The IIOAB Journal

SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ISSN: 0976-3104

REVIEW ARTICLE

ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT, AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SUDAN

Abdeen Omer1
Energy Research Institute (ER), Nottingham NG7 4EU, UK
Th th th th
Received on: 9 -Aug-2010; Revised on: 18 -Oct-2010; Accepted on: 5 -Dec-2010; Published on: 20 Jan-2011.
*
Corresponding author: Email: abdeenomer2@yahoo.co.uk Tel: +44-115 9513163; Fax: +44-115 9513159

_____________________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Application of new and renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major issue in the
future energy strategic planning for the alternative to the fossil conventional energy to provide part
of the local energy demand. Like many of the African leaders in renewable energy utilisation,
Sudan has a well-defined commitment to continue research, development, and implementation of
new technologies. Sustainable low-carbon energy scenarios for the new century emphasise the
untapped potential of renewable resources are needed. Rural areas of Sudan can benefit from this
transition. The increased availability of reliable and efficient energy services stimulates new
development alternatives. It is concluded that renewable environmentally friendly energy must be
encouraged, promoted, implemented, and demonstrated by full-scale plant especially for use in
remote rural areas.
.

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Keywords: Sudan; energy; impacts on environment; sustainable development

[I] INTRODUCTION
This section is an introduction to the energy problem and the
possible savings that can be achieved through improving energy
performance and the use of solar energy sources. The relevance
and importance of the study is discussed in the section, which,
also, highlights the objectives of the study, and the scope of the
article. Energy issues affect every aspect of modern society.
These issues have been of primary concern, since the second oil
crisis and the Gulf War. Energy problems are associated with
distribution, access and security of supply. Particularly for the
energy-deficient countries and remote islands/areas, renewable
energy appears to be sustainable and a clean source of energy
derived from nature [1]. The utilisation of available renewable
energy sources like solar, wind and biomass energy is of
practical importance for future socio-economic development of
the country. Sudan is an agricultural country with fertile land,
plenty of water resources, livestock, forestry resources and
agricultural residues. Energy is one of the key factors for the
development of national economies in the Sudan. Energy sources
are divided into two main types; conventional energy (woody
biomass, petroleum products and electricity); and non-
conventional energy (solar, wind, hydro, etc.). Sudan possesses a
relatively high abundance of sunshine, solar radiation, moderate
wind speeds, hydro and biomass energy resources. Application of
the new and renewable sources of energy available in the Sudan
is a major issue in the future strategic planning for an alternative
to the fossil conventional energy to provide part of the local
energy demand. Sudan is an important case study in the context
of renewable energy. It has a long history of meeting its energy
needs through renewables. Sudan’s renewables portfolio is broad
and diverse, due in part to the country’s wide range of climates
and landscapes. Like many of the African leaders in renewable
energy utilisation, Sudan has a well-defined commitment to
continue research, development and implementation of new
technologies.
As for example, ‘‘climate change is a hot issue in world
politics’’. The use of fossil fuel is seen as a cause of critical
global warming. Long-term energy options currently considered
include the petroleum, electricity, and biomass. Sustainability is
increasingly becoming an element of world politics, although
there is not yet agreement on a clear definition and indicators are
still not yet fully agreed upon that would effectively enable the
establishment of the sustainable development, which is so
eagerly sought. However, the snowball is rolling: the process of
designing sustainable development has started, and it is only a
matter of political will, negotiations and time for it to accelerate,
hopefully in the right direction. The job is tough, and the variety
of stakeholders involved in today’s globalisation process makes
the whole story even more interesting and challenging. And yet,
globalisation and sustainable development are bound to become
tautological. The goal of sustainability has different meanings
and measures specific to various regions of the planet, each with

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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
their own economics, histories, and cultures. A pathway to
sustainable development that is reasonable, achievable and hence
natural in one country. Growing concerns about social and
environmental sustainability have led to increased interest in
planning for the energy utility sector because of its large resource
requirements and production of emissions. A number of
conflicting trends combine to make the energy sector a major
concern, even though a clear definition of how to measure
progress toward sustainability is lacking. These trends include
imminent competition in the electricity industry, global climate
change, expected long-term growth in population and pressure to
balance living standards (including per capital energy
consumption). Designing and implementing a sustainable energy
sector will be a key element of defining and creating a
sustainable society. In the electricity industry, the question of
strategic planning for sustainability seems to conflict with the
shorter time horizons associated with market forces as
deregulation replaces vertical integration.
Sudan is an agricultural country with fertile land, plenty of water
resources, livestock, forestry resources, and agricultural residues.
Energy is one of the key factors for the development of national
economies in Sudan. An overview of the energy situation in
Sudan is introduced with reference to the end uses and regional
distribution. Energy sources are divided into two main types;
conventional energy (woody biomass, petroleum products, and
electricity); and non-conventional energy (solar, wind, hydro,
etc.). Sudan enjoys a relatively high abundance of sunshine, solar
radiation, moderate wind speeds, hydropower, and biomass
energy resources. Sudan is an important case study in the context
of renewable energy. It has a long history of meeting its energy
needs through renewables. Sudan’s renewables portfolio is broad
and diverse, due in part to the country’s wide range of climates
and landscapes [Appendixes-1 and -2].
In developed countries, most investments in electricity
generation have paid back their initial capital costs. Research and
development of new electricity generation technologies are well
under way, and these technologies hold good promise of
achieving commercial feasibility. New investments in electricity
generation have not been aggressively pursued in recent years.
Rather, policies for existing energy infrastructures have included
improved options for more sustainable electricity generation,
e.g., less pollution, higher fuel efficiency and life extension.
However, are, at best, only interim solutions. Stakeholders
interaction is essential to create a culture of sustainability, with
educational, regulatory, economic, environmental and ethical
dimensions that can have an impact on society overall. Such a
culture of sustainability must be designed, managed and
measured in ways compatible with societal attitudes towards risk,
including changes in perspective over medium and long-term
time horizons. Risk-related concepts play a large part in what
technologies the public views as sustainable, whether it concerns
potentially large accidents from electric generation technologies,
greenhouse gas emissions, vulnerability to natural disasters, or
decommissioning and site reclamation problems. Research and
development costs and expected lead times related to electricity
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
generation, also play a role in stakeholder positions and public
attitudes [2].
There are increasing concerns but the sustainability of the energy
sector, ranging from impacts of current operation to the choice of
future options for system development. These concerns include
such issues as health and safety, environmental emissions, use of
energy and materials resources, regulated versus competitive
markets, vulnerability of electrical energy networks, cost and
equity issues among users of diverse size, and appropriate
technology for the development and commercialisation of
improved supply and end-use equipment. Such concerns span the
geographic spectrum from local issues such as cost and siting, to
regional issues like acid rain [3], state and national issues such as
deregulation and social acceptance of competing technologies,
and global issues such as climate change [4]. Decision-makers
and planners in the energy sector must address climate change
and global warming issues, and fit them into a broader
framework of national and world energy policies. The
methodological framework needed to assist decision-makers can
be generalised in part, because most of these problems share
common elements, and can be characterised by their combination
of: (1) Complexity (2) dispersed solutions (3) finite resources,
and (4) societal impacts.
The move towards a de-carbonised world, driven partly by
climate science and partly by the business opportunities it offers,
will need the promotion of environmentally friendly alternatives,
if an acceptable stabilisation level of atmospheric carbon dioxide
is to be achieved. This requires the harnessing and use of natural
resources that produce no air pollution or greenhouse gases and
provides comfortable coexistence of human, livestock, and
plants. This study reviews the energy-using technologies based
on natural resources, which are available to and applicable in the
farming industry. Globally, buildings are responsible for
approximately 40% of the total world annual energy
consumption. Most of this energy is for the provision of lighting,
heating, cooling, and air conditioning. Increasing awareness of
the environmental impact of CO2 and NOx and CFCs emissions
triggered a renewed interest in environmentally friendly cooling,
and heating technologies. Under the 1997 Montreal Protocol,
governments agreed to phase out chemicals used as refrigerants
that have the potential to destroy stratospheric ozone. It was
therefore considered desirable to reduce energy consumption and
decrease the rate of depletion of world energy reserves and
pollution of the environment. In the areas of power systems plan,
one of the most pressing problems those exemplifiers this
combination of characteristics is the intersection between:
 The rapid liberalisation of energy industries driving short-
term actions to maximise stakeholder values, and
 The possible restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions
proposed to meet the problem of global climate change.
National Electricity Corporation (NEC) had the goal of
improving electricity system planning methodological with
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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ISSN: 0976-3104

regard to sustainability. Within this broad aim, this search has
specific goals, including:
 necessary to reduce climate change. Sudan is the largest country
 To involve a wide-range of electricity sector participants,
including utilities, regulators, environmentalists, and
customers.
 To identify and implement a wider range of measures that
will be more direct indicators of sustainability than the
current response impacts and pollutant outputs.
 To create improved electricity sector modeling tools that
simulate electricity system operation under competition,
and include transmission and distribution effects more
directly into strategic planning.
 To consider technology options beyond the current next
generation.
 To increase the comprehensiveness of current life-cycle
assessment, by including broader range of technologies,
inputs and outputs are sensitive to technology choice versus
the state of underlying production and transport
infrastructures.
 To improve decision analysis tools to assist stakeholders in
reaching consensus on complex alternatives, option
portfolios, and flexible contingencies.
 To make the data and models developed for understanding
the relationship between power systems and sustainability,
available and usable through Internet access.
technologies, energy efficiency systems, energy conservation
scenarios, energy savings and other mitigation measures
of the African continent, with an area of approximately one
million square miles (2.5 x 106 km2). Sudan is a federal republic
located in eastern Africa. It extends between latitudes 3º’N and
23º’N, and longitudes 21º 45’E and 39º’E. Sudan is a relatively
sparsely populated country. The total population according to the
2009 census was 39 x 106 inhabitants. The growth rate is 2.8%/y,
and population density is 14 persons per square kilometres. The
country is divided into 26 states and a federal district, in which
the capital, Khartoum is located. Sudan is known as a country of
plentiful water, rich in land, with the highest total and renewable
supply of fresh water in the region (eastern Africa). Sudan is
considered one of the least developed countries, with a per capita
income of less than US $ 400 and a real growth rate of 0.2 % of
real gross domestic product (GDP) during the last ten years.
However, during 1980s the real growth rate of GDP was negative
mainly due to drought and desertification. The backbone of
Sudan’s economy is its agricultural sector. The agricultural
sector determines to a great extent the economic performance of
the Sudanese economy. In fact the country can be rescued by
proper organisation and utilisation of its agricultural potential.
Recent development due to rehabilitation and improvement in the
agricultural sector has raised the share to 41% [6].
Table: 2. Classifications of data requirements [7]

