The diseases can be simply defined as a disturbance in the normal functioning of the body, among which

few affects only to the particular organ system and some affect the entire body of an organism. There are
numerous diseases which vary in their signs, symptoms, and causes. Pathology is the branch of medicines
which mainly deals with the study of disease, the nature of diseases, its cure, diagnosis, etc.
Communicable Disease - A disease, which spreads from one person to another person, is termed as the
communicable disease. It is also referred as infectious diseases or transmissible diseases.
Cause Of Communicable Disease - The agents causing communicable diseases include Virus, Bacteria,
protozoa, and Fungi.
Virus - These microbes are small infectious agents which are present in food, air and in the water. They
penetrate very easily into our body through the mouth, nose, cuts, injuries, scratches on the skin from the
environment (from the soil, water, and air) and other infectious agents and causes severe infections
which may also lead to the person’s death. The viral infections can be easily transmitted from person to
person.
AIDS, Polio, Measles, Influenza are a few examples of infections caused by a virus.
Bacteria - There are millions and billions of beneficial and harmful bacteria present all around us. Few
among them are present both inside and outside our body always, by protecting our body from the
disease-causing microbes. These bacteria are called as beneficial bacteria. The other group of bacteria,
cause harm by entering into our body. These bacteria generally, engulf, reproduce kill the protective
bacteria and cause harm to the host cells by releasing toxins. Tuberculosis, Whooping cough, Typhoid,
Cholera, are few examples of infections caused by bacteria.
Protozoan - They are single-celled, microscopic, eukaryotic organisms. Malaria and other immune system
disorders are few examples of infections caused by the protozoan.
Fungi - They are threadlike parasites, which cannot synthesize their food and feeds on other organic
material in which they live in. Ringworm, Athlete’s foot are a few examples of infections caused by fungi.
There are other agents, who act as a carrier or vectors and they carry the disease-causing microorganisms
and spread from one person to another person. These vectors include mosquitoes, rats, house flies, etc.
Control and Prevention Of Communicable Disease - Listed below are few precautions, which should be
carried to avoid infection and other spreading diseases.

 Drink only boiled and filtered water.

 Maintain a proper hygiene in a food which we eat.
 Maintain cleanliness around us.
 Keep our body clean and tidy by having the regular bath.
  Wear clean and ironed clothes.
 Avoid the entry of vectors like mosquitoes, rats, house flies, cockroaches by spraying
insecticides.
 Disinfectants and other antiseptics can be used to destroy the microbes.
 Fish plays a vital role in destroying mosquitoes and their larvae by eating them. So by
introducing fish aquarium in our home, we can prevent mosquitoes from transmitting diseases.
There are many diseases which develop from the environmental problems, through nutrition deficiency,
blood-related issues, chromosomal disorders, and so on.
Infectious Disease - Infectious diseases are a disorderliness that occurs due to the pathogenic
microorganisms namely virus, bacteria, fungi, and parasite. These infectious diseases can either be
communicable or non-communicable disease or it can be transmitted by animals or even by bites of
animals or insects.
As mentioned earlier infectious diseases results from infection, agents responsible for causing this infection
include viroids, nematodes, prion, arthropods namely mites and fleas and macroparasites such as
helminths and tapeworms. It occurs when there is an invasion of an organism’s into the body cells and
tissue with infection-causing agent involving the reaction of the host tissues to this organisms and due to
the toxins that they produce.

List of Infectious Disease

 Anthrax.
 Burkholderia pseudo mallei.
 Diphtheria.
 Enterovirus Infection.
 Granuloma inguinale.
 Lead Poisoning.
 Measles.
 Mumps.
 Rabies.
 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome.
 Smallpox.
 Typhoid Fever.
 Yellow Fever.
 Yersinia.
 Hepatitis C: It is not acute. It is a chronic disease.
 Hepatitis B: It is caused due to inflammation of the liver which in turn causes jaundice, fatigue
and in prolonged time it may also cause liver cancer.
 Malaria: Caused due to a mosquito bite. It can be deadly if not treated for a prolonged time.
  Dengue: It is caused by a particular type of mosquito. In rare cases, it leads to death, but it
usually causes fever, headache and joints pain.
 Tuberculosis: It causes coughing and chest pain due to the bacteria that are found in lungs. It
may also result in different kind of side effects.
Prevention of Infectious Disease
Some of the practical ways for preventing the infection are listed below:

 Maintaining the proper hand hygiene.

