Gayathri A5 Book 2019 Press 160 Page

Yogasarasangraha of
Vijnanabhikshu
AN ANALYTICAL STUDY
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Yogasarasangraha of
Vijnanabhikshu
AN ANALYTICAL STUDY
Dr. O.K. Gayathri

Assistant Professor on Contract, Dept. of Vedanta
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady,
Regional Center, Koyilandy
ISDA Publications
Thiruvananthapuram
3
PREFACE
Spirituality is the footage of Indian philosophy. The philosophers

struggled hard to bring about socio-spiritual reformation in the coun-
try. The main aim of an Indian life is the realisation of Self. The
Darsanas gives an overall view. The Darsana is the briefest way to
understand the soul. The Hindu scriptures stress on spirituality and
so one aims to purify his heart. The only philosophy which gives
an insight in to the soul is none other Indian philosophy. The re-
vealing of truth is like a flower blooming out of a bud.
The later twelfth century was in utter chaos and confusion.
The philosophers were fighting each other arguing and questioning
on each other’s work. It was the coming of the philosophers like
Vachaspati Mishra, Vijnanabhikshu etc. The scene became calm.
They found out that there was some relation with the six branches
of philosophy as Vijnanabhikshu being a polymath, wrote in al-
most all the Darsanas.
Among the five chapters, the first one is named as “Introduc-
tion to Indian Philosophy”. This chapter deals with the origin and
development of Yoga philosophy. It discusses the different stages
of development of the philosophy of Yoga. The etymology, the
different meanings of the word Yoga, literature of Yoga philoso-
phy, prominent teachers, the status of Yoga in modern era etc are
discussed in this chapter.
4
The second chapter is named as “Yoga Philosophy and
Vijnanabhikshu”. This chapter discusses by Vijnanabhikshu’s date,
place and works. His date, place etc are a subject which has been a
controversy, but it can be agreed or rather concluded that
Vijnanabhikshu lived in the sixteenth century AD and is supported
by many scholars. The works of Vijnanabhikshu is a must read
material for all. The birth of philosophers depends on the social
scenario of that particular period. So is the case of literary person-
alities and this is clear to the core when the life and works of
Vijnanabhikshu is taken into consideration.
The third chapter discussed is “The Philosophy of
Vijnanabhikshu”. Through the works of Vijnanabhikshu one should
know the philosophical aptitude of him. The systems of Samkhya,
Yoga and Vedanta had been of great attraction to Vijnanabhikshu.
He combined these three systems to form a new system, exclu-
sively his own, the Avibhagadvaita or integral non-dualism.
Vijnanabhikshu rejects the absolute reality of Brahman of Advaita
Vedanta and also the Purusha and Prakruthi of Samkhya as the
Supreme doctrines. Vijnanabhikshu is for the three principles-
Prakruthi, Purusha and Brahman. Prakruthi is the material cause
and Purusha, the Self is the pure consciousness, Brahman is the
main thing which links Purusha and Prakruthi. The undifferenti-
ated union of the three- Brahman, Prakruthi and Purusha is called
Advaita, which Vijnanabhikshu calls as Avibhaga.
The fourth chapter is “Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu -
An Analysis”. This chapter is the most important and which forms
the textual examination of Yogasarasangraha. This is a very re-
nowned work of Vijnanabhikshu and a real collection of theories
of Yogasutras. After the completion of the book Yogavarttika,
Vijnanabhikshu realised that there were a series of Sutras and so
the explanation of the subject was a very difficult task. Moreover,
5
the common man was unable to make out a word from it. So the
author that is Vijnanabhikshu collected the essence or nectar of
Yoga from his Yogavarttika and placed it in the jar called Yoga-
sarasangraha and this has been done in the order of subject matter.
With the support of srutis, Smrutis and Puranas and also by using a
very simple language, Vijnanabhikshu shaped the Yogasara-
sangraha. The medium of language used is very simple Sanskrit
which enables even the laymen to understand the essence of Yoga.
The book is a mixture of prose and poetry i.e. the main text is put
down in prose and the reference or extracts are in the Sutras, slokas
and Bhashyas. The fifth and last chapter of the thesis is the “Con-
clusion” and it summarizes the conclusions reached in this study.
I am grateful to ISDA Publications for offering to publish this
book. I express my sincere gratitude to Dr.B. Chandrika, Professor
& Dean, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, for
her valuable suggestions and blessing this book by writing a fore-
word. I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to her
for the guidance and encouragement. I wish to thank all the mem-
bers of the teaching and non teaching staff of the department of
Vedanta, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady for
the generous co-operation extended to me in the successful comple-
tion of my research work. I express my deep sense of gratitude to
all my friends for their help. I also express my sincere thanks to the
staff of University Library for providing all necessary facilities.
Koyilandy
19 December 2018 Dr. O.K. Gayathri
6
FORWARD
Vijnanabhikshu had flourished during the 16th century AD. Eigh-

teen works are ascribed to him. At that time of Vijnanabhikshu,
there was a need for reconciliation of Karma and Jnana. This made
Vijnanabhikshu create a philosophy of his own amalgamating all
the three philosophies Viz Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta combined
and named as Avibhagadvaita or Integral Non-dualism.
As it is a known fact that a text has a context, both of the birth
of each philosophy depends on the social scenario of that particular
period too. At the time of Vijnanabhikshu, there was a complete
vacuum in the field of the philosophical atmosphere as the breeze
of the Bhakti movement was sweeping all over the society. All the
ideological thoughts were ignored. Vijnanabhikshu a scholar par
excellence took the responsibility to coincide Knowledge and Karma
and build the structure of Jnanakarmasamuccaya. To this purpose,
he has combined the three philosophies of Samkhya, Yoga and
Vedanta.
He was fully vigilant on the fact that the Advaita Philosophy
was too much complicated and it can never be followed by an ordi-
nary man who then was immersed in Bhakti. He believed that an
ordinary man will be much secured in Karma and Bhakti than Jnana.
Taking all these into consideration Vijnanabhikshu conjoined Karma
and Jnana. Even though Vijnanabhikshu was never be clad in an as
7
a social activist, he took the job of popularizing Advaita in an in-
tention to uplift even less-gifted and who cannot adhere fully to the
philosophy of Advaita and also wishes to get liberation from the
worldly existence.
The work is beneficial because a deep study on Vijnanabhikshu
is not yet been undertaken by Research scholars, even though there
are some books. I wish the present work of Smt Gayathri O.K. can
fill the gap in the field of Philosophical Literature, especially on
Vijnanabhikshu. I think the Researcher has touched all sides of
Vijnanabhikshu’s Philosophy in her Research work. I wish her all
success.
Dr. B. CHANDRIKA
Dean, Professor & HOD
Department of Vedanta
Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,
Kalady, Kerala, 683574.
8
INTRODUCTION
The must for the mind is to think, develop and also for the other
branches to progress, is a well established society. India is a land
blessed with nature and the lofty Himalayas covered with snow and
spiritual essence and also the abundant source of food made her
inhabitants thrive for a life with sincerity. The forest attracted many
who wanted to be in solitude detached and to meditate or fill them-
selves with thoughts. Gradually these places began to be transformed
into Ashramas and Tapovans. These paved the way for the dawn-
ing of Indian philosophy. Philosophy is regarded as one which un-
derstands and solves the problems of the universe by the thinking
and intuition of human beings. This understanding or the power to
comprehend gives birth to the race and culture.
Spirituality with great intensity is the base of Indian phi-
losophy. The philosophers of India had an aim that too very impor-
tant one that was to cause reformation in the socio-spiritual field.
The characteristic of philosophy is to move along the path of expe-
rience and facts. Philosophy and religion are placed on the same
plane by the philosophers of India, as more emphasis has been laid
on intellect. Religion can never be considered as separate or en-
tirely independent from philosophy. The stimulant of philosophical
spirit is the problems of religion. On the other hand the religious
thoughts fascination and spirit is not a slave to philosophy.
9
The harmony between God and man occupies great impor-
tance in the Indian thoughts. The opposite of this can be seen in the
western philosophy. The Indians have shaped their minds accord-
ing to the seeds of spirituality and this is reflected in the culture and
tradition of India. The roots of cultural history of India run through
the ground of spirituality. When the sacred books of Hindus are
considered, it can be seen that these are spiritual as well as medita-
tive. The sacred books of other religions when compared with Hin-
dus stress the religion and ethical components more. The ultimate
aim of Indian’s life is to realise the eternal Truth or the Self or the
God. This is detailed in the Darsanas which acts as a guide to un-
derstand and appreciate the doctrine of Indian philosophy. So
Darsanas can be viewed as the consciousness of the soul. The cog-
nizance of the soul is only possible to the one who has accom-
plished the purity of the soul. One can experience as well as realise
the purified soul, when the hidden strength of his, has been un-
veiled. The entrance to the knowledge of the truth is the knowing
of one’s inner soul. This is just like the flower turning into a fruit.
There are some conditions which an aspirant, who goes in
search, should necessarily follow. The conditions are four in num-
ber. They are as follows:-
• The aspirant must or should have the knowledge which
helps him to discriminate the eternal and the non-eternal.
• One should have the will power to conquer the fruits or
result of the action done by him not only in the present
but also in the future life.
• One should control one’s body and mind and which gradu-
ally leads him to the path of acquiring calmness, hold
back, abandonment, tolerance, mind’s place, devotion and
faith.
10
• The aspirant has to move with a strong and firm mind
along the path of Moksha.
Indian philosophy gives great respect for the happenings of
the past. The contemplation of the past and the life of the great
thinkers has significance. The history of philosophical in its true
meaning deals not with the past, and its results resembles, not a
museum of aberration of the human intellect, but a pantheon of god
like figures representing various stage of the immanent logic of all
human thought. The Indian thought should not be considered or
rather misunderstood as a series of ghostly ideas which follows in
quick succession.
The Indian philosophy is a hoard of complicated and confus-
ing questions and its discussion. One thing that makes it unique is
that the answers to these questions are never to one’s hearts con-
tent. The answers might be satisfactory to some and unsatisfactory
to others. The essential need of human life also includes the knowl-
edge of God or Self, besides food, shelter and clothing. The phi-
losophy is not taken for granted as a peculiar phenomenon of the
society but as the one which is able to satiate the interest of all
humans. The past of India is dealt solely by the philosophy of In-
dia. This is compared to the person who is of ripe age, enjoying
themselves as young and free from all stress and strain of present
day life.
The present scenario is entirely different from what it was in
the later pre-twelfth century. In that period one can see, these think-
ers arguing and debating on the teachings of each other. They never
bothered to realise that they all belonged to the same set of beliefs.
The followers of Samkhya and other philosophical streams never
even dared to find out the similarities that existed among these sys-
tems when compared to other streams of thoughts. The Vedantins
11
considered the Samkhya, Yoga and the other systems included in
this group, as much inferior. So also the other streams of thought
viewed Vedantins as inferior. There is a here say that one of the
thinkers of this period had the guts to say that those who follow
Vedanta will have rebirth, that too in hell.
The philosophy of Hindus, a part and parcel of Indian phi-
losophy is broadly divided into three parts.
The Vedic Period (1500 BC – 600 BC)
The period is the settlement of the Aryans and their expan-
sion spreading culture and civilisation. This paved way for the rise
of forest universities and the sublime idealism of India. The age
was the witness of the groping in superstition.
The Epic Period (600 BC -200 AD)
This period is the period between the early Upanishadand the
systems of philosophy. The epics the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata opened up the message of heroic and human relation
which had godly outlook. The system of Buddhism, Jainism,
Saivisam and Vaishnavism all belongs to this period. The school of
Indian philosophy, the Darsana dawned during this period.
The Sutra Period ( From 200 A.D)
The Sutra period refers to the philosophical Sutras. The ma-
terial of philosophy is so extensive and the need for shorthand was
a necessity. The mass philosophy was thus condensed in the form
of Sutras. The Sutras without commentaries was like a naked child.
The Sutras are constructive imagination and religious freedom. One
can never say which sutra was born first, which the next. These
entire Sutras are inter linked or interlaced. The Yoga accepts the
Samkhya. On the other hand the Vaiseshikais for the Nyaya and
Samkhya. The Mimamsa accepts or goes with all other sutras. There
12
is no well marked differentiation between the Sutra period and scho-
lastic period
The Scholastic Period
This also belongs to the second century. The peculiarity of
this period is that a brood of controversialists argued fiercely over
the logical universe.
Many of the scholars of this period were very anxious to ex-
hibit their ever confusing books on philosophy. There were many
other scholars who were there to help the common man to under-
stand and practice the philosophies in their lives. The names of
such great personalities are Kumarila, Sankara, Sridhar, Ramanuja,
Madhva, Vacaspati, Udayana, Bhaskara, Jayanta,Vijnanabhikshu
and so on.
With great effort the six systems of philosophy was codified
and it was on the basis of the acceptance of the Vedas. Then the
philosophical systems was divided into two, the affirmers and de-
niers or rather the Asthikas and Nastikas. The Asthikas were the
ones who accepted the Vedas and the six systems that were codi-
fied. Under the Asthikas were Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaiseshika,
Purvamimasa and Uttaramimamsa or Vedanta. The philosophies
and philosophers who opposed Vedas were the Nastikas like Bud-
dhism Jainism etc.
It was by the end of the sixteenth centaury that the followers
of the six systems of philosophy understood that there existed only
minute differences and they were almost similar. It can be seen that
these six systems have the same voice on some of the facts. Max
Muller is of the opinion that, “the longer I have studied the various
systems, the more have I become impressed with the truth of the
view taken by Vijnanabhikshu and others that there is behind the
13
variety of the six systems a common funds of what may be called
national or popular philosophy, a large Manasa lake of philosophi-
cal thought and language far away in the distant north and in the
distant past, from which each thinkers was allowed to draw for his
own purposes”.
The great philosopher of the sixteen century Vijnanabhikshu,
a knower of many subjects and a scholar par excellence. He was of
the view that it was not just that all the Asthika philosophies were
on the agreement with Vedas but if dealt deeply the Samkhya, Yoga,
Vedanta and Nyaya were of different view. These philosophies were
the flowers of the same tree. But with a slight difference in their
fragrance and shape, invisible to naked eye. If ever there is any
difference or disagreement it was merely a misunderstanding.
Often Vijnanabhikshu was looked upon with suspicion be-
cause of his bold statement or rethinking about the bond between
different schools of philosophy. Richard Garbe a translator and his-
torian is of opinion that Vijnanabhikshu is not an eccentric writer
who just scribbles, unimportant things and thoughts. It is because
his writings are indispensible as they are full of minute details on
each of the six systems. In short Vijnanabhikshu is a polymath.
Vijnanabhikshu’s approach has been misunderstood by many as
from a single point. Such critics might not have understood his
efforts to co-ordinate different systems of philosophy. It can be
said that the role of Vijnanabhikshu and other contemporaries by
unifying the Asthika philosophical systems and later forming the
world wide accepted religion Hinduism.
The study of Indian philosophy provides right condition to
clear off the situation, the adapting of balanced outlook and free
the mind from the slavery of superstitions. The intellect will be free
and the original and creative effort will be helped to flourish.
14
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I .............................................................................19-42
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOGA PHILOSOPHY
Origin of Yoga as a philosophical system
Derivation and meaning of Yoga
Yoga in Pre-Vedic Period
Yoga in Early Vedic period
The Upanishadic origin of Yoga
Yoga embedded in Epics and Puranas
Yoga in the Philosophical Deliberations
Yogasutras of Patanjali - A Boundless Wisdom
Commentaries on Yogasutra
Sub commentaries on Vyasabhashya
Yoga Upanishads
The types of Yoga
The Preceptors of Yoga
Yoga for Present Social Scenario
Yoga for Health and Fitness Management
CHAPTER II ............................................................................43-63
YOGA PHILOSOPHY AND VIJNANABHIKSHU
Date of Vijnanabhikshu
Authercraft of Vijnanabhikshu
Vijnanabhikshu’s Vedantic Writings
Samkhya Philosophy and Vijnanabhikshu
Samkhyasara
Samkhya pravacanabhashya
15
Uvaragitabhashyam
Vijnanamrutabhashyam
Vijnanabhikshu’s Skill in Yoga Philosophy
Yogavarttika
Yogasarasangraha
CHAPTER III........................................................................ 64-106
PHILOSOPHY OF VIJNANBHIKSHU
Asthika and Nastika Systems- A brief note
The Samkhya philosophy
Yoga Philosophy
Nyaya Philosophy
The Vaiseshika Philosophy
The Purvamimamsa Philosophy
The Uttaramimamsa or Vedanta Philosophy
The Nastika System
Divergent Schools of Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta of Sri Sankaracarya
Ramanuja’s Visishtadvaita School
Madhvacarya’s Dvaita School
Nimbarkacharya’s Bhedabheda School
Vallabhacarya’s Suddhadvaita School
Bhaskara’s Aupadhika Bhedabheda School
Vijnanabhikshu’s Avibhagadvaita School
Vijnanabhikshu’s Idea on Certain Philosophical Concepts
Bhedabhedain Vijnanabhikshu’s Thought
Bhakti
Brahman
Cinmatra Brahman
Harmonising Prakruthi and Purusha
The Inherent and Supernatural Brahman
Creation of the world
Relation of Brahman and World
Jiva
Unity of Brahman and Jiva
16
Multiplicity of Jiva and Brahman
Maya
Liberation
Vijnanabhikshu is for the Samkhya View of Liberation or
Moksha
Bond of Samkhya and Vedanta in Vijnanabhikshu’s view
Notion of World in Avibhagadvaita Philosophy
Mechanism of Knowledge in Various Philosophies
Double Reflection Theory of Knowledge
CHAPTER IV ..................................................................... 107-143
YOGASARASANGRAHA-TEXTUEL EXAMINATION
A Peep into Yogasarasangraha
A Detailed Analysis of Yogasarasangraha
‘Yoga karmasu kausalam’
‘Samyoga yoga ityukto jivatmaparamatmanoriti’
Yoga and Mind
Functions of Mind
Pratyaksha (Perception)
Anumana (Inference)
Agama (Right Testimony)
Viparyaya (Misconception)
Vikalpa (Fancy)
Nidra (Sleep)
Smruti (Memory)
Extirpating the Infatuations of the Mind
Wiping of the Psychotic Diversifications
Abhyasa - Practice
Vairagya– Dispassion
The Must Means to Abhyasa (Practice)
Four Types of Yogins
Candidates of Meditation
Yogarudha
Yunjana
Arurukshu
17
Eight Limbs of Yoga
Yama – The Restraint
Niyama (The Observances)
Asana (posture)
Pranayama (Regulation of Breath)
Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses)
Dharana (Steadiness)
Dhyana (Contemplation)
Samadhi (Pure Meditation)
Samyama
The Close Relation of Dharana, Dhyanaand Samadhi
Samadhi
Savitarka (Argumentative)
Vicara (Deliberation)
Ananda (Joy)
Asmita (Egotism)
Asamprajnata Samadhi -Abstract Meditation
Kriyayoga (Three Ways to Attain Yoga)
Samapatti (Balanced State of Mind)
Savitarka Samapatti
Nirvitarka Samapatti
Savicara Samapatti
Nirvicara Samapatti
The Eight Perfections
Dharma Megha Samadhi
The Ultimate Goal- Kaivalya
Observations
CHAPTER V ....................................................................... 144-153
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................... 154-160
18
CHAPTER I
ORIGIN AND DEVEL OPMENT
DEVELOPMENT
OF YYOGA
OGA PHIL OSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY
The Hindu philosophical system of India is categorised as Asthika