NEC handled wide variety of electricity generation technologies Plant data System data
[Table-1], including:
Existing data Size Peak load
Life Load shape
 Thermal (fossil, combined cycle, combustion turbines). Cost (fixed and var. Capital costs
 Storage (pumped hydro, batteries, compressed air). Operation Fuel costs
 Non-dispatchable technologies (solar, wind, cogeneration, load and Maintenance) Depreciation
Forced outage Rate of return
management). Maintenance Taxes
Efficiency
The data required to perform the trade-off analysis simulation Fuel
can be classified according to the divisions given in [Table-2] Emissions
Future data All of above, plus System lead growth
the overall system or individual plants, and the existing situation Capital costs Fuel price growth
or future development. Construction trajectory Fuel import limits
Date in service Inflation
Table: 1. Comparison between different energy consumed in
Sudan (GWh) [5] 1.2. Energy Situation in Sudan
Year Electricity Petroleum Biomass Renewable Among the renewable energy sources, biomass seems one of the
Technologies most interesting because of its share of the total energy
1975 800 550 3000 50
consumption of the Sudan is high at 87% and the techniques for
1980 900 600 3500 60
1985 1200 650 4000 100
converting it to useful energy are not necessarily sophisticated.
1990 1300 700 6000 120 Implementation of biomass-based energy programmes will not,
1995 1400 800 7000 150 of course, be a definitive solution to the country’s energy
2000 1500 900 8000 200 problem, but it will bring new insight for efficient energy use in
the household sector, especially in rural areas where more than
1.1. Geographic Profile of the Sudan 70% of the populations live (25 million). The estimates are based
on the recoverable energy potential from the main agricultural
This section comprises a comprehensive review of geographical residues, livestock farming wastes, forestry and wood processing
location of the Sudan, energy sources, the environment and residues; and municipal wastes.
sustainable development. It includes the renewable energy

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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Fuelwood, animal wastes, agricultural crop residues and logging
wastes have been used through direct burning in the Sudan for
many years. These sources are often called non-commercial
energy sources, but in the Sudan fuelwood is a tradable
commodity since it is the primary fuel of rural areas and the
urban poor section. Traditional fuels predominate in rural areas;
almost all biomass energy is consumed in the household sector
for heating, cleaning and cooking needs of rural people.
Especially in the villages (households on the high plateau) the
preparation of three stone fires is very attractive to the villagers.
In this method, food and plant residues are put in a large boiler
with water and cooked on a traditional stove at the outside the
house for animal feed, because cooked food and plant residues
are cheaper than flour and bran. Nevertheless, this method
consumes much more fuelwood than the cooking on the stoves
method. On the other hand, wood is the most practical fuel for
serving a large number of people because the size of the batch of
food is only limited by the volume of the pot and not by the size
of the stove’s burner. Fuelwood is also convenient for cooking
the meal of meat as a cutlet meatball and meat roasted on a
revolving vertical spit.
Special attention should therefore be given to reviewing forest
resources, plantation programmes and the possibilities of
substitution of fuelwood for commercial fuels or for other fuels
such as biogas. The main sources of fuelwood supply in the
country can be broadly be grouped into two main categories, i.e.,
forest sources (forests under the control of forest departments)
and non-forest sources (private farmland and wild lands).
Women, assisted by children almost always, perform the
gathering of fuelwood in rural areas of developing countries. As
fuelwood becomes scarce, which is the case in many parts of the
world, the collection time has increased and although men do not
perceive it, this has many undesirable consequences, which can
be clearly seen in many rural region of the Sudan. Women have
less time for their other important functions, such as cooking,
washing, water collection and child rearing which may affect the
nutrition and health of the entire family. Wood energy is, for
many countries, one of the few locally available sources of
energy, which they can afford. Its substitution by imported fossil
fuels, as has often been carelessly recommended, should
attentively be evaluated to avoid undesirable political, economic
and social consequences. This will also contribute to the
amelioration of environmental conditions by replacing
conventional fuels with renewable energies that produce no air
pollution or greenhouse gases. Renewable energy needs,
especially in rural areas and small communities. The role of
renewable is big in solving essential life problems especially in
rural areas for people and their resources development like the
availing of energy for the medical services for people and
animal, provision of water, education, communication and rural
small industries.
[II] ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
Environmental pollution is a major problem facing all nations of
the world. People have caused air pollution (since they learned
proceeding to use fire), but man-made air pollution
anthropogenic air pollution) has rapidly increased since
industrialisation began. Many volatile organic compounds and
trace metals are emitted into the atmosphere by human activities.
The pollutants emitted into the atmosphere do not remain
confined to the area near the source of emission or to the local
environment, and can be transported over long distances, and
create regional and global environmental problems.
A great challenge facing the global community today is to make
the industrial economy more like the biosphere, that is, to make it
a more closed system. This would save energy, reduce waste and
pollution, and reduce costs. In short, it would enhance
sustainability. Often, it is technically feasible to recycle waste in
one of several different ways. For some wastes there are
powerful arguments for incineration with energy recovery, rather
than material recycling. Cleaner production approach and
pollution control measures are needed in the recycling sector as
much as in others. The industrial sector world widely is
responsible for about one third of anthropogenic emissions of
carbon dioxide, the most important greenhouse gas. Industry is
also an important emitter of several other greenhouse gases. And
many of industry’s products emit greenhouse gases as well,
either during use or after they become waste. Opportunities exist
for substantial reducing industrial emissions through more
efficient production and use of energy. Fuel substitutions, the use
of alternative energy technologies, process modification, and by
revising materials strategies to make use of less energy and
greenhouse gas intensive materials. Industry has an additional
role to play through the design of products that use less energy
and materials and produce lower greenhouse gas emissions.
Development in the environmental sense is a rather recent
concern relating to the need to manage scarce natural resources
in a prudent manner-because human welfare ultimately depends
on ecological services. The environmental interpretation of
sustainability focuses on the overall viability and health of
ecological systems- defined in terms of a comprehensive,
multiscale, dynamic, hierarchical measure of resilience, vigour
and organisation. Natural resource degradation, pollution and
loss of biodiversity are detrimental because they increase
vulnerability, undermine system health, and reduce resilience.
The environmental issues include:
 Global and transnational (climate change, ozone layer
depletion).
 Natural habitats (forests and other ecosystems).
 Land (agricultural zones).
 Water resources (river basin, aquifer, water shed).
 Urban-industrial (metropolitan area, air-shed).
Environmental sustainability depends on several factors,
including:
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 Climate change (magnitude and frequency of shocks).
 Systems vulnerability (extent of impact damage).
 System resilience (ability to recover from impacts).
Economic importance of environmental issue is increasing, and
new technologies are expected to reduce pollution derived both
from productive processes and products, with costs that are still
unknown. This is due to market uncertainty, weak appropriability
regime, lack of a dominant design, and difficulties in
reconfiguring organisational routines. The degradation of the
global environment is one of the most serious energy issues.
Various options are proposed and investigated to mitigate climate
change, acid rain or other environmental problems. Additionally,
the following aspects play a fundamental role in developing
environmental technologies, pointing out how technological
trajectories depend both on exogenous market conditions and
endogenous firm competencies:
(1) Regulations concerning introduction of Zero Emission
Vehicles (ZEV), create market demand and business
development for new technologies.
(2) Each stage of technology development requires alternative
forms of division and coordination of innovative labour,
upstream and downstream industries are involved in new forms
of inter-firm relationships, causing a reconfiguration of product
architectures and reducing effects of path dependency.
(3) Product differentiation increases firm capabilities to plan at
the same time technology reduction and customer selection,
while meeting requirements concerning network externalities.
(4) It is necessary to find and/or create alternative funding
sources for each research, development and design stage of the
new technologies.
The Sudan energy consumption is modest by international
standards. The energy balance is dominated by biomass. Woody
biomass makes up 71 percent, petroleum products 19%, non-
woody biomass 8% and hydropower 2% [8]. The total
Consumption of the country is as low as 6.3 million tons of oil
equivalent (TOE) while the total primary supply is about 11
million TOES. This means that 43% of the energy is lost in
converting wood to charcoal. Distances transported nearly
always exceed 600 km. The major consumers are households
(78% of the total energy). The largest consumers of firewood are
brick markers. The efficiency of the traditional charcoal stoves is
as low as 16 percent. The forest cover of Sudan receded from
25% in 1956 to 12% in 2001. Sudan is a member of the club of
the 18 countries of "Least Forest Covered". Oil fields are in
Addar Yale, Bashair and Heglig. Crude from the former two is
transported by river barges and trucked respectively.
The environmental impacts of the various processes involved
have never been addressed. Further more some of the crude is
wastefully used directly as a source of energy. The contribution
of the two fields to the GNP has never been disclosed neither
have their negative impacts on the environment. The oil is
pumped from the various wells and fields through a system of
160 km of pipes the central facility at Heglig. The crude is de-
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
watered at Heglig and then piped 1610 km to the Red Sea export
terminal. The infrastructure of the operation includes an
extensive network of raised roads and five field facilities. In
addition to the central facility at Heglig, there is the airport, the
contractors' camp, the newly-founded towns of Heglig and
Keilak Al Kharassan, five pumping stations, a metering station at
El Obeid, two refineries at El Obeid and Khartoum and the large
refinery al El Gaili. Oil is a principal factor in Sudanese politics.
It is the government’s main source of income and the oil sector is
driving economic growth. Meanwhile, the oil industry is poorly
managed and highly politicised. Rather than contributing to an
environment of peace and equitable development, it remains a
source of strife and division.
[III] SUSTAINABILITY
Absolute sustainability of electricity supply is a simple concept:
no depletion of world resources and no ongoing accumulation of
residues. Relative sustainability is a useful concept in comparing
the sustainability of two or more generation technologies.
Therefore, only renewables are absolutely sustainable, and
nuclear is more sustainable than fossil. However, any discussion
about sustainability must not neglect the ability or otherwise of
the new technologies to support the satisfactory operation of the
electricity supply infrastructure. The electricity supply system
has been developed to have a high degree of resilience against
the loss of transmission circuits and major generators, as well as
unusually large and rapid load changes. It is unlikely that
consumers would tolerate any reduction in the quality of the
service, even if this were the result of the adoption of otherwise
benign generation technologies. Renewables are generally
weather-dependent and as such their likely output can be
predicted but not controlled. The only control possible is to
reduce the output below that available from the resource at any
given time. Therefore, to safeguard system stability and security,
renewables must be used in conjunction with other, controllable,
generation and with large-scale energy storage. There is a
substantial cost associated with this provision.
It is useful to codify all aspects of sustainability, thus ensuring
that all factors are taken into account for each and every
development proposal. Therefore, with the intention of
promoting debate, a sustainability matrix is presented [Table-3].
The following considerations are proposed:
(1) Long-term availability of the energy source or fuel.
(2) Price stability of energy source or fuel.
(3) Acceptability or otherwise of by-products of the generation
process.
(4) Grid services, particularly controllability of real and reactive
power output.
(5) Technological stability, likelihood of rapid technical
obsolescence.
(6) Knowledge base of applying the technology.
(7) Life of the installation – a dam may last more than 100 years,
but a gas turbine probably will not.
(8) Maintenance requirement of the plant.
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This article envisages the ways of integrated development of

combined heat and power sector in Sudan. However, the
assumptions and objectives seem to be applicable to other
Table: 3. Sustainability matrixes [9]
Power categories 1* 2* 3* 4* 5* 6* 7* 8* 9* Index

