple case study ( collective ) – studied multiple cases at the same time part of
one overall study.
5. Ethnographic
• Emphasis in ethnographic research in on
documenting or portraying the everyday
experiences of individuals by observing and
interviewing them and relevant other.
• Researchers try to capture as much of what is going
on as they can.
• A variety of approaches are used in an attempt to
obtain as holistic a picture as possible of a particular
society, group, instituition , setting or situation.
• In many respects the most complex of all research
methods.
 Ethnographic
Concepts

• 1. Culture
• 2.A Holistic Perspective
• 3.Contextualization
• 4.An Emic Perspective
• 5.Thick Descripition
• 6.Member Checking
• 7.A Nonjudgemental
Orientation
 WHAT IS MIXED METHODS
RESEARCH
Mixed-methods research involves the use of both
quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study.
The essential feature is that mixed-methods research combines
methods of data collection and analysis from both quantitative and
qualitative traditions
The type of instrument used to collect data is not a major difference
between quantitative and qualitative methodologies.
 WHY DO MIXED METHODS
RESEARCH?
1. Mixed method research can help to clarify and
explain relationship found to exist between variables
• Example: Interviews with students might show that the students fell
into 2 distinct group.

2. Allow us to explore relationships between variable in

depth.
• In this case qualitative method used to identify important variables
 WHY DO MIXED METHODS
RESEARCH?
3.Help to confirm or cross validate relationship discover
between variables as when quantitative and qualitative are
compared to see if they converge or not.
TYPES OF MIXED METHOD
DESIGN

Exploratory design
Explanatory design
Triangulation
design
 EXPLORATORY DESIGN
•Researchers first use a qualitative method to discover the
important variables underlying a phenomenon of interest and
to inform a second, quantitative,method.
•The two types of data are analyzed separately, with the results
of the qualitative analysis used by the researcher to expand
upon the results of the quantitative study.
 EXPLANATORY DESIGN
In this design, the researcher first carries
out a quantitative method and then uses a
qualitative method to follow up and refine
the quantitative findings
 TRIANGULATION DESIGN
• The researcher uses both quantitative and qualitative methods to study
the same phenomenon to determine if the two converge upon a single
understanding of the research problem being investigated.
• The data may be analyzed together or separately. If analyzed together,
data from the qualitative study may have to be converted into
quantitative data.
• Triangulation was achieved not only by comparing teacher interviews,
student interviews and observations, but also by comparing these with
the quantitative measures of classroom interaction and achievement.
 Steps in Conducting
a Mixed-Methods Study
Develop a clear rationale for doing mixed
method study

Develop research questions for both

qualitative and quantitative study

Decide if mixed method study is feasible

 Steps in Conducting
a Mixed-Methods Study
Determine the mixed methods design most
appropriate to the research question

Collect and analyze the data

Writeup the design

 EVALUATING MIXED METHODS
STUDY
• Due to the fact that mixed methods studies always involve both quantitative
and qualitative data and frequently two different phases of data collection,
the evaluation of such studies is often difficult.
• Ask yourself if both qualitative and quantitative data played a role in the
conclusions reached.
• Ask yourself if the study contains threats to internal validity (as quantitative
researchers refer to it) or credibility (as qualitative researchers refer to it).
• ask yourself about the generalizability (as quantitative researchers refer to
it) or transferability (as qualitative researchers refer to it) of the results
 ETHICS IN MIXED METHOD
RESEARCH
Three of the most important are
1. Protecting participant identity,
2. Treating participants with respect, and
3. Protecting participants from both physical and
psychological harm.
Qualitative Data
 What is qualitative data?
• Data that are not easily reduced to numbers

• Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and behaviours of

people in social context

• Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups, field notes from

observation of certain activities, copies of documents, audio/video
recordings...
 Types of Qualitative Data

•Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments, news articles, books etc)

•Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focus groups, conversation)

•Audio recordings, music

•Video recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)

 Qualitative data collection methods
Methods Brief explanation

Observation The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to observe (with/without
participation) usually to understand whether people do what they say they do,
and to access tacit knowledge of subjects

Interview This involves asking questions, listening to and recording answers from an
individual or group on a structured, semi-structured or unstructured format
in an in-depth manner

Focus Group Focused (guided by a set of questions) and interactive session with a group
Discussion small enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large enough to
provide diversity of opinions

Other methods Rapid assessment procedure (RAP), Free listing, Pile sort, ranking, life
history (biography)
 Questions for qualitative interviews
Types of questions
Examples
Hypothetical
•If you get the chance to be an HIV scientist, do you think you can discover a
vaccine for HIV?