systems which stands for affirmation and Nastika system which is
for denial. The Nastika systems were mainly those of the Carvakas,
the Buddhists and the Jains. These system were called Nastika, het-
erodox and nihilist, not because they questioned or denied the ex-
istence of God, but because they questioned or denied or ignored
the authority of the Vedas.
The six systems of Indian philosophy-Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
Vaiseshika, Purvamimamsa, and Uttaramimamsa or Vedanta occu-
pies a significant place in India’s thinking principle. Though they
differ from each other and criticise each other, they share yet so
many things in common and it can be realised them as products of
one and the same soil though cultivated by different Acharyas. All
of the six schools of thought promise to teach the nature of Soul
and its relation to Supreme Being. They all undertake to supply the
means of knowing the nature of that Supreme Being, and through
that knowledge to pave the way to liberation and Supreme bliss.
They all share the conviction that there is affliction in the world and
that has to be removed.
19
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu
An Analytical Study
Yoga seeks to free the soul from all sense phenomena and all
bodily attachment to attain supreme enlightenment and salvation.
Such enlightenment is not an easy task; it can be obtained by an
aspirant by moving towards it step by step. There are eight steps
leading to the Yoga ie. Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama,
Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi.
The system of theistic Samkhya follows the Yogasutra pro-
mulgated by Patanjali. The third great system of Hindu philosophy
is that which is known as Patanjali’s Yoga system. The system of
the Samkhya is followed by the Yoga founded by Patanjali. The
Yoga system of Patanjali is the third system of the Hindu philoso-
phy. Patanjali based his philosophy on the Samkhya system be-
sides the conception on a personal God. The numerous coincidences
and agreements undoubtedly points out that Kapila’s doctrine helped
to outgrow and extend the Patanjali Yoga system from the Samkhya
system. The Mahabharata says ‘he is wise who sees the Samkhya
and Yoga as but one’
Yoga recommends an eight fold path aimed at moral disci-
pline, physical discipline and mental discipline. For Yoga the con-
trol of the physical body is a pre requisite for controlling the mind.
All the six systems of philosophy always promise their fol-
lowers the attainment of the highest bliss that can be obtained by
man. Though their approaches leading to that bliss are different yet
the six system of philosophy is recommended not for the sake of
knowledge but for the highest purpose that man can strive in this
life, i.e. his own salvation.
Origin of Yoga as a philosophical system
The goals and purpose and its obligation is proclaimed in the
Indian philosophy. It does not care much for the idea of the knowl-
20
An Analytical Study
edge. The Yoga system of philosophy is the one which is the foot-
holds of Indian philosophical systems. The mind and body of the
aspirant is trained in an approach of integral to achieve the ultimate
goal. The evidences got from the remnants of the Indus Valley
Civilisation is a clear proof of Yoga being in the soil of India from
300 B.C. The terracotta seal got from Mohenjo-Daroin Pakistan
depicting a man in Yogic posture is the proof.
Derivation and meaning of Yoga
Both in the ancient and modern times the derivation and mean-
ing of the Yoga has become the pivot of controversies. The term
Yoga occurs for the first time in the Vedic Samhitas. It conveys
different senses in the same. These references show that the term
was then used to indicate yoking, harnessing, connection etc. In
the Rigveda period it was not considered that liberation could be
achieved by the practice of Yoga; but it would help one to gain
knowledge, peace and happiness. Thus the meanings of the term
of the Vedic period do not bear any relationship with the meaning
of modern time.
The term Yoga used in the Svetasvatara Upanishad and the
Kathopanishad conveys the meaning of a practical system that leads
one to reach the ultimate truth. Grammatically the word Yoga can
be derived from two different roots. Panini notes two roots ‘Yuj’ in
his Dhatupadha, the first in IV.68 as ‘Yuja Samadhau’ and the sec-
ond in VII.7 as ‘Yujir Yoge’. Panini explains the formation of the
word ‘Yogin’ from the root Yuja to mean a man who practices
religious austerities. So at the time of Panini the word Yogin had
established the meaning one who dwells in Samadhi.
While explaining the derivation of the word Yoga, the com-
mentators of the Yogasutra generally follow the path shown by
Panini, and accept the first root i.e. ‘Yujasamadhau’. The
21
An Analytical Study
Vyasabhasya clearly states the meaning of the word Yoga as

Samadhi. Vachaspati Mishra discusses about the two roots noted
by Panini and he concludes that the word Yoga used in the sense of
Samadhi is surely derived from the root ‘Yujasamadhau’ and not
from ‘Yujir Yoge’.
Yoga in Pre-Vedic Period
Yoga was in use, is found in the excavations of Indus Valley
Civilisation. The figures seated in the Yogic postures and the idol
of Mother Goddess advocate the ancient past of Yoga. It is be-
lieved that pre-Aryan heritage has supplemented Yoga. It is so be-
cause Yoga is traced in Tantras and Vedas from ages immemorial.
During those ages Yogic practices were not mentioned but only
symbolic aspect was stated. The seers and sages went to Samadhi
when the Vedic hymns were heard. This is considered as the scrip-
tures released of Vedanta, and contains all the Vedic essence.
Yoga in Early Vedic period
The beginning of Yoga or rather the birth of Yoga and its
relation with Indus Valley Civilisation has evoked difference of
opinion among the scholars. The proof can be seen in the Vedic
literature which has given detailed sayings on the spiritual experi-
ences. The scientific term of Yoga in Vedas is not mentioned in the
earlier Vedic period but traces of Yogic fundamentals can be seen.
This can be seen in the Pre- Vedic Harappan culture which dates
back to 2700 B.C. Many seals which were excavated have figures
of Yogic position that too in a seated position. This position is prac-
ticed by Indian Yogis for meditation in these days. This posture
that is the sitting posture of meditation points out the religious and
philosophical attitude of that period. The excavated seals depict a
series of Yogic postures which are in use in this modern period.
When the Vedic hymns were analysed it is understood that these
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are the hymns or Mantras used for meditation and other Yogic prac-
tices in this modern period.
The word Yoga has taken place regularly in different forms
in the Vedas. It is quite correct that in that period, the Vedic seers
must have trained that the acme of Yoga, otherwise it is difficult to
grasp how such beautiful science could have been formulated in
the absence of its practical experience.
In theVedas the word Yoga take place in different forms. Here
the word Yoga means ‘taking the yoke’. In Rigveda, Yoga has
been derived from the root Yujil-Yoge with the suffix ‘Ghan’ either
meaning Kartru, the subject of Karana the instrument. The word is
used in Rigveda with the meaning of connection or yoking are
‘Yunajmi’, ‘Yuje’, Yunjate, ‘Ayukta’, Ayoji’ etc. At many places
the Vedic seers reveal that they create God’s yoke, horses and yoke
them to their chariots for practicing in the sacrifice by means of
devotion. Also, the virtues as explained in Yamas and Niyamas of
Patanjali’s Ashtanga Yoga has been seen in Rigveda.
The Upanishadic origin of Yoga
The ancient texts are really a treasure house of Yoga philoso-
phy. Of this the Yoga is stressed in the texts of the Bhagavadgita
and the Upanishads. Again, the Upanishads has a large volume of
scriptures on Yoga, called Yogopanishads. The Upanishadic age
had evoked higher thoughts or it can be said that the Indian thoughts
had reached its summit during those days.
Chandogyopanishad: The system of Yoga in the Upanishads
can be found during this period and during this period the Indian
thoughts reached the summit along with the Yogic forms. The trans
psychic Yogic state of mind is opened up. In this Upanishad a pow-
erful explanation of the Yogic mystic experiences can be found.
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As a branch of religious rite Tapas and Brahmacharya is

stressed in Chandogyopanishad. The Brahmacharya is used to re-
fer to an aspirant and the term Dhyana is also indicated here. The
term Dhyana is used here as a superior quality to intellect. So also a
similarity in this concept can be found in Chandyogyopanishad
and Bhagavadgita. The difference is only that which concerns of
the first preceptor as Brahma and Lord Narayana. This Upanishad
does not give an idea of Asanas but has spoken of Pranayama. The
Chandogyopanishad uses the term Dhyana at one place. However
it cannot be found that the word Yogin and Yoga used in their
exact meaning in this early Upanishad.
Bruhadara¸ yakopanishad: Bruhadara¸ yakopanishad mentions
the term Nididhyasana in the second and fourth chapters. sravana,
Manana and Nididhyasana are mentioned in a Mantra of the sec-
ond chapter. This Upanishad also mentions the nerves in the body
called ‘hita’ which are placed in the heart.
svetasvataraopanishad: ‘sveta’ means white or pure and
‘Asva’ means ‘horse’, hence the chariot analogy is bore in mind,
mentioned above. svetasvataraopanishad refers to one whose senses
are purified and under control.
This Upanishad states the meditation posture. The posture
for meditation is to hold the body straight, the head, chest and throat
should be held erect. The mind and senses should be controlled
and brought to heart. The Mantra ‘Om’ should be chanted. The
Upanishad gives a description on the practice of Pranayama. The
term Yoga is used in the same sense of the Yogic practice.
The Yogic practice results in making body healthy and fit,
mind is controlled, the complexion is also maintained, the voice is
trained and all body functions are controlled. The practice of Yoga
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An Analytical Study
and the psychological results were explained by Patanjali. This is