Conventional coal fired stream plant 3 1 1 5 1 1 4 3 3 22

Oil fired stream plant 2 1 1 5 3 3 4 3 3 25
Combined cycle gas turbine 2 3 2 4 4 4 4 2 4 29
Micro combined heat and power 2 3 2 4 4 4 3 2 4 29
Nuclear 4 4 3 5 4 4 3 2 3 32
Hydropower 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 4 2 39
Tidal power 5 5 5 2 5 5 5 4 2 38
Onshore wind 5 5 5 2 5 5 4 4 3 38
Offshore wind 5 5 5 2 5 5 3 4 4 38
Land-fill gases 3 5 3 1 3 4 4 3 2 28
Municipal incineration 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 36
Biomass, field and forest crops plus waste straw 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 36
Import 1 1 5 1 5 5 5 5 5 33
Hydro pumped storage - - 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 32
Electrochemical storage - - 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 29
Diesel 2 1 1 1 4 5 3 4 4 25
1* fuel availability, 2* price stability of fuel, 3* by-product acceptability, 4* grid services, 5* technological obsolescence, 6*
knowledge base, 7* life of the installation, 8* maintenance requirement, 9* infrastructure requirements.

Table: 4: Effective biomass resource utilisation

Subject Tools Constraints

Utilisation and land clearance for agriculture  Stumpage fees  Policy
expansion  Control  Fuel-wood planning
 Extension  Lack of extension
 Conversion  Institutional
 Technology
Utilisation of agricultural residues  Briquetting  Capital
 Carbonisation  Pricing
 Carbonisation and briquetting  Policy and legislation
 Fermentation  Social acceptability
 Gasification

Table: 5. Agricultural residues routes for development

Source Process Product End use
Agricultural residues Direct Combustion Rural poor
Urban household
Industrial use
Processing Briquettes Industrial use
Limited household use
Processing Carbonisation (small-scale) Rural household (self sufficiency)
Briquettes Urban fuel
Carbonisation Carbonised Energy services
Biogas Household
Fermentation Industry
Agricultural, and animal residues Direct Combustion (Save or less efficiency as wood)
Briquettes Direct combustion (Similar end use devices or improved)
Carbonisation Carbonised Use
Carbonisation Briquettes Briquettes use
Fermentation Biogas Use

