1

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1. General
Transportation is a very important role to play in general development of the
country and special in its economic development. A properly designed highway
requires a well-designed drainage system. The aim in highway drainage is to prevent
on-site water standing on the surface and convey the off-site storm runoff from one
side of the roadway to the other. To accomplish the off-site drainage either a culvert
or bridge can be used. A culvert is a hydraulically short conduit which conveys
stream flow through a roadway embankment or past some other type of flow
obstruction. Culverts, as distinguished from bridges, are usually covered with
embankment and are composed of structural material around the entire perimeter,
although some are supported on spread footings with the streambed or concrete riprap
channel serving as the bottom of the culvert. Bridges, on the other hand, are not
covered with embankment or designed to take advantage of submergence to increase
hydraulic capacity, even though some are designed to be inundated under flood
conditions.
A culvert conveys surface water through a roadway embankment or away
from the highway right-of-way. Culverts are considered minor structures, but they are
of great importance to adequate drainage and the integrity of the facility.

Structures 20 feet or wider in centerline length between extreme ends of

openings are considered as bridges for purpose of the bridge inventory. Small
structures are defined as structures from 5 feet up to 20 feet in centerline length
between extreme ends of openings. These may be either bridges or culverts. The
culvert width should be about the same as the bankfull width for the reference section.
Culverts are constructed from a variety of materials and are available in many
different shapes and configurations. There are many highway road in Myanmar,
among them Yangon-Mandalay road is one the major highway road. The project site
is situated in Medi village, Nay Pyi Taw Region and located on the Hotel zone-
 2

Ayinlo road. This road is connected to Yangon-Mandalay road. Culvert is constructed

across the Medi chaung near the Medi village. The location map of the study is as
shown in Figure 1.1.

1.2. Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are as follows:
(1) To perform hydraulic analysis on culvert design
(2) To convey the off-site stormwater runoff from one side of the road to the other
(3) To prevent on-site water standing on the road surface

1.3. Scope of the Study

The scope of the study is as follows:
(1) Regional rainfall depth-duration frequency curve for Basin VI is used.
(2) 24 hour maximum rainfall for fifty years return period is used for
estimation of runoff.
(3) SCS method is used for estimation of design discharge.
(4) Manning’s equation and Energy equation are used for hydraulic analysis.
(5) The concrete box shape is considered in this study area.

1.4. Outlines of the Study

There are five chapters in this study. Chapter one presents the introduction of
the study. The hydrologic study for culvert design is described in Chapter two.
Chapter three describes hydraulic design considerations of highway culverts. Chapter
four is hydraulic design of highway culvert. Chapter five contains discussion,
conclusion and recommendations.
 3

Ca Case study area

fddddFigure 1.1. Location Map of the Study Area

 4

CHAPTER 2
HYDROLOGIC STUDY FOR CULVERT DESIGN

2.1. General
A properly designed highway requires a well-designed drainage system. This
requires a determination of the quantity of runoff reaching the drainage structures and
an accurate analysis of water flow through the structures in order to properly size
them.
Hydrological analysis involves the estimation of a design flow rate based on
climatological data and watershed characteristics. This analysis is one of the most
important aspects of culvert design. Estimation of the magnitude of the maximum
flood discharge is required for the design of a number of hydraulic structures such as
spillways, bridges, culverts, drainage works. Since statistical uncertainties are
inherent in hydrologic analysis, the results of the analysis are not as accurate as the
results of the hydraulic analysis of a culvert. Nonetheless, both of these analyses are
required, and the hydrologic study must be performed first.

2.2. Hydrology

The science of hydrology is concerned with the intensity of rainfall, the

distribution of the flow of the rainwater over the land, and determination of the flow
quantity (peak and total) that eventually reaches some specified point, the "point of
solution". Of primary concern to the highway engineer is the frequency of occurrence
of the peak discharge. Although many methods for determining runoff have been
proposed the years, making an accurate prediction is difficult, because of the many
and varying parameters that contribute to the complexity of the problem. These
parameters include the affected drainage area, the rainfall intensity, the time of
concentration of the rainfall and the percent of the rainfall that will actually reach the
point of solution. In addition the difficulty in forecasting flows due to inaccuracies in
measuring and predicting above parameters, different techniques that are commonly
 5

used to predict flow may produce significantly different results for a specific site and
situation.