 Use of antibiotics.
 Keeping your kitchen clean by washing utensils, dishes, cooking area before and after
preparing each food.
 Vaccination – one of the most effective ways.
 Maintain hygiene both in the bathroom and in the toilet area.
 Avoid sharing personal belongings such as a razor, drinking glass, toothbrush, comb, etc.
 Do not travel or go to work when you fall ill.
 While visiting patients in hospitals, it is recommended to wear a mask, gown and if possible
make use of sanitizing gels to prevent infection.

 Acquired Diseases: They are acquired after the birth. They are grouped into two types.
Communicable and noncommunicable.
 The communicable disease is caused by certain microorganisms called pathogens (fungi,
rickettsia, bacteria, viruses, protozoans, worms) which lead to infections. This disease spread
from one person to another and is called communicable disease. Few examples include
Cholera, chicken pox, malaria etc.
 The non-communicable disease is caused by age, nutritional deficiency and sex of an individual,
genetics and so on. Few examples include Hypertension, diabetes, and cancer. They do not
spread to others and they restrain within a person who has developed them.
Cancer - Cancer is caused by an uncertain growth of certain tissues in the body. It can be classified
depending upon the type of the cell that has been affected initially. Tumors occur when a cancerous cell
succeeds itself in dividing and making a new blood vessel to feed in a process namely angiogenesis. These
cells also transport throughout the body by using a blood system, in turn, destroying the blood cells which
are healthy. And this process is termed as an invasion.
No symptoms would occur when cancer begins. Some of the common types of cancer include breast
cancer, colon cancer, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer etc.
  Degenerative or Organic Diseases: They are mainly caused by the malfunctioning of vital organs
in our body. For example heart disease or cardiovascular disease.
Heart Disease - It is caused due to excessive smoking, alcohol consumption and lack of exercise. Common
disorders include hypertensive heart disease, inflammatory heart diseases, cerebrovascular disease,
valvular heart disease, ischemic heart disease and heart failure.

 Symptoms – sweating, weakness, nausea, difficulty in breathing and irregular heartbeats.

 Allergies: An allergic reaction arises when the body becomes hypersensitive to a certain foreign
substance called allergens that come into contact with the substance. Common allergens
include dust, pollen, animal dander, mites, feathers, latex and also certain food products. The
symptoms include coughing, sneezing, running nose, itchy and red eyes, skin rashes, and
difficulty in breathing. One of the best examples of this allergic reaction is the Asthma.
Asthma - Asthma is a chronic disease, mainly affects bronchi and bronchioles of the lungs. One of the
factors responsible for this is airborne allergens.
Symptoms – Difficulty in breathing, wheezing, and cough.

 Deficiency Diseases: They occur due to the deficiencies of hormones, minerals, nutrients, and
vitamins. For example diabetes, goiter, kwashiorkor, beriberi etc.
Goiters - It is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland by blocking the esophagus or other organs of
chest and neck. This causes difficulty in breathing and eating. Goiters are mainly caused by the Iodine
deficiency in our body.
Blood Disease - Some blood disorders may lead to cancer and some may not. It can also be caused due
to blood proteins or even mainly due to platelets, red blood cells, and white blood cells. They include
bleeding disorders, low blood platelets count, eosinophilic disorders, leukemia, myeloma (cancer of
plasma cells in bone marrow), Sickle Cell Anemia, Aplastic Anemia, Hemochromatosis and Von Miller and
Disease (blood-clotting disorder).
Symptoms- Pale skin, swelling of lymph nodes, fever, bleeding, bruising, skin rashes, etc.