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developing countries having plenty of agricultural, forest and
animal resources. The process of biomass power generation
would certainly reduce dependence on imported fossil fuel and
provides a clear indication in reducing the GHG emissions in the
environment and it could claim carbon credit more effectively.
Most of the heat is produced by large CHP plants (gas-fired
combined cycle plants using natural gas, biomass, waste or
biogas). DH is energy efficient because of the way the heat is
produced and the required temperature level is an important
factor. Buildings can be heated to temperature of 21 oC and
domestic hot water (DHW) can be supplied with a temperature of
55oC using energy sources that are most efficient when
producing low temperature levels (<95oC) for the DH water.
Most of these heat sources are CO2 neutral or emit low levels.
Only a few of these sources are available to small individual
systems at a reasonably cost, whereas DH schemes because of
the plant’s size and location can have access to most of the heat
sources and at a low cost. Low temperature DH, with return
temperatures of around 30-40oC can utilise the following heat
sources:
 Efficient use of CHP by extracting heat at low calorific
value (CV).
 Efficient use of biomass or gas boilers by condensing
heat in economisers.
 Efficient utilisation of geothermal energy.
 Direct utilisation of excess low temperature heat from
industrial processes.
 Efficient use of large-scale solar heating plants.
Heat tariffs may include a number of components such as: a
connection charge, a fixed charge and a variable energy charge.
Also, consumers may be incentivised to lower the return
temperature. Hence, it is difficult to generalise but the heat
practice for any DH company no matter what the ownership
structure can be highlighted as follows:
 To develop and maintain a development plan for the
connection of new consumers.
 To evaluate the options for least cost production of heat.
 To implement the most competitive solutions by signing
agreements with other companies or by implementing
own investment projects.
 To monitor all internal costs and with the help of
benchmarking, improve the efficiency of the company.
 To maintain a good relationship with the consumer and
deliver heat supply services at a sufficient quality.
Sustainable energy is energy that, in its production or
consumption, has minimal negative impacts on human health and
the healthy functioning of vital ecological systems, including the
global environment. It is an accepted fact that renewable energy
is a sustainable form of energy, which has attracted more
attention during recent years. A great amount of renewable
energy potential, environmental interest, as well as economic
consideration of fossil fuel consumption and high emphasis of
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
sustainable development for the future will be needed.
Explanations for the use of inefficient agricultural-environmental
polices include: the high cost of information required to measure
benefits on a site-specific basis, information asymmetries
between government agencies and farm decision makers that
result in high implementation costs, distribution effects and
political considerations [10]. Achieving the aim of agric-
environment schemes through:
 Sustain the beauty and diversity of the landscape.
 Improve and extend wildlife habitats.
 Conserve archaeological sites and historic features.
 Improve opportunities for countryside enjoyment.
 Restore neglected land or features, and create new
habitats and landscapes.
The data required to perform the trade-off analysis simulation
can be classified according to the divisions given in [Table-4]
the overall system or individual plants, and the existing situation
or future development. The effective economic utilisations of
these resources are shown in [Table-5], but their use is hindered
by many problems such as those related to harvesting, collection,
and transportation, besides the photo-sanitary control regulations.
Biomass energy is experiencing a surge in interest stemming
from a combination of factors, e.g., greater recognition of its
current role and future potential contribution as a modern fuel,
global environmental benefits, its development and
entrepreneurial opportunities, etc. Possible routes of biomass
energy development are shown in Table 11. Biomass resources
should be divided into residues or dedicated resources, the latter
including firewood and charcoal can also be produced from
forest residues [Table-6].
Table: 6. Biomass residues and current use
Type of residue Current use / availability
Wood industry waste No residues available
Vegetable crop residues Animal feed
Food processing residue Energy needs
Sorghum, millet, wheat residues Fodder, and building materials
Groundnut shells Fodder, brick making, direct fining
oil mills
Cotton stalks Domestic fuel considerable
amounts available for short period
Sugar, bagasse, molasses Fodder, energy need, ethanol
production (surplus available)
Manure Fertilizer, brick making, plastering
(Zibala)
Biomass energy includes fuelwood, agricultural residues, animal
wastes, charcoal and other fuels derived from biological sources.
It currently accounts for about 14% of world energy
consumption. Biomass is the main source of energy for many
developed and developing countries. In Sudan, energy wood is
available in the form of forest chips, fuelwood, wood waste,
wood pellets and it is also produced to a very limited extent from
willow crops in short rotation forestry. The major part of wood
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harvested in the forest area approximately 108 million hectares
ends up as energy wood directly or indirectly after having been
used for other purposes first. In 2000, the biomass share of the
total energy consumption of the country was 87%. The main
advantages are related to energy, agriculture and environment
problems, are foreseeable both at regional level and at worldwide
level and can be summarised as follows:
 Development of new know-how and production of
technological innovation.
 Reduction of dependence on import of energy and
related products.
Even with modest assumptions about the availability of land,
comprehensive fuel-wood farming programmes offer significant
energy, economic and environmental benefits. These benefits
would be dispersed in rural areas where they are greatly needed
and can serve as linkages for further rural economic
development. The nations, as a whole would benefit from
savings in foreign exchange, improved energy security, and
socio-economic improvements. With a nine-fold increase in
forest – plantation cover, the nation’s resource base would be
greatly improved. The international community would benefit
from pollution reduction, climate mitigation, and the increased
trading opportunities that arise from new income sources. The
aim of any modern biomass energy systems must be:
 To maximise yields with minimum inputs.
 Utilisation and selection of adequate plant materials and
processes.
 Optimum use of land, water, and fertiliser.
 Create an adequate infrastructure and strong R and D
base.
 Reduction of environmental impact of energy
production (greenhouse effect, air pollution, waste
degradation).
 Demand, by rational energy use, by recovering heat and
the use of more green energies.
This study was a step towards achieving that goal. The adoption
of green or sustainable approaches to the way in which society is
run is seen as an important strategy in finding a solution to the
energy problem. The key factors to reducing and controlling
CO2, which is the major contributor to global warming, are the
use of alternative approaches to energy generation and the
[IV] ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES AND
INDUSTRIAL COMPETITIVES
The industrial development strategy in Sudan gives priority to
the rehabilitation of the major industrial areas with respect to
improvement of infrastructure such as roads, water supply, power
supply, sewer systems and other factors. This strategy also takes
into consideration the importance of incorporating the
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 Substitution of food crops and reduction of food
surpluses and of related economic burdens.
 Utilisation of marginal lands and of set aside lands and
reduction of related socio-economic and environmental
problems (soil erosion, urbanisation, landscape
deterioration, etc.).
exploration of how these alternatives are used today and may be
used in the future as green energy sources.
Furthermore, investigating the potential to make use of more and
more of its waste. Household waste, vegetable market waste, and
waste from the cotton stalks, leather, and pulp; and paper
industries can be used to produce useful energy either by direct
incineration, gasification, digestion (biogas production),
fermentation, or cogeneration.
Therefore, effort has to be made to reduce fossil energy use and
to promote green energies, particularly in the building sector.
Energy use reductions can be achieved by minimising the energy
Even with modest assumptions about the availability of land,
comprehensive fuel-wood farming programmes offer significant
energy, economic and environmental benefits. These benefits
would be dispersed in rural areas where they are greatly needed
and can serve as linkages for further rural economic
development. The nations as a whole would benefit from savings
in foreign exchange, improved energy security, and socio-
economic improvements. With a nine-fold increase in forest –
plantation cover, a nation’s resource base would be greatly
improved. The international community would benefit from
pollution reduction, climate mitigation, and the increased trading
opportunities that arise from new income sources.
There is a huge availability of biomass energy resources in
Sudan. These resources are scatterly distributed all over the
country. In western Sudan, there are briquetting of groundnut
shells plants in operation at Nyala and El Obeid. In central
Sudan, briquetting plants of cotton stalk installed at Wad El
Shafie. In southern Sudan, biogas plants in operation using water
hyacinth. Sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane trash already provide
a significant amount of biomass for electricity generation. It is
known that sugarcane is a perennial crop and sugarcane bagasse
available in a particular period of the year. The bagasse-gasifier
plants in Kenana are used as standby or at the peak times or if
there is any problem in main grid.
environmental dimension into economic development plans.
However, the relationship between environmental policies and
industrial competitiveness has not been adequately examined.
For the near future, the real issue concerns the effectiveness of
environmental expenditures in terms of reduction of pollution
emissions per unit of output. A number of issues relevant to this
central concern are presented as follows:
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4.1. Implementing ecologically sustainable
industrial development strategies
The United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO) Agenda 21, (1997), Vienna for achieving sustainable
development in the 21st century calls on governments to adopt
National Strategies (NS) for sustainable development that ‘‘build
on and harmonise the various sectoral, social and environmental
policies that are operating in the country’’ [4]. NS focuses almost
exclusively on development issues and does not integrate
industrial and environmental concerns. It does not consider
industrial specific environmental objectives or time frames for
achieving them. Moreover, it does not specify how specific
industrial sub-sectors and plants will meet environmental
objectives. Finally, it is formulated with minimal involvement of
industrial institutions and private sector associations. To bring
together industrial development and environmental objectives it
is necessary to:
 Establish environmental goals and action plans for the
industrial sector.
 Develop an appropriate mix of policy instruments that
support the goals of those plans.
 Design appropriate monitoring and enforcement
measurements to realise those goals.
4.2. Applying cleaner Production processes and
techniques
Traditional approaches to pollution reduction have been based on
the application of end of pipe technologies in order to meet
discharge standards. However, the growing recognition that
reduction at source is a potentially more cost effective method of
abatement is resulting in replacing end of pipe technologies with
cleaner production processes. Major constraints in adopting
cleaner production methods relate to:
 Lack of awareness about the environmental and financial
benefits of cleaner production activities.
 Lack of information about techniques and technologies.
 Inadequate financial resources to purchase imported
technologies.
A coordinated effect by industry, government and international
organisations can go a long way in overcoming these constraints.
In this context key questions that need to be addressed are as
follows:
(a) Need for local capacity building, information dissemination,
training and education.
(b) Need for sub-sectoral demonstration projects.
(c) Need for increased cooperation with environmental market
sectors in developed countries.
(d) Need for life cycle analysis and research on environmentally
compatible products.
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4.3. Implementing environmental management
systems
Environmental management systems (EMSs) are necessary to
enable plant to achieve and demonstrate sound environmental
performance by controlling the environmental impact of their
activities, products and services. The basic tools to ensure
compliance with national and/or international requirements and
continually improve its environmental performance include:
 Environmental auditing.
 Environmental reporting, and
 Environmental impact assessments.
In addition, the adoption of EMS may require extensive training
of corporate staff. A practical and effective means of doing this is
through the design and support of joint capacity strengthening
programmes by industry association and bilateral and multilateral
agencies.
4.4. Managing and conserving water resources
It is estimated that by year 2025, there will be a global crisis in
water resources. Accelerated growth of industry will lead to
increase in industrial water use. Moreover, major industrial water
pollutant load is expected to increase considerably in the near
future. Therefore, to better manage water resources by industry,
there is a real need for integrating demand trend and use patterns.
The main elements of an industrial management strategy can be
identified as follows:
 Analytical services.
 Promotional services.
 Services for the development of industry and water
supply infrastructure.
4.5. Using market based instruments (MBIs) to
internalise environmental costs
As complements to command and control measures for resource
conservation and pollution prevention in industry. MBIs
represent a useful and efficient cost effective policy measures
that internalise environmental costs. A plant’s decision to invest
in clean production depends primarily on the following factors:
(a) Relative costs of pollution control in overall production costs.
(b) Price elasticities of supply and demand for intermediary and
final goods, and
(c) Competitive position of plant in a particular industrial sector.
4.6.Counteracting threats from eco-labelling
requirements
The increasing export orientation of production makes it
necessary to maintain competitive position in world markets. The
emergence of a wide variety of eco-labelling requirements and
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lack of timely information on multitude of scheme may adversely
affect certain export sectors. Needed initiatives to counteracting
perceived threats could be presented as follows:
 Information dissemination.
 Life cycle analysis.
 Establishing certification centres.
 Infrastructure support.
4.7.Implementing the United Nations (UN)
framework convention on climate change
The UN climate change convention entered into force on 21 st
March 1994. The convention objective is the stabilisation of
greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at safe levels.
For industry, responding to this convention will undoubtedly be a
major challenge. Industry will be directly affected. Sudan as
party to this convention is obliged to take a number of actions
and cooperates effectively in order to meet this challenge. Sudan
has to contribute to the common goal of reducing greenhouse
gases emissions by taking precautionary measures to mitigate
causes and anticipate impacts of climate change. However, there
may not be adequate means to do so, and Sudan will therefore
require international assistance. The main requirements are:
 Access to best energy-efficient technologies available on
the world market, where such technologies are relevant
to our natural resources endowments, our industrial
requirements and are cost effective.
 Building an energy-efficient capital stock by accelerating
the development of low energy intensity processes and
equipment.
 Strengthening national capabilities for energy-efficient
design and manufacturing.
Areas where technical expertise to implement the convention is
necessary include:
 Preparing national communications on greenhouse gas
emissions. The communications are supported to contain
an assessment of the magnitudes and sources of
greenhouse gases as well as identification of reduction
methods.
 Supporting technology transfer for improvement in the
efficiency of fuel based power generation.
 Promotion technology transfer for the use of renewable
sources of energy such as biomass, wind, solar, hydro,
etc.
 Developing and implementing technology transfer for
energy efficiency programmes in industry, in
complementarities with cleaner production/pollution
prevention measures.
 Analysing the impact of climate change response
measures on the economic and industrial development of
the country, with the view to identifying economically
viable technology options for reducing greenhouse gas
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ISSN: 0976-3104
emissions from the production and consumption of
energy.
4.8.Addressing concerns of small and medium
scale industry (SMI)
Small and medium scale enterprises not only contribute to
productivity growth and employment but are also important as
collective sources of localised pollution loading such as organic
wastes in water effluent, as well as hazardous wastes, heavy
metal sludge, solvents, waste oils, acidic and alkaline wastes,
photo wastes, etc. Often, these wastes are disposed of in unsafe
manure and are extremely difficult to monitor. The cost of
control in relation to output is too high, so even a modest
increase in the costs (of environmental regulations) may threaten
prevention and control may be well known and easily available,
there is no guarantee that they will be adopted. Moreover, even
when policy measures are in place, their enforcement and
monitoring is a real problem for SMI sector on account of their
large numbers and diversity. It is clear that environment
problems of SMIs require special attention and special measures
to address their particular problems.
[V] ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
5.1. Petroleum industry pollution and greenhouse
gases emissions in Sudan
The activities of oil exploration in Sudan began in late 1950s in
the coastal areas of Red Sea. The results of exploration indicated
that there is considerable amount of natural and liquefied gases in
Suwakin and Bashair, and the quantities were estimated between
45-326 × 109 cubic meters [12]. According to the increasing oil
industry activities in Sudan such as production, refining and
export/consumption, and if we consider the entire fuel cycle,
namely: exploration, extraction, preparation/transformation,
transportation, storage, pollution, including the increase in
greenhouse gases, as result of petroleum industry will be very
significant in the forthcoming future. Exploitation has started in
the south of Sudan and exports have begun recently. In the year
2005 about 2 × 109 tonnes of petroleum products were burnt in
Sudan [11]. This amount will be doubled in the year 2010. There
is a shortage of information concerning the area of greenhouse
gases recording in Sudan.
5.2. Privatisation and price liberalisation in
energy source supplies
The privatisation and price liberalisation in energy fields has to
some secured (but not fully). Availability and adequate energy
supplies to the major productive sectors. The result is that, the
present situation of energy supplies is for better than ten years
ago. The investment law has also encourage the participation of
the investors from the national level as well as from the
international friendly and sisters’ countries to invest in energy
sources supply such as:
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 Petroleum products (import in particular) in the northern
states.
 Electricity generation (in some states) through providing
large diesel engine units.
The readily implementation of electricity price liberalisation has
some extent release the National Electricity Corporation (NEC)
from the heavy dependency of government subsidies, and a
noticeable improved of NEC management, and electricity
supplies are achieved.
5.3. Synthesis of the renewable energy
Although the overall impact of renewables has been unnecessary
low, the experience has clearly demonstrated their potential as
sustainable energy alternatives. There has been substantial
learning in disseminating and managing various technologies on
account of:
 Scale: with increasing numbers, teething problems have
been overcome and better knowledge has been gained in
different aspects related to planning, implementation,
operation and maintenance.
 Indigenisation: through joint ventures with international
industry, the technology transfer process has been
facilitated, helping in developing local production
capacities.
 Infrastructure: a strong infrastructure has been created
over the years to provide the technical, operational and
managerial support to intervention programmes. This
includes research institutions, training agencies, NGOs,
financial intermediaries, etc.
 Diverse strategies: though the whole renewable energy
programme started with the same technology push
approach, diversification occurred over a period of time
in terms of strategies and to promote different
technologies according to market conditions [Table-7].
5.4. Geothermal energy
The use of geothermal energy in Sudan has the following special
characteristics:
Disadvantages are geothermal energy is a low-temperature
resource tied to specific locations and can be used only in
specific types of system and minerals in some thermal waters can
produce scaling problems that increase costs. Advantages:
 Sudan has a big geothermal energy potential and
geothermal energy can be environmentally sound if
wastewater or brine is properly disposed of (e.g., by
reinjection) and there is no air pollution.
 The dependency on imported energy sources could be
decreased.
 The number of jobs can be increased.
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 Competitiveness of geothermal energy should increase
owing to projected increases in domestic prices of
competing fossil fuels.
 Geothermal wells do not give low temperature heat;
certainly they give much higher than solar flat plate
collectors.
Not only does cost of the fuel drive the researcher to explore an
alternative source of energy, but ozone layer problems are other
factor that should be considered in searching for cheap and clean
energy sources [Table-8]. Solar energy is an unlimited, cheap
and clean source of energy, which has been utilised to replace
conventional energy, but there still is a need to develop a
technology to utilise the solar energy. Nowadays, solar energy is
widely used in heating water, dehumidifying air and generating
electrical energy for many domestic, agricultural and industrial
applications. For these applications, the most important piece of
the system equipment is the solar collector in which solar energy
is converted into heat or electrical power. Although there are
several designs for solar energy collecting devices, flat-plate
collectors are the most common and popular type. They have the
advantages of being simple to build, employing locally available
materials, they are easy to operate and maintain, they have the
ability to function even during cloudy or hazy days with diffuse
solar radiation only, and they are capable of integration into a
roof or a wall structure.
Fresh water supply is one of the most limiting conditions for the
populations of arid regions. Following methods can solve the
problem of providing arid areas with fresh water:
(1) Transportation of water from other locations.
(2) Desalination of saline water (ground and underground).
(3) Extraction of water from atmospheric air.
Transportation of water through these regions is usually very
expensive, and desalination depends on the presence of saline
water resources, which are usually rare in arid regions. The
extraction of water from atmospheric air can be accomplished by
two methods: cooling moist air, and absorbing water vapour from
moist air using a solid or a liquid desiccant, with subsequent
recovery for the extracted water by heating the desiccant and
condensing the evaporated water. The significant increase in
recent years of the number of rural electrification systems, using
photovoltaic technology for illumination or water pumping in
order to reduce the burden of capital costs per unit of generated
power.
The power generation and supply for isolated areas can be
effectively achieved using wind energy as the principle energy
source. The savings are not only economic but also
environmentally sound. However, the transient nature of the
energy supply that is delivered to the power system from wind-
turbine poses significant challenges to the design and control of
the system. The efficiency of such systems can only improve
with more effective control and a better understanding of the
characteristics of these types of systems.
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Table: 7. Diversity of promotion strategies [12]

