SECTION 3.

AERODYNAMICS OF THE AIRCRAFT

THEME 16. AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE AIRPLANE
The aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane are determined as a sum of the
same name aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane isolated parts and additional
items which occur as a result of an interference of the airplane various parts. As it was
mentioned above, in some cases the interference addends are included in the isolated
parts characteristics. In this case it is necessary to consider the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airplane given part in the airplane system
Let's pass to the general formulas of the airplane aerodynamic characteristics
calculation.

16.1. An airplane drag at zero lift

The airplane drag occurs as a result of tangent and normal aerodynamic forces
components action onto each element of streamlined surface. The first component
determines friction drag, the second - pressure drag.
The friction drag is stipulated by air viscosity. The pressure drag occurs as a
result of pressure distribution changing along body surface in comparison with pressure
distribution in ideal fluid at attached steady vortex-free flow.
Pressure drag together with friction drag determine the profile drag. At Mach
numbers M∞ ≥ M* shock waves appear on the body surface, it results in pressure
redistribution and occurrence of the wave drag. The lift presence and vortex sheet
formation are the reasons of one more component occurrence - induced drag.
Therefore, it is possible to present the drag coefficient in the following form:
C xa = C x0 + C xi , (16.1)
where C x0 is the airplane drag coefficient at zero lift ( C ya = 0 ), C xi is the factor of

induced drag.

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 Factor of induced drag at C ya = 0 will be considered separately. We have

C x0 = C xp + ∑ ΔC xa , at M∞ ≤ M* ;
C x 0 = C xp + C xw + ∑ ΔC xa , at M∞ ≥ M* , (16.2)

where C xp is the airplane profile drag factor, C xw is the airplane wave drag factor,

∑ ΔC xa is the sum of drag from additional sources (wing - fuselage interference,

horizontal tail-fuselage interference, interference from rivets, welding, slot between the
wing and high-lift devices or control surfaces, small-sized design superstructures - pilot-
static tubes, brackets, suspension units etc.).
In some cases, drag from additional sources is included in C xp and C xw ,

increasing their values in 1.05 ...1.15 times (according to statistics, the additional drag
is approximately 5 ...15% from airplane basic elements drag; thus the airplanes are
known which additional drag reaches up to 20% from C xp ).

In this case we write doun

C x 0 = ( 1.05 ...1.15 )C xp , at M∞ ≤ M* ;

( )
C x 0 = (1.05 ...1.15 ) C xp + C xw , at M∞ ≥ M* .

16.1.1. Airplane profile drag.

The airplane profile drag is determined as a sum of its isolated parts drags taking
into account an interference between them.
The computational formula for the profile drag factor looks like this
C xp = C xp f S f + kd w C xpw S w + kd h.t .C xph.t . S h.t . + C xpv .t . S v .t . +
(16.3)
+ nke .n .C xpe .n . S e .n . + kd w ΔC xpw( f ) S w + kd h.t .ΔC xph.t .( f ) S h.t . + ... ,

where C xp f , C xp w , C xph.t . , C xpv .t . , C xpe .n . are profile drag factors of the airplane

isolated parts; ΔC xp w( f ) and ΔC xph.t .( f ) are factors of additional profile drag caused

by interference of the wing, horizontal tail and fuselage; n is the quantity of engines

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nacelle; ke .n . is the interference factor of engine nacelle with a fuselage or wing, kd w

and kd h.t . are the flow deceleration coefficients; S i is the ratio of the areas of airplane

isolated parts to the characteristic area S .

Profile drag of the wing and horizontal tail are determined at Mach numbers
M w = M ∞ kd w , M h.t . = M ∞ kd h.t . taking into account flow deceleration.

16.1.2. The airplane wave drag.

At flight speeds with Mach numbers M∞ ≥ M* shock waves appear on the

airplane surface and in flow, which cause occurrence of the wave drag.
Calculation is performed by summarizing of airplane separate parts drags at
M ∞ ≥ 1.20 ...1.25 .

C xw = C xw f S f + kd w C xww S w + kd h.t .C xwh.t . S h.t . + C xwv .t . S v .t . +

(16.4)
+ nke .n .C xwe .n . S e .n . + kd w ΔC xww( f ) S w + kd h.t .ΔC xwh.t .( f ) S h.t . + ... ,

where C xw f , C xw w , C xwh.t . , C xwv .t . , C xw e .n . are the wave factors drag of the airplane

isolated parts of; ΔC xw w( f ) and ΔC xwh.t .( f ) - additional wave drag factors caused by

interference of the wing, horizontal tail and fuselage.

