JOURNAL 01:

GEOCHEMICAL
EXPLORATION
ELSEVIER Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

Geological and geochemical zoning of the Grasberg

Igneous Complex, Irian Jaya, Indonesia
George D. MacDonald a, L. Clark Arnold b
~Grasberg Mine, c/o P.T. Freeport Indonesia Co.--TPRA, P.O..Box 61982, New Orleans, LA 70161-1982, USA
~201 E. Rudasill Road, Tucson, AZ 85704-6024, USA

(Received 15 October 1993; accepted after revision 12 November 19931

Abstract

The Grasberg Igneous Complex is host to a porphyry C u - A u deposit whose hypogene minerali-
zation is of remarkably high grade. The complex occupies the central portion of the Ertsberg Mining
District, in the central highlands of New Guinea in the province of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Disseminated
and stockwork mineralization is confined to intrusive rocks emplaced in tightly folded carbonate strata
of Tertiary age. Mineralization extends from the surface at 4,200 m elevation to the deepest drill
penetrations at 2,700 m elevation and includes 700 million tonnes, mineable by open pit+ at an average
grade of 1.4 wt.% Cu and 1.8 ppm Au. Two distinct stages of spatially coincident intrusion produced
two nested coaxial porphyry orebodies having significantly different styles of mineralization as well
as sulfide-rich skarn at the margin of the igneous complex. The intrusive rocks and their attendant
mineralization have been radiometrically dated at 2.7 to 3.3 Ma.
The earliest intrusive stage, the Dalam Diatreme (DD), hosts the deep, largely disseminated C u -
Au mineralization of the weak stockwork zone. The Dalam Diatreme is highly fragmental, with clasts
and matrix both of dioritic composition. Mineralization is chalcopyrite dominant and has an average
grade of 1.2% Cu and 0.5 ppm Au. The top of the Dalam mineralized zone lies 800 m below the
present topographic surface. Based on the occurrence of volcaniclastic and pyroclastic assemblages
noted there, the topographic surface may be the erosional remnant of a maar volcano. The diatreme
exhibits well developed, sharply defined silicate zoning and has a distinctive minor and trace element
signature.
The middle intrusive stage, the Main Grasberg stock ( MG ), is the source of an intensely developed
quartz-magnetite dilational stockwork that carries high grade veinlet-controlled Cu-Au mineraliza-
tion. Grades averaging 1.5% Cu and 2 ppm Au have been intersected in drill core between 4200 and
2700 m, and are expected to continue with depth. Rocks of this intrusive stage are non-fragmental,
porphyritic monzodiorites. Main Grasberg stage mineralization is hosted by the MG stock as well as
the Dalam Diatreme which completely encloses it. Silicate alteration is concentrically developed
around the MG, and overprints that of the earlier Dalam mineral phase.
The third and final intrusive stage associated with intrusion of the South Kali Dikes, was the weakest
of the mineralizing pulses. The South Kali intrusion is a tabular, structurally controlled quartz-bearing

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144 G.D. MacDonald, L. C A mold / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

monzonite porphyry body. It breaches the originally continuous cylinder of mineralization formed by
the earlier Dalam and MG stages, resulting in a body of low grade mineralization which extends from
the central area outward into the limestone on the southeast margin of the Grasberg Igneous Complex.
Mineralization associated with the South Kali (SK) intrusive stage averages 0.3% to 0.5% Cu and I
ppm Au in an early phase; the final phase is barren. Silicate alteration extends relatively short distances
beyond the contacts of the South Kali dikes, and is significantly less intense than that associated with
the earlier stronger phases of mineralization.
Because of its recent formation and because of rapid rates of erosion, the mineralized system has
suffered only minor structural dislocation, and the effects of weathering extend only to shallow depth.
Supergene oxidation and related clay formation is confined to the upper 30 m of the intrusive rocks.
Copper enrichment as chalcocite and covellite is rarely more than 1.3 times the original hypogene
grade and extends less than 100 m below the pre-mining topographic surface.

1. Introduction

This paper is the first to describe and interpret in detail the mineralogy and geochemical
zoning developed within the Grasberg Igneous Complex, host to a large, high grade porphyry
C u - A u deposit. The study is based on quantitative logging of rock and mineral character-
istics in diamond drill core as well as geologic mapping and detailed petrographic and
geochemical data. No attempt is made at this stage of the investigation to compare the
Grasberg deposit to other mineral occurrences.
The Grasberg Igneous Complex lies within the Ertsberg Mining District, located on the
island of New Guinea in the rugged Jayawijaya Mountains of central Irian Jaya (Fig. 1 ).
The Ertsberg or Gunung Bijih deposit, for which the district is named, is located four km
west of Puncak Jaya, the highest peak on the island of New Guinea (Fig. 2). The district is
characterized by relief of as much as 3,500 m and a maximum elevation of 5,030 m at the
crest of Puncak Jaya. The lower slopes of the area form some of the most rugged jungle
terrain in the world. The higher areas are sparsely vegetated and karsted valleys and lime-
stone cliffs, among which the Grasberg stands out by virtue of its subdued morphology and
anomalous grassy cover. Remnants of alpine glaciers occur along the spine of the Sudirman
Range on the eastern margin of the district.
Mineralized skarns of the Ertsberg or Gunung Bijih deposit were first recognized, sam-
pled, and named in 1936 by Jacques J. Dozy, a Dutch geologist who traversed the area on
a mountain climbing expedition ( Dozy et al., 1939). Ertsberg was next visited and sampled
in 1960 by Forbes Wilson and Delos Flint of the Freeport Sulphur Company (Wilson,
1981 ). Mining of the Ertsberg deposit began in 1972 and was essentially complete by 1984.
Concurrent exploration efforts led to the discovery and development of the Ertsberg East
or Gunung B ij ih Timur (GBT) ( Katchan, 1982 ), the intermediate and deep ore zones ( IOZ
and DOZ) of the GBT and the Dom proximal skarn deposits, and most recently the distal
Big Gossan skarn deposit (Mertig et al., 1994). Two epithermal sediment-hosted gold
deposits have been explored in the district (Wanagon and West Grasberg) but are presently
considered submarginal in grade.
Grasberg, located three km north-northwest of the Ertsberg pit (Fig. 2), was sampled in
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Armdd / Journal qf Geochemical E~ploration 50(1994) 143-178 145

140 ° E

PHILIPPINE

PLATE / ~ NORTH
__ 10 ° o10 a_

CAROLINE PLATE A

('~ -DISTRICT ~ ' "'~.~'~, !

// ; STABLE ~'.'~.. ', k~x
~/ .~ PLATFORM ~ "~

__ 10 ° 10 ° _

AU~STRALIA~ ~ 500
km lOOO
140 ° E 150 ° E
I 1
Pig. 1. The structural provinces of New Guinea and the Caroline Plate showing trenches ( barbs on upper phttc ).
The location of the Ertsberg District is shown, Prom Hill and Hegarty (1987).

1987. PromisingAu valuesled to a drillingprogramthat intersectedthe first ore-grade

interceptsin 1988.Developmentforopenpit miningbegansoonthereafter,withproduction
underwayby late 1989 (Van Nortet al., 1991). Becauseof difficultsurfaceaccess,the
146 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. A rnoht / Journal q# Geochemical Eq~loration 50 (1994) 143 178

GEOLOGIC SKETCH MAP, ERTSBERG DISTRICT

CONTRACT OF W O R K A R E A
P.T. FREEPORT INDONESIA CO.
g,~,
QUATERNARY '~ • a BIDDEN FAULT
ALLUVIUM/COLLUVIUM
~ ~ ~ POSSIBLE FAULT
AINOD FORMATION
SOUTH KALI DIKE AND (LIMESTONE) ~ FAULT
KARUME STOCK ~
ANTICLINE
FAUMAI FORMATION {
(SANDY LMS/OOL
ST"W'
SBERO z & SANDSTONE) ~- SYNCLINE
/
KEMBEI.ANGAN FORMATION

.,,,'.{'5.)tE , ~ , ANO ~ M
["~".xx.XX~ ~' ~ v ¢ v v vl VOLCANIC ROCKS
CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE
& SHALE

SCALE:
ERTSBERC QIORITE 13 t £ 3 KH

Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Ertsberg District. A - A A = cross section line for Fig. 4 and NW looking section in
block diagrams. B-BB = section line for NE looking section in block diagrams. Compiled by, P.T. Freeport
Indonesia geology staff. 1960-1992.

majority of delineation and development drilling was completed from a system of under-
ground mine workings.

2. Tectonic setting

New Guinea, the second largest island in the world, is the site of a Pliocene collision
between the northward migrating Australian craton and an island arc situated along the
southern margins of the Caroline plate (Pigram and Davies, 1987) (Fig. 1). The Papuan
 G.D. MacDonald, L. C. Arnoht /Journal of Geochemical Eu~loration 50 (1994) 143-17,h' 147

fold belt of New Guinea, of which the Jayawijaya Mountains are a part, formed in Pliocene
time (Hill and Hegarty, 1987) and owes its great elevation and relief to continuing inter-
action at this plate convergence.

3. D i s t r i c t g e o l o g y

The oldest rocks of the Ertsberg District include siliciclastic rocks of the Cretaceous
Kembelangan Formation that underlie the New Guinea Limestone Group of Tertiary age
(Fig. 3). The New Guinea Group hosts two major igneous complexes, the Ertsberg and
Grasberg, as well as numerous minor intrusions of dioritic to monzonitic composition and
probable Pliocene age ( Dow et al., 1988). In all cases, structural intersections appear to be
important in the localization of intrusions as well as subsequent mineralization.
The structure of the sedimentary host rocks is relatively simple on both the northern and
southern margins of the district but very complex in the central region, as shown on the
geologic map ( Fig. 2). On the south side of the district, beds of the Kembelangan Fommtion

AINOD FORMATION
00 m of micritie limestone
inguished by fusilinids in lower sequence
foraminifera in upper sequence.

TA

.,.4
L~
FAUMI FORMATION
b-"
n of hematitic sandstone (marker bed)

- 350 m quartzite and limey quartzite.