Provocative

•I have heard people saying most evaluations are subjective-what do you think?

Ideal

•In your opinion, what would be the best solution for eliminating
gender-based violence?
 Questions for qualitative interviews
Types of questions
Examples

Interpretative
•What do you mean by good?

Leading
•Do you think prevention is better than cure?

Loading
•Do you watch that culturally degrading TV show on condom use?

Multiple
•Tell me your three favourite authors, the book you like best by each
author, and why you like those
books?
 Focus of Qualitative questions
• Experience: When you told your manager that the project has
failed, what happened?

• Opinion: What do you think about the role of evaluation for program
improvement?

• Feelings: When you got to know that the project was a success, how did you
feel?

• Knowledge: Tell me about thedifferent ways of promoting PME?

• Input: When you have lectures on evaluability assessment, what does the
instructor tell you?
 Qualitative Analysis
What is Qualitative Data Analysis?
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we
move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of
explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are
investigating.

QDA is usually based on an interpretative philosophy. The idea is to examine the

meaningful and symbolic content of qualitative data
 Approaches in analysis
• Deductive approach
• Using your research questions to group the data and then look for
similarities and differences
• Used when time and resources are limited
• Used when qualitative research is a smaller component of a larger
quantitative study

• Inductive approach
• Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry
• Using emergent framework to group the data and then look for
relationships
 Points of focus in analyzing text data
• The primary message content
• The evaluative attitude of the speaker toward the message
• Whether the content of the message is meant to represent
individual or group-shared ideas
• The degree to which the speaker is representing
actual Vs hypothetical experience
 Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data analysis
Qualitative
• Begins with more general
open-ended questions, moving
toward greater precision as more
information emerges
• Pre-defined variables are not
identified in advance
• Preliminary analysis is an inherent
part of data collection
Quantitative
• Key explanatory and outcome
variables identified in
advance
• Contextual/confounding
variables identified and
controlled
• Data collection and analysis
distinctly separate phases
• Analysis use formal statistical
procedures
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 Tools for helping the Analytical Process

Summaries: Should contain the key points that emerge from

undertaking the specific activity

Self Memos: Allow you to make a record of the ideas which

occur to you about any aspect of your research, as you think of
them

Researcher Diary
 Terms used in Qualitative data analysis
Theory: A set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that presents a systematic
view of events or situations by specifying relations among variables

Themes: idea categories that emerge from grouping of lower-level data points

Characteristic: a single item or event in a text, similar to an individual response to a

variable or indicator in a quantitative research. It is the smallest unit of analysis

Coding: the process of attaching labels to lines of text so that the researcher can group
and compare similar or related pieces of information

Coding sorts: compilation of similarly coded blocks of text from different sources in to a
single file or report

Indexing: process that generates a word list comprising all the substantive words and their
location within the texts entered in to a program 33
 Principles of Qualitative data analysis
1. People differ in their experience and understanding of reality
(constructivist-many meanings)
2. A social phenomenon can’t be understood outside its own context
(Context-bound i.e. book is in the pen)
3. Qualitative research can be used to describe phenomenon or generate
theory grounded on data
4. Understanding human behaviour emerges slowly and non-linearly
5. Exceptional cases may yield insights in to a problem or new idea for
further inquiry

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 Features of Qualitative data analysis

• Analysis is circular and non-linear

• Iterative and progressive
• Close interaction with the data
• Data collection and analysis is simultaneous
• Level of analysis varies
• Uses inflection i.e. “this was good”
• Can be sorted in many ways
• Qualitative data by itself has meaning, i.e. “apple”

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Noticing, Collecting and Thinking Model

Think
Collect
about
things
things

Notice things

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 The Process of Qualitative data analysis

Step 1: Organize the data

Step 2: Identify framework

Step 3: Sort data in to framework

Step 4: Use the framework for descriptive analysis Step 5: Second

order analysis

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 Step 1: Organize the data

• Transcribe the data (you can use

hyperTRANSCRBE software)
• Translate the data (You can use language translation
software like SYSTRAN)
• Data cleaning
• Label the data
– Structuring
– Familiarizing
www.researchware.com/ht

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 Step 2: Identify a Framework

• Read, Read, Read...