At that, factors of the wing wave drag and horizontal tail wave drag are calculated
for Mach numbers M w = M ∞ kd w , M h.t . = M ∞ kd h.t . taking into account the flow

deceleration.
Now the authentic calculation results of wave drag can be obtained at
M ∞ ≥ 1.25 . In subsonic range of Mach numbers M* ≤ M∞ ≤ 1.20 ...1.25 calculation of
the airplane wave drag is provided by generalized ratio (Fig. 16.1), which is obtained by
the experimental data approximation for various aerodynamic configurations
3
⎛ M − M* ⎞ ⎛ M − M∞ ⎞
C xw = C xw1 ⎜ ∞ ⎟ ⎜1 + 3 1 ⎟, (16.5)
⎝ M 1 − M* ⎠ ⎝ M 1 − M* ⎠

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 where C xв1 is the airplane wave drag factor

for the chosen value of number

M 1 = 1.20 ...1.25 ; M ∗ is the airplane critical
Mach number.
The least one among the isolated parts
values M ∗ is adopted as the airplane Mach
critical number M ∗ , which should be reduced
Fig. 16.1. Airplane wave drag at
on 5% taking into account an interference
M* ≤ M ∞ ≤ 1.25

{
M* = 0 .95 min M*ф , M*w , M*h.t . , M*v .t . , ... . } (16.6)

16.2. Airplane lift.

In general, airplane lift is created by the wing, fuselage, horizontal tail, power
plant and other elements which enter the airplane aerodynamic configuration.
The lift of the airplane with the high-aspect-ratio wing is basically determined by
lift of an isolated wing with ventral part. At that, it is supposed, that contribution from
other airplane elements is indirectly taken into account in lift of ventral part.
It is characteristic for low-aspect-ratio lifting surfaces and elongated fuselages the
non-linear ratio of the lift coefficient on angles of attack. The non-linear effects become
essential on airplanes with wings having aspect ratio equal λ < 2K3 .
The influence of the isolated power plant onto aerodynamic lift is usually a little.
However, lift can be significantly raised due to ventilation of wing surface or other
elements by the prop jet or the engine jet.
As well as other aerodynamic characteristics, the airplane lift is determined as a
sum of lifts created by isolated parts with taking into account their mutual influence. At
that, it is expedient to allocate lift created by horizontal tail as a separate item

C ya = C yaw / o h.t . + C ya h.t . = C αya (α − α 0 ) + ΔC ya . (16.7)

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where C yaw / o h.t . is the characteristic of the airplane without horizontal tail; C yah.t . is

the lift coefficient horizontal tail.

For airplanes with wings having aspect ratio λ ≥ 2 .5 ...3 .0 the non-linear lift
component is not taken into account, accepting that ΔC ya = 0 .

16.2.1. Derivative C αya of the lift coefficient.

We consider, that the airplane lift is created by wing, fuselage, horizontal tail and
engine nacelles. Let's allocate the horizontal tail from the total sum

C αya = C αya + C αya S h.t . , (16.8)

w / o h.t . h.t .

C αya = C αya S f + C αya S w + nC αya S e .n . + ..., (16.9)

w / o h.t . f w e .n .

where C αya , C αya , C αya , C αya are characteristics of the airplane parts in the
f w e .n . h.t .

airplane system, at that the lift derivatives of fuselage C αya = C αya and nacelles
f is . f .

C αya = C αya correspond to isolated parts.

e .n . is .e .n .

Depending on airplane aerodynamic configuration the values of derivatives C αya

w

and C αya are also determined as follows:

h.t .

- For the normal scheme:

C αya
w
= kd w C αya
is .w .
( Kα + Δ Kα ) w ,

C αya
h.t .
(
= kd h.t . 1 − ε α C αya ) is .h.t .
( Kα + ΔKα ) h.t . ; (16.10)

- For the canard configuration

(
C αya = kd w 1 − ε α C αya
w
) is .w .
( Kα + ΔKα ) w ,

C αya
h .t .
= kd h.t .C αya
is .h .t .
( Kα + ΔKα ) h.t . , (16.11)

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where C αya and C αya are characteristics of the isolated wing and horizontal tail
is .w . is .h .t .

which are determined for Mach numbers M w = M ∞ kd w , M h.t . = M ∞ kd h.t . with

taking into account flow deceleration; Kα and ΔKα are factors of wing or tail unit

interference with fuselage; ε α - derivative flow downwash.