Tr
m t h i n - b e d d e d sandy/silty dolomite.
m sandstone and silty dolomite.

KEMBELANGAN FORMATION
5 m black shale.
- 100 m caiearenite and black shale.

.,.a m f i n e - to m e d i u m - g r a i n e d quartz sandstone,

O) KK illy calcareous.
r,.)

Fig. 3. Generalizedstratigraphic sectionof the Ertsberg District.

148 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold / Jounutl ¢~/'Geochemi¢'al E~plo ration 50 ( 1994 ) 143-178

form the SW limb of the broad NW trending Yellow Valley Syncline. Near the mill,
approximately two km south of the center of the district, the dip steepens abruptly to nearly
vertical and the Cretaceous strata disappear beneath the younger limestones.
An equivalent structure is developed in the New Guinea Limestone Group on the northern
margin of the district. Here strata dip SW forming the opposite limb of the Yellow Valley
syncline. Limestones in the central part of the district have been compressed into a tight
isoclinal told with a nearly vertical axial plane. Reverse faults whose attitudes differ only
slightly from that of the limestone bedding are dramatically exposed in the high steep cliffs
that characterize the deep valleys in the central part of the district. Faulting of the tightly
folded rocks is developed along two principal trends ( Fig. 2). Faults parallel to the regional
NW strike include the Hanging Wall Fault, the principal ore control of the Ertsberg and
GBT deposits, the Fairy Lakes Fault, and the Yellow Valley Axial Fault. These structures
are high angle reverse faults with significant but uncertain dip slip displacement. Intersecting
faults that strike NE include the Carstenz, Grasberg, and North Grasberg Faults, whose dip
varies from 50 ° NE to 50 ° SW. They have strike slip displacements in the range of tens to
hundreds of meters. These fault sets tend to bracket the Grasberg stock (Fig. 2), and in
conjunction with contact breccias at the intrusive margins control the development of
sulfide-rich skarns formed at the margin of the Grasberg Igneous Complex.
The principal displacement on the faults occurred prior to the intrusion of the Grasberg
Igneous Complex, and they appear to have played a significant role in its localization.
Continuing movements on these structures are evidenced by much smaller offsets within
the intrusive complex, compared to those mapped in the surrounding wallrocks. It is also
common to find large volumes of brecciation at fault junctions due to continuing small scale
movement and late stage hydrothermal activity. No significant fault displacements that post
date sulfide mineralization have been recognized in the district.

4. The Grasberg Igneous Complex

The generalized geologic history of the Grasberg Igneous Complex is shown in a series
of cross sections which comprise Fig. 4 ( MacDonald and Arnold, 1992 ) and Fig. 5, included
at this point to acquaint the reader with the geometry of the successive intrusions.
The intrusion at Grasberg, originally known as the Grasberg Diorite, is more accurately
described as the Grasberg Igneous Complex. Because the dioritic rocks are hosted by the
limestones of the New Guinea Group, they are no older than Pliocene. Minimum age of
intrusion is indicated by a number of K-Ar radiometric dates that span a range of 0.6 M yr.
centered on 3 Ma (McDowell et al., 1994). These dates probably reflect the age of the
youngest episode of mineralization rather than that of igneous activity p e t se, due to thermal
resetting by the mineralizing processes.
The Grasberg Igneous Complex consists of three principal concentrically nested intru-
sions formed in a subvolcanic setting, probably related to maar volcanism. The vestiges of
a lithic cap of uncertain but significant thickness are situated above and on the periphery of
the intrusions. Contacts between intrusions are commonly brecciated and healed with a
matrix of the intruding rock type. These contacts formed important pathways fl)r mineral-
izing solutions and tended to control the greatest concentrations of veins and sulfides. As a
 G.D. MacDonald. L.C. A rnold / Journal ql"Geochemical Evph~ration 50 (1994 ) 143 178 149

result, mineralization typically obscures intrusive contacts. A typical contact between two
rocks of disparate age affected by successive stages of mineralization may exhibit moderate
to strong veining in the older unit and weak to moderate veining in the younger unit, all of
which is overprinted by a zone of intense rock-destructive veining.
The geometry of the successive intrusions evolved with time, reflecting a progressively
more passive nature. The explosive nature of the early Dalam Diatreme is reflected by its
upward-flaring funnel shape (Fig. 4). The cylindrical and tabular geometry of the Main
Grasberg (MG) and South Kali (SK) stages show a progression toward increasingly
passive, structurally controlled processes of emplacement. The characteristics of the three
principal intrusive stages are summarized in Table I and discussed briefly below in order
of decreasing age.

4.1. R o c k s ~ f the D a l a m S t a g e

The oldest recognized rocks of the Grasberg Igneous Complex are those of the Dalam
Diatreme ( Fig. 4). This funnel-shaped body was explosively emplaced in the tightly fi)lded
carbonate rocks of the New Guinea Limestone Group. The contacts of the diatreme are
sharp and dip inward at 45 ° near the surface, steepening to nearly vertical at depth. Lime-
stones at the margins of the complex are strongly brecciated and converted to marble within
10 to 100 m of the contact. The intrusive contacts are generally controlled by pre-existing
fault planes over limited vertical intervals, causing the shape of the intrusion to depart
locally from its generally circular tk~rm. The diatreme has a diameter of about 900 m at an
elevation of 2,700 m, increasing upward to a diameter of 1,600 m at 4,100 m. Its slightly
elliptical surface expression is the result of deeper levels of erosion on the east and west
sides, with relatively high relief maintained along a N-S axis.
The diatreme consists of two principal phases, both of which are fragmental intrusive
breccias. The composition of the fragments resembles that of the matrix; the fragments vary
from less than one to several tens of centimeters in greatest dimension, the average being
10 to 20 cm. The upper andesitic phase is a matrix-supported breccia with a fragment : matrix
ratio of 30:70 in which fragments tend to be round to sub-round. In contrast, the lower
dioritic phase is clast-supported with a fragment: matrix ratio of 60 : 40 in which fragments
tend to be angular to subangular. The contact between the two phases is gradational, the
upper andesite above and the diorite below 3,500 m elevation (Fig. 4). The character of
the fragments suggests that the original composition of the dioritic phase was that of a
diorite or monzodiorite porphyry. It consisted of about 50 vol.% medium to coarse pheno-
crysts of elongate plagioclase and hornblende set in a very finely crystalline to aphanitic
groundmass composed of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, and biotite along with one to two
wt.% disseminated primary magnetite. The original igneous body appears to have undergone
significant crystallization prior to the explosive episode that shattered it.
The andesitic phase appears cogenetic with the deeper dioritic phase, and represents the
more fragmental, upward equivalent of that lower unit. The andesite phase differs from the
diorite in the shape and size of fragments and in its lower fragment to matrix ratio. It is
chemically distinctive due to the significantly greater content of slightly more siliceous
andesitic material in the matrix.
The paleosurface surrounding and overlying the Dalam intrusive units consists of well
 151) G.D. MacDonald, L C. Arm~ld / Journal q/'Geochentical £~ploration 50 (1994) 143 17~

Sequence of Intrusion Sequence of Mineralization/AlteratiQn

within the Grosberg Igneous Complex of the Grosberg Igneous Complex
[ ]

EARLY

A. Emplacement of Dalam Diatreme (Andesitic A. Oalam phase deep Cu-Au porphyry stockwork
and Dioritic Stages) and development of system,
maar volcano.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

MIDDLE

B. Emplacement of Main Grasberg Intrusion B, Main Grasberg phase. High grade Cu-Au
(Early, Middle, and Late Stages). stockwork system.

LATE

C. Emplc=ement of South Karl Dikes (Early and C. South Kali phase low grade intrusive core.
Late Stages) and current erosion level.

!:~ lab'. %~uth I<oli ~ Dalom ,7ol,'_anic Rocks I~JDcJlorn c;Itefa[:,~r; ~Dolcrn -,t,~ :,w,:;r'.,

~/] Fqrly ']outh ~':ali ~ Dalam Andes;its [K]l<afi all~ratkn t - " /% EO. f;u fi:fit
~]~, ~AC [at~ ['.'~ Dalam Oicrib ~k] Pota~ssic a!teration
i]:]~ ,di. Midql., ~ Marb!e 13recc;} ~] F'hytlic ol(erot;on 0 1000rn
[l~ ~,,/,: I 7rl,, [] l.ir~/estcnn ~ Pr opylitic alb~rction [ J

Fig. 4. Geologic history of the Grasberg Igneous Complex (e.g., Ks/Mstwk-Kali phase phyllic alteration
overprinting MG stockwork).
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold / Journal ~["Geochemical E.~ploratiml 50 (1994) 143 17~'~ 151