• Identify a Framework
– Explanatory – Guided by the research question
– Exploratory-Guided by the data

• Framework will structure, label and define data

• Framework=Coding plan
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 Step 3: Sort data in to Framework

• Code the data

• Modify the Framework

• Data entry if use computer packages

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/how_what_to_code.php

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 Step 4: Use Framework in descriptive analysis

• Descriptive analysis
– Range of responses in categories
– Identify recurrent themes

Stop here if exploratory research

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 Step 5: Second order analysis

• Identify recurrent themes

• Notice patterns in the data
• Identify respondent clusters
– Search for causality
– Identify related themes
• Build sequence of events
• Search data to answer research questions
• Develop hypothesis and test

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 Quality in Qualitative studies
Criteria Issues Solution

Credibility (=internal Truth value Prolonged & persistent observation, Triangulation,

validity) peer-debriefing, member checks, deviant case
analysis
Transferability (=external Applicability Thick description, referential adequacy, prevention
validity) of premature closure of the data, Reflexive journal

Dependability Consistency Dependability audit Reflexive

(=reliability) journal

Conformability Neutrality Conformability audit Reflexive

(=objectivity) journal

http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/qualitative_analysis.php
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 CODING AND
EMERGING THEMES
Coding
Qualitative codes can be descriptive or interpretive and are usually
generated a priori (selective coding) or emerge inductively (open
coding) from data. Codes and sub-codes are often refined
iteratively by qualitative researchers as they strive to make sense of
their data through categorization, thematic analysis, and in some
cases advanced theory building
Data coding is the process of driving codes from the observed data.
In qualitative research the data is either obtained from observations,
interviews or from questionnaires. The purpose of data coding is to
bring out the essence and meaning of the data that respondents
have provided.
In the social sciences, coding is an analytical process in which data,
in both quantitative form (such as questionnaires results)
or qualitative form (such as interview transcripts) are categorized to
facilitate analysis. One purpose of coding is to transform
the data into a form suitable for computer-aided analysis.
Purpose of Coding

One purpose of coding is to transform the data into a form suitable

for computer-aided analysis. This categorization of information is an
important step, for example, in preparing data for computer
processing with statistical software. Some studies will employ
multiple coders working independently on the same data.
Medical coding takes the descriptions of diseases, injuries, and
health care procedures from physicians or health care providers
and transforms them into numeric or alphanumeric codes to
accurately describe the diagnosis and the procedures performed.
A Method in Coding
A method in object-oriented programming is a procedure associated with
a class. A method defines the behavior of the objects that are created from
the class. Another way to say this is that a method is an action that an
object is able to perform. The association between method and class is
called binding.

Why is Data Coding Important?

Qualitative Data Coding. It makes it easier to manage all of the data and
help organize the codes in ways that make sense to you. Coding is the
process of assigning a label to phrases, sentences, or paragraphs that
hold important meaning.

