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Experiment no # 1

Experiment no # 1

1.1 Objective:

To measure the hardness of the material using Rockwell hardness tester


machine.

1.2 Apparatus:

 Rockwell hardness machine


 Specimen(metal plate)

1.3 Theory:

1.3.1 Hardness:

Hardness is generally considered as resistance to penetration. The harder the materials,


the greater the resistance to penetration. Hardness is directly related to the mechanical
properties of the material. Factors influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size,
strain hardening, etc. Generally as hardness increases so does yield strength and
ultimate tensile strength (UTS), thus specifications often require the results of hardness
tests rather than tensile tests. The most popular methods are Brinell, Vickers and
Rockwell hardness tests for metals and alloys.[1]

1.3.2 Rockwell hardness machine:

Rockwell hardness machine is used to find the hardness of the material. The Rockwell
scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test
determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a
large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.

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Experiment no # 1

Rockwell hardness machine contain different scale. These are as follow:

 Scale A
 Scale B
 Scale C

In this experiment we are going to use the the scale B.

1.3.4 Parts:

These are the following parts of the the Rockwell hardness tester machine:[2]

 Gauge
 Hydraulic ram
 Anvil Table
 Skirt
 Release and unreleased valve
 Weight and weight pan

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Experiment no # 1

Rockwell hardness machine[3]

1.3.5 Hardness test:

Hardness
tests

Rebound Scratch Indentation

Sceleroscope Mohs
Micro Macro
test scratch test

Knoop Rockwell

Brinell

Vickor

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Experiment no # 1

1.4 Procedure:

1. Clean the surface of the anvil table to remove the dust particle and oil to avoid slippage.
2. Clean the surface of the specimen whose hardness is to be determined.
3. Insert the steel ball type inductor in the split chunk.
4. In order to remove the effect of the surface roughness, apply the minor load of 10kg. to
apply it, first adjust the anvil table to make the indenter touch the surface of the specimen
then apply load of 10kg.
5. Now apply the major load of 100kg through the release un-release valve in accordance
with selected scale B.
6. After passing through a dwell time of 15 second remove the major load.
7. Remove the specimen and observe the reading on the dial scale.
8. The final reading shown on the dial scale is the hardness no. of the tested specimen.

1.5 Observation:
Material of specimen = Medium carbon steel

Material of Intender = High carbon steel

Diameter of ball intender = 1/16 inch

Type of Scale = B

Minor loading = 10kg

Major loading = 100kg

Dwell time = 15 seconds

No. of Obs. Load Extension unload Rockwell Hardness Number


Extension
E H = E-e
e

1 102 45 57

2 100 44 56

3 99 43 56

Mean Value = 56.5

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Experiment no # 1

Actual Value = 75

Error = 23%

1.6 Conclusion:

 The error in the actual value and the experimental value is due to the
unprofessional of the person.
 The error is due to the systematic error.

1.7 Reference:

1. www.collindictionary.com
2. www.wikipedia.com
3. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
608&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=JO1oXLeuNcbI6QT27ZOwCQ&q=rockwell+hardness+
machine=rockwell+hardness+machine_l=img.3...10270.23126..23321...1.0..1.15
15.11840.5-6j4j3j1......1....1..gws-wiz-img.......0i67j0.rODl0F_X2bM

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Experiment no # 1

Experiment no #02(b)
2.1 Objective:
To determine the load-deflection characteristics for tension spring and to show
that deflection is proportional to 1/d4.

2.2 Apparatus:
Tension of the spring apparatus

 Set of loading weight


 Tension spring
 Vernier caliper
 Steel rule

2.3 Theory:
Spring is used to to store energy or to store the restoring force. Both spring (compression
and extension) may be encountered. The deflection of the spring depend on the load we
apply on the spring. The tension of spring is due to hooks law.

Hooks law is stated as within the elastic limit the applied force is directly proportional to
strain.

F = kx

Stress is the force applied on the unit area of the body. And the strain is the change in
length produced in the body when a force is applied on the body.

Tension springs are tightly wound closed together. The spring stretches to a specific
length when the load is applied on the spring. The tension spring is used in many ways.
The tension spring is used in many industries. The tension spring have dimension of
01mm to 26mm and can created using the cold and hot coiling process.