described in svetasvataraopanishad in a very detailed manner.
Isavasyopanishad: Isavasyopanishad, though small in size is
heavy with philosophical consequences. Renunciation and enjoy-
ment, actions and knowledge are described in the teachings of this
Upanishad. Among the Upanishad Isavasyopanishad do not have
direct reference to Yoga.
Kenopanishad: The Kenopanishad indirectly hints at Karma-
Yoga. It is found that the description of mystic experience for which
purpose, control on senses, actions, study of scriptures and truth
are said to be very essential, in the Truth section of this Upanishad.
These form the key component of the Yogic concepts of the Yama
and the Niyamas. but the words Yoga or Yogin do not take place in
this Upanishad.
Kathopanishad : The word Yoga has been used in its techni-
cal sense in the Kathopanishad. In this Upanishad a detailed dis-
cussion of Yoga is obtained. Kathopanishad states that it is through
Adhyatma Yoga one can know the supreme self and abandon joy
and grief. It states that the one who has not restrained his senses
will not attain the knowledge of the Self.
The steady restraint over the senses is regarded as Yoga. When
one becomes vigilant, Yoga can indeed originate in one and other-
wise can be lost as well. In this Upanishad, Yama and Naciketa
have been pictured as the ideal preceptor and disciple, respectively.
Kathopanishad names the instruction imparted by Yama to Naciketas
a Yogavidhi. Yama explains about the qualities of an ideal precep-
tor and the Adhyatma Yoga is the one and only means of Self-
realisation. This Upanishad also states that the spiritual state of ex-
perience in which mind stops its purpose, together with the sense
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An Analytical Study
organs and even the intellect does not function is supposed to be

the Yoga. Then a scientific definition of Yoga, as Yoga is the rising
and the setting of the sense functions without ignorance and knowl-
edge is got.
Prasnopanishad: In this Upanishad, it can be found that the
further development of Yoga. The Prasnopanishad mostly describes
this with the Pranavidya. Praying to Prana the sage Pippalada asks
for glory and intellectual brilliance. This Upanishad makes an ob-
vious mention of the places and functions of vital airs within the
body. Prasnopanishad also indicates immortality through correct
knowledge of these vital airs and this detailed explanation certainly
denotes a developed stage of Yoga. This Upanishad states about
the searching for the Self through the control of the senses,
Brahmacharya, faith and meditation.
Mundakopanishad: The main topic of the Mundakopanishad
is the meditation and Yoga. The Kthopanishad and the
Mundakopanisad have many similarities in the philosophical ideas.
This Upanisad describes that the aspirant whose mind is calm and
whose outer organs are under control (sama), then the teacher should
adequately impart the knowledge of Brahman. This Upanishad also
advices one to meditate on the sacred syllable ‘Om’. One becomes
purified in mind through the favourableness of the intellect; through
meditation one can see the invisible Self. The knowledge of Pranava
in Mandukyopanishad needs special mention in the practice of Yoga.
Taittiriyopanishad: This Upanishad advices the practice of
Tapas, Satya, Dama, sama along with Swadhyaya. The supreme
Self created this entire universe by doing tapas. Here the word
tapas have the meaning of deliberation. In this Upanishad the Self
is said to be beyond Prana. The word Yoga which is mentioned
here is in its technical sense.
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Yoga embedded in Epics and Puranas

The further development of the Yoga can be seen in the epic
Mahabharata. In the Ramayana there is not much information about
the development of Yoga. The epic Mahabharata has an important
place in the study of the development of Yoga as it comprises
Bhagavadgita which provides significant material in the study of
Yoga.
Bhagavadgita: In Bhagavadgita the word Yoga is used fre-
quently and the name of each chapter is attached with the term
‘Yoga’. Bhagavadgita is also termed as Yogasastra along with the
Brahmavidya that is the scripture on Yoga. It deals with different
kinds of Yoga, suitable for people from all forms of life and in
different stages of life, belonging to different faiths and castes. The
actual message of the Bhagavadgita can be summed up in just two
words “Yogibhava” or be a “Yogin”. Bhagavadgita uses the word
Samkhya in a sense of knowledge and Yoga in the sense of the
path of action and through Samkhya and Yoga, one attains the
same Supreme reality. The state of liberation attained by the Yogin
is described as the attainment of oneness with Brahman.
Three things from the Bhagavadgita are understood as the
definition of Yoga. The foremost among them is “Equality is called
Yoga”. Samatvam yoga Uchyate Just after two verses is, appear-
ing another sentence, “Yoga is skill in action”. Yoga Karmasu
kausalam.
In the sixth chapter, the third sentence states“ Dissociation
from association with grief may be known to be what is called Yoga”.
Thus, in Bhagavadgita the main meaning of Yoga is Samatva.
Bhagavadgita also accepts four main ways suitable for people of
different personalities and different capacities. These are the Karma
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Yoga or the Yoga of action, Jnana Yoga or the Yoga of knowl-

edge, Dhyana Yoga or the Yoga of meditation and Bhakti Yoga or
the Yoga of love and devotion.
By Karma Yoga, the Bhagavadgita prescribes a technique or
a device by which usually binding actions can lead to liberation.
Bhagavadgita recognizes actions as the main cause of bondage and
rebirth. As the Bhagavadgita declares, there is no being on this
earth or even amongst Gods in heaven, who can be free from three
essential forces of nature.
For even a moment, no body can stay without action. By the
forces of nature everybody is forced to do action.
One is required to resort to a special trick or technique that
can liberate one from the bondage of actions. This technique is
what is called as the Karma Yoga of the Bhagavadgita.
Bhagavadgita points out a wide gulf between ordinary action
and intelligent actions of a Yogi. Of these, ordinary actions are
undertaken with an eye towards the fruits of these actions. But such
actions are not satisfactory according to Gita. Bhagavadgita insists
that a man is entitled only to action and never to its fruits.
In Bhakti Yoga, the single minded worship and meditation is
termed as Yoga. In the twelth chapter, the fourteenth verse reflects
the same idea. Lord Krishna states that, if one is unable to fix mind
on the Supreme lord, then Abhyasa Yoga will help him to do so.
Even if it is not possible, intent on doing actions for the Lord’s sake
and if one is unable to do this also, and then renounce the fruits of
all actions. Some go beyond the qualities through Bhakti Yoga and
become Brahman. The Yogins see the Supreme as dwelling in the
Self. Dama, Svadhyaya and Tapas are mentioned along with Jnana
Yoga.
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Yoga in the Philosophical Deliberations

The founder of Yoga philosophy is not Patanjali and there is
no convincing evidence to hold this view point. It is regarded that
sage Patanjali is the main promoter of Yoga philosophy. The
Yajnavalkya Smruti asserts that Hiranyagarbha is the teacher of
Yoga and there is no other ancient one.
The very first Sutra of the Yogasutra uses the term Anusasana
is also taken as evidence for the existence of predecessor of Patanjali.
The word Anusasanam shows that Patanjali did nothing but re-stated
the doctrines fully known to his predecessors. So, some scholars
point out that Yogasutra is fully based on the teachings of the an-
cient teachers.
The Sarva Darsanasamgraha of Madhvacarya mentions that
in the composition of Yogasutra, Patanjali was provoked by the
desire of presenting to the world a systematic and connected trea-
tise of Yoga, which had become difficult to understand, as it was
found scattered in mutilated bits in the various Puranas.
The Philosophy of Yoga had gone through different stages
of progress to reach the modern position. It is also said that at first
the systems of Samkhya and Yoga were considered as the theoreti-
cal and practical, aspects of one and the same system of thought. In
course of time, the two were separated.
The perfect liberation of soul is the only aim of all the ortho-
dox systems of Indian philosophy. Samkhya and Yoga are closely
related and Yoga belongs to one of the six orthodox schools of
Indian philosophy. Yoga means conjunction or joining together
and it states how to attain self control and take the path of libera-
tion. One should know that the limits of Yoga are not restricted to
the practices of making health and so on, but on the other hand it is
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An Analytical Study
filled with disciplines. These disciplines are so structured that it

brings about complete transformation in human beings.
The Yoga system adds nothing new to the Samkhya a part
from the concept of Isvara. Both these are distinct as it has Isvara in
it. Samkhya, but, has the Nirisvara concept too.
Yoga or union with the Lord is therefore not a mere abstract
idea of dissolving oneself into “nothing” or “becoming God one-
self” but Yoga leads to a spiritual relationship of the living entities
with the Supreme Lord. Yoga means, that the Supreme Lord is
there, the devotee is there and the activity of exchange of Love
between the Lord and his Devotee is there.
It is defined that Yoga is the process of establishing a link-up
between the consciousness of the living entity with the Supreme
consciousness of the Lord. This process of establishing a link-up
with the Supreme Lord leads to God consciousness, the ultimate
aim of all Yoga processes.
As said earlier Yoga is the process of inter locking man and
God. It is just like the lover and the loved. They forget everything,
as if in oblivion, they delve themselves in the ocean of happiness.
They consider themselves to be one but in reality they are different
entities. This is similar with regard to the union of man and God.
The Samkhya states twenty five principles and Yoga accepts
it. Besides this, Yoga accepts one more principle i.e. Isvara or God.
The twenty five principles of Samkhya is related with Purusha,
Prakruthi, its evolutes from Mahat or Mahabhutas. Isvara in Yoga
is accepted by Patanjali. He states that meditating on God leads one
to the path of salvation. Many argue that Prakruthi and Purusha,
though different principles cannot be differentiated from each other.
These forces can be understood and put to practice only by intelli-
gent force. The tendency and process of events of Prakruthi which
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is non intelligent is to be controlled by an intelligent force to bring

about harmony and regulate the process of evolution. The intelli-
gent force is God, which brings together Prakruthi and Purusha, to
create a world, that too a perfect one. The God or the intelligent
force helps in the formation of the world by uniting Prakruthi and
Purusha but not related to it organically.
Isvara in Yoga is Purusha-visesha. So this relation can be
regarded as one which is inseparable or organic. The living entity
and the supreme consciousness, Isvara is one and the same and this
is transcendental. More over pure consciousness is the reaction of
the living entity and the manifested soul, but it does not mean that
this is generated by the combination of matters. The matter can in
no way affect the Isvara or the consciousness.
Isvara accepted in Yoga is endowed with eternal and supreme
knowledge. He is pure-suddha, blissful-Prasanna, free-Kevala, im-
mutable-Kutastha, and eternal-Nitya. Isvara accepted in Yoga is a
special kind of Purusha, but yet he is distinct from other Purushas
in so far as He is untouched by the fruits of Karman. He is free from
the cycle of birth and death and also from the joys and sorrows
occurring from it. Other Purushas in their real nature are also un-
touched by Karma, but because of their false identification with
Buddhi and other evolutes of Prakruthi, they seem to be subjected
to the Law of Karman. Isvara on the other hand, is never identified,
even falsely, with the evolutes of Prakruthi and is, therefore never
subjected to the Law of Karman. Isvara is also distinct from the
selves absorbed in Prakruthi at the time of dissolution, because these
selves are liable to be subjected to bondage and to the resulting
afflictions in future creations, but Isvara is never so.
Isvara has a perfect nature. He is never affected by afflic-
tions, ignorance, passion, attachment aversion and the like and never
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comes under the control of Avidya or ignorance, for Avidya is un-

der His full control. He is never influenced by the three Gu¸as of
Prakruthi and is never entangled in the empirical life. In the Yoga
system Isvara is that Purusha who is distinguished from all others
by the fact of His being untouched by the affliction or the fruits of
Karma.
The process of Yoga and meditation as prescribed by Patanjali
can be easily adapted to the path of Bhakti also. The Ishtadevata
becomes the object of meditation and Samadhi on the Ishtadevata
will automatically lead to Liberation.
One of the means for attaining Yoga is Isvarapra, idhana, or
worship of God. The dedication of all fruits of action to Isvara,
purifies the mind and makes it fit for Yoga.
The Yoga system of philosophy is popularly known as a
branch of the Samkhya system, but Patanjali has introduced Isvara
who is not found in Samkhya. In Yoga, the Supreme conscious-
ness is regarded as a special kind of Self or Purusha-visesha. Yoga
is the spiritual science of Self realisation, which is closely related to
God-realisation. By realising the true inner Self, one automatically
comes to know the true nature of the Lord. Isvara is not only the
object of meditation but is also said to help the realisation of the
goal by the removal of obstacles. Isvara is not merely an inactive
object of meditation; he actively helps the devotees to attain libera-
tion by removing all the obstacles and by facilitating Self-realisation.
Yogasutras of Patanjali - A Boundless Wisdom
Patanjali lived in a critical period of Indian history. Tradition
calls him as a writer of three works, one each on Yoga, Grammar
and Medicine. Patanjali’s commentary on Panini’s grammar is not
only an authoritative work on grammar but also a huge store of
information.
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Patanjalihas presented one of the highly acclaimed, real texts

on Yoga i.e Yogasutra in which he explains Ashtanga Yoga. The
Ashtangas (eight steps) can be practiced by anyone who wants to
attain the highest level of spirituality or Samadhi.
Yogasutra is recognised as the authoritative work on Yoga
philosophy. It is written in the style of Sutra (aphorisms). The text
is divided in to four parts. Samadhi-pada, Sadhana-pada, Vibhuti-
pada and Kaivalya-pada.
The first Pada is called Samadhipada, because Samadhi is
expounded prominently in this chapter. This Pada consists of fifty
one aphorisms and it deals with the definition of Yoga; various
states of minds (Cittavrutti); the means of resisting mind from these
Vruttis; the constant practice (Abhyasa) and dispassion (Vairagya);
two types of Samadhi called Samprajnata and Aamprajnata and
lastly Ìsvara.
The second chapter Sadhana Pada contains fifty five apho-
risms. In this chapter Sadhanas or means of Kaivalya are mentioned.
The topic depicted to Sadhana pada is Kriyayoga, which leads to
Yoga through the annihilation of Klesas; the fruits of Klesas and
Karman; emancipation and its causes; four Vyuhas; the five indi-
rect limbs of Yoga such as Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama,
Pratyahara, along with the benefits imparted by them.
The third Vibhuti-pada has fifty five Sutras and mentions
about the super human powers acquired by the Yogin. The topics
discussed in this chapter are the three direct limbs of Yoga viz
Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi, together referred to as Samyama
along with their variations.
In Kaivalyapada, there are thirty four aphorisms and the chap-
ter is devoted to study the two forms of Kaivalya, the state of mind
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that is fit for; the nature of self that travels to the higher world,
Dharmamegha Samadhi etc.
The total number of Yoga aphorisms is one hundred and ninety
five. It is said that the composition of Patanjali’s Yogasutra could
have taken place between 300 BC and 300 AD.
Commentaries on Yogasutra
The most authentic and oldest commentary on the Yoga phi-
losophy of Patanjali is Vyasa’s commentary. It is familiar by the
names Yogabhashya or Vyasabhashya. Vachaspati Mishra wrote
Tattvavaisaradi in the 19th century which is the commentary on
Vyasabhashya. Vijnanabhikshu’s Yogavarttika, is the detailed com-
mentary on the Yogasutrabhashya, Yogadipika of Bhavagadgita,
Yogasudhakara of Sadasivendra Saraswati are important commen-
taries of Yogasutra.
Vyasabhashya: Vyasabhashya is the commentary ascribed
to Vyasa and it is the oldest and most popular commentary on
Yogasutra. It is one of the most often copied texts in the field of
classical Indian philosophy because of the popularity of this com-
mentary. In this commentary on the Yogasutra, Vyasa lists thirteen
Asanas those mentioned by Vyasa are Padmasana (lotus posture),
Virasana (heroic posture), Bhadrasana (beneficient posture),
Svastika (ausoecious posture), Dhandasana (staff posture), Sopasraya
(with support), Paryanka (around the hip), Crauncanisadana (cur-
lew-sitting), Samasamsthana (even steady), Sthirasukha (at ease or
agreeable).
Rajamartandavrutti: Bhojadeva is the author of the famous
commentary of the Yogasutra named as Rajamartandavrutti. Among
the commentaries of Yogasutra, the Rajamartandavrutti is consid-
ered as most important one. There are no dramatizations in this
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commentary and the language used is very simple. Bhojadeva was