Fig. 5. Block diagram showing the Grasberg Igneous Complex and zoned alteration. Weak stockwork and potassic
alteration associated with South Kali Dikes are not shown.
Table I
Principal intrusions of the Grasberg Igneous Complex
Dalam Diatreme ( D D )
Composition Diorite porphyry - - 5 0 9 1 :~
plagioclasc phenocrysts in a fine-
grained groundmass of quartz,
plagioclase, K-spar, and biotite
with I 2 wt.% disseminated
magnetite,
Texture Fine-grained porphyritic
intrusion breccia, fragment-
support matrix at depth.
Contacts Brecciated m a r b l e / l i m e s t o n e
contact zone lO-lO0 m wide.
Pervasive sulfide replacements
common; dips inward 45 ° at surface,
vertical below 2800 m elevation
Geometry Circular, upward flaring: 900 m
diameter at 2700 m elevation,
widens to 1800 m at 4100 m
( near surface).
Stages (oldest Dioritic DD ( A D D )
to youngest ) Andesitic DD ( DDD t
Late Dike DD ( LDD )
Diatreme has a volcanic phase
( DV ) exposed at surface.
Approximate volumeCA in 60
known systcm ( Fig. 4)
~'(7~= vol.% unless specified.
Main Grasberg Stock ( M G )
Monzodioritc porphyry - - 35 50%
plagioclase, 2% hornblende, 3%
biotite phenocrysts in a
groundmass of plagioclase, K-
spar, quartz, and biotite with 1-2
wt.% disseminated magnetite.
Porphyritic - - Medium to coarse
grained, brecciated.
Subvertical contacts. Brecciated
and mineralized between Dalam
Diatreme and Main Grasberg
Stock.
Cylindrical - - 3 5 0 4 5 0 m in
diameter.
Early MG ( E M G )
Middle MG ( M M G t
Late MG ( LMG )
Dike MG ( DMG )
35
'dl
tJ
South Kali Dike (SK)
Hornblende monzonite porphyry - -
40c~ plagioclase, 5% biotite,3%
hornblende phenocrysts in a
groundmass of quartz, K-spar.
and plagioclase with 1-2 wt.%
disseminated magnetite.
Porphyritic - - May exhibit flow
alignment of phenocrysts.
Subvertical contacts. Brecciated
between South Kali Dike and host
rock.
Tabular, dike-like branching
upward into structurally
controlled dike swarms.
Early SK ( E S K )
Late SK ( L S K )
 G.D. MacDonald. L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 153

to poorly sorted and well to very poorly bedded volcaniclastic layers interbedded with
coarse andesite porphyry flows that are cut by dikes and sills of similar composition This
assemblage is known as the Dalam volcanic unit; it rests unconformably on the surrounding
carbonate host rocks of the New Guinea Group. The volcanic rocks appear to occupy a
moat-like depression developed at the interior of the margin of the diatreme. The gross
composition of these volcanic units resembles that of the central intrusion, although they
exhibit highly variable textures. Tuffaceous components are far more fragmental than the
Dalam stage rocks, and they sometimes show eutaxitic textures and accretionary lapiili.
Sedimentary volcaniclastic units are generally fine grained and finely laminated suggesting,
at least locally, an aqueous environment of deposition within the volcanic edifice. Interbed-
ded flows or domes are characterized by flow alignment of amphibole and plagioclase
phenocrysts. Several specimens of carbonized wood have been recovered from the tuffa-
ceous rocks indicating that the breccia reached the ground surface, and bomb and splash
structures are found that are typical of maar ring base-surge deposits (Cas and Wright,
1987).
Blocks of the volcanic debris have been found to occur within the upper portions of sub-
volcanic Dalam andesite breccia, indicating that multiple phreatic eruptive events occurred.
The presence of only two Dalam intrusive phases suggests a single major explosive event,
interspersed with smaller scale eruptions.
Remnants of a late dike stage of the Dalam intrusion have been recognized near the center
of the system. These rocks consist principally of fine-grained diorites. Occurrences are
difficult to correlate due to elimination by subsequent intrusions.
At least the upper 300 m of the Dalam diorite, all of the Dalam andesite, and parts of the
Dalam volcanic sequence show development of an incipient fracture system. The fractures,
or folia, are spaced 1 to 5 mm apart and are seen to be continuous over tens of centimeters.
The steep fractures occur in conjugate sets surrounding the vertical axis of the system,
suggesting formation by stresses acting outward from its center. As described below, a
myriad of these closely spaced fractures was filled by alteration anhydrite, the result being
a soft but quite competent rock. Where anhydrite was later removed, either by supergene
or late hydrothermal leaching, the rock separated into thin sheets forming a rock known as
"poker chip", referring to the thin disks that are recovered in drill core that intersects the
closely spaced fractures at right angles. The low strength rocks of the poker chip zone are
of considerable significance in mining as well as drilling operations because of their
extremely low strength and small particle size. Alteration and mineralization that affected
the Dalam units prior to the Main Grasberg intrusion is described below.

4.2. Rocks o f the Main Grasberg Stage

The smaller Main Grasberg (MG) Intrusions followed emplacement and mineralization
of the Dalam Diatreme, and were centered about 200 m NE of its center. The intrusion
appears to have originally had the composition of a monzonite or even a quartz monzonite,
although the phenocryst suite resembles that of a diorite porphyry in hand specimen. The
MG intrusions are generally cylindrical, have nearly vertical contacts, and extend from the
surface at 4,200 m, to the deepest drill penetrations at 2,700 m. In the intervals tested to
 u,

Table 2
Characteristics of the Main Grasberg Stock (MG)

Stages Early MG ( EMG ) Middle MG ( MMG ) Late MG ( LMG )

Geometry/ Cylinder 350--450 m diameter. Apex at 4175 m elevation. Cylindrical body 150 m diameter
distribution Surface to below 2700 m Widens rapidly to form cylinder central to MMG. Forms ring
elevation. 300 m in diameter which extends dike at E M G / D D contact on
below 2700 m elevation. northwest side of complex.

Diagnostic 0.5 to about 4 m m plagioclase Equigranular very fine to about 4 Cross cutting relationships with
features phenocrysts, weakly fragmental mm equant plagioclase. Typifies MMG phase.
( < 10% clasts). Volumetrically MG in terms of texture and
the largest of the MG pulses. composition (See Table 1 ).

Structural Coaxial with the Dalam Intruded along northeast Intruded in center of MMG.
controls Diatreme. E M G / D D contact.

Comments May have vented to surface. Source of principal mineralizing

phase.
",o
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 155

date, the rocks of the MG stage intrude only lithologies of the upper and lower phases of
the Dalam intrusion and probably did not extend much above the 4200 m elevation.
Field relationships clearly indicate that rocks of the MG stage cut and therefore postdate
Dalam mineralization, but the age of MG has not so far been resolved radiometrically from
the 3 Ma age obtained for the deposit as a whole. The contacts between the MG and Dalam
rocks as well as those between the various phases of the MG stage tend to be vertical,
strongly brecciated, and generally obscured by strong mineralization.
The original composition of the MG intrusions was monzodioritic, monzonitic, or quartz
monzonitic consisting of 35% to 50 vol.% equigranular, equant, medium-grained plagio-
clase, 2 vol.% needle-like hornblende, 3 vol.% fresh, medium- to fine-grained biotite, and
2 wt.% disseminated magnetite. This phenocryst assemblage was set in an aphanitic ground-
mass composed of orthoclase, plagioclase, and lesser amounts of biotite, quartz, and mag-
netite. The texture of the MG intrusion tends to vary between phases but is always
porphyritic, either seriate Or hiatal, as a result of phenocrysts of plagioclase and biotite
whose greatest dimension may reach 4 mm. These phenocrysts are typically set in a light
gray aphanitic groundmass of quartz, plagioclase, and K-feldspar. The characteristics of the
three phases of the MG intrusive stage are summarized in Table 2. A fourth minor late dike
phase of the MG stage has been recognized, but it is volumetrically insignificant and cannot
be adequately characterized at this time.

4.3. Rocks o f the South Kali Dike

The South Kali Dike consists of at least two intrusive stages, the earlier being contem-
poraneous with mineralization, whereas the later South Kali phase clearly post dates min-
eralization. The dike has a distinctly tabular shape reflecting structural control of a relatively
passive intrusion along the Yellow Valley Axial Fault zone. The dike cuts all older lithol-
ogies on the southeast side of the Grasberg Igneous Complex from about 3900 m elevation
to the deepest drill penetrations at 2700 m. The early stage of the South Kali intrusion
reached an elevation of 3900 m before entering a discontinuous system of minor faults and
intrusive contacts of varying orientations. The late phase of the South Kali intrusion broke
into a similar dike swarm at the 3500 m elevation at its northeastern limits, but remained
intact to at least 3700 m elevation along strike, further to the SE.
Although the South Kali Dike is separated into only two principal intrusive stages, several
lines of evidence suggest that each stage actually consisted of a number of separate intrusive
pulses. The most dramatic evidence is seen in the contact breccias that are common within
each of the units. High in the deposit, cross-cutting relationships and a widely variable
intensity of mineralization suggest repetitive activity rather than two discrete intrusive
events.
The lithologies and textures of the South Kali Dikes are distinctive (Table 3). They are
quartz-bearing monzonite porphyries in which medium- to coarse-grained plagioclase and
hornblende phenocrysts comprise 35% to 70% of the rock volume. The hornblende phe-
nocrysts reach a length of 5-15 mm and are easily recognized even when strongly altered.
In addition to the hornblende and plagioclase, South Kali Dikes contain up to 5 vol.% fresh
medium-grained biotite and 1 to 2 wt.% disseminated magnetite as well as 1-2 vol.%

Table 3
Characteristics of the South Kali Dike
Stages Early (ESK)
Geometry/distribution Tabular dike. Breaks into dike swarm above
3900 m elevation. Cuts all older lithologies
in the southeast quadrant of the Grasberg
Igneous Complex.
Diagnostic features Large euhedral hornblende and plagioclase
phenocrysts 0,5-1.5 mm, with low
phenocryst to groundmass ratio.
Principally by axial fault zone of Yellow
Structural controls
Valley syncline. Smaller dikes occupy
fractures of varying orientation. Ring dike at'
EMG/DD contact.
Comments Contemporaneous with mineralization.
U,
Late (LSK)
Tabular dike. Breaks into dike swarm
above 3500 m elevation. Cuts all older
lithologies in the southeast quadrant of the
Grasberg Igneous Complex. g:
Cuts all older lithologies in southeast
quadrant of the Grasberg Igneous Complex.
Principally by axial fault zone of Yellow 3'
Valley syncline. Smaller dikes occupy
fractures of varying orientation.
Post dates mineralization. Eliminates a k.n
portion of Grasberg orebody.
&
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. ArnoM /Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 157

orthoclase and quartz phenocrysts. Prior to alteration the groundmass of the South Kali
Dikes consisted of aphanitic quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase.

5. Mineralization

Copper-Au-Ag mineralization at Grasberg is the result of three separate episodes or

principal mineralizing phases, each of which was associated with a separate intrusive event,
and each of which is characterized by distinct mineralogy, metal ratios, alteration type, and
style of mineralization. Examination of cross cutting relationships of vein types and intrusive
rocks in drill core as well as outcrop and mine openings has revealed the principal details
of each of the events as well as their relationship to one another. These relationships are
described in the text that follows and in Table 4. The principal aspects of the mineralizing
events are reasonably clear. In addition to a basic understanding of the mineralizing proc-
esses derived from examination of outcrops and more than 160,000 m of drill core, we have
some indication of the depth of burial and temperature of mineralization from studies
presently underway at the University of Texas at Austin. Investigation of fluid inclusions
suggest a temperature of formation in the 500-550°C range (J.R. Kyle, personal commu-
nication, 1992). Studies of fission tracks in apatite (Weiland, 1993) suggest that the crest
of the Irian Fold and Thrust Belt in the vicinity of Grasberg has experienced no more than
2 km of unroofing by erosion during the 3 M yr following mineralization.