Sources of Nutrients and Deficiency diseases

By definition, a nutrient is any substance that is absorbed and either provides you with energy or
enables growth, repair or proper functioning of your body.There are seven main classes of nutrients that
the body needs. These are carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, fibre and water.
It is important that everyone consumes these seven nutrients on a daily basis to help them build their
bodies and maintain their health. Deficiencies, excesses and imbalances in diet can produce negative
impacts on health, which may lead to diseases
List of Nutrient Sources and their Deficiency diseases
Vitamin A
Constituent - Retinol, Retinoic Acid, BetaCarotene
Defieciency Diseases - Nightblindness,Healing epithelial cells,Normal development of teeth and bones
Sources - Carrots, Papaya, Milk, Cheese, Fish Liver Oil, Green Vegetables etc.
Vitamin B1
Constituent - Thiamine
Defieciency Diseases – Beriberi
Sources - Brewer’s Yeast, Whole Grain, Oatmeal, Legumes, Peanuts, Dried Soybean, Sunflower Seeds
etc.
Vitamin B2
Constituent - Riboflavin
Defieciency Diseases - Ariboflavinosis
Sources - Beef Liver, Lamb, Milk, Mushroom, Spinach, Almonds etc
Vitamin B3
Constituent - Niacin or Nicotinic Acid
Defieciency Diseases - Pellagra
Sources - Tuna, Chicken, Turkey, Mushrooms , Bacon, Broccoli, Veal etc.
Vitamin B5
Constituent - Pantothenic Acid,
Defieciency Diseases - Acne, Paresthesia
Sources - Chicken Liver, Sunflower Seeds, Salmon, Avocados, Corn, Broccoli, Mushroom etc.
Vitamin B6
Constituent - Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal, Pyridoxamine
Defieciency Diseases - Dandruff-like eruptions, Pink eye, Epilepsy
Sources - Potatoes & other starchy vegetables, Fruit (other than citrus) etc.
Vitamin B7
Constituent - Biotin
Defieciency Diseases - Growth & Neurological Disorders in Infants
Sources - Raw Egg Yolk, Liver, Peanuts, Yeast, Whole-wheat Bread, Cheddar Cheese, Pork etc
Vitamin B12
Constituent - Various Cobalamins
Defieciency Diseases - Macrocytic Anaemia, Memory Loss, Pernicious Anaemia, Mania, Psychosis,
Paralysis
Sources - Seafood, Beef, Chicken, Eggs etc.

Vitamin B9
Constituent - Folic Acid
Defieciency Diseases - Macrocytic Anaemia, Birth Defects
Sources - Dark Leafy Greens like Spinach, Asparagus, Broccoli, Citrus Fruits, Beans, Peas, Lentils,
Avocados etc
Vitamin C
Constituent - L-Ascorbic Acid
Defieciency Diseases - Scurvy Amla,
Sources - Guava, Chillis, Kiwi, Broccoli, Orange, Papaya, Lemon, etc.
Vitamin D
Constituent - Calciferol (D2) & Cholecalciferol (D3)
Defieciency Diseases - Rickets, Osteomalacia,Needed for absorption of calcium from small
intestines,Calcification of the skeleton
Sources - Sunlight, Mushrooms, Alfalfa, Fish Liver Oils, Cooked Egg Yolk, etc.
Vitamin E
Constituent - Tochopherols & Tocotrienols
Defieciency Diseases - Red Blood Cell Destruction, Ataxia, Retinopathy, Peripheral Neuropathy,
Reproductive Failure
Sources - Wheat Germ Oil, Canola Oil, Sunflower Oil, Almond Oil, Hazelnuts, Peanuts etc.
Essential Fatty Acids
Constituent - Omega 3 (Alpha Linolenic Acid) and Omega 6 (Linolenic Acid)
Defieciency Diseases - Several bodily processes afflicted, Skin Ailments
Sources - Fish Oils, Flaxseed Oil, Hemp Oil, Olive Oil, Pumpkin Seeds, Leafy Vegetables etc.
Vitamin K
Constituent - Phylloquinone (K1), Menaquinone (K2)
Defieciency Diseases - Lack of Clotting of Blood, Lack of Tissue Renewal
Sources -Green Leafy Vegetables etc.
Iron
Defieciency Diseases - Anaemia,Arrhythmia
Sources - Red Meat, Seafood, Egg Yolk, Bananas, Apple, Green Vegetables, Broccoli, Beans, Pumpkin
Seeds etc.

