BAB 1

REAL NUMBER
Much of calculus is based on properties of the real number system.Real numbers are that can be
expressed as decimal. The dots…..in each case indicate that the sequence of decimal digits goes
on forever. Every conceivable decimal expansion represent a real number, although some
numbers have two representations.

Notice the rules for multiplying an inequality by a number. Multiplying by a positive number
preserves the inequality ; multiplying by a negative number reverses the inequality. Also,
reciprocation reverses the inequality for numbers of the same sign. For example,

The rational numbers are precisely the real numbers with decimal expansions that are eather

a) Terminating (ending in an infinite string of zeros) for example,

¾ = 0,75000….=0.75 or
b) Eventually repeating (ending with a block of digits that repeats over and over ), for
example
23/11 = 2,090909….= 2.09

INTERVAL

A subsetof the real line is called an interval if it contains at leats two numbers and contains all
the real numbers lying between any two of its elements. For example,

The set of all real numbers X such that X > 6 is an interval, as is the set of all X such that -2<
atau =X< atau= 5.

A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its endpoint but not the other, and open
if it contains neither andpoint. The endpoints are also called Boundary points ; they make up the
intervals Boundary.

Infinite intervals are closed if they contain a finite endpoint, and open other otherwise. The entire
real line R is an infinite interval that is both open and closed.
 BAB 2
CARTESIAN COORDINATES IN THE PLANE
In the previous section we identified the points on the line with real numbers by assingning the
coordinates. If P is any point in the plane , it can be located by exactly one ordered pair of real
numbers in in the following way. Draw lines trought P perpendicularto the two coordinate axes.
These lines intersect the axes at points with coordinates a and b .

Starting with and ordered pair (a,b) we can reverse the process and arrive at a corresponding
point P in the plane. Often we identify P with the ordered pair and write P(a,b). we sometimes
also rever to”the point a and b “ and it will be slear from the context when (a and b) revers to a
point .

Example :

In going from the point A(4,-3) to the point B (2,5) the increments in the x-and y-
coordinates are?

X = 2-4 =-2 , Y = 5-(-3) = 8

From C (5,6) to D (5,1) the coordinate increments are

X = 5-5 = 0, Y = 1-6 = -5

M = rise /run = y/x= y2-y1 /x1-x2

We substitute X1= 2, Y1 = 3, m= -3/2

When X = o,y= 6 so the line intersect

Functions and Their Graphs

Function, function, what's your function? Are you a personal trainer, a famous spy, a doorstop,
or something else entirely? We think it's the last one.
A function takes some input, usually called x, into an equation, f(x). Then x winds its way
through the equation, and at the end we get some output, usually known as y. Notice that y and
f(x) are actually the same thing. Maybe y is the famous spy?

We call x the independent variable, and y the dependent variable. So x has a nice job, while y
still lives at home. All the possible x-values are the domain, and all the possible y-values are the
range.

Sample Problem

Find the domain and range of y = 3x – 4, where 0 ≤ x< 4.

If we were just given the equation, y = 3x – 4, without saying anything else, we would say that
the domain is all the real numbers. That leaves out the imaginary, fake, delusional, and poseur
numbers.

In this case, though, we can't pick any x we like under the sun. The problem says that 0 ≤ x< 4.
This means that our domain is limited to all the real numbers between 0 and 4, including 0 but
not 4 (because of the line underneath the hungry Pac-man mouth).

Now, the range. A range is all possible y-values. In our equation, y = 3x – 4, the y-values are
what we get when we plug in the x-values that we know. Let’s make a table to pin down the
range.

The range of this function is -4 ≤ y< 8. Notice that y is less than 8, because x cannot equal 4, so y
can never exactly equal 8 either.

In this case, the range is easy; we could look at the smallest and largest values of x, and those
give us the smallest and largest values of y. What if we had something like y = -x2, with -2 <x<
2?
Here, if we just plug in x = -2 and 2, we get y = -4 for them both. We know that y doesn't just sit
at -4 the whole time, though. We have to check x = 0 to find that y = 0 there, giving us a range of
-4 <y< 0. Any time that the graph might swoop or dip, check a variety of numbers to find the
correct range.