the King of Dhara. According to tradition, he lived in the 11th cen-
tury AD.
Besides this work there are numerous commentaries written on
the Yogasutra. These are Maniprabhavrutti of Ramananda Saraswati
(7th century AD), Yogasiddhantachandrika and Sutrarthabodhini by
Narayanatirtha 18th century A.D), Yogasutradipika by Bhavaganesa
(disciple of Vijnanabhikshu), Vrutti of Nagojibhatta(18th century
A.D), Yogasudhakaravrutti by Sadasiva brahmendrayati etc.
Sub commentaries on Vyasabhashya
Vyasabhashyais much scholastic and conveys secret mean-
ings. So, in course of time there arose a number of sub-commentar-
ies. In the history of Yoga literature, some of the sub-commentaries
have got independent position. Yogavarttika of Vijnanabhikshu and
Tattvavaisaradi of Vachaspati Mishra are the much popular com-
mentaries.
Yogavarttika,: Vijnanabhikshu’s Yogavarttika, is a vast sub-
commentary on Vyasabhashya. There are visible dissimilarities in
Yogavarttika, and Tattvavaisaradi, and when compared with these
two, it shows more indebtedness to the philosophy of Yoga.
Tattvavaisaradi: Vachaspati Mishrais the author of Tattvavai-
saradi and it is considered as the first written sub-commentary on
Vyasabhashya available today. Tattvavaisaradi starts with two
benedictory verses; the first one praising Lord Vishnu and the second
one offering obligations to Patanjali and Vedavyasa. At the end of
each chapters of these work the contents are summarised in verses.
The date of Vachaspati Mishrais determined as 9th century
AD. He is a Vedantin, who wrote the celebrated sub-commentary
called Bhamati on Brahmasutra Sankarabhashya. Vachaspati Mishra
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is the only scholar who wrote various intellectual commentaries on

different philosophies and therefore he is popular as Sarvatantra
Svatantra.
Yoga Upanishads
There are a number of Upanishads are associated with the
Atharva Veda. Deussen identifies thirty nine and divided these into
five categories such as Pure-Vedanta, Samnyasa, Siva, Vishnu
and Yoga Upanishads.
Deussen mentions eleven Yoga Upanishads, viz.
Brahmavidya, Kshurika, Culika, Nadabindu, Brahmabindu,
Amrutabindu, Dhyanabindu, Tejobindu, Yogasikha, Yogatattva and
Hamsopanishad. Feuerstein, on the other hand, provides a more
comprehensive list including some twenty one titles, and also notes
that the Yoga-Upanishads were composed after the Yogasutra.
Feuerstein’s favoured date for this latter text being the early post-
Christian era.
Some of the minor Upanishads such as Yogakundali
Upanishad, Yogacudamani Upanishad, Yogatattvopanishad and
Yogarajopanishad as a whole illustrated doctrine of Yoga.
Yogakundali Upanishad: It consists of three chapters and to-
tal number of one hundred and seventy mantras. This Upanishad
gives a depiction of the practice of Asanas, Pranayama, Mudra,
Bandha, Cakra etc.
Yogacudamani Upanishad : This Upanishad consists of a to-
tal number of one hundred and twenty one mantras. According to
this Upanishad, there are only six limbs of Yoga, such as Asanas,
Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi.
Yogatattvopanishad : This explains about various types of
Yoga such as Laya Yoga, Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga.
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Yogarajopanishad : It consists of twenty one mantras. There

are four varieties of Yoga, Asana, Pranayama, Dhyana and Samadhi.
It is very small in size.
The types of Yoga
There are various types of Yoga according to the tradition,
and they mainly they are-Hatha Yoga, Laya Yoga, Mantra Yoga
and Raja Yoga. These types of Yoga could be practised in a hierar-
chical order on the basis of the capability of the aspirant. The man-
tra Yoga can only practiced by the weakest aspirant.
Hatha Yoga: This Yoga is also known as Kriyayoga and it
gives importance to controlled breathing and practice of a variety
of postures. This type of Yoga provides physical and mental fitness
for the aspirant. It is said that Pranayama not only regulates the
breathing process but it also brings about the much needed order
and one-pointedness in the thinking process. By the practice of
Hatha Yoga, one gets peace, gratification and resistance to disease
and decay.
Hatha Yogas main components are the eight limbs of
Patanjali’s Yogasutra. These eight limbs or components are Yama,
Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, Dhyana and
Samadhi. Besides these Ashtangas, the Hatha Yoga says of Bandha
(muscular contractions), Mudra and practices leading to purifica-
tions. Postures are given special significances and many descrip-
tions about it is specified in Hatha Yoga. Pranayama has its compli-
mentary Bandha and other Bandhas. The most important Bandhas
are Mula-bandha, Jalandhara bandha and Uddyana- bandha.
Laya Yoga: Laya Yoga is an ancient form of meditation, and
the ultimate goal of Laya Yoga is to attain supreme consciousness
through Pranayama and breath control. It is a method to prevent
fluctuations of the mind. The practice of Laya Yoga cleanses and
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heals the body and mind. This Yoga aims at awakening the nature
energy (Kundalini) and make it rise through the six centres along
the central artery of the subtle body. This is from the root at the
bottom of spinal code, to the Sahasrara-padma (thousand petalled
lotuses) at the top of the head. To listen the inner sound (sound of
nadi) and see the sense is the practice of Laya Yoga. Awakening
the Kundalini, hearing the nadi sound, and observing the light of
the Self are the three main practices of Laya Yoga. When this Yoga
is tried out, the applicant is freed from all desires and attains peace.
Mantra Yoga: Mantra Yoga, the path of transformative sound,
is an integral aspect of Tantra but also can be pursued as a separate
Yoga path. It can be defined as chanting or repeating holy syllables
such as ‘Om’ or names of divine things. Mantra Yoga is also known
as Japa Yoga and it is considered as the easiest method to control
mind. The essence of Mantra Yoga is the regular and prolonged
recitation, Japa of one or more potent sounds which awakens the
Cakras and the serpent power kundalini. Bhakti Yoga is the most
popular mantra Yoga of love and compassion.
‘Om’ the Bijakshara along with other sounds are included in
Mantra Yoga. The nerve centers are reflected in a positive manner,
permanently by these Mantra Yogic sounds. The sound vibrations
have different effects, that are good sounds produce good effects
and bad sounds bad effects. Kriya and Bhava are the two sub divi-
sions. The Kriya is just a repetition of a Mantra. The Kriya to be
fruitful should be mingled with Bhava. All religions have accepted
this Yoga.
Raja Yoga- This is the king of all Yogas and is said to be a
Royal Yoga. This is said to be the quickest way to release ultimate
goal and also a direct method. This Yoga is so specific that a Yogin
can control his/her bodyas well as inner and outer senses.
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An Analytical Study
The method of Raja Yoga was first introduced by Patanjali

and it consists of physical and mental disciplines leading to Samadhi.
Raja Yoga does not emphasise on any one aspect like posture and
body training as in Hatha Yoga, chanting of mantras in Mantra
Yoga or the awakening of the kundalini in Laya Yoga. This Yoga
prominently mentions the eight disciplines for self- realisation.
The Preceptors of Yoga
Hiranyagarbha: Except the references given by others, there
is no concrete evidence for the approval of the existence of the
ancient Yogin Hiranyagharbha. It is to be noted that the creator
Brahma also bears the name Hiranyagarbha. Some opines that the
philosophy of Yoga was expounded by the sage Kapila, the founder
of Samkhya philosophy and who is also known as Hira¸ yagarbha.
The references in the Mahabharata Tattvavaisaradi,
svetasvataropaniÀad, and its Sankarabhashya also support this ar-
gument.
Patanjali: Almost all the historians agree that, the Yogasutra
is written by the sage Patanjali. Scholars opine that the name
Patanjali came in to being as a salutary word and it is not the actual
name of the propagator of Yoga philosophy. Some also say that he
got the name Patanjali on account of people worshipping (Anjali)
at his foot (Pada).
There were three famous Patanjali’s in history, the author of
Yogasutra, the famous grammarian and the author of Mahabhashya,
and the third one was a medical writer and the author of Nidanasutra.
Some scholars identify that these three as one and same, but mod-
ern scholars and researchers distinguish these three and there is no
ground for confusing these three. There are no authentic records
regarding the birth, date and place of Patanjali. It is depends on the
popular legends about him.
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An Analytical Study
Vyasa: Vyasa is the most popular name in ancient Sanskrit

literature. The sage Vedavyasa, Badarayana, Krishna dvaipayana-
all are otherwise known as Vyasa. He is the famous author of
Brahmasutras and Puranas. The date of Vyasa is ascertained to be
between 650 and 850 A.D. It is unable to arrive at conclusion about
the personal details of Vyasa.
Yoga for Present Social Scenario
The tradition of Yoga continues even today without break.
Swami Vivekananda made Yoga admired in modern times. To spread
the knowledge of Yoga out of India, Swami Ramatirtha and
Paramahamsa Yogananda continued their work. Swami
Kuvalayanandamade the scientific aspects of Yoga popular and he
pointed out on the basis of scientific evidence, how Yoga could be
valuable in day to day life of each individual.
Yoga has not lost its lustre even in this era. Many evolutions
have come over this subject. In these days the Asanas of Yoga is
given more importance and focus. The theory and other features of
Yoga are complicated for a layman to understand. Not only that the
time and perseverance which is a must for Yoga, is a mirage in this
era. So Yoga can be practised as an exercise. Yoga may be regarded
as a means of compressing one’s evolution in to a single life or a few
months or even a few hours of bodily existence and education also
when rightly understood would mean a rapid psychological process
on the way to perfection.It is a process of the discovery of the Self
and it aims at a true Self knowledge, which gives liberation from ego
and imperfections.
In recent times, stress is being laid on education for an all
round development of the personality. Yoga itself is a process of
self education, which helps in the evolution of an individual con-
sciousness and proper spiritual growth. However it can be of enor-
40
An Analytical Study
mous help in the present set up of education for its utilitarian na-
ture. Today, a child needs a good memory, quick recollection, keen
observation, sharp intellect, quick decision, a clear perception and
high capacity to absorb and assimilate. A granted set of Yogic prac-
tices can be of immense help for these and have a valuable place in
the new educational system.
Yoga for Health and Fitness Management:
From the classical or Yogic literature indicate that health was
considered as apre-requisite for the spiritual pursuit. “Nayamatma
balahinena labhyah”, “Sariramadyam khalu dharmasadhanam”. Yoga
looks up on man as a whole consisting of body mind and spirit and
Yoga accepts body mind relationship. Yogic concept of health is not
simply physically oriented but it is also mentally and spiritually ori-
ented. Arogya, a synonym for health has been considered as an ab-
sence of disturbance or pulls on the mind.
Recent experiences of introducing Yogic practices in manage-
ment programmes shows that it may serve as a good relief in reduc-
ing organizational stress and promoting a pleasant work climate. The
practice of Yoganidra and certain Asanas and Pranayamas and medi-
tations are very useful for relaxation. Therefore it would be clear that
Yogic practices can play an important role in promoting health and
fitness.
References
Ekam Samkhyam ca Yogam ca... Bhagavadgita.
a. Rigveda, 1.18.7
Here the word Yoga means that which has to be done for the
improvement of intellect.
b. Kada yogo vacinam rasabhasya....*Rigveda, 1.34.9
Here, the meaning Yoking is assigned to Yoga.
c. hari radhe sudhara yoge... Rigveda, 5.43.5
Here, the word Yoga means ‘taking the yoke, good at yoking’.
41
An Analytical Study
Sureshchandra Srivastavya, PatanjalaYoga darsanam, p.6
Ashtadhyayi, III.2.142
YogasutraVyasabhashyam, 1.1
Rigveda, 1.82.6 ,V.81.1
Chandogyopanishad, II.23.1
Ibid,IV.35.6, IV.1.3
Bhagavadgita, IV.1
Bruhadaranyakopanishad, II.4.4, IV.5.5
Na durdasam gudamanupravishtam
Guhahitam gahvareshhtam puranam
Adhyathma yogadhigamena devam
Mathva dhiro harshasokau jahati.
Kathopanishad, 1.2.12
Prasnopanishad,1.10
a. Mundakopanishad,1.2.13
b. Mundakopanishad,2.2.6
Taittiriyopanishad,II.6.1
Bhagavadgita, V.4.5
Ibid, II.50, II.48
Ibid, VI.23
Yajnavalkyasmruti, XII.5
Sarvadarsana samgraha, p.570
Isvarapra¸ idhanadva.
Yogasutra, 1.23
Klesakarmavipaka Sayairaparamrushtah Purushaviseshh Isvarah
Tatra niratisayam sarvajnabijam kalenanavachedad.
Ibid,I.24,25
P.K. Sadidharan Nair, The Yoga system of Patanjali, p.34
Tattvavaisaradi, p.133
Yogachudamani Upanishad, 2
Siva Samhita, V.16
Ibid, IV.23,24
Krishna P Bahadur, The Wisdom of Yoga, P.108
Svetasvataropanishad sankarabhashyam, V.6, 18
Mahabharata, II.3.65
Tattvavaisaradi, I.25
Svetasvataropanishad, V.2
Puranic encyclopedia, Motilalbanarasidas Publishers pvt ltd, 2002, p.583
P.K. Sasidharan Nair, The Yoga system of Patanjali, p.34
42
CHAPTER II
YOGA PHIL OSOPHY AND
PHILOSOPHY
VIJNANABHIKSHU
India has given birth to many praiseworthy sons and daughters.

One among them is none other than Acharya Vijnanabhikshu.
Vijnanabhikshu’s life is full of controversies. Vijnanabhikshu’s
works do not give indication about his parents, guru, childhood or
his place of birth. One is in the dark as regards any personal where-
abouts of Vijnanabhikshu. Yet another sorrow is that, there is no
legend connected with his life. Vijnanabhikshu has always been
pictured as a stubborn ascetic, who was steadfast in his evolution as
regards Yoga.
Many ascetics, for example, Sankara have left a record of
their Gurus and Asramas. This has led one to accumulate much
knowledge regarding their ancestry and their activities.
Vijnanabhikshu in turn has not recorded any such identity. From
this it can be assumed that he might have been a man of total
Vairagya. A few attempts have been made in this field to know the
place of Vijnanabhikshu.
Sri Hayavadan Rao opines that Vijnanabhikshu was from
Bengal. The non availability of information about the place of
Vijnanabhikshu has led one to make out the place of his stay from
43
An Analytical Study
his works or rather on the basis of linguistic expressions in the works.