2.3.1 Difference b/w compression and tension spring:


Tension and compression spring are both made up of coil spring but the difference
between the tension and compression spring that tension spring meant to hold the two
thing together while the compression spring are designed to keep component from
coming together. Tension spring and compression spring are both used to restrain
energy. Tension and compression spring both work on the principle of hooks law.

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Experiment no # 1

Tension spring made from a dimension of 0.1mm to 25mm and can be made of hot and
cool coiling process. When the load is applied on the spring the spring is stretched to a
specific length. And when the more load is applied the spring become more stretched and
when the load is removing from the spring the spring return to its original position.
Because the restoring force in the tension spring is remove from the spring.

The diagram of the tension spring is given below;

Tension spring[1]

Tension spring[2]

2.4 Procedure:
1. set the apparatus for compression spring.
2. Now set the point on zero in scale.
3. Then applied the load on the spring and note the value of deflection.
4. Take five readingas load is applied on the spring.
5. Now remove the load and find the value of the unloading.
6. Find the theoretical value of the deflection of the spring.
7. In last find the percentage error of the theoretical and experimental value.

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Experiment no # 1

The formula to find the theoretical value of the spring is given as:

Deflection = 64WR3n/Gd4
2.5 Spring specification:
Outer dia of the spring Dout = 25.2mm

Thickness of the spring d = 2.95mm

Inner diameter of the spring Din =20.3mm

Mean diameter D = 22.75mm

Mean Radius R = 11.375mm

No. of turns of the spring N = 14

Modulus of elasticity G = 78Gpa = 78000 N/mm2

2.6 Observation:
No of Load Experimental extension Theoretical % Error

Obs. W Extension

(N) Loading Unloading Average

1 15 2.5 2 2.25 3.34 32.6

2 20 4 3.5 3.75 4.46 15.91

3 25 6.1 6 6.05 5.58 8.4

4 30 9.5 9.5 9.5 6.69 29.9

Percentage error= 21.7

2.7 Comment:
 The error is due to unprofessional of the person.

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Experiment no # 1

 The error is due to error in the apparatus.

2.8 Reference:
1. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
657&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=N4RpXKWDLI6TkwWtopPYCg&q=+tension+spring&oq
=+tension+spring&gs_l=img.3...7886.8954..9591...0.0..0.0.0.......1....1..gws-wiz-
img.bdXZHGf7QQc
2. https://www.google.com/search?q=types+of+the+tension+spring&rlz=1C1CHBF_
enPK834PK834&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiT7YWoisPgAhV
F_qQKHTIYDZ0Q_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=657

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Experiment no # 1

Experiment no # 2(a)
2.1 Objective:
To determine the load-deflection characteristics for compression spring and to
show that deflection is proportional to 1/d4.

2.2 Apparatus:
Compresion of the spring apparatus

 Set of loading weight


 Compression spring
 Vernier caliper
 Steel rule

2.3 Theory:
Spring is used to to store energy or to store the restoring force. Both spring (compression
and extension) may be encountered. The deflection of the spring depends on the load we
apply on the spring. The compression of spring is due to hooks law.

Hooks law is stated as within the elastic limit the applied force is directly proportional to
strain.

F = kx

Stress is the force applied on the unit area of the body. And the strain is the change in
length produced in the body when a force is applied on the body.

Compression spring is the common type of the metal spring. Compression springs are
effectively store energy. Compression spring have countless potential application.
Compression spring have some gap when it is free. The gap is reduced when the load is
applied on the spring. Compression springs are another spring that are hugely popular
and can be used in many industries.

2.3.1 Types of compression spring:


Here is some example of the compression spring:

 conical
 hourglass
 barrel- shaped

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Experiment no # 1

 torsional
 magazine

Conical compression spring [1] barrel shaped compression


spring[2]

Hourglass compression spring[3] Magazine


compression spring[4]

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Experiment no # 1

Torsional compression spring [5]

2.4 Procedure:
 set the apparatus for compression spring.
 Now set the point on zero in scale.
 Then applied the load on the spring and note the value of deflection.
 Take five reading’s load is applied on the spring.
 Now remove the load and find the value of the unloading.
 Find the theoretical value of the deflection of the spring.
 In last find the percentage error of the theoretical and experimental value.