5.1. Dalam mineralization

The first mineralizing phase (Table 4) followed emplacement of the Dalam Diatreme
and resulted in strong disseminated Cu-Au mineralization below 3,500 m elevation. The
uppermost portion of the Dalam mineralized zone is characterized by a cupola of weakly
developed quartz stockwork veins. These veins occupy only 5 to 15% of total rock volume
and extend up to 100 m into the adjacent marble wall rock. The veins are diffuse, discon-
tinuous, and have a contorted ptygmatic aspect similar to those noted in metamorphic
terrains, implying slow development under stable conditions. Chalcopyrite and bornite, with
lesser digenite and chalcocite in veinlets followed formation of the stockwork mineralization
containing 1.2% Cu and 0.4 ppm Au over the entire width of the diatreme below 3,500 m.
Bornite increases relative to chalcopyrite with increasing depth.

5.2. Main Grasberg mineralization

The second mineralizing phase (Table 4) followed emplacement of the MG stock and
like the stock itself is separable into several discrete events. The MG intrusion is host to a
zone of intensely developed quartz-magnetite-sulfide stockwork veins. Unlike the preced-
ing Dalam mineralization, the MG stockwork appears to have developed rapidly, perhaps
instantaneously. Early quartz-magnetite veins bound nonrotated, dilational breccia frag-
ments, have sharp margins, and are continuous over tens of meters. These veins may have
been formed by a process of hydraulic fracturing. The stockwork has been referred to as a
jigsaw breccia reflecting the fact that fragments could seemingly be reassembled were the

Table 4
Summary of principal mineralizing events
Igneous source Dalam Diatreme (DD)
Character of Widespread disseminated sulfide
mineralization mineralization. Lesser
development of quartz-sulfide
stockwork. Chalcopyrite-bornite-
digenite-chalcopyrite.
Geometry Pervades Dalam rocks below
3500 m. Quartz stockwork forms
cupola 150 m thick extending
downward from 3200 m.
Stockwork extends 50-100 m into
marble wall rock.
Diagnostic Diffuse ptygmatic quartz veins
features predate sulfide mineralization.
Cu: Au Ratio 1 : 2 in marble wall rocks.
(%:ppm) 1 : 0.4 elsewhere.
Grade 1.2% Cu; 0.4 ppm Au
oo
Main Grasberg Stock (MG) South Kali Dike (SK)
Quartz-magnetite-sulfide Quartz-anhydrite sulfide followed
stockwork veins. 10-70% veins by sulfide + biotite r~
above 3200 m. Sulfide veins
dominate below 3200 m.
Chalcopyrite-bornite-digenite-
covellite.
Cylinder 900 m in diameter Strongest development at igneous
extends throughout observed contacts. Extent of effects into
vertical extent. Highest grade wall rocks is uncertain.
mineralization noted 3300-3400
m.
t~
Early dilational quartz-magnetite Fine sulfide veinlets cut older
veins with sharp margins predate rocks.
sulfide mineralization.
Variable. 0.5:1.
4100 elev. 1.5% Cu; 2 ppm Au 0.5% Cu; 1 ppm Au
3400 elev. 2.5% Cu; 6 ppm Au
2700 elev. 1.4% Cu; 1.3 ppm Au
 ¢3

Table 5
Vein assemblages related to Main Grasberg mineralization g~

Vein type I II III

Width 0.2-2 cm 0.5-1.0 cm 0.2-0.5 cm

Mineralogy Quartz-magnetite-K-spar Quartz-anhydrite--chalcopyrite-Au Chalcopyrite-Au-bornite-biotite

Source Middle Main Grasberg intrusion End of Middle Main Grasberg; Late Main Grasberg
beginning of Late Main Grasberg

Diagnostic Up to 15 wt.% magnetite; Contacts less sharp, overprint Biotite-chalcopyrite mineral

features typically 7-10 wt.%, sharp quartz-magnetite veins (I), less assemblage.
contacts, K-spar selvages, continuous than Type I.
continuous over tens of meters.

Structural Dilational, steep dips, strikes Follow Vein I structures. Concentration at intrusive
control follow regional structural Greatest concentration at MMG contacts.
directions. contacts.

Comments Massive hydraulic fracture event. Multiple mineralizing events.

U,
Table 6
Summary of South Kali Dike mineralizing events
e,
Igneous source Early stage Middle stage Late stage

Character of Quartz-anhydrite-K-spar 2 mm veinlets randomly oriented Marcasite + native sulfur

mineralization disseminated sulfide. 2-5 mm with chalcopyrite in center and associate with intermediate
veinlets or as breccia filling. hypogene digenite + Au _+ argillic alteration. Minor very
biotite at selvage. fine grained disseminated
chalcopyrite + Au.

Geometry Controlled by brecciated
intrusive contacts. May
fill/replace breccia
voids/fragments or form 2-5 mm
veinlets on either side of contact.
Veinlets occur throughout Coarse veins and replacements
intrusions and surrounding host occupy the apex zone of South
rocks. Kali Dike and extend upward into
dike swarms.

Diagnostic Light green anhydrite. Vein width and mineralogy. Marcasite + native sulfur.
features

Cu : Au ratio Barren. 0.5:1 l:l k,n

% : ppm

Grade Barren. 0.5% Cu; 1.0 ppm Au. 0.1% Cu; 1 ppm Au.
t.~
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 161

vein material removed. Stockwork veins vary in width from 0.2 to 2 cm and occupy 10-
70% of total rock volume, averaging about 30 vol.%. Magnetite content of the stockwork
zone reaches 15 wt.% in places but averages 7 to 10 wt.% (Table 5). The barren quartz-
magnetite veins were followed by chalcopyrite-Au-anhydrite that mineralized most of the
MG intrusion and extended outward into the adjacent and previously mineralized rocks of
the Dalam Diatreme. Where the effects of the Dalam and MG mineralization overlap, the
result is additive and has produced some unusually high grades in the area of the intrusive
contact. Pyrite is conspicuous by its absence from the MG mineralization suite.
The greatest concentration of silica and Fe appears to have occurred central to the MG
stock between 3600 m and 3300 m. The concentration of quartz-magnetite veins appears
greatest in this region, diminishing gradually upward and abruptly downward. The greatest
concentrations of Cu and Au (2.5% and 5.5 ppm, respectively) occur in the lower 100 m
interval of this zone.

5.3. South Kali Dikes mineralization

The third mineralizing phase is related to the South Kali Dikes (SK), is the weakest of
the three phases (Table 6), and can be divided into three mineralizing events, only one of
which produced significant Cu mineralization. The early phase is characterized by > 10 cm
quartz-anhydrite-orthoclase vein sets, usually within the contact breccia zones between the
SK and its host rocks. This was followed by a second mineralizing phase whose veinlets
consistently average 2 mm in width and have a random orientation. In these, a core of
chalcopyrite is commonly coated with hypogene digenite and Au and commonly with a
discontinuous selvage of biotite. Such veins are developed in rocks of the early stage of the
SK and extend short distances into adjacent host rocks that may be Dalam, MG, or limestone.
Characteristic grades derived from this event are 0.5% Cu and 1 ppm Au. Anomalously
strong mineralization attributable to the SK is occasionally present along intrusive contacts,
where massive chalcopyrite cements some contact breccias. The sequence of early barren
quartz followed by sulfide vein mineralization mimics that of the preceding MG events.
Mineralization of the third and final South Kali phase averages 0.1% Cu and 1 ppm Au.
It occurs principally as very fine disseminations, rarely as veinlets, and is characteristically
accompanied by veinlets of marcasite and native sulfur.

5.4. Supergene mineralization

Leaching by groundwaters associated with modern erosion has reduced Cu to background

values to a depth of about 30 m below the topographic surface. Part of this Cu has been
redeposited as thin coatings of supergene chalcocite, digenite, and covellite on hypogene
sulfides to a depth of about 100 m. The resulting enrichment increases the grade of the
hypogene Cu mineralization by a factor of about 1.3 and has enabled mining above the
average hypogene ore grade during the first three years of production. However, the general
lack of green Cu "oxide" minerals coupled with the relatively weak levels of Cu enrichment
indicate that most of the Cu stayed in solution and left the system without being reprecipi-
tated. This is not surprising considering the very steep slopes and annual rainfall of 500 to
162 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

600 cm. Gold grades in the supergene environment show no discernible variation from
hypogene values.