Now let's talk about graphing functions for a second. Actually, let's talk and graph at the same
time. Just don't ask us to chew gum, too.

Sample Problem

Graph y = 3x – 4, where 0 ≤ x< 4.

Oh, it's you again. You're going to be recurring thing, aren't you?

That's okay, because it means we've done a lot of the work already. We know the domain and
range, and we've plugged in several points.
Start by drawing a coordinate plane. The x-axis is chilling on its back, lying down, while the y-
axis is standing at attention. They meet up in the middle at the origin. Don't try too hard to
visualize that; it actually isn't as painful as it seems. We hope.

We use the numbers on the axes to plot our points and make our line. We make ordered pairs
that look like this: (x, y). And x always calls shotgun, so y never gets to go first.

Starting at the origin, (0, 0), positive values of x move to the right and positive values of y move
up. Move both numbers together to plot each point from our table.
See how nicely they line up? Why couldn't they look this nice for their school pictures? Well,
let's draw a line through them while they're sitting still.

We have a limited domain here, so we only draw the line where the function actually exists.
Non-existent lines are surprisingly easy to draw, so be on the lookout for them.
Verticality

There's something very important about functions. In fact, it's so important that we're going to
put it on its own line:

For every x, there is only one y. To put it another way, every input has only one output. One x
enters, one y leaves.

If an equation violates this principle, it's not a function. Luckily, we don't have to plug in and
check every x-value to see if any of them share a y-value. That would be tedious and awful.
Instead, we can use the vertical line test. What a name, eh?

Take these graphs, for instance. The test is exactly what it sounds like: drawing vertical lines on
top of the graph. If any vertical line can pass through the graph more than once, then the equation
is not a function.

See? We can tell at a glance what is a function and what isn't. And notice how the second graph
in the middle has the same y-value for two different x-values (like at y = 0, for instance). That's
totally allowed. We just can't have the same x-value for more than one y-value, like in the first
and third graphs.

From here on, we'll be dealing with linear equations, which are easy to classify as linear
functions (ooh, title drop). Is it a vertical line? If not, then yes Virginia, it's a function.
 BAB 3

Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs

Many functions in applications are built up from simple functions by inserting constants in
various places. It is important to understand the effect such constants have on the appearance of
the graph.

Horizontal shifts

If we replace x

by x− C everywhere it occurs in the formula for f(x), then the graph shifts over C to the right. (If
C is negative, then this means that the graph shifts over |C| to the left.) For example, the graph of
y=(x− 2)2 is the x2-parabola shifted over to have its vertex at the point 2 on the x-axis. The graph
of y=(x+1)2 is the same parabola shifted over to the left so as to have its vertex at − 1 on the x-
axis. Note well: when replacing x by x− C we must pay attention to meaning, not merely
appearance. Starting with y=x2 and literally replacing x by x− 2 gives y=x− 22. This is y=x− 4

, a line with slope 1, not a shifted parabola.

Vertical shifts

If we replace y

by y− D, then the graph moves up D units. (If D is negative, then this means that the graph
moves down |D| units.) If the formula is written in the form y=f(x) and if y is replaced by y− D
to get y− D=f(x), we can equivalently move D to the other side of the equation and write
y=f(x)+D. Thus, this principle can be stated: to get the graph of y=f(x)+D, take the graph of
y=f(x) and move it D units up.For example, the function y=x2− 4x=(x− 2)2− 4 can be obtained
from y=(x− 2)2 (see the last paragraph) by moving the graph 4 units down. The result is the x2-
parabola shifted 2 units to the right and 4 units down so as to have its vertex at the point (2,− 4)

Warning. Do not confuse f(x)+D

and f(x+D). For example, if f(x) is the function x2, then f(x)+2 is the function x2+2, while
f(x+2) is the function (x+2)2=x2+4x+4