2.2.1. Watershed Characteristics

The size of the watershed basin is the most important characteristics affecting
the determination of the total runoff. It is generally measured in acres, square miles,
or square kilometers and is defined by the limits of the topographic divide.
The shape of the watershed primarily affects the rate of water flow to the
main channel. Because the rainfall in narrow watersheds reaches the main stream
relatively quickly, a narrow basin generally has a low peak discharge compared with a
fan or pear-shaped basin of otherwise similar characteristics.
The main effect the slope has on water flow is on the time of concentration, or
the time it takes the rainfall to flow from the farthest point in the watershed to the
point under consideration. Everything else being equal, steeper slopes cause a shorter
time of concentration, and thus a higher peak discharge, than do flatter slopes.
The use of the land and the type of surface the precipitation falls upon have an
obvious impact on the flow of water. Developed areas covered by asphalt or concrete
will allow a much greater percentage of the rainfall to flow to the point under
deliberation than will an undeveloped vegetated area.
The final characteristic of the watershed basin is orientation. Taking into
account the slope of the basin, if it is north or south-facing, the runoff may be
affected. Basin orientation for small, steep basins also affects the peak rates of runoff.
Where these basin types are in line with prevailing storm movements, the watershed
responds with higher, shorter peak discharges [87Wri].

2.2.2. Peak Design Flow

As a flood wave passes a point along a stream, the flow increases to a
maximum and then recedes. The maximum flow rate is called the peak flow. The peak
flow has been, and continues to be a major factor in the culvert design process. In
traditional culvert design, a structure is sized to pass a peak flow from one side of the
roadway embankment to the other with an acceptable headwater elevation. The
magnitude of the peak flow is dependent upon the selection of a return period. The
assignment of a return period is generally based on the importance of the roadway and
flood damage potential [78Ano].
 6

2.3. Methods of Estimation of Maximum Flood

A flood represents an unusual high stage in a river such that the river
overflows its banks and, thus, inundates the adjoining land. For the design of
hydraulic structures, the magnitude of maximum flood that can be expected with an
assigned frequency during the life of the structure is essential. To estimate maximum
flood discharge, the following methods can be used.
(1) Empirical methods
(2) Rational method
(3) Flood frequency methods
(4) Unit hydrograph method, etc.
The choice of a method for estimation of the peak flood primarily depends
upon the importance of the work and available data [04Ken].

2.3.1. Empirical Methods

Various investigators gave empirical formulae for the determination of the
peak discharge. However, these formulae are applicable only for the type of
catchment and region for which they were developed. The following formulae are
commonly used.
Dicken’s formula:
Q = CA3/4 (2.1)
Where,
Q = Maximum flood discharge (cumecs)
A = Catchment area (km2)
C = Dicken’s coefficient
The value of C should be selected based on the local experience. The formula
is occasionally used for catchments of moderate size.
Meyer’s formula:

Q = 176 PA½ (2.2)

Where,
Q = CA0.8 = The yearly average if 24 hour flood (cumecs)
A = Catchment area (km2)
P = Coefficient which depends on the frequency of flood, with a maximum
value of unity.
 7

2.3.2. Rational Method

A rational method has been primarily used for design problems for small urban
areas such as the sizing of inlets and culverts, which are characterized by small
drainage areas and short time of concentration.
The basic assumptions of the rational method are:
(1) all basis parameters, such as the length of the river, the slope, roughness, the
space variation of precipitation, and the parameters of basin losses, are
averaged and generalized over the basin or along the main river valley;
(2) the flow is concentrated from the whole basin;
(3) the duration of rainfall that constitutes the maximum peak flood corresponds to
the duration of the design storm with maximum intensity, which is equal to the
duration of flow concentration.
Qp = 1.008 CAIc (2.3)
Where,
Qp = Maximum flood discharge (cumecs)
C = Runoff coefficient
A = Catchment area (acre)
Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall (cm/hr)
The value of runoff coefficient is a function of the land use, cover condition,
soil group, and watershed slope [59Cho].