The formula to find the theoretical value of the spring is given as:

Deflection = 64WR3n/Gd4
2.5 Spring specification:
Outer dia of the spring Dout = 25.3mm

Thickness of the spring d = 2.1mm

Inner diameter of the spring Din =21.1mm

Mean diameter D = 23.2mm

Mean Radius R = 11.6mm

No. of turns of the spring N =7

Modulus of elasticity G = 78Gpa = 78000 N/mm2

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Experiment no # 1

2.6 Observation:
No of Load Experimental compression Theoretical % Error

Obs. W Compression

(N) Loading Unloading Average

1 5 3 2.5 2.75 2.30 19.56

2 10 6 6 6 4.60 30.4

3 15 10 9.5 9.75 6.91 41.1

4 20 13 12.5 12.75 9.21 38.4

5 25 16 16 16 11.52 38.9

Percentage error=

2.7 Comment:
 The error is due to unprofessional of the person.
 The error is due to error in the apparatus.

2.8 Reference:
1. https://www.google.com/search?q=conical+compression+spring&rlz=1C1CHBF_
enPK834PK834&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwij98fGgMLgAhW
hwMQBHUjEC5YQ_AUIDigB&biw=1366&bih=657
2. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
608&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=JO1oXLeuNcbI6QT27ZOwCQ&q=barel+shaprdcompre
ssion+spring&oq=barel+shaprdcompression+spring&gs_l=img.3...10270.23126..
23321...1.0..1.1515.11840.5-6j4j3j1......1....1..gws-wiz-
img.......0i67j0.rODl0F_X2bM
3. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
608&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=7OxoXNHRFs7c6AT1vZrwBQ&q=hourglass+compressi
on+spring&oq=hourglass+compression+spring&gs_l=img.3...35408.53125..5403
3...0.0..2.1345.13560.3-1j0j2j11j3......1....1..gws-wiz-
img.......0i7i30j0i67j0.CIwbYh7wofM

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Experiment no # 1

4. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
608&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=re1oXPWuC6vDmwWEo5aIDw&q=magazine+compres
sion+spring&oq=magazine+compression+spring&gs_l=img.3...52969.57465..580
31...0.0..0.868.7574.5-7j4......1....1..gws-wiz-img.......0i67j0.okSaLE7NXxo
5. https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834&biw=1366&bih=
608&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=Ve1oXL3WK4-
emwWc4ITQBw&q=torsional+compression+spring&oq=torsional+compression+s
pring&gs_l=img.3...83874.85393..85894...0.0..0.713.1413.6-2......1....1..gws-wiz-
img.n6rijDsYuig

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Experiment no # 1

Experiment no: 04
To determine the diametrical deflection of a circular bar subjected to diametrical
loading.

4.1 Objective:
To analyze the effect of radial loading on deflection.

4.2 Apparatus:
1. Curved bar apparatus
2. Ring
3. Vernier caliper
4. Meter rod
5. Dial indicator gauge
6. Weight and weight pans

4.3 Theory:
4.3.1 Ring:
It is a circular band, made of some type of the metal. A circular ring is a figure bounded
by the circumference of the two circles of the different radii. The area of the circle
determined by subtracting the area of the small circle from the area of the area of the
large circle.[1]

Fig no 1:Circular ring area[2]

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Experiment no # 1

Example:

Washers etc.

4.3.2 Diametrical deflection:


The deflection produced in the circular ring when the load is applied on it, it is called the
diametrical deflectional. The deflection is called the diametrical deflectional because
when we apply the normal load there is a change in the diameter of the circular ring. The
deflection in the ring minimizes the diameter of the circular ring.

Fig no2: Deflection in circular ring[3]

4.3.3 Castigliano’s Theorem:


For displacement, we can apply the second theorem of Castigliano’s theorem which
stated that:

“If the energy of the linearly elastic structure can be expressed as a function of force Q i
then the partial derivatives of the strain energy with respect to generalized force give the
generalized displacement qi in the direction of Qi.[3]

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Experiment no # 1

qi=ƋU/ƋQi

Fig no 3: deflection in circular ring load when load applied

4.4 Formula:
When the load is applied on a circular ring, the deflection is produced in the circular ring.
To determine the value of the deflection in the ring there is a formula given below:

𝝅 𝟐
( − )𝑾𝑹𝟑
𝟒 𝝅
Deflection = 𝜹 =
𝑬𝑰
Where;

R is the radius of the circular ring

E is the modulus of the elasticity

W is the weight applied on it

I is the moment of inertia

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Experiment no # 1

4.5 Procedure:
1. Check the zero error and least count of the measuring devices.
2. Measure the width and height of circular bars with Vernier caliper. Also
measure the diameter of the circular ring with the meter rod.
3. Position and fix the dial indictor gauge on the ring to get the desired
deflection.
4. Level the whole apparatus sing the leveling screws at the bottom and level
indicators.
5. Apply a small load by adding a weight on the hanger.
6. Note the deflection on the central gauge.
7. Keep adding the weights with regular increments and note the dial gauge
reading for each successive addition.
8. Note the dial gauge reading while unloading the weights one by one.
9. Calculate the mean deflection.