Example 1.4.1: Circles

An important example of the above two principles starts with the circle x2+y2=r2

. This is the circle of radius r centered at the origin. (As we saw, this is not a single function
y=f(x), but rather two functions y=±r2− x2‾‾‾‾‾‾‾√ put together; in any case, the two shifting
principles apply to equations like this one that are not in the form y=f(x).) If we replace x by
x− C and replace y by y− D---getting the equation (x− C)2+(y− D)2=r2---the effect on the circle
is to move it C to the right and D up, thereby obtaining the circle of radius r centered at the point
(C,D)

. This tells us how to write the equation of any circle, not necessarily centered at the origin.

We will later want to use two more principles concerning the effects of constants on the
appearance of the graph of a function.

Horizontal dilation

If x

is replaced by x/A in a formula and A>1, then the effect on the graph is to expand it by a factor
of A in the x-direction (away from the y-axis). If A is between 0 and 1 then the effect on the
graph is to contract by a factor of 1/A (towards the y

-axis). We use the word "dilate'' to mean expand or contract.

For example, replacing x

by x/0.5=x/(1/2)=2x has the effect of contracting toward the y-axis by a factor of 2. If A is

negative, we dilate by a factor of |A| and then flip about the y-axis. Thus, replacing x by − x has
the effect of taking the mirror image of the graph with respect to the y-axis. For example, the
function y=− x‾‾‾√, which has domain {x∈R∣x≤0}, is obtained by taking the graph of x√ and
flipping it around the y

-axis into the second quadrant.

Vertical dilation

If y

is replaced by y/B in a formula and B>0, then the effect on the graph is to dilate it by a factor of
B in the vertical direction. As before, this is an expansion or contraction depending on whether B
is larger or smaller than one. Note that if we have a function y=f(x), replacing y by y/B is
equivalent to multiplying the function on the right by B: y=Bf(x). The effect on the graph is to
expand the picture away from the x-axis by a factor of B if B>1, to contract it toward the x-axis
by a factor of 1/B if 0<B<1, and to dilate by |B| and then flip about the x-axis if B

is negative.

Example 1.4.2: Ellipses

A basic example of the two expansion principles is given by an ellipse of semimajor axis a

and semiminor axis b. We get such an ellipse by starting with the unit circle---the circle of
radius 1 centered at the origin, the equation of which is x2+y2=1---and dilating by a factor of a
horizontally and by a factor of b vertically. To get the equation of the resulting ellipse, which
crosses the x-axis at ±a and crosses the y-axis at ±b, we replace x by x/a and y by y/b

in the equation for the unit circle. This gives

(xa)2+(yb)2=1orx2a2+y2b2=1.(1.2.1)

Finally, if we want to analyze a function that involves both shifts and dilations, it is usually
simplest to work with the dilations first, and then the shifts. For instance, if we want to dilate a
function by a factor of A
in the x-direction and then shift C to the right, we do this by replacing x first by x/A and then by
(x− C) in the formula. As an example, suppose that, after dilating our unit circle by a in the x-
direction and by b in the y-direction to get the ellipse in the last paragraph, we then wanted to
shift it a distance h to the right and a distance k upward, so as to be centered at the point (h,k).
The new ellipse would have equation
(x− ha)2+(y− kb)2=1.(1.2.2)
Note well that this is different than first doing shifts by h and k and then dilations by a and b

(xa− h)2+(yb− k)2=1.(1.2.3)

See figure 1.4.1.

Figure 1.4.1. Ellipses: (x− 12)2+(y− 13)2=1

on the left, (x2− 1)2+(y3− 1)2=1 on the right.

BAB 4
 Rates of Change and Limits

1. Rates of Change

Rates of Change

The next problem that we need to look at is the rate of change problem. As mentioned earlier,
this will turn out to be one of the most important concepts that we will look at throughout this
course.