2.3.3. Flood Frequency Methods

In Flood Frequency method, the observed data of the past floods is used to
predict the future floods of a particular probability or return period. Flood Frequency
analysis is the most frequently used procedure for analysis at a gauged location.
The analysis is based on the premise that the flood is a random phenomenon,
and therefore, the mathematical theory of probability can be used to analyze the data.
For the frequency analysis, adequate and reliable flood data should be
available. The record of a period shorter than 20-25 years would not give reliable
results. The longer the period of record, the better and the more reliable the frequency
analysis . Moreover, the data should be homogeneous. If the data are affected by
changes in watershed characteristics, they should be adjusted before the analysis.
Flood frequency analysis is based on the assumption that one or several
 8

samples of flood records belong to statistical population, that the probability

distribution of this underlying population can be estimated from the samples.
Frequency analysis methods may be used if the design flood lies within the
acceptable degree of extrapolation of the available stream flow records. It may also be
used as an aid to the estimation of design floods for projects where the unit
hydrograph method cannot be used for limitation of adequate data [02Mar].

2.3.4. Unit Hydrograph Method

The unit hydrograph of a watershed is defined as a direct runoff hydrograph
(DRH) resulting from 1 in of excess rainfall generated uniformly over the drainage
area at a constant rate for an effective duration. A unit hydrograph for a given
catchment can be calculated either directly, by using rainfall runoff data for selected
events, or indirectly, by using a synthetic unit hydrograph formula. While both
methods can be used for gaged catchments, only the latter method is appropriate for
ungaged catchments. The design flood estimation by the unit hydrograph method is
fairly tally with those worked out by other methods and appears to be reasonable for
the catchment. This method can be used in small and medium size catchments which
are less than 5000km2.
Once a unit hydrograph has been determined satisfactorily for a catchment
area, it can be used as a tool to obtain storm hydrograph from measured rainfall
amounts. The unit hydrograph is a simple model that can be used to derive the
hydrograph resulting from any amount of excess rainfall.
The unit hydrograph method has become useful and powerful tool for the
flood calculation. Application of the unit hydrograph which is to obtain a flood
hydrograph assumed that the storm rainfall is uniformly distributed over the
catchment.
In the absence of rainfall-runoff data, unit hydrographs can be derived by
synthetic means. The methods used to develop synthetic unit hydrographs are
generally empirical and depend upon various watershed size, slope, land use and soil
type. This unit hydrograph was developed based on the analysis of a large number of
natural unit hydrograph from ride range of catchment sizes and geographic locations.
Methods for the calculation of synthetic unit hydrographs are:
(1) Synder method
(2) Soil conservation service method (SCS Method) [87Cho]
 9

2.3.4.1. Soil conservation service method (SCS Method)

The SCS synthetic unit hydrograph is the dimensionless unit hydrograph. This
hydrograph was developed, being based on the analysis of a large number of natural
unit hydrographs from a wide range of catchment sizes and geographic locations. The
only parameters required by the method are the peak discharge and the time to peak.
The travel time of water from hydraulically most distance point in the watershed to
the point of interest is defined as the time of concentration and it can be computed by
using the following equation [87Cho].
0.385
 11.9L3 
Tc =   (2.4)
 H 
Where,
Tc = Time of concentration (hour)
L = Length of longest watercourse from outlet to divide (mile)
H = Elevation difference (ft)

For case study area, the drainage area (A) is 6 square mile, length of the
longest watercourse from outlet to divide (L) is 3.5 mile, the divide elevation of the
catchments is 348 ft and the outlet elevation is 314 ft.
From these data, the time of concentration is calculated by Equation 2.4.
For case study area , Tc = 2.83 hr
So Tc is taken as 3 hours.
SCS method based their calculations on the ratio of actual time base to time-
to-peak. The time-to-peak can be calculated using the following equation.
Tp = 0.5D + 0.6Tc (2.5)
Where,