4.6 Observation and calculation:

Least value on the Vernier caliper = 0.001 cm


Least count of dial gauge = 0.001 inch
Radius of circular ring (R) = 6 inch
Modulus of elasticity (E) = 29*10^6 psi
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh3/12) = 1.4544*10^8 m4
At center:
𝜋 2 𝑅3
Deflection at center = δth = ( 4 − 𝜋) 𝐸𝐼

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Experiment no # 1

No. of Load Actual Central Deflection δexp Theoretical Percentage


Obs. Error
Deflection δth

Loading Unloading Average

1. 0.5 2 4 0.003 0.00382 21.4%

2. 1 6 7 0.0065 0.0076 14.4%

3. 1.5 9 10 0.0095 0.0114 16%

4. 2 11 14 0.0125 0.0152 17.7%

5. 2.5 16 16 0.0165 0.0191 16%

Table no 1

Average percentage difference = 16.8 %

4.7 Graph:

Load vs deflection 0.0165


0.018
0.016
0.014 0.0125
0.012
Deflection

0.0095
0.01
0.008 0.0065
0.006
0.003
0.004
0.002
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Load

4.8 Comment:
1. From this experiment we can find the value of the modulus of the elasticity.
2. The error in the value of the deflection in the circular ring is due to the
unprofessional of the person.
3. The error is due to the wear and tear in the apparatus.

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Experiment no # 1

4.9 Reference:
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_buffer
2. https://www.google.com/search?q=circular+ring&rlz=1C1CHBF_enPK834PK834
&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiZkv3y_vbgAhVMC-
wKHUCvBnUQ_AUIDigB&biw=1036&bih=484#imgrc=FdZ4BOIqlXAbiM:
3. https://www.google.com/search?q=deflection+in+circular+ring&rlz=1C1CHBF_en
PK834PK834&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi8vKqX__bgAhVC
KewKHUH6BbIQ_AUIDigB&biw=1036&bih=435#imgdii=ks4bbdB-
nCHE_M:&imgrc=f67F3snu2derSM:
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castigliano%27s_method

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Experiment no # 1

Experiment no: 05
5.1 Objective:
Investigation about the material of the given specimen by determining yield
Strength, ultimate tensile strength, fracture stress, modulus of elasticity,
percentage elongation and percentage area reduction.

5.2 Apparatus:
Hounsfield Tensometer

 Vernier Caliper
 Specimen
 Elongation Gauge
 Area Reduction Gauge

5.3 Theory:
The most fundamental mechanical test that can be performed on a material is the tensile
test. The tensile strength and stress and strain etc. any kind of material can be determined
by the tensile test. This can done by using the Hounsfield tonometer. Hounsfield
tonometer is a tensile testing machine which is used to determine the strength of the
material. In this experiment the material is held between the two clip. We can apply the
maximum force with the minimum effort. The material can face the force up to its fracture
point and when the force is exceed the ultimate tensile strength. At last the material can
be broken. There is a autographic drum and a magnifier glass on the other end. And also
a pointer is present on this drum which is used to mark the point on the graph when the
load is applied on it. From the graph we can observed the tensile strength of the material.

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Experiment no # 1

Fig no : Hounsfield Tensometer

5.4 Stress strain curve:


The relation between the stress an strain of a particular material show is called the
stress strain curve.it is different for material. The curve display the different properties.
Stress and strain is directly related to each other. If one is increase than other will also
be increases.[2]

Fig no 2: Stress strain curve

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Experiment no # 1

5.4.1 Stress:
Stress is defined as the force acting on unit area of the body[2]. The formula of the
stress is given as:

σ = F/A
Where,

σ is the stress

F is the force acting on the body

A is the area of the body

Unit:
The unit of the stress is N/m2

5.4.2 Strain:
Strain is the change produced in the shape of the body when the force is acting on the
body.

E= change in length/original length

It has no unit. Because it is a ratio.