Technology Strategy Key change agents Mechanisms

Power generation
Wind Government-enabled market Private sector Fiscal incentives
pull State utilities Multilateral finance
Manufacturers
Small-hydro Government-enabled market Private sector Fiscal incentives
pull State utilities Multilateral finance
Manufacturers
Biomass cogeneration Government-enabled market Private sector Fiscal incentives
pull Government Low interest finance
Solar PV Combination of NGOs Flexible loan serving
demonstration and pull Intermediaries Maintenance by
Manufacturers intermediaries
Thermal energy
Biogas Technology push Government Cash subsidy
NGOs Training support
Turnkey workers
Improved stoves Technology push Government Cash subsidy
NGOs Training support
Self-employed workers
Government
Solar cookers Push in the beginning Manufacturers Mini-subsidy
Currently market pull Segmentation with focus
Government On small towns and cities
Solar water heaters Push in the beginning Manufacturers Segmentation with focus
Currently market pull on industrial systems

Considering energy crises and pollution problems today,
investigations have been concentrated on decreasing fuel
consumption by using alternative fuels and lowering the
concentration of toxic components in combustion products.
Hydrogen is considered as a renewable clean energy source. Two
methods using hydrogen in spark ignition engines were
investigated in Sudan. The first method is to mix hydrogen with
gasoline. The second concerns using hydrogen as a standard fuel.
The advantage of the hydrogen-supplemented fuel is that it
requires a smaller quantity of hydrogen, which considerably
reduces the problems connected with hydrogen storage in the
automobile. A hydrogen-gasoline fuelled engine generally
develops lower maximum power and higher NOx emission
compared to an equivalent gasoline engine. Hydrogen can be
used as a supplementary fuel in modern spark ignition engines
without major changes and it can help save a considerable part of
the available oil and save our environment from toxic pollutants.
Depletion of fossil fuels and fluctuating prices has rekindled an
interest in the development of renewable fuels/energy sources
such as biomass. There is a critical need for development of
alternative, appropriate, affordable methods of cooking for use in
Sudan. Population pressures on remaining forest resources have
resulted in shortages of fuel available for household use and
yielded adverse environmental effects. Solar cooker use has the
potential to alleviate both problems by reducing dependence on
wood as a cooking fuel. However, to gain acceptance and
motivate use, there is a need to develop many different solar
cooker designs. Each design needs to be suited to specific
climates, customers and economic factors. The development
requires a good fundamental understanding of the relationship
between key design variables and performance. The most
commonly used type of solar cooker is the box type. Box type
cookers depend on heat retention. They are slow to heat up, but
work well even where there is diffuse radiation, convective heat
loss caused by wind, intermittent cloud cover, and low ambient
temperatures. Despite the variation in approach flat plate,
concentrating, and box type) and large variety of inventions and
products, the total potential design space is largely unexplored.
Systematic examination of the design space requires either
extensive testing or models with broad predictive capacity.
The availability of methane and/or natural gas has lead to a
worldwide spread of internal combustion engines running on the
dual fuel concept. Gaseous fuels also promise to be suitable for
higher compression engine
Since it is known that they resist knock more than conventional
liquid fuels, as well as producing less polluting exhaust gases, if
appropriate conditions are satisfied for its mixing and
combustion. Therefore, it is more economical and of
environmental advantage to use natural gases in diesel engines,
which use the dual fuel concept.
5.5. Climate change, global warming and the
enhanced greenhouse effect
Changes in the global climate (mean temperature, precipitation,
etc.) could also threaten stability of a range of critical interlinked
physical, ecological and social systems and subsystems [13]. An
important social principle is that the climate change should not
be allowed to worsen existing inequities- although climate

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change policy cannot be expected to address all prevailing equity associated with fossil fuel use. Third, urban soils store organic C
issues. Some special aspects include: from litter-fall, until it is returned to the atmosphere by
decomposition. On the other hand, buildings, factories, and
 The establishment of an equitable and participative automobiles in urban landscapes release C through fossil fuel
global framework for making and implementing consumption.
collective decisions about climate change.
 Reducing the potential for social disruption and conflicts Industry’s use of fossil fuels has been blamed for our warming
arising from climate change impacts. climate, when coal, gas and oil are burnt, they release harmful
 Protection of threatened cultures and preservation of gases, which trap heat in the atmosphere and cause global
cultural diversity. warming. However, there has been an ongoing debate on this
subject, as scientists have struggled to distinguish between
Climate change is one of the most serious concerns of our changes, which are human induced, and those, which could be
society. The gases causing the greenhouse effect are carbon put down to natural climate variability. Industrialised countries
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, have the highest emission levels, and must shoulder the greatest
troposphere ozone, and stratospheric water vapour. Carbon responsibility for global warming. But action must also be taken
dioxide is an important greenhouse gas and a major agent of by developing countries to avoid future increases in emission
climate change and the most significant greenhouse gas levels as their economies develop and population grows. Human
contributing about half of the total greenhouse effect [14]. The activities that emit carbon dioxide (CO2), the most significant
recent concentration of atmospheric CO2 is 25% higher than the contributor to potential climate change, occur primarily from
pre-industrial level [15]. This increase is primarily due to fossil fossil fuel production. Consequently, efforts to control CO 2
fuel combustion and deforestation. emissions could have serious, negative consequences for
economic growth, employment, investment, trade and the
Table: 8. Correlation of solar radiation with other weather standard living of individuals everywhere. Scientifically, it is
parameters in Sudan (Yearly averages) [16] difficult to predict the relation between global temperature and
greenhouse gas concentrations. The climate system contains
Station Mean Sunshine Solar Wind many processes that will change if warming occurs. Critical
temp. duration radiation velocity processes include heat transfer by winds and currents, the
-2 -1 -1
(ºC) (h) (MJm day ) (ms ) hydrological cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, runoff
Port 28.4 9.0 20.87 5.1
Sudan
and groundwater, and the formation of clouds, snow, and ice, all
Shambat 29.7 9.9 22.82 4.5 of which display enormous natural variability. The equipment
Wadi 28.4 9.8 22.84 4.5 and infrastructure for energy supply and use are designed with
Medani long lifetimes, and the premature turnover of capital stock
El Fasher 25.8 9.6 22.80 3.4 involves significant costs. Economic benefits occur if capital
Abu 28.2 8.8 21.90 3.1 stock is replaced with more efficient equipment in step with its
Na’ama
Ghazala 27.2 9.3 21.72 3.0
normal replacement cycle, and if opportunities to reduce future
Gawazat emissions are taken in the world they should be less costly. Such
Malakal 27.9 7.8 19.90 2.8 flexible approaches would allow society to take account of
Juba 27.6 7.8 19.59 1.5 evolving scientific and technological knowledge, and to gain
Dongola 27.2 10.5 24.06 4.6 experience in designing policies to address climate change.
Toker 28.8 7.3 17.60 4.1 Focusing only on CO2 emissions neglects the full richness of the
Hudeiba 29.3 10.0 22.37 4.0
environmental data, but has been done for several reasons:
Aroma 29.1 9.6 21.40 4.2
El Showak 26.3 9.7 22.90 4.1
Zalingei 24.5 8.8 22.98 2.7  CO2 is an important global environmental indicator.
Babanusa 28.2 8.9 21.73 2.8  CO2 emissions can show very significant increases, as
Kadugli 27.5 8.5 21.30 2.7 Sudan currently produces very little CO 2 from the
electricity sector.
Climate change might pose a serious threat to our ecological and  CO2 and other air pollutants are linked together to new
socio-economic systems, unless measures are investigated to generation capacity; So CO2 serves as a surrogate for
mitigate the rising accumulation of atmospheric CO2. Green- most other emissions.
space in urban ecosystems can reduce atmospheric C levels in
three ways. Here, green-space is defined as soil surface area The environmental characteristics of products have become
capable of supporting vegetation and the vegetation being increasingly important to consumers [17-18]. Firms have
supported. First, urban trees and shrubs directly sequester and responded by placing eco-labels on products that highlight the
accumulate atmospheric C in the process of their growth through item’s environmental attributes and by introducing new, or
photosynthesis. Second, urban vegetation decreases building redesigned green products [19]. Governments and non-
cooling demand by shading and evapotranspiration, and heating governmental organisations have also responded by organising,
demand by wind speed reduction, thereby reducing C emissions implementing, and verifying eco-labelling programmes that