Tp = Time-to-peak (hour)
Tc = Time of concentration (hour)
D = Rainfall duration (hour)
The theoretical unit duration of the unit hydrograph (D) is always taken as 1
hour. So, Tp= 2.3 hours. Take Tp= 3 hours.
In the SCS method, peak flow formula is:

484A
Qp = (2.6)
Tp
 10

Where,
Qp = Unit hydrograph peak flow for 1 in of effective rainfall (ft3/s)
A = Catchment area (square miles)
Tp = Time-to-peak (hour)
By substituting A =6 sq-miles and Tp = 3 hours in Equation 2.6, Qp = 968 ft3/s is

obtained. Then one hour unit hydrograph by SCS method can be constructed by using
Qp = 968 cusecs and Tp = 3 hours. The computation of one hour unit hydrograph is

shown in Table 2.1.

The time and discharge obtained from Table 2.1 are plotted to form one hour
unit hydrograph. Figure 2.1 shows one hour unit hydrograph for case study area.

1200

1000
Discharge (ft3/s)

800

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (hr)

Figure 2.1. One Hour Unit Hydrograph for Case Study Area

The design time TD must be greater or equal the concentration time Tc. As the
estimated time of concentration is about 3 hours, the design time TD is taken as 4

hours.
tr 2
 (2.7)
TD 15

The unit hydrograph duration tr is computed by the equation 2.7 (SCS synthetic
unit hydrograph) to adjust rainfall duration.
 11

By substituting TD = 4 hours, the value of tr is obtained as 0.53 hour. So the

value of tr is taken as 1 hour.
 12

Table 2.1. SCS Dimensionless Unit Hydrograph Ordinates [87Cho]

Time ‘T’ Discharge ‘Q’ Time

Time Discharge Discharge
T/Tp x 3 Q/Qpx968
T/Tp Q/Qp Interval (ft3/s)
(hours) 3
(ft /s) (hours)

0 0 0 0 0 0

0.1 0.015 0.3 14.52 1 194

0.2 0.075 0.6 72.6 2 746
0.3 0.16 0.9 154.88 3 968
0.4 0.28 1.2 271.04 4 784
0.5 0.43 1.5 416.24 5 497
0.6 0.6 1.8 580.8 6 310
0.7 0.77 2.1 745.36 7 194
0.8 0.89 2.4 861.52 8 116
0.9 0.97 2.7 938.96 9 73
1.0 1.0 3.0 968 10 47
1.1 0.98 3.3 948.64 11 30
1.2 0.92 3.6 890.56 12 18
1.3 0.84 3.9 813.12 13 12
1.4 0.75 4.2 726 14 8

1.5 0.66 4.5 638.88 15 4

1.6 0.56 4.8 542.08

1.8 0.42 5.4 406.56
2.0 0.32 6.0 309.76
2.2 0.24 6.6 232.32
2.4 0.18 7.2 174.24
2.6 0.13 7.8 125.84
2.8 0.098 8.4 94.864
3.0 0.075 9.0 72.6
3.5 0.036 10.5 34.848
4.0 0.018 12.0 17.424
4.5 0.009 13.5 8.712
5.0 0.004 15.0 3.872
 13

2.4. Calculation of Design Discharge

Design flood is the flood adopted for the design of a hydraulic structure.
Smaller structures such as culverts, storm drainage systems can be designed for
relatively small floods (i.e., more frequent floods) as the consequences of a higher
than design flood may only cause temporary inconvenience and some repair works
without any loss of life and property.

2.4.1. Development of Design Flood Hydrograph

Myanmar can be divided into ten homogeneous regions as shown in Figure
2.2. The project site is situated in the Basin VI. The regional dimensionless frequency
curve for Basin VI is used to estimate the critical rainfall excess sequence and as
shown in Table 2.2.
The 24 hour maximum rainfall can be estimated as follow:
RT = R5 x Rp (2.8)
Where,
RT = The 24 hour maximum rainfall for desired return period (inches)
R5 = Five years 24 hour maximum rainfall which is given in Table 2.2
Rp = The ratio of rainfall for desired return period to R5 which is given in
Table 2.2
The point rainfall depth can be estimated as follow:
Rt = RT × R (2.9)
Where,
Rt = The point rainfall depth for desired return period (inches)
R = The ratio of the “D” minute duration depth to the 24 hour depth
From Figure 2.2, R can be expressed as follow:
0.3
R =  D  (2.10)
1440 
 