6. Alteration

For a number of reasons, the Grasberg Igneous Complex offers an excellent opportunity
to examine hypogene alteration effects. In addition to being well exposed by diamond
drilling and mine openings, the deposit has suffered only minor structural dislocation and
weathering. Because of the rapid uplift experienced by the Papuan Fold Belt during the
time since intrusion and mineralization of the complex, erosion rates have exceeded those
of chemical weathering, so that supergene effects that might otherwise obscure hypogene
alteration are limited to those rocks within 100 m of the premining topographic surface.
Unfortunately, because of the geometry and limited extent of the igneous host rock and
because of pervasive hydrothermal effects, no "fresh" host rock has been found that can
serve as a definitive reference by which to measure the character and geochemical results
of alteration.
Studies by Weiland (1993) suggest no more than about 2 km of erosion since minerali-
zation at 3 Ma. The angular unconformity between Dalam volcanic rocks and the folded
carbonate strata of the New Guinea Limestone Group implies that the material removed
was volcanic in character, probably consisting of the Dalam volcanic rocks themselves. The
geometry of phyllically altered rocks (Figs. 4 and 5) suggests that alteration effects once
extended well above the diatreme. The vertical extent of such alteration is a matter of
speculation, as is the possible existence and extent of advanced argillic and/or propylitic
alteration in the now eroded material.
The description of alteration effects provided below is based on our examination of drill
core and outcrop samples, petrographic work by Russell Honea, and some 1,200 whole
rock chemical analyses. In addition to the pervasive concentrically zoned silicate alteration
on which the following discussion will be focused, observed alteration types include deu-
teric, contact (thermal), contact metasomatic and veinlet controlled effects.
Deuteric alteration is noted in the Main Grasberg and South Kali Dikes but tends to be
subtle and in some cases grades into alteration that is clearly hydrothermal in origin. Deuteric
alteration is best noted petrographically, for example in the shape of hornblende phenocrysts
that suggest derivation from an earlier pyroxene (probably augite). Some coarse biotite
grains have optically distinct cores surrounded by biotite of a different generation. Biotite
tends to replace hornblende in all of the Grasberg Igneous Complex but to attribute this to
deuteric alteration is questionable in a system that has experienced intense potassic altera-
tion.
Stratigraphy is a critical factor controlling thermal or contact alteration as well as contact
metasomatic effects. Because of the steep dips of the New Guinea Limestone Group and
the nearly vertical attitude of the sediment--diorite contact (Fig. 5), there is relatively little
stratigraphic range over large vertical distances along the intrusive contact. Contact effects
result in the carbonate rocks of the New Guinea Limestone Group being altered to marble
adjacent to the diatreme; this marble is light colored and relatively pure to slightly dolomitic.
Marble is rarely noted more than 50 to 100 m from the igneous contact, and lacks sulfide
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 163

mineralization. Structurally controlled contact metasomatic effects, however, are noted on

the NW and SE sides of the diatreme at elevations below 3,700 m and may result in complete
replacement by pyrite and/or magnetite. Copper-Au mineralization in the form of chalco-
pyrite and bornite is locally present and is accompanied at depth by garnet, diopside,
tremolite and epidote.
The only surface expression of this alteration is in an area of disseminated pyrite-sericite
in the narrow South Kali drainage on the west side of the Grasberg Igneous Complex (Fig.
2). Neither Cu-Au mineralization nor the calc-silicate suite is present in outcrop. Because
of its position at depth on the margins of the diatreme, the zone of marble has been intersected
in only a few of the deepest drill holes collared from the 3,700 level access tunnel. The
extent, geometry, and genesis of mineralization associated with marble are poorly under-
stood at present. It has not contributed to the open pit ore reserve.

6.1. Alteration o f the Dalam mineral stage

Dalam alteration was the most laterally and vertically extensive of the three mineralizing
phases. It encompasses the entire diatreme below about 4,200 m elevation (Figs. 4 and 5)
and once included an uncertain volume of the material situated above it. Several lines of
evidence suggest that the alteration developed rather slowly, probably approaching local
equilibrium at a depth of two to three km. Quartz veins of the Dalam stockwork cupola
below 3,200 m are small, discontinuous, irregular features often likened to diffusion veins
found in metamorphic terrains. As described above, the Dalam units were brecciated and
highly fragmented prior to the onset of alteration that tended to be destructive to both breccia
and rock textures. Alteration and mineralization of the Dalam stage tends to be homogeneous
over hundred-meter distances. The characteristics of the Dalam phase alteration are sum-
marized in Table 7 and shown in cross section in Fig. 4.
Potassic alteration of the Dalam phase appears to have been accompanied or preceded
by development of pervasive anhydrite comprising 5 vol.% in the dioritic phase, 9 vol.%
in the overlying andesitic phase, and up to 12 vol.% in the supraadjacent volcanic rocks.
Potassic alteration per se was dominated by the formation of K-feldspar and quartz, that
tended to alter first the porphyritic groundmass and then the phenocrysts. This alteration
proved to be particularly destructive of original rock texture; in areas of most extensive
alteration it produced a nondescript pinkish quartz-orthoclase rock. Areas of less intense
potassic effects are seen to contain biotite and magnetite as well as some surviving plagio-
clase phenocrysts.
Phyllic alteration (Table 7) occupies the volume of the diatreme situated between the
upper and outer limits of potassic alteration and the intrusion-marble contact and extending
to the pre-mining surface in the volcanic rocks (Fig. 4). The potassic-phyllic transition is
relatively sharp, occurring over a distance of a few tens of meters. Phyllic alteration is
characterized by the appearance of disseminated pyrite and sericite and the abrupt and
complete disappearance of magnetite and anhydrite, as well as a sharp decline in Na content
to essentially nil in areas of well developed phyllic alteration. Like potassic alteration, well-
developed phyllic alteration tends to be destructive of original rock texture.
Advanced argillic alteration, although not shown in Fig. 4, is characterized by abundant
smectite and kaolinitic clays, 5-10 vol.% disseminated pyrite, moderate development of
Table 7
Characteristics of hydrothermal alteration of the Grasberg Igneous Complex

Alteration Dalam Main Grasberg South Kali

Type
Veins Host rock Veins Host rock Veins Host rock

Potassic Weak. Extensive. Intensive. Weak. Weak. Weak.

Quartz-K-spar- K-spar~luartz- Quartz-magnetite- Quartz-biotite-K- Quartz-anhydrite, Quartz-K-spar-
e,
anhydrite, magnetite, anhydrite-biotite-K- spar-magnetite chalcopyrite biotite,
magnetite(?) anhydrite, biotite, spar, chalcopyrite biotite-K-spar chalcopyrite
chalcopyrite, and albite, chalcopyrite + bornite (contact zone
bomite only )

Propylitic Moderate. Weak. Weak. Weak.

Chlorite, epidote, Chlorite Fibrous Actinolite
hematite amphibole, chlorite,
chalcopyrite hematite,
covellite, bomite montmorillonite

Phyllic Weak. Moderate. Weak. Weak. Weak. Weak.

Sericite + pyrite _+ Sericite ± pyrite ± Sericite _+pyrite Sericite-pyrite _+ Sericite, pyrite, Sericite, pyrite
quartz _+ quartz _+ quartz + quartz covellite, digenite
chalcopyrite(?), chalcopyrite(?), chalcopyrite(?),
covellite, digenite covellite, digenite covellite, digenite

Argillic

Supergene Strong to 100 m Strong to 100 m Moderately Moderately Weakly Intensive. Weakly
argillic below pre-mining below pre-mining Intensive. Extensive. Sericite, Extensive.
topography, topography. 100 m below pre- 100 m below pre- montmorillonite, Sericite,
Sericite, Sericite, mining topography, mining topography. kaolinite, montmorillonite,
chalcopyrite, minor montmorillonite, Sericite, Sericite, chalcopyrite kaolinite
CuOx kaolinite, montmorillonite, montmorillonite,
chalcopyrite kaelinite, kaolinite,
chalcopyrite chalcopyrite

Minerals listed in order of decreasing volumetric importance. Blank means "'not recognized".
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 165

pervasive greenish sericite, and chloritization of mafic minerals in the near-surface Dalam
volcanic units. Alteration of this type is invariably developed at shallow depth and is closely
associated with phyllic alteration. Advanced argillic alteration has only recently been sep-
arated from phyllic alteration for purposes of geologic mapping. Whether effects of this
type are due to acid weathering or low temperature hydrothermal processes, possibly related
to one of the younger phases of mineralization, remains to be determined.
Propylitic alteration characterized by development of chlorite and epidote from plagio-
clase and mafic minerals is volumetrically insignificant at Grasberg, presumably because
of the lithologically unreceptive surrounding marble walls. It is noted only in rocks of the
Dalam andesitic phase and Dalam volcanic rocks where it is well developed but confined
to a narrow zone near the intrusion-marble contact.

6.2. Alteration o f the Main Grasberg mineral phase

Alteration produced by the Main Grasberg mineral phase is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 and
is summarized in Table 7. Note that the central portion of the altered and mineralized Dalam
rocks in the core of the diatreme was eliminated during emplacement of the Main Grasberg
intrusion. In general, the Main Grasberg-related silicate alteration is less extensive than that
of the earlier Dalam stage. The geometry of the alteration zones reflects that of the MG
stock, showing greater vertical than lateral development. Half of the volume of potassic
alteration and essentially all of the phyllic alteration related to the MG stage is developed
in Dalam rocks; the rest occurs within the MG stock itself.
Potassic alteration associated with Main Grasberg mineralization is controlled by stock-
work veining. Where vein envelopes coalesce, the alteration is dominantly biotitic with
lesser quartz and K-feldspar. The veinlets themselves, however, carry a quartz-magnetite-
sulfide-biotite assemblage. Biotite tends to replace primary mafic minerals; quartz and K-
feldspar principally alter the groundma~ of the porphyritic rocks. Where Main Grasberg
potassic alteration overprints previously potassically altered rocks, the rocks are darkened
by addition of biotite. Successively younger intrusions of the MG stage exhibit lighter
colors, suggesting that emplacement spanned the development of the MG potassic alteration
(biotite). Anhydrite is also an important component of the MG potassic alteration; how
much was actually introduced and how much is remobilized Dalam anhydrite is uncertain.
As shown in Figs. 4 and 5, it is rare for phyllically altered Dalam rocks to be overprinted
by MG potassic alteration. Where such effects are noted, however, the result is an essentially
textureless feldspathic-biotitic rock lacking magnetite. Such rocks are distinctive because
accessory magnetite was initially present in small amounts in all Dalam intrusive rocks, and
although stable through potassic alteration, it is always destroyed by well developed phyllic
alteration. The absence of magnetite in potassically altered rocks therefore suggests the
former presence of phyllic alteration.
Phyllic alteration of the Main Grasberg stage is developed entirely in Dalam rocks. It is
characterized by development of quartz-sericite plus disseminated pyrite which commonly
overprints earlier Dalam potassic and phyllic effects (Figs. 4 and 5). Where MG phyllic
alteration overprints Dalam phyllic alteration, all vestiges of the original rock texture are
eliminated. When phyllic alteration overprints earlier potassic alteration, magnetite and
166 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

anhydrite are eliminated but the feldspathic character and the texture of the earlier potassi-
cally altered rocks normally survive.