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cover thousands of products, which international efforts to
standardise environmental labelling schemes have also emerged.
From a policy perspective, one aim of eco-labels is to educate
consumers about the environmental impacts of the product’s
manufacture, use, and disposal, thereby leading to a change in
purchasing behaviour and ultimately, to a reduction in negative
impacts. Further, eco-labelling policies may promote
environmental objectives without production site command and
control methods and are seen a way of meeting global
environmental objectives while complying with international
trade agreements. Recent techniques for economically valuing
environmental impacts:
 Effect on production.
 Effect on health.
 Defensive or preventive costs.
 Replacement cost and shadow projects.
 Travel cost.
 Property value.
 Wage differences (the wage differential method attempts
to relate changes in the wage rate to environmental
conditions, after accounting for the effects of all factors
other than environment (e.g., age, skill level, job
responsibility, etc.) that might influence wages).
5.6. Major energy consuming sectors
Sudan is still considered as one of the 25 most developing
African countries. Agriculture is the backbone of economic and
social development in Sudan. About 80% of the population
depends on agriculture, and all other sectors are largely
dependent on it. Agriculture contributes to about 41% of the
gross national product (GNP) and 95% of all earnings.
Agriculture determines for the last 30 years the degree of
performance growth of the national economy.
5.6.1. Agriculture sector
During the last decades agriculture contributed by about 41% to
the Sudan GNP. This share remained stable until 1984-1985
when Sudan was seriously hit by drought and desertification,
which led to food shortages, deforestation, and also, by socio-
economic effects caused the imposed civil war. The result
dropped the agriculture share to about 37%. Recent development
due rehabilitation and improvement in agricultural sector in 1994
has raised the share to 41%. This share was reflected in providing
raw materials to local industries and an increased export earning
besides raising percentage of employment among population.
This sector consumed 2.5% of the total energy consumption
(28% from electricity, 14.8% from fossil fuels, and the rest from
biomass fuels) [20].
5.6.1. Industrial sector
The industrial sector is mainly suffering from power shortages,
which is the prime mover to the large, medium and small
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industries. The industrial sector was consuming 5.7% of the total
energy consumption, distributed as follows: 55% from petroleum
products, 13% from biomass and 32% from electricity [20].
5.6.3. Domestic use
Household is the major energy consumer. It consumed 92% of
the total biomass consumption in form of firewood and charcoal.
From electricity this sector consumed 60% of the total
consumption, and 5.5% of petroleum products.
5.6.4. Transport sector
The transportation sector (railways, ships, boats, etc.) was not
being efficient for the last two decades because of serious
damage happened to its infrastructure (roads, workshops, and
maintenance centres, etc.). It consumed 10% of the total energy
consumption and utilized 60% of the total petroleum products
supplied.
Sudan is an energy importing country and the energy
requirements has been supplied through imports that have caused
financial problems. Because of the economical problems in
Sudan today, the Sudanese energy policy should be concentrated
on assurance of energy supply, reliability, domestic sufficiency,
in time, in economic terms, and renewability. Therefore as a
renewable energy source, biomass (especially fuelwood) seems
interesting because its share of the total energy production at
87% is high and the techniques for converting it to useful energy
are easy. On the other hand, biomass may, however, see greatly
expanded use in response to the environmental problems caused
by fossil fuel use in the country. Biomass has been proposed to
have a central role to play in future, more sustainable energy
scenarios. For this to become a reality several real problems need
to be overcome. In Sudan as in other developing countries
modernisation of biomass energy provision is an urgent necessity
for the sake of human health, protection of the environment, and
climate change abatement. Given sufficient recognition,
resources and research biomass could become the
environmentally friendly fuel of the future.
[VI] DISCUSSION
There is strong scientific evidence that the average temperature of
the earth’s surface is rising. This was a result of the increased
concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), and other greenhouse
gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere as released by burning fossil
fuels [21]. This global warming will eventually lead to substantial
changes in the world’s climate, which will, in turn, have a major
impact on human life and the environment [22]. Energy use
reductions can be achieved by minimising the energy demand, by
rational energy use, by recovering heat and the use of more green
energies. This study was a step towards achieving this goal. The
adoption of green or sustainable approaches to the way in which
society is run is seen as an important strategy in finding a solution
to the energy problem. The key factors to reducing and
controlling CO2, which is the major contributor to global
warming, are the use of alternative approaches to energy
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generation and the exploration of how these alternatives are used
today and may be used in the future as green energy sources.
Even with modest assumptions about the availability of land,
comprehensive fuel-wood farming programmes offer significant
energy, economic and environmental benefits. These benefits
would be dispersed in rural areas where they are greatly needed
and can serve as linkages for further rural economic development.
The nations as a whole would benefit from savings in foreign
exchange, improved energy security, and socio-economic
improvements. With a nine-fold increase in forest – plantation
cover, the nation’s resource base would be greatly improved. The
international community would benefit from pollution reduction,
climate mitigation, and the increased trading opportunities that
arise from new income sources. The non-technical issues, which
have recently gained attention, include: (1) Environmental and
ecological factors e.g., carbon sequestration, reforestation and
revegetation. (2) Renewables as a CO2 neutral replacement for
fossil fuels. (3) Greater recognition of the importance of
renewable energy, particularly modern biomass energy carriers, at
the policy and planning levels. (4) Greater recognition of the
difficulties of gathering good and reliable biomass energy data,
and efforts to improve it. (5) Studies on the detrimental health
efforts of biomass energy particularly from traditional energy
users. This study discusses a comprehensive review of biomass
energy sources, environment and sustainable development. This
includes all the biomass energy technologies, energy efficiency
systems, energy conservation scenarios, energy savings and other
mitigation measures necessary to reduce climate change.
Energy is an essential factor in development since it stimulates,
and supports economic growth; and development. Fossil fuels,
especially oil and natural gas, are finite in extent, and should be
regarded as depleting assets, and efforts are oriented to search for
new sources of energy. The clamour all over the world for the
need to conserve energy and the environment has intensified as
traditional energy resources continue to dwindle whilst the
environment becomes increasingly degraded. Biomass energy
supply in Sudan contributed 87% of total energy supply since
1980’s. The basic form of biomass comes mainly from firewood,
charcoal and crop residues. Out of total fuel wood and charcoal
supplies 92% was consumed in household sector with most of
firewood consumption in the rural areas [23]. Alternatively
energy sources can potentially help fulfill the acute energy
demand and sustain economic growth in many regions of the
world. Bioenergy is beginning to gain importance in the global
fight to prevent climate change. The scope for exploiting organic
waste as a source of energy is not limited to direct incineration or
burning refuse-derived fuels. Biogas, biofuels and woody
biomass are other forms of energy sources that can be derived
from organic waste materials. These renewable energy sources
have significant potential in the fight against climate change.
There is an unmistakable link between energy and sustainable
human development. Energy is not an end in itself, but an
essential tool to facilitate social and economic activities. Thus,
the lack of available energy services correlates closely with
many challenges of sustainable development, such as poverty
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alleviation, the advancement of women, protection of the
environment, and jobs creation. Emphasis on institution-building
and enhanced policy dialogue is necessary to create the social,
economic, and politically enabling conditions for a transition to
a more sustainable future. On the other hand, biomass energy
technologies are a promising option, with a potentially large
impact for Sudan as with other developing countries, where the
current levels of energy services are low. Biomass accounts for
about one third of all energy in developing countries as a whole,
and nearly 96% in some of least developed countries. The
convention on Biological Diversity set conservation of
biodiversity on the world agenda. Gaps in knowledge need to be
addressed for actions to be effective and sustainable. Gaps
include: species diversity, microorganisms and their ecological
roles, ecological and geographical status of species, human
capacity to access and forecast bio-ecological degradation.
Requirements for global inventories call for worldwide
collaboration. Criteria for setting priorities need to be formulated
and agreed. Global inventorying needs a collaborative
international effort, perhaps under the aegis of the Convention
on Biological Diversity. The recently formulated global
taxonomy initiatives are a step in the right direction.
This article envisages the ways of integrated development of
combined heat and power sector in Sudan. However, the
assumptions and objectives seem to be applicable to other
developing countries having plenty of agricultural, forest and
animal resources. The process of biomass power generation
would certainly reduce dependence on imported fossil fuel and
provides a clear indication in reducing the GHG emissions in the
environment and it could claim carbon credit more effectively.
Most of the heat is produced by large CHP plants (gas-fired
combined cycle plants using natural gas, biomass, waste or
biogas). DH is energy efficient because of the way the heat is
produced and the required temperature level is an important
factor. Buildings can be heated to temperature of 21 oC and
domestic hot water (DHW) can be supplied with a temperature of
55oC using energy sources that are most efficient when
producing low temperature levels (<95oC) for the DH water.
Most of these heat sources are CO2 neutral or emit low levels.
Only a few of these sources are available to small individual
systems at a reasonably cost, whereas DH schemes because of
the plant’s size and location can have access to most of the heat
sources and at a low cost. Low temperature DH, with return
temperatures of around 30-40oC can utilise the following heat
sources:
 Efficient use of CHP by extracting heat at low calorific
value (CV).
 Efficient use of biomass or gas boilers by condensing
heat in economisers.
 Efficient utilisation of geothermal energy.
 Direct utilisation of excess low temperature heat from
industrial processes.
 Efficient use of large-scale solar heating plants.
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Heat tariffs may include a number of components such as: a
connection charge, a fixed charge and a variable energy charge.
Also, consumers may be incentivised to lower the return
temperature. Hence, it is difficult to generalise but the heat
practice for any DH company no matter what the ownership
structure can be highlighted as follows:
 To develop and maintain a development plan for the
connection of new consumers.
 To evaluate the options for least cost production of heat.
 To implement the most competitive solutions by signing
agreements with other companies or by implementing own
investment projects.
 To monitor all internal costs and with the help of
benchmarking, improve the efficiency of the company.
 To maintain a good relationship with the consumer and
deliver heat supply services at a sufficient quality.
Sustainable energy is energy that, in its production or
consumption, has minimal negative impacts on human health and
the healthy functioning of vital ecological systems, including the
global environment. It is an accepted fact that renewable energy
is a sustainable form of energy, which has attracted more
attention during recent years. A great amount of renewable
energy potential, environmental interest, as well as economic
consideration of fossil fuel consumption and high emphasis of
sustainable development for the future will be needed.
Explanations for the use of inefficient agricultural-environmental
polices include: the high cost of information required to measure
benefits on a site-specific basis, information asymmetries
between government agencies and farm decision makers that
result in high implementation costs, distribution effects and
political considerations [24]. Achieving the aim of agric-
environment schemes through:
 Sustain the beauty and diversity of the landscape.
 Improve and extend wildlife habitats.
 Conserve archaeological sites and historic features.
 Improve opportunities for countryside enjoyment.
 Restore neglected land or features, and create new habitats
and landscapes.
The key factors to reducing and controlling CO2, which is the
major contributor to global warming, are the use of alternative
approaches to energy generation and the exploration of how
these alternatives are used today and may be used in the future as
green energy sources. Even with modest assumptions about the
availability of land, comprehensive fuel-wood farming
programmes offer significant energy, economic and
environmental benefits. These benefits would be dispersed in
rural areas where they are greatly needed and can serve as
linkages for further rural economic development. The nations as
a whole would benefit from savings in foreign exchange,
improved energy security, and socio-economic improvements.
With a nine-fold increase in forest – plantation cover, a nation’s
resource base would be greatly improved. The international
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
community would benefit from pollution reduction, climate
mitigation, and the increased trading opportunities that arise from
new income sources.
There is a huge availability of biomass energy resources in
Sudan. These resources are scatterly distributed all over the
country. In western Sudan, there are briquetting of groundnut
shells plants in operation at Nyala and El Obeid. In central
Sudan, briquetting plants of cotton stalk installed at Wad El
Shafie. In southern Sudan, biogas plants in operation using water
hyacinth. Sugarcane bagasse and sugarcane trash already provide
a significant amount of biomass for electricity generation. It is
known that sugarcane is a perennial crop and sugarcane bagasse
available in a particular period of the year. The bagasse-gasifier
plants in Kenana are used as standby or at the peak times or if
there is any problem in main grid.
Special attention should therefore be given to reviewing forest
resources, plantation programmes and the possibilities of
substitution of fuelwood for commercial fuels or for other fuels
such as biogas. The main sources of fuelwood supply in the
country can be broadly be grouped into two main categories, i.e.,
forest sources (forests under the control of forest departments)
and non-forest sources (private farmland and wild lands).
Women, assisted by children almost always, perform the
gathering of fuelwood in rural areas of developing countries. As
fuelwood becomes scarce, which is the case in many parts of the
world, the collection time has increased and although men do not
perceive it, this has many undesirable consequences, which can
be clearly seen in many rural region of Sudan. Women have less
time for their other important functions, such as cooking,
washing, water collection and child rearing which may affect the
nutrition and health of the entire family. Wood energy is, for
many countries, one of the few locally available sources of
energy, which they can afford. Its substitution by imported fossil
fuels, as has often been carelessly recommended, should
attentively be evaluated to avoid undesirable political, economic
and social consequences. This will also contribute to the
amelioration of environmental conditions by replacing
conventional fuels with renewable energies that produce no air
pollution or greenhouse gases. Renewable energy is needed,
especially in rural areas and small communities. The role of
renewable is big in solving essential life problems especially in
rural areas for people and their resources development like the
availing of energy for the medical services for people and
animal, provision of water, education, communication and rural
small industries.
Mitigation measures that could be under taken to influence the
effect of oil industry and use that may contribute in decreasing
greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions and decelerate the threat of
global climate change may include the following:
 Controlling GHGs emissions by improving the efficiency of
energy use, changing equipment and operating procedures.
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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
 Controlling GHGs emission detection techniques in oil
production, transportation and refining processes in
Sudan.
 More efficient use of energy-intensive materials and
changes in consumption patterns.
 A shift to low carbon fuels, especially in designing new
refineries.
 The development of alternative energy sources (e.g.,
biomass, solar, wind, hydro-electrical and cogeneration).
 The development of effective environment standards,
policies, laws and regulations particularly in the field of
oil industry.
 Activating and supporting environmental and pollution
control activities within the Ministry of Energy and
Mining (MEM) to effectively cope with the evolving oil
industry in Sudan.
6.1. Oil production
Oil was discovered in Sudan in the mid-1970s, but production
did not start until 1999. The pioneer companies Chevron and
Shell were forced to bow out in 1984, after the outbreak of civil
war. They eventually sold their rights in 1990, booking a $1
billion loss. Oil in Sudan accounts for 92.6% of the country’s
export revenues and with most of its producing oilfields located
in the South of the country, the management of the oil industry is
a key factor that will determine the future of the country. The oil
industry is poorly supervised and highly politicised, and as such,
rather than contributing to an enabling environment for peace
and equitable development, a source of strife and division
[Figure -1].
The focus for 2007 is on both exploration and development. The
operators of the producing blocks are implementing aggressive
exploration programmes [Table-9]. With the companies wanting
to achieve payback as quickly as possible, development of
discoveries is likely to be prompt.
Table: 9. Sudan’s oil reserves [27]
3
Year Proven reserves Oil production (10
(bln bbl) bbl/d)
1981 0.2 0.0
1991 0.3 0.0
2001 0.7 211
2005
2006
6.4
6.4
355
397
Refineries:
 Khartoum (50/50 joint venture between the Sudanese
government and the CNPC, capacity of (100,000 bbl/d).
 Port Sudan Refinery (21,700 bbl/d).
 Petronas has agreed to joint venture with the Sudanese
government to build a new refinery in Port Sudan with
capacity of (100,000 bbl/d) to treat Dar Blend crude; to be
operational in 2010.
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ISSN: 0976-3104
 The small top-up refinery in Abu Gabra is planned for closure
2010. There are plans to build a refinery in Kosti Sudan’s oil
production will probably in 2010, but revenues may be
maintained for another ten years at current levels, depending
on the development of oil prices and whether the Dar Blend
refinery will indeed be a price booster.
Oil is a principal factor in Sudanese politics. It is the
government’s main source of income and the oil sector is driving
economic growth. Meanwhile, the oil industry is poorly managed
and highly politicised. Rather than contributing to an
environment of peace and equitable development, it remains a
source of strife and division [25].
The Sudanese oil industry is exceptionally profitable because oil
companies are exempted from paying taxes in Sudan. These
conditions may have been quite reasonable in 1997.
The main Sudanese oil contracts were negotiated in the 1990s,
when oil was being traded for less than $20 per barrel and the
Sudanese governments had to offer lucrative conditions to attract
investments. It makes a big difference, however, whether the
companies’ share of 20% to 40% of the Profit Oil is sold at $20
or $60 per barrel. Oil is now traded at $90 per barrel and more,
boosting profits for the companies and leaving the government of
the Sudan with too small a share.
400
Thousand barrel per
300 Export pipeline
200
came on line
day
100
0
80 84 88 92 96 00 04
Year
Production
Consumption
Fig: 1. Sudan’s oil production and consumption 1980-2005
[26]
6.2. Sudan’s experience in renewable energy
technologies
In Sudan, great attention is given to the utilisation of the
renewable, and the overall renewable energy potential of the
country. Three distinct groups contribute to research,
development and utilisation of the resources. These are:
1. Research institutes.
2. Universities, and
3. Private-sector.
Participation and roles in technology diffuse:
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1. Government:
 Improved economic competitiveness of technology.
 Support information flow technical financial viability, and
resource assessment.
 Support training.
 Undertake R&D.
2. NGOs:
 Training.
 Extension.
 Assessment of local needs.
 Demonstration.
 Promotion of small-scale production.
3. Private-Sector:
 Production.
 Assembly, maintenance and spare-parts supply.
 Marketing.
6.3. Policy development
The non-technical issues, which have recently gained attention
include:
 Environmental and ecological factors e.g., carbon
sequestration, reforestation and revegetation.
 Biomass as CO2 neutral replacement for fossil fuels.
 Greater recognition of the importance of renewable energy,
particularly modern biomass energy carriers, at the policy and
planning levels.
 Greater recognition of the difficulties of gathering good and
reliable renewable energy data, and efforts to improve it.
 Studies on the detrimental health efforts of renewable
energy particularly from traditional energy users.
 Greater awareness of the need to internalise the externality
cost of conventional energy carriers to place them on more
equal terms with alternative energy sources.
6.4. The future
(1) In the most of the developing countries, the governments
acknowledge that, renewable energy can resolve many pressing
problems. Yet, the matter stops at this level
‘‘Acknowledgement’’. Much more is needed, like laws
regulating and encouraging business, tax concessions, both to
investors and customers, and most of all, a sustained, coordinated
and well-planned official publicity campaign to enlight, inform
and educate the public at a large.
(2) To avoid the problems of fuel altogether (uncertain
availability and skyrocketing prices), and minimise spare-parts,
solar and wind pumps are proposed to replace diesel engines in
the predominant irrigation areas.
(3) Local manufacture, whenever possible, is to be emphasised to
avail renewable energy devices since limited funds are the main
constraints in commercialisation and dissemination of the
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technology. Low cost devices as well as reliable devices have to
be provided.
(4) Embarking on conservation energy and reduction of pollution
of environment to be undertaken without delay:
 To save on fossil fuel for premium users/export.
 To accelerate development of new and/or remote lands
otherwise deprived of conventional energy sources.
 As a preventive measure against shortage of future energy
supply against prospective national energy demand.
(5) Launching of public awareness campaigns among investor’s
particularly small-scale entrepreneurs and end users of renewable
energy technologies to highlight the importance and benefits of
renewables.
(6) To direct Sudan resources away from feeding wars and the
arms industry towards real development, this will serve the noble
ends of peace and progress.
(7) The energy crisis is a national issue and not only a concern of
the energy sector, and the country has to learn to live with the
crisis for a long period, and develop policies, institutions and
manpower for longer term, more effective solutions.
(8) To invest in research and development through the existing
specialised bodies e.g., Energy Research Institute (ERI).
(9) To encourage co-operation between nations, a fact this will
be much easier in this era of information and the communications
revolution.
(10) Government should give incentives to encourage the
household sector to use renewable energy technologies instead of
conventional energy.
(11) Promotion research and development, demonstration and
adaptation of renewable energy resources (solar, wind, biomass,
and mini-hydro, etc.) amongst national, regional, and
international organisations which seek clean, safe, and abundant
energy sources.
(12) Execute joint investments between the private sector and the
financing entities to disseminate the renewables with technical
support from the research and development entities.
(13) Promotion the general acceptance of renewable energy
strategies by supporting comprehensive economic energy
analysis taking account of environmental benefit.
(14) Availing of training opportunities to personnel at different
levels in donor countries and other developing countries to make
use of their wide experience in application and
commercialisation of renewable energy technologies.
(15) To encourage the private sector to assemble, install, repair
and manufacture renewable energy devices via investment
encouragement, more flexible licensing procedures.
[VII] CONCLUSIONS
Sudan as an agricultural country has a good rational of energy
from agricultural residues, forestry resources, and animal wastes.
Sudan has an excellent annual mean solar radiation of 5.44 kW h
m-2 day-1 which could be of strategic important in substituting for
oil, electricity, wood and charcoal; in assisting in rural
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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
development, and in improving the quality of life in rural areas.
Sudan is rich in wind; about 50% of Sudan’s area is suitable for
generating electricity (annual average wind speed more than 5
ms-1), and 75% of Sudan’s area is suitable for pumping water
(annual average wind speed 3-5 ms-1). Production of bio-fuels
such as ethanol from sugar cane, takes advantages of year-round
cultivation potential in a tropical country like Sudan. Benefits
extend from local to regional to national to global. Local rural
economies benefit through new economic opportunities and
employment in the agricultural sector. Urban regions benefit
through cleaner air and health improvements. The nation benefits
through substituting domestic resources for costly imported
gasoline. The world benefits from reduced CO 2 emissions.
In a country with a population dense, there are extreme pressures
on energy and waste systems, which can stunt the country’s
economic growth. However, Sudan has recognised the potential
to alleviate some of these problems by promoting renewable
energy and utilising its vast and diverse climate, landscape, and
resources, and by coupling its solutions for waste disposal with
its solutions for energy production. Thus, Sudan may stand at the
forefront of the global renewable energy community, and
presents an example of how non-conventional energy strategies
may be implemented.
Air pollution from motor vehicles, electricity generation plants,
industry, and other sources, natural and man-made, can harm
human health, injure crops and forests, damage building
materials, and impair visibility. Public awareness and concern
about the problems associated with reduced air quality have
increased in recent years. Nevertheless, there still remains
considerable uncertainty about both the severity and the
valuation of these impacts. The valuation of environmental
damages can play an important role in establishing
environmental policy and regulatory standards, and can provide
guidance in targeting mitigation efforts. In order to achieve
environmental objectives at least cost, policy-makers and
managers need to balance the relevant social costs and benefits.
The mitigation strategy of the country should be based primarily
ongoing governmental programmes, which have originally been
launched for other purposes, but may contribute to a relevant
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions (energy-saving and a
forestation programmes). Therefore, the main fields of emission
mitigation will be the energy and the forestry sectors. The main
reasons are as follows:
 The overall energy efficiency is far lower than that of the
industrialised market economies. The efficiency on both the
demands and the supply side has to be increased even in the
short run. As far as the supply side is concerned, restructuring
of the power plant system is unavoidable, since many plants
are old.
 Traditionally, the forestry sector is highly developed and
there is enough land even for a larger a forestation
programme.
©IIOAB-India
ISSN: 0976-3104
Energy efficiency brings health, productivity, safety, comfort and
savings to the homeowner, as well as local and global
environmental benefits. The use of renewable energy resources
could play an important role in this context, especially with
regard to responsible and sustainable development.
Implementation of renewable energy technologies offers a
chance for economic improvement by creating a market for
producing companies, maintenance and repair services.
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SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ISSN: 0976-3104