Where,
D = The rainfall duration (minutes)
Substituting in Equation 2.9, and simplifying, the cumulative rainfall depth is
0.3
 D 
Rt = RT ×   (2.11)
1440 
 14

˷˷˷˷

INDIA
CHINA

SCALE
BANGLADESH

1 Inch = 80 Miles

LAOS

THAILAND

LEGEND
RIVER BASIN
BOUNDARY
RAINFALL
COCO ISLANDS ISOHYETS

Figure 2.2. Ten Homogenous Regions of Myanmar [83Tin]

 15

Table 2.2. Regional Dimensionless Frequency Curve for Basin VI [83Tin]

Ratio RT / R5
5 years
Rainfall 24 hour
Item
Station rainfall 10 20 50 100
(inches)

1 Taungoo 4.73 1.15 1.29 1.50 1.64

2 Shwegyin 5.60 1.17 1.33 1.58 1.60
3 Tatkon 3.91 1.19 1.38 1.61 1.79
4 Yadashe 3.70 1.17 1.30 1.62 1.83
5 Nyaunglabin 5.30 1.16 1.32 1.53 1.68
6 Thandaung 6.53 1.17 1.28 1.55 1.72
Regional 1.17 1.32 1.57 1.71
curve

One day maximum point rainfall for different return periods is computed by
multiplying ratio of rainfall RT/R5 with five years 24 hour rainfall, R5, and it is

shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3. Computation of One Day Maximum Rainfall

Return Period Ratio of Rainfall One Day Maximum
R5
(years) RT/ R5 Rainfall(inch)

10 3.91 1.19 4.65

20 3.91 1.38 5.39

50 3.91 1.61 6.29

100 3.91 1.79 6.99

 16

The computation of ratio of design rainfall duration to 24 hours maximum

rainfall depth and point rainfall for different return periods is shown in Table 2.4. To
obtain the point rainfall for different return periods, ratio of design rainfall duration to
24 hours maximum rainfall depth is multiplied with one day maximum rainfall from
Tabel 2.3. Probable four hour design point rainfall for different return periods are
shown in Table 2.5.

Table 2.4. Computation of Point Rainfall with respect to Duration

D(min) R R10 R20 R50 R100

60 0.385 1.79 2.08 2.43 2.69

120 0.475 2.21 2.56 2.98 3.32

180 0.536 2.49 2.89 3.37 3.75

240 0.584 2.72 3.15 3.67 4.08

Table 2.5. Probable Four Hour Design Point Rainfall

Return One Day Adopted Four Hour Design Storm in inches
Period Maximum
(years) Rainfall(inch) 1st hr 2nd hr 3rd hr 4th hr Total

10 4.65 1.79 0.42 0.28 0.23 2.72

20 5.39 2.08 0.48 0.33 0.26 3.15

50 6.29 2.43 0.56 0.39 0.3 3.68

100 6.99 2.69 0.63 0.42 0.33 4.07

Depth-Area Duration is shown in Figure 2.3. In this study, design time TD is 4

hours. So, the reduction factor 0.985 (98.5%) is obtained from Figure 2.3. By
multiplying this factor, one day maximum point rainfall for different return periods is
converted to obtain areally distributed rainfall shown in Table 2.6. A constant loss
rate of about 0.01 inch per hour is assumed to obtain the excess rainfall as shown in
Table 2.7. Table 2.8 shows judicially allocated four hour design rainfall excess series.
 17

Figure 2.3. Depth-Area Duration [87Cho]