6.3. Alteration effects related to the South Kali Dikes

The South Kali Dikes are the youngest members of the Grasberg Intrusive Complex
(Figs. 4 and 5). Three units have been recognized from texture and cross cutting relation-
ships. Not only are they the youngest of the intrusive sequence, they are also the most
weakly altered and mineralized; hydrothermal effects diminished with each successive
intrusion. Alteration of the youngest intrusion is essentially nil. Alteration effects of the
South Kali phase (Figs. 4 and 5 and Table 6) extend only a few tens of meters into adjacent
Main Grasberg or Dalam rocks.
Potassic alteration tends to be exaggerated by the monzonitic character of the South Kali
Dikes, which results in the presence of several volume percent groundmass K-feldspar
throughout. Potassic alteration per se is confined to narrow selvages of biotite and K-
feldspar developed along narrow veinlets in the quartz-bearing monzonite porphyries. Min-
imal replacement of the groundmass by quartz, K-feldspar, biotite, and magnetite is noted.
Hornblende is typically replaced by actinolite.
Phyllic alteration of the early and late South Kali Dikes produced quartz-sericite assem-
blages that are locally pyritic, particularly in the area of the South Kali-Main Grasberg
contact and where the South Kali Dike swarms cut Main Grasberg rocks. These contacts
are also the locus of relatively high grade Cu-Au mineralization related to the middle South
Kali mineral phase, and are the source of the only pyrite spatially associated with strong
Main Grasberg-related Cu mineralization.
Two zones of advanced argillic/propylitic alteration have been attributed to the miner-
alization of the South Kali intrusion. One is located around the apex of the South Kali
intrusion and affects most of the South Kali and MG rocks between 3,700 and 4,150 m.
This alteration superimposes marcasite veinlets, converts magnetite to hematite, and alters
plagioclase and sericite to montmorillonite plus kaolinite throughout much of the MG
stockwork zone. Hornblende is typically converted to actinolite. The second zone shows
similar but more restricted and weaker effects around the apex of the South Kali intrusion
at an elevation of 3,400 m where hornblende is essentially unaltered.

6.4. Erosion and weathering

Volcaniclastic and pyroclastic rocks develop a blocky aspect accompanied by devitrifi-

cation of glass with the development of chlorite and clays. The basal contact between the
volcanic rocks and the Dalam intrusive rocks shows intense clay alteration from ground-
waters moving along it. The Dalam andesite tends to be less reactive but suffers extensive
removal of hypogene anhydrite where fracture systems allow penetration of significant
amounts of groundwater, which in turn made the Dalam andesite a friable, easily eroded
unit, and causes it to form an arcuate topographic low where exposed between MG rocks
and the Dalam volcanic rocks.
Main Grasberg rocks show Fe staining to a much greater degree than do other rock types,
probably due to their relative longevity in an environment of high erosion on the mountain.
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 167

The porous framework of the MG stockwork zone allowed groundwater to penetrate as

deep as 100 m below the surface, developing a green clay-like alteration that merges with
the South Kali advanced argillic alteration below. Stockwork veining makes the MG resis-
tant to weathering, causing the limbs of the mineralized zone to form cliffs above the more
readily-eroded South Kali zone in the center and the Dalam rocks on the perimeter.

7. Geochemistry of the Grasberg complex

7.1. General

The present understanding of Grasberg geochemistry is based principally on analytical

information compiled from some 160,000 m of drill core and outcrop samples. Detailed
petrographic and metallogenic descriptions were provided by Russell Honea for about 400
samples. Fourteen hundred samples were analyzed for 61 major and trace elements by
several laboratories including the Freeport laboratory on site, Analabs of Australia, and
Skyline Laboratories of Tucson, Arizona. Finally, 1,100 of these samples were submitted
to Analabs of Australia for X-ray diffraction studies.
Because of the prominence of magnetite in the Grasberg mineral suite, a method was
developed on site for rapid measurement of weight percent magnetite. Magnetite content is
determined by measuring the magnetic susceptibility of assay pulps using a Geometrics
SM-3 magnetic susceptibility meter. Weight percent magnetite was determined for every
drill hole assay interval for which an assay pulp was available. Values obtained were then
entered in the data base along with laboratory analytical data.
Quantitative mineralogic information from drill logs and petrographic examinations were
combined with the 1,400 whole rock analyses to arrive at the modal mineralogy of the
Grasberg rocks. The results of this work comprise the final section of this paper.
All available geologic and analytical data were entered into TECHBASE, a computerized
relational database (Minesoft, Ltd., 1991 ) for evaluation. A total of 88 geological, geo-
chemical, and geomechanical parameters were estimated to the mine model. Statistical
evaluations were performed on modeled data rather than on raw information for two reasons.
First, the data came from diverse sample sets which did not represent the same physical
piece of rock for many of the measured characteristics. Second, the availability of a large
number of assays having considerable variation in analytical sensitivity permitted extrap-
olation of geochemical values into some areas for which values cannot otherwise be esti-
mated. Not all samples were analyzed for exactly the same suites of elements, or
characteristics, so that infill data were able to provide reasonable estimates that could be
compared with the data that were collected. This technique has resulted in some smoothing
of the data, which reduces the local precision of the evaluation, but allows for broader
generalizations in discussing the relationships of the characteristics to one another. The
magnitude of data coverage combines with the declustering ability of the kriging estimator
to provide an accurate, quantitative representation of most characteristics in most zones.
168 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

7. 2. Major element distribution

Approximately 1,400 samples were selected from Grasberg drill core and outcrop suites
to provide optimal spatial and lithologic representation. The analytical results are summa-
rized as weight percent of the oxides of Si, A1, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K, S and Loss on Ignition
(LOI) grouped by intrusive stage and mineralizing phase in Tables 8 and 9 and shown
graphically in Fig. 6 as weight percent of elements.

Distribution of AI
The aluminum distribution reflects the elevated aluminum content of the Dalam andesitic
and volcanic rocks, which average 16% and 18 wt.%, respectively. The relatively high
aluminum values are enhanced in the poker chip zone by the removal of anhydrite and weak
to moderate clay formation. The apparent depletion of aluminum in the MG intrusion ( I 0

Table 8
Average whole rock analyses of the Grasberg Igneous Complex by igneous stage

Wt.% Dalam Volcanic Rocks Dalam Diatreme Main Grasberg South Kali

SiO2 59.39 56.17 61.41 58.61

A1203 17.62 14.06 10.27 13.46
Fe20~ 7.60 7.91 11.18 8.04
MgO 1.94 1.56 1.30 1.62
CaO 1.20 3.87 1.97 4.9 I
Na20 1.47 1.71 1.51 2.91
K20 4.57 6.25 5.17 4.48
S 3.82 3.25 1.59 1.58
LOI 5.51 3.55 2.29 2.12
Au (ppm) 0.07 0.37 2.27 0.67
Cu 0.08 0.48 1.46 0.49

Table 9
Average whole rock analyses of the Grasberg Igneous Complex

Wt.% Dalam Stage Main Grasberg Stage South Kali Dike Stage

Diorite Andesite Early Middle Late Early Late

SiO2 54.16 57.41 60.41 60.79 61.39 61.27 56.68

AI203 12.18 15.15 13.16 9.36 9.76 13.48 13.44
Fe203 7.36 8.23 9.88 11.31 12.30 9.21 7.20
MgO 1.36 1.69 2.14 1.07 1.07 1.51 1.70
CaO 5.27 3.02 0.97 2.33 1.96 2.23 6.85
Na20 1.03 2.13 2.27 1.24 1.49 2.70 3.06
K20 6.38 6.18 6.23 4.88 4.86 5.08 4.04
S 4.94 2.25 0.75 1.90 1.58 1.29 1.80
LO1 4.81 2.79 1.56 2.49 2.54 1.69 2.43
Au (ppm) 0.71 0.21 0.92 2.81 2.24 1.08 0.34
Cu 0.85 0.30 I. 13 1.60 1.41 0.84 0.21
 G. I). MacDonald, L.C. A mold / Journal ql" Geochemical E.~~hn'ation 50 ( 1994 ) / 4 J / 7~ 169

....... \

r l ~

Fig. 6. Distributinn of major elements in the Grasberg Igneous Complex. Element abundance ( all values by assay
in wt.%):

( t~lor AI Si Fe S Ca Na K P Ti Mg Mn I I )1

Blue 11~-4 (!50 0 3 0-1 [) I 0~).2 I)~t 1)4) 15 0 (1.2 0 0.5 0 I) O:~ I) I
(;reen -~8 50-55 3,.5 I 2 1-3 02 I 4 5 (}.154).20 (I.2-1) 3 (I.5 I (I.03 l)(l:~ I 2
Yellow 8 12 5560 6,9 2-5 ~ ~ 1 2 5,6 0 . 2 4 ) 25 113-1).4 I 1.5 0.1)5 t)ll7 2 3
Red 12-16 6()65 9 12 5 1(1 5--7 2 3 6,7 I).25~).30 (1.4-1) 5 1,5 2 11.1)7 ,qO8 ~-4
Magenta ;316 >/65 ~>12 ~10 >/7 ~3 ;~7 ~>030 3--(I.5 3~2.0 ~-{I.0~ I).4
170 G.D. MacDonald. L.C. Arm~ld/ Journal ¢?/Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143 178

wt.%) results from the addition of magnetite and quartz in the stockwork zone. The small
zones of A1 depletion along the southwest margin of the Dalam Diorite correspond to areas
of strong sulfide development within the intrusive rocks near the contact.

Distribution o f Fe
Iron distribution reflects the occurrence of magnetite in the MG stockwork zone. Strong
sulfide mineralization, abundant pyrite areas associated with strong phyllic alteration, and
biotite-dominant potassic alteration account for the intermediate ( 6 to 12 wt.% ) concentra-
tion zones. Dalam Diorite with strong K-feldspar dominant alteration but lacking MG
stockwork exhibits the lowest Fe values.