Here we are going to consider a function, f(x)

, that represents some quantity that varies as x varies. For instance, maybe f(x) represents the
amount of water in a holding tank after x minutes. Or maybe f(x) is the distance traveled by a
car after x hours. In both of these example we used x to represent time. Of course x

doesn’t have to represent time, but it makes for examples that are easy to visualize.

What we want to do here is determine just how fast f(x)

is changing at some point, say x=a. This is called the instantaneous rate of change or
sometimes just rate of change of f(x) at x=a

As with the tangent line problem all that we’re going to be able to do at this point is to estimate
the rate of change. So, let’s continue with the examples above and think of f(x)

as something that is changing in time and x being the time measurement. Again, x

doesn’t have to represent time but it will make the explanation a little easier. While we can’t
compute the instantaneous rate of change at this point we can find the average rate of change.

To compute the average rate of change of f(x)

at x=a all we need to do is to choose another point, say x

, and then the average rate of change will be,

A.R.C.=change in f(x)change in x=f(x)−f(a)x−a

Then to estimate the instantaneous rate of change at x=a

all we need to do is to choose values of x getting closer and closer to x=a (don’t forget to choose
them on both sides of x=a) and compute values of A.R.C.

We can then estimate the instantaneous rate of change from that.

Let’s take a look at an example.

Example 2 Suppose that the amount of air in a balloon after t

hours is given by
V(t)=t3−6t2+35
Estimate the instantaneous rate of change of the volume after 5 hours.
Show Solution

So, just what does this tell us about the volume at t=5

? Let’s put some units on the answer from above. This might help us to see what is happening to
the volume at this point. Let’s suppose that the units on the volume were in cm3. The units on the
rate of change (both average and instantaneous) are then cm3/hr.

We have estimated that at t=5

the volume is changing at a rate of 15 cm3/hr. This means that att=5 the volume is changing in
such a way that, if the rate were constant, then an hour later there would be 15 cm3 more air in
the balloon than there was at t=5

We do need to be careful here however. In reality there probably won’t be 15 cm3 more air in the
balloon after an hour. The rate at which the volume is changing is generally not constant so we
can’t make any real determination as to what the volume will be in another hour. What we can
say is that the volume is increasing, since the instantaneous rate of change is positive, and if we
had rates of change for other values of t

we could compare the numbers and see if the rate of change is faster or slower at the other
points.

For instance, at t=4

the instantaneous rate of change is 0 cm3/hr and at t=3

the instantaneous rate of change is -9 cm3/hr. We’ll leave it to you to check these rates of change.
In fact, that would be a good exercise to see if you can build a table of values that will support
our claims on these rates of change.
Anyway, back to the example. At t=4

the rate of change is zero and so at this point in time the volume is not changing at all. That
doesn’t mean that it will not change in the future. It just means that exactly at t=4 the volume
isn’t changing. Likewise, at t=3 the volume is decreasing since the rate of change at that point is
negative. We can also say that, regardless of the increasing/decreasing aspects of the rate of
change, the volume of the balloon is changing faster at t=5 than it is at t=3

since 15 is larger than 9.

We will be talking a lot more about rates of change when we get into the next chapter.

Velocity Problem

Let’s briefly look at the velocity problem. Many calculus books will treat this as its own
problem. We however, like to think of this as a special case of the rate of change problem. In the
velocity problem we are given a position function of an object, f(t)

, that gives the position of an object at time t

. Then to compute the instantaneous velocity of the object we just need to recall that the velocity
is nothing more than the rate at which the position is changing.

In other words, to estimate the instantaneous velocity we would first compute the average
velocity,

A.V.=change in positiontime traveled=f(t)−f(a)t−a

and then take values of t

closer and closer to t=a

and use these values to estimate the instantaneous velocity.

Change of Notation

There is one last thing that we need to do in this section before we move on. The main point of
this section was to introduce us to a couple of key concepts and ideas that we will see throughout
the first portion of this course as well as get us started down the path towards limits.