It is regarded that the style and language will help one to know the
region of the writer. The expression in Vijnanabhikshu’s work like
’Ghotaka’ ‘áigro’ ‘Margah’ ‘Milanam’ ‘Militva’ ‘Ratridina’ etc are
Hindi expressions translated into Sanskrit. It can be made out that
Vijnanabhikshu lived in that region where Hindi was the most com-
mon language spoken. This notion can be stressed because there is
proof of Hindi being spoken in the regions of Uttarpradesh, Bihar
and north of Madhya Pradesh between the 14th and 17th centuries.
The proof is based on the reports published by the Nagari Pancharini
Sabha. The report says that Hindi was spoken and also used for
writing by both common and the literary personalities.
As regards the place, it can be assumed that he was somewhere
in Prayaga, as it is used most in his works. To stress this notion certain
usages like ‘Yam bhasate’ Mughalagnam masimiva’ helps one.
Vijnanabhikshu, a man of Vairagya and a man of little identity might
not have thought much about leaving behind any trace of his identity.
The need of knowing more about Vijnanabhikshu was never felt and
so a few attempts have been made in this field. Where ever he was
born or whatever is his period, the works of Vijnanabhikshu stands
out, emitting light on all systems of Indian philosophy.
Date of Vijnanabhikshu
The date of Vijnanabhikshu is a subject which has been a con-
troversy. There are no records or proofs to fix the date of this scholar.
Many have come up with many dates. It is believed that
Vijnanabhikshu flourished in the sixteenth century AD (1525-1580).
One of the opinions regarding the date of Vijnanabhikshu is to take
his works as evidence. Footing on this opinion it is seen that
Sankaracarya and Vacaspati Misra were criticised by Vijnanabhikshu.
It is also known that he was influenced by the theories of Navya
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An Analytical Study
Nyaya, if so he must have been in the second half of the sixteenth

century AD. It is so because the Raghunath Siromani known as
Navadvipa and the author of Didhiti and Padarthakhandana, believed
to have been lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century AD.
Pandit Udayavir Sastri disputed this statement. According to
him Vijnanabhikshu lived in the 14th century AD. He considers
Sadananda the author of Advaita Brasmasiddhi, had also written a
criticism of Vijnanabhikshu. According to Pandit, Sadananda is sup-
posed to have lived before Vallabha and so Vijnanabhikshu would
be much earlier to this period. This leads Pandit to place
Vijnanabhikshu in the fourteenth century. This cannot be accepted
because Pandit centers only on one point. Another point to disagree
with Pandit’s argument is that whether Sadananda is the author of
Advaita Brahmasiddhi has not to this day been decided. It is said that
Pandit had mistaken Sadananda the author of Vedantasara as the au-
thor of Advaita Brahmasiddhi. As there is no more evidence of the
Vijnanabhikshu’s date to be fixed to the 14th century, the generally
accepted date i.e. the 16th century cannot be discarded.
Sureshchandra Srivastavya places Vijnanabhikshu after 1500
AD. According to him Vijnanabhikshu would not have been later
than the author of the Saivabhashya, Nilakanta and Sadananda Vyasa
who had penned Vedantasara. This finding cannot be accepted as
this is based on wild guess rather than proofs.
P.K Gode stresses this argument on the date of Vijnanabhikshu
by quoting a passage from the introductory part of the Adyar edition
of the Yoga sarasangraha of the Vijnanabhikshu. In that part, a manu-
script based on Brahma mimamsa by Vijnanabhikshu has been dated
as 1775 of the Vikrama era that is 1719A.D. So this leads to placing
Vijnanabhikshu earlier than 1719 AD. Nages places Vijnanabhikshu
to the end of the 17th century AD in his Patanjala sutravrutti.
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An Analytical Study
The name of Vijnanabhikshu has been mentioned in the works

of Bhavaganesa Narayana Tirtha and Nagojibhatta. Moreover
Bhavaganesa is regarded as Vijnanabhikshu’s disciple. So it is said
the Vijnanabhikshu might have been in the later half of the 16th cen-
tury AD. Thus it has been reached to the agreement that Vijnanabhikshu
had lived in the last half of the 16th century and the beginning of the
17th century AD.
Another version regarding the date of Vijnanabhikshu goes like
this, that is based on the manuscript of Vijnanabhikshu’s Samkhyasara,
in which states the time of being copied is given as 1623 A.D. More-
over P.K Gode places Bhavaganesa between 1525-80 AD. Besides
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Dr. S.N. Dasgupta, Prof. M. Winternitz, F.E.
Hall, Dr. R. Garbe, Prof. M. Hiriya¸¸a etc have agreed that
Vijnanabhikshu lived in the 16th century A.D. So it can be agreed or
rather concluded that Vijnanabhikshu lived between 1550 AD and
1623 AD, and this is supported by many scholars.
Authercraft of Vijnanabhikshu
Acarya Vijnanabhikshu was a scholar of independent ideas.
He is assumed to belong to the 16th century AD. He was a prolific
author and has covered a wide range of subjects in his writings.
In the catalogues catalogorum of Aufrecht,Vijnanabhikshu has
eighteen works ascribed to him. Of these his published works are:
1. Samkhyapravacanabhashya
2. Samkhyasara
3. Yogavarttika
4. Yogasarasangraha
5. Vijnanamrutabhashyam
The unpublished works given are as follows:
Kathavalyupanishadaloka
Kaivalyopanishadaloka
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An Analytical Study
Maitreyyupanishadaloka
Mandukyopanishadaloka
Mundakopanishadaloka
Prasnopanishadaloka
Taittiriyopanishadaloka
svetasvataropanishadaloka
Uvaragitabhashyam
Upadesartnamala
Brahmadarsa
Samkhyakarikabhashyam
Vedantadaloka
Peep in to Vijnanabhikshu’s Writings
Vijnanabhikshu is a genius and he was a man of great learning
and independent ideas. The pen of Vijnanabhikshu runs with compli-
cated words in Sanskrit, which is difficult for a common man to un-
derstand, but later on he started to adopt a mellow attitude towards his
writings. A remarkable thing about Vijnanabhikshu’s writing is that it
points out the matter clearly.
The systems of Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta had been of great
attraction to Vijnanabhikshu. He combined these three systems to
form a new system, exclusively his own, the Avibhagadvaita or inte-
gral non-dualism. Most of his works are based on one system or the
other. On the foothold of Samkhyasutras he penned Samkhyaprava-
canabhaÀya, the Vyasabhashya and a brief study of Patanjala
Yogasutras paved way for the quill driving of Yogavarttika, and the
Brahmasutras to the interpilling of Brahmasutras. By bonding the two
systems, ie. the kernel of Samkhya and Yoga which he studied in
depth and the result was the penning of Samkhyasara and
Yogasarasangraha. Both these works are in very simple and lucid
style.
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An Analytical Study
It is seen that Vijnanabhikshu in his works gives reference to

his earlier works. This helps in categorising his works chronologi-
cally. An example for this is that the names of earlier works of
Vijnanabhikshu can be seen mentioned in his Yogasarasangraha.
So it can be assumed that Yogasarasangraha is his last work. The
Vijnanamruta bhashyam, the Samkhyapravacana bhasya and the
Upanishad bhasyas are mentioned in the Yogavarttika,. So it can
be assumed that this was written after the above said works. Con-
tradicting this, Sureshchandra Srivastavya is of the view that
Yogavarttika, was written before Samkhya pravacanabhashya. It
cannot be accepted because, it is already said that the works of
Vijnanabhikshu is mentioned in this Yogavarttika,. One can think
otherwise that Vijnanabhikshu might have begun two books, one
on Samkhya system and the other on Yoga system. This might be
the reason why the references are given. One thing can be said
without doubt that there are references of the commentaries of
Upanishad, the Isvaragitabhashya, the Vijnanamrutabhashyam, the
Samkhyapravaca- nabhashya and Yogavarttika, mentioned in the
Samkhyasara. So this might have been written after the above said
works.
Vijnanabhikshu as the base of his work chose the Samkhya-
sutras. He treated the two philosophies, Samkhya and Yoga, with
great ease. His scholarly helped him to author a standard work one
on Samkhya and Yoga, known as Samkhya pravacanabhashya and
Yogavarttika. The Samkhyasara and Yogasarasangraha are two mas-
terly works summarising the principles of the Samkhya and Yoga
systems. When all these are taken into consideration, one can make
out that Samkhya karikabhashya as the work of Vijnanabhikshu.
Some have stated that the work Pashandamatakhandanam as
that of Vijnanabhikshu. Even in the edition of Samkhyasutra of
Ramsankar Bhattacharya it is mentioned so. To prove this there is
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An Analytical Study
no manuscript available. Thus it can be terminated that the above

mentioned sixteen works belong to Vijnanabhikshu.
Vijnanabhikshu’s Vedantic Writings

Vijnanabhikshu advocates that for liberation the Yoga phi-
losophy has no adversary. It can be noted that Vijnanabhikshu, as
the other Vedantacaryas wrote commentaries on the Prasthanatraya
and also established Yoga in the atmosphere of Vedanta. The com-
mentaries of Vijnanabhikshu on Brahmasutras, eight Upanishads
reflected his own rendition of Vedanta. The main theme of these
commentaries opposed the Mayavada of Sankaracarya. Besides the
commentaries on Vedanta, Vijnanabhikshu’s other works are
Upadesaratnamala and Brahmadarsa. The commentary on Isvaragita
is the Uvaragitabhashyam, based on the twelve chapters of Kurma
Purana’s second chapter. The story of Siva instructing the great
and noble sages like Sanatkumara and others on the principles and
doctrine of Vedanta is the theme of Isvaragita. This is given the
name Vedanta sarartha samgrahini by Vijnanabhikshu himself.
The title Rijuvyakhya is one and the same Vijnanamruta-
bhashyam of Vijnanabhikshu based on the commentary of
Brahmasutras. The explanation for naming the work Rijuvyakhya
is that Vijnanabhikshu considers that the earlier commentaries on
Brahmasutras were not up to the mark. The complex natures of
sutras were not simplified. It was just an eye wash of commentators
belonging various schools. Vijnanabhikshu believed or rather with
great authority upheld the view that his commentary was the one
which was hassle free. Hence it was named so. Even the commen-
taries on the eight Upanishads were brief and easily comprehend-
ible. The Vedantic ideas were brought out with great clarity and
one could easily make out the views of Vijnanabhikshu on Vedanta.
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Samkhya Philosophy and Vijnanabhikshu

Samkhya system flourished much earlier than other systems.
As said earlier this is the oldest system. Even when it is said that this is
the oldest system, the proof or the authentic work which relates to
ancient times does not highlight the original form of this system. The
names of only a few exponents of Samkhya is known, i.e. teachers
up to Isvara Krishna, who penned the Samkhyakarika. The Upanishad
speaks for itself about the origin or rather the beginning of Samkhya.
So also the Mahabharata and the literature connected to this point out
the antecedent or pure classical Samkhya. A lot of water has flowed
since Isvara Krishna and Vacaspati Misra’s literary contributions in
the field of Samkhya. This continued to the period of Aniruddha and
Vijnanabhikshu. A remarkable history was laid down by
Vijnanabhikshu on the philosophy of Samkhya.
The literature available on Samkhya system is very rare. In the
Samkhyakarika the earliest systematic record of Samkhya is included
and a large number of commentaries also belong to this literary piece.
Vijnanabhikshu in his Samkhyasaragives the essentials of the Samkhya
doctrines and presents the latest form of Samkhya doctrines.
Samkhyasara
In fact the Samkhya sara alone is enough to understand
Vijnanabhikshu’s interpretation of Samkhya. The chief aim of this
work is to expound the concept of self, it is not sufficiently expound
in the other Samkhya works, specially the Samkhyakarika.
Purvardha and Uttarardha are the two parts of the Samkhyasara.
Vijnanabhikshu resorts to the Upanishadic way to interpret the
Samkhya. His main aim was to bridge the gap of difference of opin-
ion between the srutis of Upanishad and the philosophy of Samkhya.
Vijnanabhikshu’s exegesis of the self presents great zeal for reunion
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of Samkhya and Vedanta which stands out. Vijnanabhikshu adopts a

diversified and off beaten track but stuck on to the trend found in
Samkhyakarika etc. Instead of relying mainly on the conjucture he
but makes Upanishad the base to describe the Purusha and its nature.
The description of Atman and Brahman is the main pursuit of this text
and this is approached positively. The UpaniÀads describe Brahman
as Saccidananta, but Vijnanabhikshu interprets them in the frame work
of Samkhya.
Purusha is the cause of the universe. As the latter rests in the
former Vijnanabhikshu clarifies it with the example of considering
subtle element of water as the cause of the earth. In the sense of a
physical locus Vijnanabhikshu takes the Purusha as a locus of
Prakruthi. No other Samkhya text upholds such a theory. The
Samkhya explains the concept of Adhishtana as a controller through
its mere presence. If both Purusha and Prakruthi are eternal no pur-
pose is served by considering one as existing in the other.
With the help of Advaitic concept, here Vijnanabhikshu had
mentioned that the material world is neither absolutely real nor abso-
lutely unreal, but both real and unreal or Sadasadatmika.
Samkhyas hold that pleasure pain etc belongs to Prakruthi and
Purusha cannot have pleasure in the literal sense of the term. So,
Vijnanabhikshu explains Ananda as the absence of pain.
All the texts of Samkhya system agree that Purusha is the na-
ture of pure consciousness; in accordance with the Upanishads,
Sankara, the chief critique of Samkhya also accepts that the nature of
Purusha as pure consciousness.
Vijnanabhikshu takes pain to explain the Purusha’s conscious-
ness which varies from the knowledge which arose as a result of
Buddhi or Buddhivrutti. The four things which is said to be the
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compliment of Purusha or rather the things which constitute Purusha