Distrihution o f Na
Sodium distribution suggests a higher amount of sodic plagioclase in the matrix and more
calcic plagioclase in the fragments of Dalam rock. Sodium concentration directly reflects
plagioclase content and is very useful in determining the intensity of phyllic alteration,
which is plagioclase destructive and depletes the rocks of Na. The consistently moderate to
high Na values in the South Kali Dikes reflect their original content, as well as the weak
character of the phyllic alteration that has affected them. Strong Na depletion is evident
with the formation of phyllic alteration and strong sulfide formation on the southwest margin
in the Dalam rocks. Strong depletion is also evident in MG rocks at the 3900 m elevation.
associated with the development of intermediate argillic alteration at the apex of the South
Kali Dikes. Generally, the blue-green boundary corresponds to the interlace between potas-
sic and any plagioclase destructive alteration.

Distribution o r s
The distribution of S occurs principally in the form of anhydrite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite.
The absence of S in the upper part of the Dalam andesite adjacent to the MG intrusion
reflects the leaching of anhydrite from the poker chip zone. The low S values in the South
Kali Dikes reflect the low total sulfide content of those rocks. Conversely, the relatively
high values observed near the limestone contacts reflect the presence of strong sulfide
mineralization and/or concentrations of anhydrite. Note the inverse relationship between
the Na and S values.

Distribution e?fMg
High concentrations of Mg reflect the presence of biotite. Since much of the biotite is of
hydrothermal origin, some Mg metasomatism is implied. High concentrations at the intru-
sion-marble contact are poorly understood and may reflect dolomite in the adjacent car-
bonate rocks.

Distribution ~f Si
Silica distribution reflects the presence of the quartz-rich stockwork zone as well as a
zone of strong silicification situated deep on the southwest side of the Dalam Diatreme
(Fig. 6).
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Arnohl / Journal ~( Geochemical Exph,'atio, 50 (1994) 143 17,~ 171

Distributio, of Ca
Except in the carbonate rocks, Ca occurs principally as anhydrite in zones of potassic
alteration and otherwise as plagioclase. There also seems to be an inverse relationship
between Ca and Fe.

Distribution ot K
The distribution of K reflects the generally pervasive potassic character of the Dalam
rocks and the much lower K content of the younger MG and South Kali intrusions.

7.3. Distribution of base and precious metals

The distribution of base and precious metals is shown in Fig. 7A and C, and includes
diagrams for Cu, Au, Ag, Mo, Pb, Zn, Sn and W. The stockwork zone ( Fig. 5 ) appears to
be an important control for Cu distribution. Copper is also relatively high in the Dalam
rocks adjacent to the MG intrusion on its southwest side. Gold values tend to mimic the
stockwork zone but are very weak in the Dalam rocks adjacent to the MG intrusion. Silver
tends to occur in both the central stockwork zone and the adjacent Dalam in amounts of
one to ten times that of Au; the Dalam-marble contact zone often shows anomalous Ag
values.
Molybdenum shows a strong tendency to occur at depth on the outer margins of the
system. The values for Pb, Zn, Sn and W are low throughout the deposit, especially within
the upper Dalam units.

7.4. Distributio, gf trace elements

Assays tot a number of trace elements including As, B, Ba, Be, Bi, Cd, Ce, CI, Co, Cr,
Dy, Er, Eu, F, Ga, Gd, Ge, Hf, Hg, La, Li, Nb, Nd, Ni, Pd, Pr, Pt, Sb, Sc, Se, Sin, St, Tb,
Te, Th, Tm, U, V, Y, Yb, and Zr are available for 1,200 samples in the data base. A
discussion of the trace element distribution at Grasberg is beyond the scope of this paper
and will be the subject of a future article.

7.5. Surface expression of Grasberg minerali;atio,

The Grasberg Igneous Complex occupies a topographically high area on the west side of
the Carstenz Meadow (Fig. 2). Weathering of the igneous rocks developed a thin soil that
supports a grassy vegetation quite distinct from both the adjacent limestone, with very little
vegetation of any sort, and the tall dense moss forest noted at slightly lower elevations.
The crest of Grasberg Mountain is situated on the north side of the Grasberg Igneous
Complex and is supported by resistant Dalam volcanic rocks. Erosion of the Dalam rocks
exposed the anhydrite-depleted, and consequently, less resistant, andesitic rocks of the
Dalam Diatreme in which the deeply incised North and South Kali drainages developed.
The quartz-magnetite stockwork originally formed a prominent cliff extending south from
the area of the Dalam volcanic rocks and situated about 100 m lower.
Differential weathering of the stockwork produces a rough, ragged appearing outcrop
darkened by surficial development of manganese oxides. Where it was initially sampled,
172 G.D. MacDomfld, L.C. Arnold/Jounml (!f Geochemical l£rploration 50 (1994) 143-17,~¢

~ t.l.O 2 .C~O to

. i ~..Immlli- o...~
\
,.,.
- .~',
, m. - ~- - - ~ 2 ~fZ._
, , .2J 'TJ--~Jf

Fig. 7. Distribution of base and precious metals. ( A ) Copper (wt.CA) and Au (ppm) distribution; ( B ) sulfide
mineral suite ( wt.C~ ) : ( C ) metal suite ( wt.C/, ). Sulfide ( wt.C/~ ) and metal ( ppm ~ abundance:

(t~lor chaJco- bornite" coxel dige p} rite' ~eins ~ Ag b Mo h Pb h Zn b Sn h W"

P} rite' life' nite'

Blue 025 I)~).2 002 0 tl2 (~()5 (I 5 l) 0.5 (~(J5 0 5tl 0 50 0 5 (I 5

Green I) 25~15 02~(I4 0 2 1)4 02~)4 (15 ] 5 l0 (15 I 5 5[) 50 lt~l 50 I()0 S I() 5 II)
Yellow 05 I 0.4M1.6 (}.4M).6 0.44).6 ] 3 1(1 20 ] 2 50100 1()1) 50(I 1[1(1 2fII) Ill 21) I(1 2II
Red I 2 06~18 0608 06~)8 :~ ~ 2(I-4{) 2-4 I(~,~ 2IX~ 5[}1) I(lO0 21)0-4{~) 2(1~(/ 2(i411
Magenta # 2 0 8 >~ ~- 0 8 > 0,8 # 6 ~ 40 # 4 ~ 2(g) ~ 1000 # 4(XJ ~ 40 ~ 40

'Calculated: "b) as~a~,: "~ isual estimate

 G.D. MacDonald, L C. Arnohl / Journal qf Geochemical E.~ploration 50 (1994) 143 17,~ 173

Fig. 8. Interpreted modal distribution of selected rock-forming and alteration minerals, based on whole rock
chemical data. The distribution of magnetite is based on direct wt.% measurement. Calculated mineral abundance
Iq):

Color K spar' biotite ~ plagio quartz :' horn seri kaoli montnlor cMof magne anh), hcma
clase ~ blende ' cite" nile* illonite' ire' tile ~' drik" tile'

Blue 0 10 0 1 010 0 10 00.5 0 10 00.25 0~0.2~ 0,025 II I I) 0 5 0 Itl

Green 10 20 1 3 1021) 10 20 0.5 I U) 211 (I.25 0.~ 0.25~15 0 2 5 (15 I 4 05 I Ill I
Yellow 20 30 t~ 2030 2() :~0 1 2 20 ~11 (I.5-1 (1.5 I 05 I 4 7 I ~ IM
Red 30-40 6 9 ~,(~41) 3040 24 3040 I 2 I 2 I 2 7 10 ~ ~ 4 8
Magenta >40 >9 >/40 >40 >4 -,40 >2 >2 2 l0 S 8

'By calculation, ~by m e a s u r e m e n t o f m a g n e t i c suscep b ",

174 G.D. MacDonald. L.C. Armdd/Journal of Geochemical Ewloration 50 (1994) 143-178

the stockwork was found to consist of approximately 30 vol.% quartz veins, about 10 wt.%
magnetite, and 50-60 vol.% monzodiorite porphyry. Quartz and magnetite were unaffected
by weathering processes but the porphyry appears to have been strongly argillized and
leached to produce a white chalky mass in which the porphyritic texture has been obliterated.
Complete removal of anhydrite and sulfides has produced voids rather than cavities filled
by limonite boxworks. These voids range in size from 0.1 to 3 mm and impart to the rock
a "'spongy" aspect and a texture better described as aplitic than porphyritic. The rock shows
moderate to strong residual as well as transported yellow-brown limonite. Gold values in
leached outcrops over the stockwork ore zone carried 1.5 to 2.5 ppm Au and 200 to 5,000
ppm Cu. Green and blue Cu oxide minerals were completely absent however. Water flowing
from springs at the base of the Grasberg Mountain carried Cu in solution as shown by its
tendency to plate Cu on iron-bearing objects with which it came in contact.

7.6. M o & d mineral interpretation

Once the analytical values were assembled and kriged, representation of the various
element distributions proved to be a relatively straightforward problem in computer graph-
ics. Examination of the results tended to reflect the modal mineralogy; for example high Ca
concentrations tend to correspond with strong anhydrite, high Fe values with pyrite or
magnetite, etc. This was less helpful, however, than an actual representation of the varions
mineral species.
Because of the availability of a large number of whole rock chemical analyses, Cu values,
and magnetite determinations as well as petrographic and quantitative geologic logging
data, it is possible to work backward from the rock chemistry to approximate the modal
mineralogy based on certain assumptions about mineral composition. Using this informa-
tion, concentrations of various minerals were kriged to arrive at the distribution of a number
of sulfides and silicate alteration products. The results of this interpretation are shown in
Fig. 8 and are discussed briefly below.
Magnetite values ( Fig. 8 ) were measured using magnetic susceptibility rather than being
calculated. Decisions regarding assignment of Fe, whether to an oxide, sulfide or silicate,
were assisted by the availability of accurate concentrations of magnetite. Primary dissemi-
nated magnetite is present in amounts of one to two wt.% in virtually all igneous rocks in
the district. Hydrothermal magnetite is concentrated in the quartz-magnetite stockwork
zone, which appears to be bottoming at an elevation of about 3,000 m. Local concentrations
are also noted with skarn mineralization. In the presence of excess S, however, Fe is
sultidized and magnetite eliminated in zones of strong sericite-pyrite alteration. Quartz
distribution is strongly reflected by its abundance in the MG stockwork zone ( Fig. 8 ).
The strongest development of anhydrite appears to have been related to Dalam mineral-
ization and to have been more or less symmetrical within the Dalam Diatreme. Subsequent
mineralizing events produced lesser amounts of anhydrite. Anhydrite decreases in the near-
surf'ace portion of the system as a result of leaching by supergene processes, as well as in
the deeper parts of the system where it was destroyed by late quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic)
alteration or strong sulfide mineralization.
K-feldspar tends to be developed most strongly in the Dalam Diatreme and more weakly
in the younger MG and South Kali intrusions. Areas of K-feldspar destruction include the
 G.D. MacDonald, L.C. Antold/Journal ¢~['Geochenlical E.x7~lot'ation 50 (1994) 143 17,~ 175