Table 2.6. Areally Distributed Design Storms for Different Return Periods

Return One Day Adopted Four Hour Design Storm in inches

Period Maximum
(years) Rainfall(inch) 1st hr 2nd hr 3rd hr 4th hr Total

10 4.65 1.76 0.41 0.27 0.22 2.67

20 5.39 2.05 0.47 0.32 0.26 3.10

50 6.29 2.39 0.55 0.38 0.29 3.61

100 6.99 2.65 0.61 0.41 0.32 3.99

Reduction of point rainfall to areal rainfall

 18

Table 2.7. Spatially Distributed Four Hour Design Rainfall Excess Series
Return One Day Adopted Four Hour Design Storm in inches
Period Maximum
1st hr 2nd hr 3rd hr 4th hr Total
(years) Rainfall(inch)
10 4.65 1.75 0.40 0.26 0.21 2.65
20 5.39 2.04 0.46 0.31 0.25 3.09
50 6.29 2.38 0.54 0.37 0.28 3.60
100 6.99 2.64 0.60 0.40 0.31 3.98
Assume constant loss of rate: 0.01 in/hr

Table 2.8. Judicially Allocated Four Hour Design Rainfall Excess Series
Return One Day
Adopted Four Hour Design Storm in inches
Period Maximum
(years) Rainfall(inch) 1st hr 2nd hr 3rd hr 4th hr Total

10 4.65 0.26 0.40 1.75 0.21 2.64

20 5.39 0.31 0.46 2.04 0.25 3.09
50 6.29 0.37 0.54 2.38 0.28 3.60
100 6.99 0.40 0.60 2.64 0.31 3.98

2.4.2. Selection of Return Period

Large floods naturally have large return period and vice versa. It is generally
based on the importance of the roadway and flood damage potential. There are
different return periods for various structures such as dam, spillway, culvert, etc. The
magnitude of peak flow is dependent upon the selection of a return period.
The generalized design return period for highway culverts are:
Low traffic - 5 to 10 years
Intermediate traffic - 10 to 25 years
High traffic - 50 to 100 years [87Cho].

As Hotel Zone- Ayinlo road is one of the major highway roads in Myanmar, it
is assumed as high traffic road. So, 50 years return period is selected for the design of
highway culverts. Table 2.9. shows the composite design flood hydrographs for 50
years return periods. In Table 2.9, column 1 shows the time in hour, column 2 shows
the unit hydrograph ordinates in ft3 /s and column 3 shows the product of the 1st hour
 19

rainfall depth times the unit hydrograph ordinates. Column 4 shows the product of the
2nd hour rainfall depth times the unit hydrograph ordinates and lagged 1 hour with
respect to column 3. Base flow is assumed as 60 ft3 /s. Base flow is shown in column
7. Column 8 is the sum of column 3 through 7 and it is the composite hydrograph for
the given storm pattern. The maximum floods for 50 years return period is 3200 ft3 /s.

Table 2.9. Adopted Composite Design Flood Hydrograph at 50 Years Return Period
Composite Inflow Design Flood
Unit Hydrograph
Base Total
Time Hydrograph st nd rd th
1 2 3 4 Flow Discharge
(hr) Ordinate
hour hour hour hour (ft3 /s) (ft3 /s)
3
(ft /s) UH x UH x UH x UH x
0.37 0.54 2.38 0.28
0 0 0 60 60
1 194 72.556 0 60 132.55
2 746 279.00 105.34 0 60 444.34
3 968 362.03 405.07 461.72 0 60 1288.80
4 784 293.21 525.62 1775.48 55.29 60 2709.60
5 497 185.87 425.71 2303.84 212.61 60 3188.00
6 310 115.94 269.87 1865.92 275.88 60 2587.00
7 194 72.55 168.33 1182.86 223.44 60 1707.10
8 116 43.38 105.34 737.85 141.64 60 1088.10
9 73 27.30 62.98 461.72 88.35 60 700.36
10 47 17.57 39.63 276.08 55.29 60 448.58
11 30 11.22 25.52 173.74 33.06 60 303.54
12 18 6.73 16.29 111.86 20.805 60 215.68
13 12 4.48 9.77 71.45 13.395 60 159.05
14 8 2.99 6.51 42.84 8.55 60 120.89
15 4 1.49 4.34 28.56 5.13 60 99.53
16 0 0 2.17 19.04 3.42 60 84.63
17 0 9.52 2.28 60 71.80
18 0 1.14 60 61.14
19 0 60 60
20