Potassium
Defieciency Diseases -High Blood Pressure, Arrhythmia, Muscle Weakness, Myalgia, Muscle Cramps,
Constipation, Respiratory Depression, Paralysis
Sources - Meat, Milk, Fruits, Vegetables, Whole Grains etc.
Calcium
Defieciency Diseases - Osteoporosis, Hypocalcemia, Ostopenia
Sources - Milk and Milk Products, Eggs, Wheatgrass etc.
Magnesium
Defieciency Diseases - Deterioration of Metabolism & Cellular Functioning, Heart Attacks, Insulin
Resistance
Sources - Nuts and Seeds, Green Vegetables, Dark Chocolate, Whole Grains etc.
Sodium
Defieciency Diseases - Cognitive Impairment, Headaches, Nausea, Seizure, Coma, Electrolytic
Imbalance
Sources- Salt, Fish, Meat, Vegetables etc.
Chlorine
Defieciency Diseases - alkalosis
Sources - Salt, Milk, Meats, Vegetables etc.
Phosphorous
Defieciency Diseases - hypophosphatemia , rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults
Sources - Meat, Fish, Poultry, Eggs, Milk, Bananas etc.
Iodine
Defieciency Diseases - Goitre, Cretinism, Deterioration of Metabolism & Cellular Functioning,
Sources -Iodised Salt, Sea Food, Green Vegetables, Raw Milk, Eggs etc.
Protein
Defieciency Diseases - Kwashiorkor
Sources - Meat, Seafood, Eggs, Pulses & Legumes, Milk & Milk Products etc.
Protein-Energy
Defieciency Diseases - Marasmus
Sources - Grains, Pulses & Legumes, Meat, Milk & Milk Products, Eggs, Seafood etc.
Blood is a body fluid in people and different animals that provides necessary materials including vitamins
and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste merchandise faraway from the ones identical cells.
In vertebrates, it’s far composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma. Plasma, which constitutes fifty
five% of blood fluid, is mostly water (ninety two% by using extent), and contains proteins, glucose, mineral
ions, hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the primary medium for excretory product transportation),
and blood cells themselves. Albumin is the primary protein in plasma, and it functions to adjust the colloidal
osmotic pressure of blood. The blood cells are especially purple blood cells (also referred to as RBCs or
erythrocytes), white blood cells (also referred to as WBCs or leukocytes) and platelets (additionally known
as thrombocytes). The most ample cells in vertebrate blood are crimson blood cells. These incorporate
hemoglobin, an iron-containing protein, which helps oxygen transport by reversibly binding to this
respiratory gas and significantly increasing its solubility in blood. In evaluation, carbon dioxide is in the main
transported extracellularly as bicarbonate ion transported in plasma.
Human Circulatory System - The circulatory device, also called the cardiovascular device or the vascular
device, is an organ gadget that lets in blood to circulate and transport vitamins (including amino acids and
electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells inside the body to
offer nourishment and assist in preventing illnesses, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain
homeostasis.
Heart - The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the thoracic region.
It is the very crucial organ of our body which works continuously throughout our life. The human heart is
divided into four chambers which are involved in the transportation of oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated The upper two chambers are called as atria whereas the lower two chambers are called
as ventricles.
The human circulatory system is more advanced than that of other animals like fish, reptiles, etc. In the
human body, blood circulates through the heart twice. Hence, circulation in human beings is called doule
circulation.
Layers Of Heart
It consists of three layers namely:
Myocardium– The myocardium includes heart muscle cells that make up the bulk of heart wall and the
middle layer.
Epicardium – The outer layer of cells is known as epicardium and the second layer which is membranous
surrounds and protects the heart.
Endocardium -The endocardium lines the inner wall of the heart.
 1. The Pericardium
It is a fiber kind of a covering around the heart and keeps it in place. This is a unique membrane and
lubricates the heart in the pericardial space to avoid friction. Pericardium has two exclusive layers:

 Visceral layer directly covers the heart.