16.2.2. Angle of attack of airplane zero lift

The value of angle of attack of airplane zero lift α 0 is included in general

expression for the airplane lift coefficient (16.7) and is calculated under the formulae:
1 ⎛
α0 = ⎜ α 0w / o h.t . C αya + α 0h.t . C αya S h.t . ⎞⎟ , (16.12)
C αya ⎝ w / o h.t . h.t . ⎠

1 ⎛⎜ α C α S
α 0w / o h.t . = f + α 0w C αya S w + α 0e .n . nC αya S e .n . ⎞⎟ , (16.13)
C αya ⎝ 0 f ya f w e .n . ⎠
w / o h.t .

where α 0 f , α 0 w , α 0h.t . , α 0 e .n . are angles of attack of zero lift of the fuselage, wing,

horizontal tail and engine nacelle in the airplane system. At that, the angle of fuselage
zero lift corresponds to the angle of isolated fuselage zero lift α 0 f = α 0 is . f . , angle of

engine nacelle zero lift - to angle of the engine nacelle axis installation relatively to the
fuselage axis α 0 e .n. = −ϕ e .n. (at axis deflection upwards α 0e .n . < 0 ).

The angles of attack α 0 w and α 0 h.u. also depend on airplane configuration:

- for the normal configuration:

⎛ K + ΔK ⎞
(
α 0 w = − ϕ w − α 0 is .w . ⎜ )⎝ Kαϕ + ΔKϕα ⎟⎠ ,
w

⎡ ⎛ K ϕ + ΔKϕ ⎞ ⎤
α 0h.t . = −
1
⎢
1 − ε α ⎢⎣
ϕ (
h.u . − α 0is .h.t . ⎜ ) ⎟
⎝ Kα + ΔKα ⎠ h.t .
− ε 0⎥;
⎥⎦
(16.14)

- for the canard configuration:

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 ⎡ ⎛ Kϕ + ΔKϕ ⎞ ⎤
α 0w = −
1
⎢
1 − ε α ⎢⎣
ϕ w −(α 0 is .w . ⎜) ⎟
⎝ Kα + ΔKα ⎠ w
− ε 0⎥,
⎥⎦

⎛ K + ΔK ⎞
( ) ⎝ Kαϕ + ΔKϕα ⎟⎠
α 0h.t . = − ϕ h.t . − α 0is .h.t . ⎜ , (16.14)
h.t .

where α 0 is .w . and α 0is .h.t . are angles of zero lift for the isolated wing and horizontal tail

(usually α 0h.t . = 0 ), ϕ w and ϕ h.t . are angles of wing and horizontal tail setting

relatively to the fuselage axis; ϕ h.t . - can also be the angle of pivot stabilizer deflection.

16.2.3. Maximum airplane lift

Maximum lift and critical angle of attack met to it are the parameters determining
airplane performance. The precise values of the maximum lift coefficient C ya max and

critical angle of attack α st can be obtained now only in experimental way.

For the airplane with high-aspect-ratio wings λ ≥ 4 values C ya max are

calculated under the formula

C ya max = C oya max k1 k 2 k 3 , (16.15)

where C oya max is characteristic of the wing airfoil; the factors k i takes into account

influence of the airfoil shape, sweep angle, wing taper and flight Mach M ∞ number.
For the airplane with low-aspect-ratio wing λ ≤ 3 .5 the maximum lift coefficient
is calculated by the formula

( )
C ya max = 0 .42 − α 0w / o h.t . С αya
w / o h.t .
. (16.16)

The critical angle of attack α st of the airplane with the high-aspect-ratio wing
and with low-aspect-ratio wing without the account of non-linear effects is determined
as follows
⎛ C ya max ⎞
α sto ⎜
= 57 .3⎜ ⎟ o o
α ⎟ + α 0 + 1.5 , (16.17)
⎝ C ya ⎠

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where C αya and α 0 - airplane characteristics.

The construction of ratio C ya = f ( α ) by known values C αya , α 0 and C ya max is

shown in fig. 16.2.