[18] David, E. [2003] Sustainable energy: choices, problems and [35] World Energy Council (WEC). [2009] The world energy
opportunities, The Royal Soc Chem 19: 19–47. demand in 2020.
[19] DEFRA. [2002] Energy Resources, Sustainable
Development and Environment, Doncaster, UK. Appendix (1) Energy structure in Sudan
[20] Department of Energy (DoE). [2009] Annual energy
demand, USA. Appendix 1.1 Electricity output of present power plants in
[21] Zuatori, A. [2005] An overview on the national strategy for Sudan (GWh) [28]
improving the efficiency of energy use. Jordanian Energ
Plants Power (GWh)
Abs 9 (1): 31–32.
Hydro power stations 1095.12
[22] Omer, A.M. [2005] Biomass energy potential and future Steam power stations 1037.93
prospect in Sudan, Renewe Sust Energ Rev 9: 1–27. Diesel power stations 359.9
[23] Omer, A.M. [2007] Renewable energy resources for Gas turbine power stations 235.35
electricity generation in Sudan. Renew Sust Energ Rev 11: Combined power stations 1020.62
1481–1497. Total 3748.9
Peak load for national grid (MW) 534
[24] Abdeen M. Omer. [2009] Chapter 5: Alternative energy for Total number of consumers (head) 10700000
future, In: Energy Costs, International Developments and Total number of employees (head) 7097
New Directions, Editors: Leszek Kowalczyk and Jakub
Piotrowski, 2009 NOVA Science Publishers, Inc., p.127– Appendix 1.2 Sources of biomass energy available in Sudan
6
153, New York, USA. 10 tons of equivalents (TOE) [29]
[25] Abdeen M. Omer. [2010] Chapter 3: Utilisation and 6
development of solar and wind resources, In: Dust Storms: Item Source 10 TOE
Elemental Composition, Causes and Environmental 1. Natural, and cultivated forests 2.90
2. Agricultural residues 6.20
Impacts, Editors: Sinisa Brstilo and Quentin Madunic, 2010
3. Animal wastes 1.05
NOVA Science Publishers, Inc., p.111–147, New York,
4. Water hyacinth 3.16
USA. Total 13.31
[26] Abdeen M. Omer, Siddig A. Omer, Saffa B. Riffat. [2010]
Design and installation of direct expansion ground source 3
Appendix 1.3 Biomass energy consumption in Sudan 10
heat pumps, SET 2010. August 2010. tons of equivalents (TOE) [30]
[27] Omer, AM. [2010] Chapter 9: Development of sustainable
3
energy research and applications, In: Handbook of Item Sector 10 TOE (%)
Sustainable Energy, Editors: WH. Lee and VG. Cho, 2010 1. Residential 4549 92.0
NOVA Science Publishers, Inc., p.385–418, New York, 2. Industrial 169 3.4
USA. 3. Others* 209 4.6
Total 4927 100.0
[28] Omer, A.M. [2010] Chapter 3: Environmental and socio-
economic aspects of possible development in renewable *Others are commercial, constructions, and Quranic schools.
energy use, In: Handbook of Environmental Policy,
Editors: Johannes Meijer and Arjan der Berg, 2009 NOVA Appendix 1.4 Biomass energy potential from animal dung in
Science Publishers, Inc., p.79–114, New York, USA, 2010. different states of Sudan [31]
[29] Omer, AM. [2010] Sustainable energy: challenges of
implementing new technologies, Global J Technol Optim, Item States Animal dung Energy
3
Vol.1, p.164–170, Malaysia, June 2010. available (10 (TOE)
[30] Omer, AM. [2010] Sustainable energy development and Tons)
environment, Research Journal of Environmental and Earth 1. Northern states 102.4 1543
2. Eastern states 1222.9 18431
Sciences, Vol.2, No.2, p.55–75, Maxwell Scientific
3. Khartoum state 104.3 1572
Organisation, USA, April 20,[2010].
4. Central states 4223.7 63658
[31] Omer, AM. [2008] Green energies and the environment. 5. Darfur states 5062.5 36301
Renew Sust Energ Rev 12: 1789–1821. 6. Kordofan states 2596.9 79140
[32] Omer, A.M. 2008b. On the wind energy resources of 7. Southern states 4545.2 68505
Sudan, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Total 17857.9 269150
Vol.12, No.8, p.2117–2139, United Kingdom, October Appendix 1.5 Annual total different biomass supply in
3
2008. regions of Sudan (10 kg) [32]
[33] Omer, AM. [2008] Energy demands for heating and
cooling equipment systems and technology advancements.
In: Natural Resources: Economics, Management and
Policy, p.131–165.
[34] Omer, AM. [2009] Energy use and environmental impacts:
a general review, Renew Sust Energ, Vol. (1): 1–29.