are experience, consciousness, knowledge and sensation. Prakrti takes
with her knowledge insentient tamas and ignorance. The Buddhivrutti
gives rise to the Purusha with pure consciousness and the conscious-
ness of the objective. The philosophy of Samkhya differentiates it.
Vijnanabhikshu holds up to the theory of double reflection that Purusha
falls on Buddhi. The Buddhi as if a receptive starts functioning. The
object of cognition which was already reflected in the Buddhi is sent
back to the Purusha. The Purusha sans the reflective knowledge, if it
rejects that which is sent by Buddhi. The Purusha is received by the
Buddhi and the same is reflected back. This exchange of Buddhi and
Purusha, helps Purusha to understand its self and Purusha is then
great enough to be noticed.
Vijnanabhikshu opines that it is difficult for a common man to
distinguish between pure consciousness and psychic functioning. They
are so interlaced that the difference is invisible to the eyes of the
ignorant. He compares the union of the two as milk and water. This
led the Naiyayikas, the Vijnanavadin Buddhists and the like to come
to the conclusion that the consciousness is transient.
Samkhya pravacanabhashya
The literary meaning of Samkhya pravacanabashya is the ‘com-
mentary on the Exposition of Samkhya’. The Samkhya
pravacanabashyais the totality of the commentary of Samkhya sutras.
The apophthegm can be classified as larger Samkhya maxims or dic-
tums and the shorter ones, also called Tattvasamasa or shorter Samkhya
maxims. Vijnanabhikshu who was acquainted with these maxims,
observed them as the meticulous and a concise elucidation of the
Samkhya system formulated by Kapila.
The commentary on the Exposition of Samkhya or the
Samkhya pravacanabashya gets off to a good start with the verses,
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seven in number. Vijnanabhikshu who authored this book, remarks

that the self sameness in consciousness and there is no chance for
non-duality in consciousness. He declares that ‘one without a sec-
ond’.
The respect and honour which Vijnanabhikshu has for Kapila,
the exponent of Samkhya is clarified in the record verse. Kapila is
considered as the Hypostatic union of Narayana. The Upanishadic
passages needed clarification of meanings and Kapila took to his
heart and formed an argument system, that too a complete one.
The universal consciousness is present in all creatures. The
consciousness is so lustrous that it shines in all beings. This very
consciousness is named differently, in different creatures.
Vijnanabhikshu’s third verse of Samkhya pravacanabashya’s be-
ginning, highlights this concept.
Vijnanabhikshu acclaims that there is only one persistent con-
sciousness. The consciousness which is considered to be uniform
is seen with eyes half open by the nescient. This is specified in the
fourth verse.
Vijnanabhikshu is very much dedicated to bring back the
glory of the Samkhya system, which was dimmed by the powerful
rays of the time of sun. It was found that only few parts of it existed.
Vijnanabhikshu takes an oath to bring back the Samkhya system
which was gulped down by in the fifth verse.
In the sixth verse Vijnanabhikshu proclaims that he will free
the consciousness and unconsciousness for the good of others. He
says that the knot binding the consciousness and unconsciousness
will be cut off and this will pave way for the good of the people and
also him.
The unity and sameness of the consciousness which many
scriptures have stated is the theme of the seventh verse. It can be
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stated thus the core of the Samkhya philosophy acclaims the soli-
darity of consciousness which is asserted by hundreds of scrip-
tures.
Vijnanabhikshu thus has opened up a new and elaborate av-
enue for the Samkhya philosophy. The Samkhya philosophy was
not propagated much after the Samkhyakarika. Vijnanabhikshu
dared to enter into this area and helped those who stood struck on
the shores of this vast system, making it simple and lucid.
Uvaragitabhashyam
Vijnanabhikshu’s gifted brain and hands, not only swept
through the Samkhya and Yoga philosophy but also through the
Puranas. He ventured to write a commentary on Isvaragita, which
is a part of Kurma Purana. The second part of Kurma Purana, espe-
cially the first eleven chapters is known as Isvaragita.
Vijnanabhikshu followed or rather sought the method of in-
terpretation of the Vedantin. It means that for explaining the
Brahmasutra and Isvaragita Vijnanabhikshu took the way which
was taken by the Vedantists to interpret Puranas. The peculiarity of
this method is that three philosophies Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta
are so blended or appears to be blended in such a way that it is
difficult to make out the difference. Uvaragitabhashyam is the other
name for the commentary of Isvaragita.
In the first chapter of Isvaragita, Suta asks Vyasa about the
true knowledge leading to the emancipation as originally instructed
by Narayana in his incarnation as a tortoise. Vyasa reported it in
Badarikasrama in an assembly of sages Sanatkumara, Sankara,
Sanandana, Angira, Bhrugu, Kanada, Kapila, Garga, Valadeva,
Sukra and Vasishta. Rishi Narayana appeared and later on Siva
also came there. At the request of the sages, Siva gave a discourse
regarding the Ultimate reality.
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The decision of Vijnanabhikshu to write a commentary on

the Ivaragita might be because the main ideas of Bhagavadgita and
that of Isvaragita are similar. So he resorted to the commentary of
Isvaragitabhashya.
The sages asked these eight questions which led to the dis-
course of Siva. The questions are as follows:-
1. What is the cause of all?
2. Who suffers rebirth?
3. What is the soul?
4. What is emancipation?
5. What is the cause of rebirth?
6. What is the nature of rebirth?
7. Who can realise all?
8. What is the ultimate reality? The Brahman?
Of the eight questions, the last one was answered by describ-
ing the Atman, which is not the soul of the individual. The min-
gling or the oneness of the individual soul and universal soul which
is also the principle of absolute, is also accepted by Vijnanabhikshu.
The proof of this is his assertion of the oneness of the soul that too
the infinite and finite. The Upadanakarana of the universe and that
of the Brahman is one and the same. This leads the universe to be
the Parinamirupa of Brahman.
The ignorance or Ajnana according to Vijnanabhikshu is
anyatha jnana. This Ajnana associates itself with Purusha and is
called Pradhana. Purusha through this association ends up in the
depth of Ajnana.
Vijnanabhikshu explains this as real and unreal in piecemeal.
The real part is the one which is related to evolution and the unreal
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is the unproductive. The Jiva is a part of God or born out of God,

like the relation of father and son.
The text of Isvaragita is the explanation of Vedanta dogmas.
Vijnanabhikshu says thus “anycause may regard as Brahman in
relation to its effect”. So there may be hierarchy of Brahman as we
proceed from a lesser universal to higher universal. ‘As god con-
tains in Himself all the universal’ knowledge is the manifestation of
the dynamic activity of God with Purusha, and this Purusha associ-
ates with Prakruthi which results in the object of the world espe-
cially the knowledge.
Mukti being released from Linga Sarira unites with Brahman,
like all the waters flowing in to the ocean. The difference of Jiva
and Brahman, in identity with Mukti is compared to river and ocean.
Vijnanamrutabhashyam
Vijnanabhikshu showed his excellence in the arena of
Vedanta too. The proof of it is the Vijnanamrutabhashyam. The
commentary of Badarayana’s Vedantasutra is
Vijnanamrutabhashyam also called as Rijuvyakhya. As the name
Rijuvyakhya suggests, this is a straight forward commentary, in a
very simple and lucid style.
The transparent unassociated operation of Brahmasutra is jus-
tified by him in the commentary on the ‘Athato Brahmajijnasa, the
first Sutra. This, he states is entirely different from Purva Mimamsa.
The attribute of Brahman leads to the establishment of Brahmajnana.
Self realisation is the Supreme Dharma. The significance of
Brahmamimamsa is relevant in this stage.
The word ‘Athatoh’ is construed as the beginning and an end
of Sastra that too with limits. Moreover the Brahmajijnasa is, a com-
bination of two words, is the singularity or inquisitiveness of knowl-
edge, besides this means, ‘Vicara’a synonymous to Mimamsa.
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An Analytical Study
The treatise on the Sutra ‘Janmadyasya yatah’ Vijnanabhikshu

upholds the antecedents of different states of the universe.
The Sutra ‘sastrayonitvat’ is dealt with a sastra that is the ba-
sis for knowledge of the Supreme Being, which is the cause of the
world. The Smrutis and srutis are inferior to sastras. Vijnanabhikshu
goes along with the findings or rather inference of pramanas which
is also Sastra and Yogipratyaksha, is the Brahman, which must be
interposed through Acara. The Prama¸as which has Prama as its
result as sprouted out of Buddhivrutti.
The ‘Tattu Samanvayat’ Sutra is explained by resorting to the
succeeding Sutra. The cause of the universe is Brahman and it is
omnipresent. The Brahman is the manifester of the world and it merges
into Brahman, as salt in water. The combining of the seven principles
of Mahadadi is interpreted by Vijnanabhikshu in the view of Yogin.
In short Vijnanabhikshu approachesVedanta footing on
Samkhya Yoga. On the basis of this footing he argues and proves
that Sankara’s pure Advaita is contradictory to the Brahmasutra and
the duality of Samkhya Yoga. The uniqueness of the trio, Brahma,
Purusha and Prakruthi are the powers inherent in them. The omnipo-
tence of Brahman does not allow the identity of Jiva or Purusha with
Brahman. The Brahman is called by different names-Isvara,
Paramesvara, Maheswara and so on, yet is the only one Supreme
power.
The phenomenal aspect of the Brahman is the production,
transformation and the destruction of the world. The only ultimate
reality is the pure consciousness itself, which is not subject to any
process of change. Both the individual soul and the world of matter
are absolutely dissolved and merged in Brahman, the pure con-
sciousness. These, therefore, are regarded as being names and forms
when compared with the Ultimate reality, Brahman.
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An Analytical Study
According to Samkhya and Yoga, the Prakruthi is supposed

to be associated with Purusha through the inner and inherent teleol-
ogy, but the Vedantic view as interpreted by Vijnanabhikshu, is
their mutual association due to the operation of God.
Vijnanabhikshu’s Skill in Yoga Philosophy
The scholarly adeptness of Vijnanabhikshu is specified in
Vijnanabhikshu’s work on Yoga philosophy. The evidence of this
is clearly seen in the Yogavarttika, and Yogasarasangraha. A brief
writings on these works are given.
Vijnanabhikshu’s name figures prominently in all works deal-
ing with Samkhya -Yoga philosophy. His magnum opus on the
Yoga system, the Yogavarttika,, throws light on a number of Yogic
points. Yogavarttika, and Yogasarasangraha are the two parallel
works of Vijnanabhikshu. The Yogavarttika, is a complete depic-
tion of Patanjali’s Yogasutra and Vyasa’s YogasutrabhaÀya. The
Yogasarasangraha is a summary or an overview of Yoga philoso-
phy and is evidently the last work that Vijnanabhikshu composed
in his life time.
Yogavarttika
The commentary of Vijnanabhikshu on the Vyasabhashya of
Yogasutras is significantly called Yogavarttika,. Normally, a Varttika
is described as that which gives thought to what is said, what is
unsaid and badly said in the work on which the Varttika is written.
Yogavarttika, is basically a commentary on the Vyasabhashya.
The Vyasa’s commentary is unintelligible without the Patanjali’s
Sutras. So it was thought best to bring all these three together in
one book the Yogavarttika,. In Yogavarttika,, Vijnanabhikshu
makes an effort to comment not only on what Vyasa has already
said but carefully points out when something is left out and does
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An Analytical Study
not mince towards whenever Vyasa misunderstood Patanjali. In

the field of Yoga, Yogavarttika, of Vijnanabhikshu is an important
work.
The work Yogavarttika, is divided in to four Padas, such as
Samadhipada, Sadhanapada, Vibhutipada and Kaivalyapada.
Amongst the four padas, the Samadhipada mainly concerns with
the Samadhi itself and the means for it. Samadhipada mentions the
means only for a superior aspirant and the most of the laymen are
excluded from following it.
Sadhanapada deals with the means of Yoga for a man who is
engaged in an active life. So the Sadhanapada is very interesting to
anyone who is eager to follow Yoga. This pada starts with Kriyayoga
and enumerates all the five Klesas, which are the reason for the
cycle of birth and death or Samsara.
The second, Sadhanapada mainly discusses about the Klesas
and its subdivisions, difference between Avidya and Asmita, gross
and subtle Klesas, the various kinds of pain and the means for its
removal, the science of Yoga compared with the science of medi-
cine, the four-fold divisions of disease its cause and the means of
its removal, Samyoga, Moksha and its means Samyagdarsanam
etc.
Vijnanabhikshu takes a different path from the conventional
approach to Yogic explanation because of the differences. The
Sadhanapada includes in it the five external auxiliaries of Yoga, in
the chronological order. One can, from this angle confirm that
Vijnanabhikshu was a Yoga practitioner. Not only this he believed
that Yoga along with staunch belief towards God would lead to
Kaivalya and for this the ‘Prajna’ had to be developed too. The
importance assigned to the devotion of Isvara was the main source
which would help to remove the obstacles.
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An Analytical Study
The third Vibhuti Pada dealt with the last three internal aids
viz.Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. This Pada was mainly devoted
to the Siddhis or Vibhutis which occur to one practicing ‘Sanyama’.
In this Pada at many places, Vijnanabhikshu’s theistic commitment
and his attack on the Vedantins can be spotted clearly. The Yogi
who is fit for Kaivalya, the various stages of Samadhi etc are de-
scribed in this Pada. Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi are indispens-
able in a Yogi’s progress towards liberation, Vijnanabhikshu also
says that if there is grace of Isvara there is no need for these internal
aids.
The scholasticism of Vijnanabhikshu is clear as water in the
explanation of this Pada. He, as an excavator digs down into the
theory, leaving no stone unturned. He sticks to the role of
Varttikakara, staunchly, and wants everything to be crystal clear
and doubtless. While going through the interpretation of VibhutiPada,
one gets the idea that Vijnanabhikshu was either a Yogi with pow-
erful thinking or very much gifted with Siddhis which is acquired
with great penance, like great Yogis.
In the series on the Yogavarttika, the fourth and the last
Kaivalyapada discusses many points which are not mentioned in
the first three Padas. In this Pada that there is a discussion on the
‘Prakrutyapura’, ‘Nirmanacitta’, and the nature of a Yogi, the at-
tainment of Kaivalya, the attainment of Dharmamegha Samadhi
etc. Dual reflection theory is mentioned along with
‘Kartrukarmavirodha’. Kaivalya is defined in the last Sutra and
Vijnanabhikshu makes it a point to repeat that there is Kaivalya for
both Prakruthi and Purusha and each reaching its respective natu-
ral state.
A commited theist Vijnanabhikshu concludes Yogavarttika,
with the prayer that Isvara who is the self in all living beings, may
be pleased with his work.
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An Analytical Study
Yogasarasangraha
Yogasarasangraha is in the form of collected theories of
Yogasutras, and it is an original work of Vijnanabhikshu. In the be-
ginning of the work Vijnanabhikshu says:
Varttika caladantena madhitva yogasagaram
Udhruthyamrutasaro ayam granthakumbhe nidhiyate.
The text has been written in simple and ordinary Sanskrit. It is
prose and poetry mixed and the main text is in prose but the extracts
are generally in the form of Sutras, Bhashyas and slokas.
As same as Patanjali, Vijnanabhikshu has collected the essence
of Yoga in four divisions and according to its subject matter each of
them has been nominated. According to Yogasutra the four chapters
are, Samadhipada, Sadhanapada, Vibhutipada and Kaivalyapada.
The first section discusses about the forms of Yoga and the
explanation of its relevance. After that the Vrutti and Nirodha (mental
function and its suppression) has been depicted. Vijnanabhikshu has
also described the sub-divisions of Asamprajnata Yoga and the de-
scription of Vitarka, Vicara, Ananda and Asmita. He has described
the four levels of Yogis and then there is the description of Asamprajnata
Yoga. Describing Upaya-pratyaya, the first division of Asamprajnata
Yoga, Vijnanabhikshu has given a brief description of God. After
that the Bhava-pratyaya has been described and at the end the effects
of Asamprajnata has been declared.
The second part deals with the means of Yoga. First the inter-
nal means such as Parikarma etc. practice for Yoga has been men-
tioned and subsequently the effect of Yoga has been revealed to-
wards liberation. Lastly there is the description of eight means of Yoga
such as Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana,
Dhyana and Samadhi.
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An Analytical Study
The third section includes of the Siddhis resulting from