Fig. 16.2. A construction of ratio C ya = f ( α )

16.3. Polar of an aircraft.

The origin of inductive drag is connected with formation of a vortex wake behind
a skew field at presence of lift. However on a wing with geometric twist a vortex wake
and inductive drag can exist when the summarized lift of a wing is equal to zero.
The factor of the airplane induced drag can be presented in the following form:
2
C xi = AC ya + BC ya + C xi0 , (16.18)

where the first item concerns to the airplane, which basic elements creating lift have
horizontal plane of symmetry and lifting surfaces set under zero angle to the fuselage
axis; C xi0 is the factor of induced drag at C ya = 0 .

The additional items, as a rule, introduce the minor contribution to induced drag
for majority of airplanes in flight configurations, i.e. it is possible to accept B ≈ 0 and
C xi0 ≈ 0 , and for such case
2
C xi = AC ya ,
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where A is the polar pull-off coefficient.
At subsonic Mach numbers M ∞ < M* the value A is determined as follows

1 + δ γ h.t .
A= , (16.19)
π λ wing mk

where λ wing is the wing aspect ratio with ventral part.

Parameter mk depends on the cross section shape of the wing - fuselage

configuration. The factor γ h.t . takes into account the horizontal tail contribution

induced drag.
For the isolated wing with the optimum (elliptical) law of circulation distribution
spanwise we shall have mk = 1 , γ h.t . = 1 , δ = 0 and in accordance with (16.19) we

1
come to known result A = .
π λ wing

In a supersonic flow M ∞ > 1 the polar pull-off coefficient is calculated as

follows
1
A= − CF , (16.20)
α
C ya

where C F is the relative factor of sucking force realized on the fuselage nose at
absence of the nose air intake, on wing subsonic leading edges and horizontal tail.
The characteristic ratio of the polar pull-off coefficient A on Mach number M ∞
is shown in fig. 16.3. Let's note, that the polar pull-off coefficient practically does not
vary at subsonic speeds, at supersonic speeds it is increased, because the derivative of
the lift coefficient decreases.

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 Fig. 16.3. Polar pull-off factor A on Mach number M ∞ ratio
It is necessary to take into account the additional drag which is conditioned by
angles of attack influence onto profile drag and wave crisis happening on the wing for
the airplane polar construction.
The updated expression for calculation of a polar looks like this
2
C xa = C x 0 + AC ya + ∑ ΔC xi . (16.21)

The increment of the profile drag factor with angles of attack increasing is
estimated as follows
C
ΔC xi = 0 .04 ⎛⎜ 1 − 4 1 − x 3 ⎞⎟ , x = ya . (16.22)
⎝ ⎠ C ya max

The second source of additional drag is connected with local shock waves
happening on the wing at values of a lift coefficient C ya which is going out of subsonic

speeds range, which boundary is determined by ratio M* = f C ya * ( ) (fig. 6.22). The

additional drag ΔC xi is determined by the formula

ΔC xi =
( C ya − C ya * ) C ya , (16.23)
C αya

where C ya * is determined by the formula (6.23).

The account of additional drag results in the characteristic fork of polars

constructed for various flight numbers M ∞ . The higher the number M ∞ , is the smaller
values C ya of the deviation from the subsonic polar are. In transonic flow area

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( M ∞ > M*0 ) already at C ya = 0 the wave drag appears and the polar top displaces to

the right.
The characteristic polar types are shown in fig. 16.4 and fig. 16.5.

Fig. 16.3. The airplane polar in subsonic Fig. 16.4. The airplane polar in supersonic
range of speeds range of speeds

By known values of factors C ya and C xa one also calculates the airplane lift-to-

C ya
drag ratio K = . The value of maximum quality is determined with the help of
C xa

1
expression K max = .
2 AC x0

16.4. Longitudinal moment. A position of the airplane aerodynamic

center.

As well as other aerodynamic characteristics, the longitudinal moment of airplane

aerodynamic forces is determined as a sum of moments of its separate parts. Strictly
speaking, the longitudinal moment is created by full aerodynamic force. However, it is

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possible to consider only the aerodynamic lift moment if to neglect the drag force
moment. In general, it is also necessary to take into account the engine thrust moment.
It is necessary to keep in mind that the moment value depends on location of an
axis relatively to which it is calculated. While calculating it is convenient to determine
the moment relatively to fuselage nose. Then, if necessary, it is easy to recalculate it
relatively to other point (axis).
Let's assume: the lifting (normal) force of the engine nacelle is applied to nacelle
shear; the lifting (normal) force of lifting surfaces in the airplane system is applied to
the wing or horizontal tail aerodynamic center; fuselage additional lift which arises
because of lifting surface and fuselage interference is applied also in the aerodynamic
center of the wing or horizontal tail.
For solution of flight dynamics problems it is convenient to allocate items relating
to the airplane without horizontal tail and airplane in a whole in a moment:

(
mz = mz0 + mαz C αya C ya , )
mαz = mαz + mαz . (16.24)
w / o h.t . h.t .