©IIOAB-India Vol. 2; Issue 1; 2011: 31-44 43

The IIOAB Journal
SPECIAL ISSUE ON ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ISSN: 0976-3104

Regions Agricultural Animal Bagasse Appendix (2) Facts about Sudan [35]
residues waste
Northern 288 8548 8644 Full country Republic of the Sudan.
name One million square miles (2.5 x 106 square
Eastern 11530 84316 84414
Total area kilometres). Land 2.376 x 106 square kilometres.
Central 21550 107342 131744 35 x 106 inhabitants (July 1999 est.).
Khartoum 0 5766 5170 Population Khartoum (population 5 million).
Kordofan 2733 234086 236819 Capital city Arabic (official), English, Nubian, Ta Bedawie, diverse
Darfur 6901 173376 174067 Language dialects of Nilotic, Nilo – Hamitic, Sudanic languages.
Southern 1464 290599 197875 Sunni Muslim 70% (in north), indigenous beliefs 25%,
Total 44466 904033 838733 Religions Christian 5% (mostly in south and Khartoum).
US $ 533.
GDP per head 4% (1997 est.).
Annual growth 23% (1998 est.).
Inflation Black 52%, Arab 39%, Beja 6%, Foreigners 2%,
Appendix 1.6Annual electricity consumption in Sudan [33] Ethnic groups others 1%.
Agricultures Agriculture is the backbone of economic and social
development.
62% of the populations are employed in agriculture.
Sector Energy Percent of total Agriculture contributes 33% of the gross national
(%) Animal products (GNP), and 95% of all earnings.
Transportation 3.2 4% wealthy 35 x 106 head of cattle.
Agricultural 22.4 28% 35 x 106 head of sheep.
Industries 6.4 8% 35 x 106 head of goats.
Residential 48.0 60% 3 x 106 head of camels.
Total 80.0 100% 0.6 x 106 head of horses and donkeys.
Appe Environment Fish wealth 0.2 x 106 tonnes of food annually.
ndix 1.7 Annual petroleum product consumption in Sudan Wildlife, birds and reptiles.
6 International Inadequate supplies of potable water, wildlife
(10 MWh) [34]
agreements populations threatened by excessive hunting, soil
Sector Energy Percent of total (%) erosion, and desertification.
Transportation 601 60.0% Party to: Biodiversity, climate change, desertification,
Industries 138 13.8% endangered species, law of the sea, nuclear test ban,
Agricultural 148 14.8% ozone layer protection.
Residential 55 5.5%
Others* 60 5.9% ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Total 1002 100.0%

*Others are commercial and services. A special thanks to my spouse Kawthar Abdelhai Ali for her support and
her unwavering faith in me. Her intelligence, humour, spontaneity,
curiosity and wisdom added to this article.
Appendix 1.8 Annual sugarcane bagasse available in Sudan
3
(10 tonnes) [34]
ABOUT AUTHORS
Factory Design Yearly bagasse
capacity
Kenana 300 266
El Genaid 60 53
New Halfa 75 65
Sennar 100 58
Asalaia 100 60
Total 635 502
3
Appendix 1.9 Per capita consumption for household (10 kg)
[34]

Fuel Wood Charcoal

Region Urban Rural Urban Rural Dr. Abdeen Mustafa Omer (BSc, MSc, PhD) is a qualified
Northern 0.28 0.38 0.83 1.08 Mechanical Engineer with a proven track record within the water
Eastern 0.35 0.40 2.21 2.04 industry and renewable energy technology. He has been
Central 0.30 0.58 2.25 2.05 graduated from University of El Menoufia, Egypt, BSc in
Kordofan 0.41 1.23 5.29 2.30
Mechanical Engineering. His previous experience involved being
Darfur 0.41 1.23 5.29 2.30
Khartoum 0.48 0.26 0.93 0.94 a member of the research team at the National Council for
Equatorial 0.48 1.40 0.88 0.27 Research/Energy Research Institute in Sudan and working
Bahar El 0.88 1.36 1.00 0.27 director of research and development for National Water
Ghazal 0.58 0.66 0.76 0.18 Equipment Manufacturing Co. Ltd., Sudan. He has been listed in
Upper Nile the WHO’S WHO in the World 2005, 2006 2007 and 2009. He
has published over 200 papers in peer-reviewed journals, 50
review articles and 40 chapters in books.

©IIOAB-India Vol. 2; Issue 1; 2011: 31-44 44