Sanyama. Then the method of enlightment has been explained and
then there is an indication of eight types of perfection specifically
Anima, Mahima, Laghima, Prapti, Prakamya, Isita, Vasita and
Kamavasayitva.
The fourth part discusses about Kaivalya. Here onefind the
description of Moksha resulting from Yoga. At the end part of this
work Vijnanabhikshu has mentioned sabda (word), in which Sphota,
the greatness or pervasiveness of the mind and time is described.
This is dealt in the chapter, The Textual Analysis of Yogasara-
sangraha.
The life and works of Vijnanabhikshu is a must read material
for all. As the life is not fully found or researched, whatever is
available leads one to the path of curiosity to know more about
Vijnanabhikshu. The works of Vijnanabhikshu, to be understood
to the depth, one should also know his philosophical aptitude.
References
Pandit Udayavir sastri, Samkhya darsana ka ithihas, p.17
Ayam Vijnanabhikshuracaryah kasmin dese kasmin
kale asiditi samyak na bhavati.
Kanshi Ram, Integral non dualism
Kanshi Ram, Integral non dualism, p.8
T.S. Rukmini, Yogavarttika, Vol.I, p.5
Ibid. Vol.I,p.8
Larson Bhattacharya, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophy, Vol. IV, p.401
Dr. Shiv Kumar, Samkhyasara,2.2.3
Ibid, 2.2.6
Ibid, 2.2.11,12
Ibid, 2.4.2
Dr. Dharmananda Sharma, Vijnanabhikshu’s
Samkhyapravacanabhashya commentary, p.11
Ibid,2.3.2
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An Analytical Study
Dr. Dharmananda Sharma, Vijnanabhikshu’s
Samkhyapravacanabhashya commentary, p.11
Ibid
Isvaragita, p-63
Samanyatho dharmathvadini....
BrahmasutraVijnanamrutabhashyam , 1.1.1
Jijnasa cathra vicare...
Brahmasutra Vijnanamrutabhashyam, 1.1.1
Sastradina yogajadharmena va.....
Yogavarttika, p.9
63
CHAPTER III
PHIL OSOPHY OF
PHILOSOPHY
VIJNANBHIKSHU
The philosophy of India has spread out like a tree, the roots being
the Vedas. This has positioned India to contribute knowledge, wis-
dom and tradition into the world pool of tradition. The vast and
extensive Vedaic wisdom is divided into two parts, the Asthika which
is of theistic doctrines and Nastika the atheistic doctrine. The Asthika
is also called the believer in the Vedas.
Asthika and Nastika Systems- A brief note
The Asthika system, that is the theist system has six philo-
sophical systems to its credit. The six systems or the philosophies
are as follows:-
The Samkhya philosophy
Kapila is the exponent of this philosophy. The Samkhya sys-
tem stresses the ontological dualism of the Prakruthi and Purusha
and this is the fundamental doctrine of this system. The Samkhya
signifies a system of analysis which analyses the facts of experi-
ence by means of enumeration. The twenty five principles of
Samkhya are Purusha, Prakruthi, Mahat, Ahamkara, Manas, and
five organs of perception, five organs of action, five Tanmatras and
five gross elements.
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An Analytical Study
The Samkhya school of Kapila is said to be the oldest of the six

systems. In Kapila’s doctrine the complete independence and the free-
dom of the human mind are exhibited. In his first aphorism of his
Samkhya sutras, he begins ‘the complete cessation of pain is the com-
plete goal of man’. So Kapila stresses on liberation from pain or
sufferings, (Dukha Nivrutti). He enumerates twenty five principles or
realities which make up the world. He says that Prakruthi, a universal
principle through its evolutionary powers produces Buddhi, the power
of perception, which through its evolutionary powers produces the
five subtle elements, or the sensory powers of the internal world like
sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. These all principles co-operate
to produce mind, five organs of sense, five organs of action and the
five gross elements of the external world. Purusha a universal psychi-
cal principle which though unable to do anything by itself, animates
and vitalizes Prakruthi and stirs its evolutionary powers to all their
activities.
Yoga Philosophy
The system of Ascetic meditation, Yoga is deep rooted in the
Vedas. Patanjali was the one who propounded the Yogasutras, i.e. he
brought the practices and tradition of Yoga into one system. Yoga
through the eight steps helps to achieve Moksha. The soul that is
Brahman, by removing ignorance, is attained by concentration. Yoga
encourages this aspect.
The Upanishads and the Mahabharata accepted this system and
it flourished during the time of Buddha. Patanjali brought the prac-
tices and traditions of the system together in his famous Yogasutras.
The sutras of Yoga philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali. Yoga is de-
fined as Samatva in the Bhagavadgita. It has been said that Yoga,
from Yuj, to join, meant originally joining Brahman, or union with it.
However such an idea was never entertained by Samkhya and
Vedanta.
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An Analytical Study
Nyaya Philosophy
The first of the systems Nyaya means logical argument lead-
ing to a conclusion. The text on this was expounded by Gautama.
This is a science of demonstration Pramana mimamsa combining
the science of inference Anumanasastra. The prime importance this
system gives is to epistemology and logic. The others which are
given importance are Ontology, Physiology, Ethics and Theology.
The Perception, Inference, Comparison and Testimony the sources
of knowledge is the major areas this system deals with.
Gautama, the founder of this system is also known as
Akshapada. This system is also called the Akshapada system. Nyaya
means an argument; a way of leading the mind to a conclusion,
Nyaya system is allied to the Vaiseshika system which is regarded
as ‘Samanatantra’ or similar philosophy. Vaiseshika develops meta-
physics and ontology; Nyaya develops logic and epistemology. The
most famous text of Nyaya philosophy is the Nyayasutra ascribed
to Gautama dated between the third century BC and the first cen-
tury AD. As the purpose of his work, Gautama proclaims the achieve-
ment of Nirvana, or release from the tyranny of desire.
The Vaiseshika Philosophy
The philosophy of Vaiseshika was expounded by Kanada.
“The name is got from Visesha meaning particularity”. The system
accentuates the plurality and transparency of physical things and
finite souls. The doctrine of atomism is the speciality of this system.
According to Kanada the only thing that exists is atom and nihiity.
Kanada is considered to be the expounder of the historical
imagination of the Vaiseshika School. The theory of Kanada is filled
with numbers in some form which resembles the combination of
atoms which is indestructible. This is also known as Aulukya
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An Analytical Study
Darsana. This is considered as older than Nyaya and next to

Samkhya. This may also be taken for granted that it started much
earlier, but not later than the religion of Buddhism and Jainism. The
origin of the word Vaiseshika is from Visesha meaning have par-
ticularity or distinguishing feature. This philosophy is pluralistic
realism in nature stressing the diversity which reigns of the soul of
the universe.
The Purvamimamsa Philosophy
Jaimini introduced the Purvamimamsa. The metaphysics and
theology are such complicated subjects, which the fragile human
mind is unable to comprehend. He exhorts that acceptance and fol-
lowing the tradition laid down by the Vedas will help one to ac-
quire wisdom. This system lays much emphasis on the scriptures
for rituals.
Jaimini, the propounder of the Purvamimamsa, takes that
human mind is very weak to face the problems of existence and
belief or rather study of God and belief. The word Mimamsa signi-
fies the thoughts signified in the scriptures of Vedas, hymns, scrip-
tures of Brahmana and Upanishads. The Mimamsa sutra written by
Jaimini has sixteen chapters emphasises the problems which had to
be faced while interpreting the Vedic texts and the rest is the appen-
dix, discussion and so on. The Mimamsa louds Dharma as an entity
which has imperative statements similar to the Vedic statements.
This is not the entity which is non-Vedic statements so does not
enjoy the Dharma.
The Uttaramimamsa or Vedanta Philosophy
The doctrine of Upanishads is resorted in Vedanta to give logi-
cal support. The three pillars on which the Vedanta rests or the tripod
of Vedanta is the Upanishads, the Brahmasutra of Badaraya¸a and
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An Analytical Study
Bhagavadgita. The trio is known as Prasthanas. Vedanta system is a

philosophy based on explanation and interpretation on doctrine and
religion. The dogmas of supreme power, reality, individual self, top-
ics dealing with Upanishads etc are expounded in this system.
Vedanta means the culmination of the Vedas, and specifi-
cally refers to the class of texts called Upanishads which constitute
the final portion of the Vedic literature. The Vedanta system is that
system of philosophy which is sought to give logical structure and
support to the essential doctrine of the Upanishads. Sankaracarya
composed the most famous Vedanta commentaries. This made him
the champion of the Indian philosophers all over the world. The
oldest known form of widely accepted of all Hindu philosophies is
the Brahma sutra of Badarayana.
The Nastika System
This system takes with it the system of Carvakas, the Jaina and
the Bauddha systems. The testimony of the Vedas is contradicted by
these systems. God’s existence is questioned here. The Carvaka phi-
losophy was founded by sage Bruhaspati and is known as
Bruhaspatisutras. This system encourages materialism, atheism, posi-
tivism and hedonism. Ishabhadeva, the founder of Jainism denies the
existence of God as the creator. Besides admitting the reality of world
and finite souls, it recognises the spirituals as well as materials. The
twenty four Tirthankaras are the propagators of this system. The
Bauddha philosophy, founded by Gautama Buddha, emphasised the
Upanishadic thought in an entirely different method. They believed
in pure existence, future life, transmigration and liberation.
Divergent Schools of Vedanta
The brief form of Vedanta is the Brahmasutras. The Vedanta
writers count on the Brahmasutras, for commentaries and interpre-
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An Analytical Study
tations. These divergent explanations and dogmas have paved the

way for different schools. These schools are:-
Advaita Vedanta of Sri Sankaracarya
Sankaracarya is the unrivalled propounder of Advaita
Vedanta. He proclaims that Brahman is the one Supreme and Ulti-
mate reality. The phenomenal point exists on the world of
manifoldness and non-existent in the view of transcendental. The
Atman or real self is identical with the Brahman. Maya is respon-
sible for the material world and empirical selves. Sankara states
that Brahman is qualityless, actionless and differenceless and is the
only reality hence it is named Advaita or Non dualistic Vedanta.
This Brahman is pure consciousness, devoid of all attributes and
intellect. The associate of Brahman is Apara Brahman, Isvara.
Advaitins opine that Saguna Brahman is assumed as Isvara at a
lower spiritual level and is incapable of meditating on the Nirguna
Brahman. The Absolute Brahman is Nirguna and the empirical is
the Saguna Brahman.
The Mayais always united with Saguna Brahman or Isvara.
This is so because of Maya, Brahman projects itself as Isvara. Maya
is the one which makes the non-existent world, existent. Mayaor
Avidya makes the world to be understood in a mistaken way of
plurality. Maya is, in other words the reason for creating a world of
illusory on Brahman.
Moksha is the state which is free from the body. Sankara
takes Moksha as the eternal state of Brahman, acquired through the
eradication of Avidya. The concept of liberation is explained in the
fourth sutra, ‘Tattu Samanvayat’. Sankara states “Brahmabhavasca
Moksha”. The root cause of bondage is Avidya and this has to be
broken off for attaining liberation.
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Ramanuja’s Visishtadvaita School

Ramanuja accepts that Brahman is the fundamental reality and
hence the philosophy is Visishtadvaitavada. This philosophy of non-
dualism consists of substances and attributes, Viseshya and Viseshana.
Ramanuja recognises three kinds of things - Brahman or Isvara, Cit
or the Self and Acit or matter.
Ramanuja believes that the Absolute is identical with God. The
Isvara is but Vishnu or Narayana or Sri Krishna. To make this rel-
evant he quotes the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita, the Bhagavata
Purana and so on. Besides this, the Isvara exists in three forms i.e. Cit,
Acit or Antaryamin. Isvara also has the attributes like omnipotence,
omniscience, omnipresence etc. This Isvara is the sole creator of the
universe. Isvara is bestowed by many forms and knowledge.
Ramanuja acclaims that Brahman and self are not identical.
The self is atomic and the qualities are limited whereas the Brahman
is omnipotent and with unlimited qualities. Brahman must also be
regarded as the manifester of Ajnana. Maya according to Ramanuja
is the real power of God, to create the universe and Avidya is the
ignorance of the Jiva which leads him to identify with material ob-
jects. However he too agrees with Sankara that ignorance is the ob-
stacle for attaining liberation.
Madhvacarya’s Dvaita School
The concept of unqualified dualism was the gift of Madhva.
The hatred of Advaita was so deep rooted that he addressed them as
‘deceitful demons’. He states that there are five differences between
God and Soul, Soul and Matter, Soul and Soul, Soul and Matter and
between God and Matter. The disposition for difference is in its ex-
treme, that he adheres to the difference of degree in the possession of
knowledge, in the enjoyment of bliss and also in the liberated souls.
The Dvaita Philosophy advocates the gradation of the liberated souls.
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The independent substance is God and he is depended on by