What is Coding Frame

A coding frame, code frame, or codebook shows how verbal or visual data
have been converted into numeric data for purposes of analysis. At its
simplest, a code frame refers to the range of numeric codes that are used
in CODING information that represents a single VARIABLE (e.g., the state
where people were born).
Coding schemes are ways of categorizing behavior so that you can code
what you observe in terms of how often a type of behavior appears.
Advantages of this type of observation are that if you are studying
natural behavior they have high ecological validity.
Open coding in grounded theory method is the analytic process by
which concepts (codes) to the observed data and phenomenon
are attached during qualitative data analysis. Open coding aims at
developing substantial codes describing, naming or classifying the
phenomenon under consideration.
Descriptive coding summarizes in a word or noun the basic topic of
a passage of qualitative data. In Vivo Coding refers to coding with
a word or short phrase from the actual language found in
the qualitative data record.
 Inductive Coding. Inductive research involves the conversion of
raw, qualitative data into more useful quantitative data. Unlike
deductive analysis, inductive research does not involve the testing
of pre-conceived hypotheses, instead allowing the theory to
emerge from the content of the raw data.
Pattern coding is a methodical and structured approach to
software development. Pattern(or rather a software design pattern)
is a general, reusable documentation which can be used to solve a
series of similar problems, within a specific context.
Computer Coding
That line of code is written in the Python programming language.
Put simply, a programming (or coding) language is a set of syntax
rules that define how code should be written and formatted.
Thousands of different programming languages make it possible for
us to create computer software, apps and websites.
Theme in Qualitative Research
It emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and recording patterns (or "themes")
within data. Themes are patterns across data sets that are important to the
description of a phenomenon and are associated to a
specific research question.
How do you identify themes in Qualitative Research?
Analyzing text involves five complex tasks: (1) discovering themes and
subthemes; (2) describing the core and peripheral elements of themes; (3)
building hierarchies of themes or codebooks; (4) applying themes— that is,
attaching them to chunks of actual text; and (5) linking themes into
theoretical models.
Emergent Themes - are a basic building block of inductive approaches
to qualitative social science research and are derived from the lifeworld
of research participants through the process of coding. Researchers should
avoid the temptation of forcing preestablished distinctions onto the data.
Thematic analysis is one of the most common forms of analysis in
qualitative research. It emphasizes pinpointing, examining, and
recording patterns (or "themes") within data. Themes are patterns
across data sets that are important to the description of a
phenomenon and are associated to a specific research question.
Thematic Analysis is a flexible data analysis plan that
qualitative researchers use to generate themes from interview data.
The purpose of this step is to get the qualitative researcher engaged
with the data and begin thinking about prevalent topics discussed
by participants.
Thematic coding is a form of qualitative analysis which involves
recording or identifying passages of text or images that are linked
by a common theme or idea allowing you to index the text into
categories and therefore establish a “framework of thematic ideas
about it” (Gibbs 2007)
How do you conduct thematic analysis
in qualitative research?
Steps in a Thematic Analysis
Familiarize yourself with your data.
Assign preliminary codes to your data in order to describe the
content.
Search for patterns or themes in your codes across the different
interviews.
Review themes.
Define and name themes.
Produce your report.
How many themes should you have in
thematic analysis?

But regardless, you don't want your analysis to be thin, and fall
victim to common errors in TA, such as paraphrasing the data, and
not actually providing an interpretative analysis. If you have a report
of about 10,000 words, an overview is unlikely to be able to
sufficiently cover more than six themes in any depth.
What is the difference between a code
and a theme in qualitative research?

The difference between a code and a theme is relatively

unimportant. Codes tend to be shorter, more succinct basic
analytic units, whereas themes may be expressed in longer phrases
or sentences. ... As you code and categorize the data, also look for
the interrelationships among the various categories.
Emerging Themes

Emerging themes might fit better with the inductive approach

which devotes to letting your data speak for themselves, rather than
predetermining a framework and forcing your data into it.
To make themes emerge, we need to engage deeply with our
data. How to engage depends on the methodological
approach/strategy you use. For instance, grounded theory method
(Corbin and Strauss 1990), Case study (Merriam 1998; Stake 1995; Yin
2013); Thematic Analysis (Braun & Clarke 2006), and so forth. Miles
and Huberman (1994) provide a very comprehensive guide on how
to conduct qualitative data analysis.
In general, the following patterns are practiced to obtain emerging
themes:
Read, re-read, and re-read (or listen, re-listen) to get familiar with
data
Code data into categories, sub-categories, and themes
Write memos/notes to answer 'questions' emerging from codes
Develop diagrams to connect segments
(themes/categories/sub-categories) of data in relation to certain
topics/themes
Develop matrixes to compare, contrast between groups/cases in
your data
Develop a storyline to connect all themes appearing
Compare and contrast with themes existing in literature
Develop an overall theoretical framework to answer your research
questions
 END

THANK YOU EVERY BODY!