 Parietal layer forms a sac that contains the fluid in the pericardial cavity.
2. The Heart Walls
The heart wall consists of three layers:
Epicardium – This is the outermost layer of the heart and a thin layer of membrane that protects and
lubricates the outer its section.
Myocardium – This is a muscular layer and consists of muscle tissue. It contributes to the thickness and
responsible for the pumping action.
Endocardium – It is the innermost layer that lines within the heart and keeps blood from sticking and
prevents the formation of harmful blood clots.
3. Chambers Of Heart
The four chambers are as mentioned below:

 Left atrium
 Right atrium
 Left ventricle
 Right ventricle
Atria are thin, less muscular walls and smaller than ventricles. These are the blood-receiving chambers
that are carried to the heart by the large veins.
Ventricles are larger and more muscular chambers of pumping and push blood out to the circulation.
These are connected to larger arteries that deliver blood for circulation.
The right ventricle and right atrium are smaller than left chambers. Their walls consist of fewer muscles
compared to left portion and size difference is based on their functions. The blood from the right side
flows through the pulmonary circulation while blood from the left chambers is pumped to the complete
body.
Blood
The fluid connective tissue which plays a vital role in circulating food, hormones, water, air and other
necessary products to different parts of the body. Blood flows through a specified set of pathways called
blood vessels. The organ which is involved in pumping blood to different body parts is the heart. Blood
cells, blood plasma, proteins, and salts together constitute the human blood. The composition of blood are:

 Plasma, the fluid part of the blood that is composed of 90% of water.
 Blood cells, the solid part of blood.
There are three types of blood cells.

1. Red blood cells (RBC) / Erythrocytes: They are mainly involved in transporting oxygen, food, and
other substances to various parts of the body. These blood cells also function by, removing the
waste from the body.
2. White blood cells (WBC) / Leukocytes: They are specialized in defense. They fight against
foreign particles entering the body.
3. Platelets /Thrombocytes: Platelets help in clotting of blood at the time of wound or cut.
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are the pathways through which the blood travels from one part to different parts of the
body. Arteries and veins are two types of blood vessels in the circulatory system of the body.

 Arteries are the blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood from the heart to various parts
of the body. They are thick, elastic and are divided into a small network of blood vessels called
capillaries.
 Veins are the blood vessels, a carrier deoxygenated blood towards the heart from various
parts of the body for purification. They are thin, elastic and are present closer to the surface
of the skin.
 Capillaries It allows the switching of chemicals and water between the tissues and blood. They
are very thin and tiny. Exchange of blood takes place between blood tissues and capillaries. This
function takes place in capillary beds. Connective tissues are also found occasionally.
 Sinusoids They are very small vessels located within the bone marrow, liver and spleen.
Lymph
The human circulatory system consists of another body fluid called lymph. It is also known as tissue fluid.
It is a colorless fluid consisting of salts, proteins, water, etc. which transport and circulates digested food
and absorbed fat to intercellular spaces in the tissues.
Layers of Blood Vessels
Both arteries and veins consist of three layers.
 Tunica Intima: It is one of the innermost and thinnest layers of arteries and veins. It comprises
of endothelial cells. They are in direct contact with the flow of blood. It intern consists of three
layers. I.e. Inner Layer, Middle Layer, and Outer Layer.
 Tunica Media: It is one of the thickest layers of arteries. Its function is to control the caliber of
the vessel. It also consists of connective tissue and polysaccharide substances.
 Tunica Adventitia: It controls the caliber of the vessel. It is surrounded by the tunica media. It
comprises of collagen and also supported by the lamina.