SW margin of the Dalam Diatreme and the South Kali-MG contact on the NW side of the
MG stock. Both primary and alteration biotite are characteristic of the Dalam andesitic
phase. Biotite development tends to overlap the SW MG-Dalam contact but is restricted in
the central part of the MG and South Kali intrusions. Sericite is assymetrically distributed
within the diatreme and only weakly developed in the upper part of the South Kali Dikes.
The interpreted (calculated) distribution of the principal sulfide minerals is also shown
in Fig. 7B. The Main Grasberg mineralization strongly favors chalcopyrite but shows an
increase in relative amounts of bornite at depth. Pyrite is largely absent in the central part
of the system but is strongly developed: ( l ) on the SW margin of the diatreme: ( 2 ) in the
central portion of the South Kali intrusion; ( 3 ) in Dalam rocks on the NE side of the system:
and (4) along the South Kali-MG intrusive contacts. Also shown in Fig. 7B are distributions
of primary digenite, bornite, and covellite.
The interpreted distribution of plagioclase and hornblende, two clay minerals, and chlorite
and hematite are shown in Fig. 8. The An content of plagioclase phenocrysts as determined
petrographically is consistently An4o to Anso. We note, however, a strong inverse correlation
between elevation and Na content. Modal mineral assignment seems to consistently require
a higher Na content than is indicated petrographically. Our tentative conclusion is lhal the
plagioclase of the aphanitic groundmass portion of the porphyry is more albitic than that of
the phenocrysts. The relative abundance of the matrix fraction in the upper andesite results
in a chemically observable increase in Na content in that part of the system characterized
by a relative abundance of groundmass material.
Hornblende was an original component of essentially all of the intrusive rocks in the
Grasberg Igneous Complex but it has been largely destroyed in all but the youngest rocks
of the South Kali stage. Neither kaolinite nor montmorillonite are important alteration
products at Grasberg. Kaolinite tends to be concentrated in the South Kali and MG intrusions
and above the strong zone of phyllic alteration on the SW margin of the diatreme. Mont-
morillonite appears to have spotty distribution throughout the system, and is concentrated
only in the South Kali Dikes at the top and bottom of the system and in the deep portion of
the SW contact of the diatreme.
The relative rarity of chlorite ( Fig. 8) reflects the absence of well-developed propylitic
alteration. Hematite abundance appears to be related to hydrothermal destruction of earlier
magnetite.
Fig. 9 shows the kriged distribution of values for RQD (Rock Quality Determination),
bulk density, and compressive strength as well as the location of principal faults. Unlike
Fig. 8, Fig. 9 is a representation of measured values rather than an interpretation. The
distribution of RQD values is most dramatically affected by the degree to which anhydrite
remains in the rock. Zones with anhydrite removed ( poker chip) typically have RQD values
of zero, while anhydrite-intact zones have values of 70 to 100%. Compressive strength
values were derived from many thousands of point load measurements throughout the
deposit. The range of values is most greatly affected by the type and degree of alteration.
Pervasive potassically altered rocks become very hard, while phyllic alteration causes them
to become relatively soft. As with RQD, stockwork veining gives intermediate compressive
strength values. Bulk density throughout the deposit is highly variable from values of 1.8
tonnes/m ~ in poker chip zones, to 3.2 tonnes/m ~ in high grade ore, and to 4.5 tonnes/m '
176 G.I). MacDonald, L.C. Arnold/Jcmrnal q[Geochenlical Eq~loration 50 (1994) 143 178

ppk4
/ \\\ [ i
BLU
GRE GR W 2'60 o 2 80
yEL ,CELLO 2.70 ~o~.
REE RED A >~ 2.
~AC ~GENT ~ /

\
x

pSI \

\ \

Fig. 9. Distribution of rock quality determination (Rqd), bulk density, compressive strength, and the position of
principal faults. Blue faults strike NE: red faults strike NW; black = major rock type boundaries.

in zones of strong sulfide replacement. These variations are a function of magnetite and S
content, and have a very significant effect on the valuation of the mineral resource.
Fault structures are thought to have controlled emplacement of the rocks of the Grasberg
complex to varying degrees. They have also played a significant role in the movement of
mineralizing fluids and the localization of both trace and major elements throughout the
development of the hydrothermal system. Most structures within the Grasberg Igneous
Complex tend to be continuous in strike and dip. They rarely produce significant breccia
zones and thus are often difficult to trace. Their presence is often most strongly indicated
by the alignment and offsets of the late dikes, and in the localization of high grade ore pods
and chutes. No structures are known to have significant displacement which post dates
sulfide mineralization.
8. Interpretive summary

The Grasberg Igneous Complex of Pliocene age consists of three principal concentrically-
nested intrusions of monzodioritic composition emplaced in a subvolcanic diatreme-maar
 G.D. MacDonald, L. C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178 177

volcano setting related to an active plate boundary. Three distinct episodes of essentially
coincident mineralization resulted in an unusually large porphyry Cu-Au deposit of remark-
ably high grade.
The earliest mineralization developed within the highly fragmental Dalam Diatreme and
produced a relatively uniform zone of disseminated Cu-Au mineralization with an average
grade of 1.2% Cu and 0.5 ppm Au. The top of this mineralized zone is situated centrally
within the diatreme and about 800 m below the pre-mining surface.
A second intrusion, actually a series of closely related intrusions, the Main Grasberg or
MG, consists of a suite of rocks of relatively uniform texture and composition. They are
more equigranular, except in the immediate vicinity of intrusive contacts, and much less
fragmental than the earlier Dalam rocks. Emplacement of the MG imparted an incipient
joint pattern to the surrounding Dalam rocks, suggesting a forceful, but not explosive
intrusion. Mineralization began with the intrusion of the middle phase of the MG and
persisted with varying intensity through the subsequent late MG phase. Through cross-
cutting vein relationships it has been possible to show that the intrusions spanning the MG
mineralizing event were each affected differently by the MG mineralization.
The earliest MG stage intrusion produced no mineralization, indicating a clear break in
time between the Dalam and Main Grasberg mineralizing events. The middle MG intrusion
"sampled" the entire MG phase mineralizing event and consequently exhibits the most
extensive mineralization and the greatest diversityof vein types. The late MG typically
carries about one-half the grade of the enclosing MG rocks, suggesting its arrival midway
through the mineralizing process. The early MG phase, situated at the margins of the system,
exhibits high variability in its tenor and style of mineralization. Where it is in contact with
middle MG, early MG is intensely mineralized. But at high elevations in the system, well
away from middle MG, the early MG rocks received only the distal effects of the mineral-
izing fluids.
Evidence regarding MG mineralization suggests development of a pressurized "bubble"
near the center of the stock. When the intrusive body and its bubble attained an elevation
at which the lithostatic load could no longer contain the pressure exerted by the volatiles in
the melt, the system separated explosively, setting off a rapid chain of events. Pressure
release brought on by the fracture of the older Dalam rocks caused the remaining, relatively
low temperature melt to solidify from the outside inward. At the same time the volatile-rich
fluid migrated from the center of the system outward. These fluids hydraulically fractured
the chilled margins, filling the openings between the resulting fragments of the intrusive
and the surrounding wall rocks, to form the bulk of the barren quartz-magnetite veins.
Continued release of volatiles and cooling of the system resulted in the deposition of the
quartz-chalcopyrite-Au-anhydrite veins that characterize the productive mineralization of
the MG stockwork zone. The late MG intrusive event appears to have occurred either during
the development of the later vein assemblage, or perhaps at the start of another mineralizing
event that produced only weak veining characteristic of that event. Whether a second
hydraulic fracturing event occurred to form this vein type, or whether the veins filled
fractures opened during continued shrinkage of the crystallizing middle MG intrusion, is
uncertain.
The intrusion of the South Kali Dike displaced a significant portion of the mineralized
MG and Dalam rocks. The final mineralizing event, or waning of the mineralizing system,
resulted in a chalcopyrite-biotite vein assemblage that generally overprints all previously
178 G.D. MacDonald, L. C. Arnold~Journal of Geochemical Exploration 50 (1994) 143-178

formed mineralization and is the only vein type represented in the South Kali rocks. Potassic
alteration is limited to veinlets but phyllic alteration and associated pyritic mineralization
extend beyond the South Kali boundaries to overprint older rocks and older mineralization.
The last intrusive event so far recognized was the emplacement of the South Kali stock and
dikes which are unmineralized and cut but do not alter or mineralize earlier rocks.

Acknowledgments

We thank the management of P.T. Freeport Indonesia Company for permission to compile
and publish information contained in this paper, as well as support during its creation.
Thanks are also due all members, past and present, of the geology and engineering depart-
ments of the Ertsberg District mines for their efforts, assistance and encouragement prior
to and during the course of the current compilation. Special thanks go to Lawrence C,
Johnson for his invaluable assistance in the preparation of the graphics presented in this
paper, to Russell M. Honea for his consistently excellent petrographic work, and to Erwin
Siregar and Eddy Suwardy for their perseverence in the development of the deposit through
years of detailed logging and mapping. The paper was critically and constructively reviewed
in its early stages by Imants Kavalieris and Jonathan Price and in the final stage of preparation
by John Guilbert, Noel White, and Jeffrey Hedenquist. Their efforts are gratefully acknowl-
edged as are those of Evelyn McLenna who patiently and expertly typed and revised the
manuscript.

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