Before we move into limits officially let’s go back and do a little work that will relate both (or all
three if you include velocity as a separate problem) problems to a more general concept.

First, notice that whether we wanted the tangent line, instantaneous rate of change, or
instantaneous velocity each of these came down to using exactly the same formula. Namely,
f(x)−f(a)x−a(1)

This should suggest that all three of these problems are then really the same problem. In fact this
is the case as we will see in the next chapter. We are really working the same problem in each of
these cases the only difference is the interpretation of the results.

In preparation for the next section where we will discuss this in much more detail we need to do
a quick change of notation. It’s easier to do here since we’ve already invested a fair amount of
time into these problems.

In all of these problems we wanted to determine what was happening at x=a

. To do this we chose another value of x and plugged into. For what we were doing here that is
probably most intuitive way of doing it. However, when we start looking at these problems as a
single problem

will not be the best formula to work with.

What we’ll do instead is to first determine how far from x=a

we want to move and then define our new point based on that decision. So, if we want to move a
distance of h from x=a the new point would be x=a+h

. This is shown in the sketch below.

As we saw in our work above it is important to take values of x

that are both sides of x=a. This way of choosing new value of x will do this for us as we can see
in the sketch above. If h>0 we will get value of x that are to the right of x=a and if h<0 we will
get values of x that are to the left of x=a and both are given by x=a+h

Now, with this new way of getting a second value of x

will become,
f(x)−f(a)x−a=f(a+h)−f(a)a+h−a=f(a+h)−f(a)h

Now, this is for a specific value of x

, i.e.x=a and we’ll rarely be looking at these at specific values of x. So, we take the final step in
the above equation and replace the a with x

to get,

f(x+h)−f(x)h

This gives us a formula for a general value of x

and on the surface it might seem that this is going to be an overly complicated way of
dealing with this stuff. However, as we will see it will often be easier to deal with this
form than it will be to deal with the original form.

2. Limits
. To understand what limits are, let's look at an example. We start with the function
f(x)=x+2f(x)=x+2f(x)=x+2f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, equals, x, plus, 2.

The limit of ffff at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is the value ffff approaches as we get closer and closer
to x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3. Graphically, this is the yyyy-value we approach when we look at the
graph of ffff and get closer and closer to the point on the graph where x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3.
For example, if we start at the point (1,3)(1,3)(1,3)left parenthesis, 1, comma, 3, right parenthesis
and move on the graph until we get really close to x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3, then our yyyy-value
(i.e. the function's value) gets really close to 5555.
Created with Similarly, if we start at (5,7)(5,7)(5,7)left parenthesis, 5, comma, 7, right
parenthesis and move to the left until we get really close to x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3, the yyyy-

value again will be rea

Created with.
For these reasons we say that the limit of ffff at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is 5555.

You might be asking yourselves what's the difference between the limit of ffff at x=3x=3x=3x,
equals, 3 and the value of ffff at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3, i.e. f(3)f(3)f(3)f, left parenthesis, 3,
right parenthesis.
So yes, the limit of f(x)=x+2f(x)=x+2f(x)=x+2f, left parenthesis, x, right parenthesis, equals, x,
plus, 2 at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is equal to f(3)f(3)f(3)f, left parenthesis, 3, right parenthesis,
but this isn't always the case. To understand this, let's look at function gggg. This function is the
same as ffff in every way except that it's undefined at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3.
Well, you can look at gggg as if it's a piecewise function:
g(x)={x+2if x≠3undefinedif x=3g(x)=\begin{cases} x+2&\text{if }x\neq 3 \\\\
\text{undefined}&\text{if }x=3 \end{cases}g(x)=⎩⎪⎨⎪⎧x+2undefinedif x≠3if x=3
You can also define gggg to be the rational function x2−x−6x−3\dfrac{x^2-x-6}{x-
3}x−3x2−x−6start fraction, x, start superscript, 2, end superscript, minus, x, minus, 6, divided
by, x, minus, 3, end fraction. This function isn't defined at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3, because this
results in a division by zero. On the other hand, it simplifies into ffff:
g(x)=x2−x−6x−3=(x+2)(x−3)x−3=x+2, for x≠3\begin{aligned} g(x)&=\dfrac{x^2-x-6}{x-3} \\\\
&=\dfrac{(x+2)\cancel{(x-3)}}{\cancel{x-3}} \\\\ &=x+2, \text{ for }x\neq 3 \end{aligned}g(x)
=x−3x2−x−6=x−3(x+2)(x−3)=x+2, for x≠3
Just like ffff, the limit of gggg at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is 5555. That's because we can still get
very very close to x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 and the function's values will get very very close to
5555.