5.4.3 Yield Stress:


Yield stress is defined as the quantity of the stress that an object need to bear for it to
be deformed permanently.

5.4.4 Yield point:


Yield point is a point where there is a sharp increase in the objects strain that does not
correlate with the increase in the stress. Yield point occure after an object has reached
its yield stress.

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Experiment no # 1

Fig no 3: Yield point

5.4.5 Ultimate Tensile Strength:


Tensile property of the material display how it will react to forces applied applied on it in
tension. As we know that the material break when a large amount of force acting on it.

There are some material who can bear a large amount of the force acting on it. The
ultimate tensile indicate that the maximum force that a material can withstand without
change in the shape or before elongation or pulled.[1]

5.4.6 Fracture point:


Fracture is a type of the failure where a material separate into pieces. Material converted
into pieces because a large amount of the stress acting on it at temperature below the
melting point.

The fractures for brittle and ductile material are different from each other. For brittle
material the fracture is very rapid cracking of the material when a large amount of the
stress acting on it. For ductile material, fracture is characterized by the extensive
deformation of plastic or necking. In ductile fracture, material pull a part instead of the
cracking.[3]

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Experiment no # 1

Fig no 4: Fracture for brittle and ductile material

5.4.7 Necking:
Necking is actually the type of the tensile deformation in which a large quantity of the
strain is disproportional localized in a very tiny area of the material. The local cross
sectional area of the material is acting as the base for the necking. Necking is the result
of the instability during the tensile deformation.

Fig no 5: Necking of material

5.5 Working:
Hounsfield Tensometer works on the guideline that a power at a regular price is hooked
up to the instance that's settled immovably inside the Tensometer until the instance is
broken. We exercise the ductile burden through the use of turning the address physical
or therefore and inside the interim the drum additionally pivot which has a chart paper
wrap on it.so, the diagram known as pressure strain bend is received demonstrating the
residences of the fabric, as an instance, UTS, yield incredible and damage stress.

Obeys Hook’s law at this point which states that strain is at once proportional to the
pressure. So even as it crosses the yield factor the elastic deformation is terminated
and plastic deformation started and whilst it reaches the proportional restrict, it stopped
to obey the Hook’s regulation. And then it reaches the point at which it may contend
with the maximum pressure known as the last tensile strain. After this necking comes

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Experiment no # 1

into motion and because of which bypass section is decreased and duration is
increased. And then it reaches the final thing at which the fabric ultimately breaks, is
called Fracture pressure.

5.6Procedure:
1. Determine the area and length of the work piece.
2. Measure the area reduces and change in length with the initial dimensions of the
work piece.
3. Fold the graph paper on the autographic drum of the tensometer.
4. Hold the specimen between the split chuck.
5. Apply continuous load on the work piece by rotating the handle and deformation.
6. Apply the load until the work piece break into two pieces.

5.7 Observations and Calculations:


Gauge length = 0.625+0.0312 = 0.65 inch
Dia of specimen = 0.187+0.0546 = 0.246 inch
Percentage elongation = 5%
Max load = 500 kg
Final gauge length = 0.6898 inch
Final diameter = 0.172 inch
Initial area = 𝜋𝑑24 = 0.0475 in2
Final area = 𝜋𝑑′24 = 0.0232 in2
Engineering stress = 5000.0475 = 23200 lb/in2
Instantaneous Stress = 47500 lb./in2

From Graph:

F = 1102 lb.
4.1 boxes = 1102.6 lb.
1 small box = 26.88
3.9 boxes = 26.88*3.9
= 1048.32 lb.
Tensile strength = 22069.89 lb./in2

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Experiment no # 1

From final area

Tensile strength = 45186.21 lb./in2

Fig no 6: Representation of length measurment

5.8 Graph:

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Experiment no # 1

Fig no 7: Graph

5.9 Comment:

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Experiment no # 1

The specimen we use in this experiment is made up of aluminium and this material go to
ultimate tensile stress but it go to fracture point which is denoted by point P and these
might deviate from the actual values because there might be experimental or climate
changes due to which it can might happen.

5.10Reference:
1) Mechanics of Materials 10th Edition by Hibbiler
2) Stress-Strain Curves by Luebkeman, C., & Peting D.
3) www.study.com

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