16.4.1. Derivatives of the pitch moment factors mαz by the angle of

attack.

Let's determine the moment for the considered scheme (Fig. 16.6). It is
convenient to take fuselage length as characteristic length for calculation of moment
relatively to fuselage nose. In this case aerodynamic center location will be determined
relatively to fuselage nose in shares of its length.

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 Fig. 16.6.

The values of derivatives mαz and m αz are also determined under the
w / o h.t . h.t .

formulae:

mαz = mαz S f + mαz S w + mαz S e .n . , (16.25)

w / o h.t . f w e .n .

mαz = − C αya x F f ,
f f

mαz = − C αya
w w
( x w + x Fw ) ,
mαz = − nC αya x e .n . ,
e .n . e .n .

mαz
h.t .
= − C αya
h.t .
( x h.t . + x Fh.t . ) S h.t . . (16.26)

The parameters C αya and C αya are also determined in the airplane system
w h.t .

(with account of flow deceleration and mutual influence).

By known values mαz and mαz , and parameters C αya and C αya the
w / o h.t . w / o h.t .

aerodynamic center location of the airplane in a whole and the airplane without
horizontal tail relatively to fuselage nose in shares of its length is determined as follows

x F = − mαz C αya , x Fw / o h.t . = − mαz C αya . (16.27)

w / o h.t . w / o h.t .

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 If it is required to know the aerodynamic center location relatively to mean
aerodynamic chord nose expressed in shares of MAC length, then we pass to new values
by the formulae:
lf
[
xFA = x F − ( x w + x A ) ] bA ,
l
[
xFA w / o h.t . = x Fw / o h.t . − ( x w + x A ) ] bAf , (16.28)

x A = x A l f where b A and x A is the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing and

distance from MAC nose up to the leading edge of the root chord.
The displacement of aerodynamic center due to horizontal tail influence
expressed in MAC shares is equal to Δ x FA = x FA − x FAw / o h.t . .

16.4.2. Moment coefficient at zero lift

It is possible to present the formula for determination of the longitudinal moment

factor at airplane zero lift m z0 in a whole and airplane without horizontal tail as

m z0 = m*z0 + m z0 f + m z0 w + m z0 e .n . + m z0 h.t . ,

m z0 w / o h.t . = m*z0 + m z′ 0 f + m z′ 0 w + m z′ 0 e .n . , (16.29)

lf
m*z0 = m z0 is .w . S w + m z0 f ( w ) S f .
bA
Moment coefficient components are determined by the following formulae
(fuselage length is used as characteristic length l f ; if it is necessary to pass to other

characteristic length, for example to MAC length b A , then the expressions are
multiplied on l f b A ):

( )
m z0 f = − x F − x F f C αya S f α 0 f ,
f

[ ]
m z0 w = − x F − ( x w − x Fw ) C αya S wα 0 w ,
w

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 m z0 e .n . = − ( x F − x Fe .n . ) nC αya S e .n .α 0e .n . ,
e .n .

[ ]
m z0 h.t . = − x F − ( x h.t . − x Fh.t . ) C αya
h .t .
S h.t .α 0h.t . .

The characteristics α 0 w and α 0h.t . are also determined in the airplane system,

α 0e .n . = −ϕ e .n. , where ϕ e .n . is the setting angle of engine nacelles axes in relation to

fuselage axis ( α 0 e .n. < 0 if the axis is directed upwards).

Calculation of the characteristics m z′ 0 f , m z′ 0 w , … is performed by reduced

formulae with replacement of x F on x Fw / o h.t . .

The form of moment characteristic for

the airplane with horizontal tail and without
horizontal tail is shown in Fig. 16.7.
The airplane without horizontal tail, as
a rule, is unstable (and is not balanced);
horizontal tail provides the airplane stability
and balancing.

Fig. 16.7. The characteristic form of

function m z = f ( C ya )

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