So the limit of gggg at x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is equal to 5555, but the value of gggg at
x=3x=3x=3x, equals, 3 is undefined! They are not the same!
That's the beauty of limits: they don't depend on the actual value of the function at the limit.
They describe how the function behaves when it gets close to the limit.

Kekurangan dan Kelebihan Buku

1. Kekurangan

Cover buku kalkulus ini terlihat kurang menarik karena semua berbentuk tulisan. Kemudian pada
bagian penyelesaian soal-soal tidak dijelaskan secara rinci sehingga akan membuat pembaca
yang baru mempelajari buku ini akan kesulitan untuk memahami penyelesaian tersebut.

2. Kelebihan

Buku ini sangat membantu mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan elektro karena sudah dilengkapi
dengan materi-materi yang mengacu pada mata kuliah pengantar matematika untuk elektro.
Selain itu, di dalam buku ini juga sudah dituliskan soal-soal untuk latihan para mahasiswa dan
disertai dengan penyelesaiannya di halaman belakang buku. Materi yang dituliskan di dalam
buku ini juga ditulis dengan bahasa yang baku dan lugas. Selain materi, di dalam buku ini juga
terdapat grafik-grafik yang mempermudah pembaca untuk memahami materinya. Kemudian di
buku ini apabila terdapat kata-kata yang merupakan kunci dari penyelesaian, kata kunci tersebut
di tuliskan lebih tebal dari kata yang lainnya. Hal itu membuat pembaca akan mengingat kata
kunci tersebut. Dan yang tidak kalah penting yaitu di dalam setiap babnya terdapat rangkuman
yang dituliskan dengan jelas dan singkat sehingga membantu pembaca untuk menyimpulkan
materi yang terdapat dalam masing-masing bab.
 BAB 3
CRITICAL
Kelebihan Buku

Buku ini sangat membantu mahasiswa jurusan pendidikan elektro karena sudah
dilengkapi dengan materi-materi yang mengacu pada mata kuliah pengantar matematika untuk
elektro. Selain itu, di dalam buku ini juga sudah dituliskan soal-soal untuk latihan para
mahasiswa dan disertai dengan penyelesaiannya di halaman belakang buku. Materi yang
dituliskan di dalam buku ini juga ditulis dengan bahasa yang baku dan lugas. Selain materi, di
dalam buku ini juga terdapat grafik-grafik yang mempermudah pembaca untuk memahami
materinya. Kemudian di buku ini apabila terdapat kata-kata yang merupakan kunci dari
penyelesaian, kata kunci tersebut di tuliskan lebih tebal dari kata yang lainnya. Hal itu membuat
pembaca akan mengingat kata kunci tersebut. Dan yang tidak kalah penting yaitu di dalam setiap
babnya terdapat rangkuman yang dituliskan dengan jelas dan singkat sehingga membantu
pembaca untuk menyimpulkan materi yang terdapat dalam masing-masing bab.

Kekurangan Buku

Cover buku kalkulus ini terlihat kurang menarik karena semua berbentuk tulisan. Kemudian pada
bagian penyelesaian soal-soal tidak dijelaskan secara rinci sehingga akan membuat pembaca
yang baru mempelajari buku ini akan kesulitan untuk memahami penyelesaian tersebut.
 BAB 4

PENUTUP

Kesimpulan