others. The God is a perfect being. He possesses the qualities of Lord,
infinite knowledge, power, strength, rulership, vigour and glory.
Madhva is for accepting the Brahman as the efficient and also the
material cause of the world. Prakruthi according to him is equilibrium
of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. The Jiva is the partless and eternal and is
seen in body and senses. The identity between Jivaand God is that
Jiva is the worshipper and God is the worshipped. He also believes
that there are three kinds of souls- Nitya, Mukta and Baddha.
The two types of Pramanas are Kevalapramana and
Anupramana. Kevala Pramana is direct and immediate intuition of
objects whereas Anupramana is the instrument of knowledge.
Madhvacharya accepts the doctrine of liberation put forward by
Badarayana.
Nimbarkacharya’s Bhedabheda School
The Bhedabheda Philosophy of Nimbarkacarya states that Brah-
man is same as and also differs from the matter and selves. The matter
and selves are the Gu¸as or saktis on the other hand Brahman is gun
in or sentiment.
Nimbarka puts forth the two kinds of realities Svatantra and
Paratantra. The Svatantra reality includes ParaBrahman,
Paramatman, Bhagavat or Isvara as there are the reasons for other
realities. The dependent realities are again divided into Cetana and
Acetana. The Cetana reality is the Jiva or individual soul and Acetana
is the Prakruthi along with its effects and kala. Nimbarka identifies
Brahman with Sri Krishna. To him there is no difference between
Brahman and Isvara.
Nimbarka calls self as a Sakti, the attribute of Brahman. He
uses the word ‘Amsa’ to mean Jiva. The word ‘Amsa’ also means
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the power of the Lord. The following clearly differentiates the Jiva
and Brahman.
Nimbarka’s philosophy calls the sruti statements of Bheda
and Abheda as Swabhavika. He accepts Bhedabheda between wor-
shipper who is Amsa of theBrahman and non different from it.
Vallabhacarya’s Suddhadvaita School
The philosophy of suddhadvaita is pure non dualism pro-
pounded by Vallabhacarya. This system advocates that Brahman
changes into Self and Matter, the real nature remaining perfect, pure
and non attached. Hence called Pure Non-dualism.
Vallabhacharya identifies Brahman with Isvara. The supreme
power of Brahman signifies itself into Universe and Individual. This
significance ofBrahman is both Nirgu¸a and Sagu¸a. The Brahman
or the God, says Vallabhacharya is existence, consciousness and bliss,
this is free from the clutches of Maya. The Advaita is free from the
three kinds of difference - Sajatiya, Vijatiya and Swagata. Vallabha
establishes the non duality identifying the Brahman with the world.
The Krida of Lord Purushottama results in the creation of the
world. He says that the Krida and Purushottama are one and the same.
The Jagat is the Lila of PuruÀottama and is as real as to Him. The
concept of Avidya is denied by Him.
The Parabrahma, the ultimate reality is explained by
Vallabhacarya as Purushottama Sri Krishna. Lord Purushottama is
sthayibhavatmaka sampuranandarasa. The blessing of the Lord
Purushottama is the experience of Ananda. He manifests in the heart
of the devotee.
Vallabha is of the opinion that the Brahman is the form of world.
The Sat is manifested and the aspect of Cit and Ananda are hidden.
Vallabha’s remarkable dogma is that the world is real but appears to
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the Jiva as wrong and false. The reason for this is the presence of
Avidya. He upholds the superiority of Bhagavata Purana when com-
pared with other Prasthanas. The reason he states for that is that the
Ultimate reality i.e. the Purushottama is the main character. Accord-
ing to him it is the fourth pramanas in lieu with Bhaktirasa which is
envisaged towards Vedanta system.
Bhaskara’s Aupadhika Bhedabheda School
Bhaskara was the founder of the philosophy called Aupadhika
BhedabhedaVada or the conditional Difference-cum-Non- differ-
ence. The three classifications Brahman, Cit or Acit.“Brahman is
both Absolute and relative and its relation with spirit and matter is
both difference and non difference, of which Non difference is es-
sential, while difference is created, ie. adventitious factors or limit-
ing adjuncts.”Says Bhaskara. Bhaskara opines that Brahman is
neither Advaita, Pure Identity nor Nirguna. He says that it is Saguna
and signifies as the Self and Matter.
The Brahman according to Bhaskara is of two states- the
Karanarupa and Karyarupa. As for the Karanarupa Brahman is
partless and infinite. Brahman is a lonely and does not haveany
partner with it. The Karyarupa makes the Brahman divide and from
the finite stage it is changed into a finite form. Not only the Brah-
man is not only manifested into the self and matter by Karyarupa,
but also with Upadhis. As soon as the wrapper of the Upadhis is
removed it unities with the infinite Brahman.
Bhogyasakti and Bhoktrusakti is bestowed on Brahman. As
long as the creation does not take place, these two powers, stays
together with Brahman. No sooner does the creation takes place,
then the saktis or power parts from Brahman, the world or Jagat
becomes enjoyable by Bhogyasakti and the Jiva or the individual
becomes the Bhoktrusakti.
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The relation between individual self and the Lord is due to

non difference and difference. The part of the Lord has individual
self. He too accepts the fact that Jiva is Amsa. The meaning of
Amsa here is, cause in general. The Amsa with this meaning cannot
be accepted in that sense.
The term Moksha is interpreted by Bhaskara in two senses.
As the liberation is attained the individual self or Jiva becomes
Sarvajna and becomes onewith the Isvara or Brahman. The second
one is that the Jiva attains pure consciousness when liberation is
attained. The first sense or view is in lieu with the srutis. The sec-
ond is based on the Ninsambodha of liberation. As long as a man
who lives in the world, he should acquireJnana and Karma to move
on to the path of liberation.
The Jnanakarmasamuccaya is the doctrine which Bhaskara
upholds. This doctrine states that Jnana along with Karma paves
way to liberation. Both are of the same status. The concept of
Jivanmukti is not accepted by Bhaskara. He identifies a person in a
state of liberation as same as Paramatman. When the person is free
from the bondage of body, Bhaskara says, that he is equated to
Paramatman.
Vijnanabhikshu’s Avibhagadvaita School
Vijnanabhikshu a great philosopher and scholar, has wrote
commentaries on Samkhya and Yoga. He also commented on
Brahmasutra. Sankaracarya has formulated the principle of Nirguna
Brahman. He also renascented the Samkhya philosophy giving spe-
cial references to Purusha. Vijnanabhikshuon the other hand inter-
laced Vedanta system with another form of Samkhya believing in
the God and this God is that one which has a prominent role in the
creation. He sticks to the Purana tradition in interpreting the
Brahmasutra.
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Vijnanabhikshu is the propagator of the Bhedabheda School,

he rejects the Absolute reality of Brahman of Advaita Vedanta and
also the Purusha and Prakruthi of Samkhya as the supreme doc-
trines. Vijnanabhikshu is for the three principles- Prakruthi, Purusha
and Brahman.
Prakruthi is the material cause and Purusha, the self, is the
pure consciousness. Brahman is the main thing which links Purusha
and Prakruthi. This association results in the disturbance of the three
Gunas-Sattva, Rajas and Tamas thus leading to the evolution of the
Jagat. The Purusha and Prakruthi are two different entities but are
required to unite for the evolution of the world, that too a purpose-
ful one. The basic thing for this unity is the harmony of Purusha
and Prakruthi. This harmonious unity of this two forces is in the
presence of Brahman or rather Brahman supervises their unity.
Prakruthi being not a sentient being is not capable to change by
itself. It works according to the whims and fancies of the Brahman,
to be a part in the creation of the world. The Purusha and Prakruthi
is seen as being one with Brahman.
The major cause and the ultimate cause is nothing but Brah-
man, in the words of Vijnanabhikshu. The cause of Brahman is
divided into two- Nimittakarana or the efficient cause and the sub-
stratum cause or Adhishtanakarana. On the basis of
Adhishtanakarana, this can also be called as the Upadanakarana.
Vijnanabhikshu views the Vedanta philosophy through the Samkhya
philosophy. So he sticks to the principles or proof that Brahman
can be approached through Yogic perception, inference and au-
thority of the scriptures. Vijnanabhikshu, based on three sources of
knowledge, establishes the existence of Brahman.
He contradicts the attributing qualities like Vijnana, Ananda
and Brahman as the pure consciousness. He is the supporter of Jiva
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and Prakruthi and its various manifestations. The Brahman is called

Antaryami. No identification of Brahman and Jivais stated because
Jivas are part and parcel of Brahman. The relation between the Brah-
man and Jiva is like father and son. It can also be compared to the
sparks and fire.
Vijnanabhikshu opines that Samkhya and Yoga philosophies
are connected with Vedanta and Upanishads to the multiplicity of
Purushas or the individual self is accepted by Vijnanabhikshu. He
believes that Jiva is the Amsa of Paramatman and not the reflection
of Isvara. By acquiring right and pure knowledge one attains Moksha.
Moksha is said to be attained when Purusha returns to the Brah-
man. Vijnanabhikshu formulated Asamprajnata Yoga which ab-
sorbs the intellect along with its cause Prakruthi, and liberates
Purusha. This he could formulate because he was a true Yogi. The
state of Ananda is when Purusha regains its position with state of
pure consciousness.
The relation between Brahman, Jiva and Jagat has been in-
terpreted by Vijnanabhikshu, from the srutis, relating it to the
Avibhagadvaita. The concept of Avibhagadvaita was often de-
scribed at large by Vijnanabhikshu, which are miles away from the
Akhandadvaita of sankaracarya. Based on the Sutra of Panini,
Vijnanabhikshu has explained the term Avibhaga as.
The other meaning of the word Abheda is the meaning of
Avibhaga which is not acceptable to him. To get the sense or mean-
ing of Avibhaga to the word Abheda he uses various quotes like,
He has said in the Brahmasutra Vijnanamrutabhashyam thus again.
The explanation of the Abheda, by Vijnanabhikshu with re-
gard to Avibhaga has its footage on the sutra ‘avibhago vacanat.’
Vijnanabhikshu is strongly against Bhakti as the path of liberation,
instead Vijnanabhikshu founded the Isvaravada on the base of
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Brashmasutra in connection with Samkhya principles latent in the

Purusha literature. The philosophical outlook of Vijnanabhikshu is
found in the commentary of Vijnanabhikshu, on the Pancasutri that
too in a flyspeck.
The track of his mind was a blend of the trio that is Knowl-
edge, Yoga and Bhakti. The remarkable thing which makes him a
great personality is that he wielded together the Sankaracarya’s ide-
alism along with the existing belief of worship and devotion.
Vijnanabhikshu’s Idea on Certain
Philosophical Concepts
The gradation of realities is admitted by Vijnanabhikshu. Ac-
cording to him a reality might be stronger, stable and more real
than the other reality. The Paramatma is always stable, strong and
real than the Prakruthi, its evolutes and Purusha. The Purusha is
referred to state this stability, strength and reality of Paramatma.
The nature of knowledge of Paramatma makes this an ultimate re-
ality. The Prakruthi and Purusha is not so because they are flexible.
The Prakruthi is non-existent and existent. This is so because when
it combines with God, it is non-existent, at the same time, the mani-
festations of Prakruthi makes it existent.
The origin of the world is not from the direct inference of
Brahman, the pure consciousness, or from Kala, Prakruthi and
Purusha. The argument behind this statement is that of the origin of
the world was from Brahman, then evils and sins would also be
born directly from Brahman. The Sattva guna make Brahman, with
the will of God, Isvara. This Isvara unites the Prakruthi and Purusha.
The juncture or the second when Prakruthi and Purusha is acti-
vated by God is Kala. This makes the Kala a dynamic agency of
God. Kala is determinate and conditioned and also non-eternal.
Mahat is also the product of Kala. Thus the present, past and future
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is connected with Kala and this implies evolutionary activities ac-

companied by changes.
The scriptural texts connect the word Purusha with the singular
number. The Purusha and the God differs in the sense that the Purusha
experiences pleasure and pain where as God is the one that spreads
and reflects bliss through Sattvamaya body. When the Purusha is
affected by the experience of pain and pleasure, God is unaffected by
it. The Ultimate principle, Brahman, which is the cause for Purusha,
Prakruthi along with its evolutes, has the essence of Brahman and so
remains connected together. The basic reality is that the Prakruthi
changes because of the sudden and quick act of change.
Bhedabhedain Vijnanabhikshu’s Thought
Vijnanabhikshu clearly believes that Bhedabheda Vedanta is
superior, because it is the only Vedantic School capable of making
sense of all of the statements found in the Upanishads. For
Vijnanabhikshu, the primary flow of Advaitic interpretive strategies
is that they are subordinate statements of differene to statements of
non-difference. For instance, áankara dubbed four Upanishadic sen-
tences ‘Mahavakyani’, ‘Tat tvam asi’, ‘Aham Brahmasmi’,Ayamatma
Brahma’, and ‘Prajnanam Brahma’. Each of these statements seems
to suggest very strongly that the individual soul-‘Jivatman’ is identi-
cal to Brahman. There are a number of strategies making sense of
these statements of difference without acknowledging that they have
a same weight as statements of Non-difference.
Bhakti
Bhakti is the means to reach God. With the references to
Garuda Purana and Bhagavata, Vijnanabhikshu says that true Bhakti
is emotional, which makes eyes to fill and heart to melt, with goose
bumps all over the body. The Bhakti of a human is considered as
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the Ganges following into the ocean. Vijnanabhikshu puts forward

the doctrine of love as Bhakti. Vijnanabhikshu also says that if the
ultimate reality is attributed with pure consciousness, the personal
relation with it is impossible for an individual. He concludes that
realisation is also non-difference which makes personal relation with
Brahman and individual possible. This is very clearly stated in his
Vijnanamrutabhashya.
Brahman
Brahman gives out the sparks of production, existence, main-
tenance, modification, decay and destruction as being God.
Vijnanabhikshu considers the Brahman is absolute and this in turn
is integrally complete along with selves and Prakruthi and its pow-
ers. Many adjectives are tagged with Brahman like changeless, eter-
nal, unborn, imperishable, inexhaustible, homogeneous, stainless,
formless and sans attributes. The three stages of sleep, wake, dream
and dreamless is much below the Brahman. Brahman is called the
Emperor or Supreme ruler. It is He who controls the universe and
also a witness.
Cinmatra Brahman
Cinmatra Brahman is the one which is accepted by
Vijnanabhikshu. The Brahman which is Cinmatra means that Brah-
man is devoid of particular elements which are connected with many
tags. As the sun, whose rays through reflection, multiplies with the
additional elements which tags itself to the rays, so also Brahman.
He agrees against the interpretation that Cinmatra Brahman reflects
in Jiva.
The adjuncts of Brahman, as referred by Vijnanabhikshu, are
Cinmatra Prakruthi or Maya. This has two parts Jivopadhi and
Isvaropadhi. The world as Adhistana, the Upadana Karana is
Cinmatra Brahman. The Brahman has been assigned the duties of
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creation, sustaining and destructing or the activities of the world,

while Brahman remains inactive.
There is difference in the conception of Adhishtana Karana
by Sankara and Vijnanabhikshu. According to áankara, Adhishtana
Kara¸a of Brahman is taken on the aspect of Maya or illusion of the
whole world. He believes that Brahman is not the foundation of
any real power which is metaphysical. On the other hand
Vijnanabhikshu proclaims that the effect is revealed due to the main
cause of the substratum, as this is the base.
The impersonal and the personal Isvara are the two forms
which Vijnanabhikshu accepts. The Brahman is that which points
to the genuine spirit of the supreme and is the chaste and inflexible
consciousness. Brahman lacks qualities and energy. This is known
as Nirguna and Niskriya. Brahman also lacks or is devoid of activi-
ties and instrumentality and also the doings and attributes of Prakruthi
and its group. This quality of Brahman is a pointer to the fact Brah-
man is impersonal. This is also not a cause of the process of world.
The Prakruthi which is the perpetual attachment when united with
the Brahman, the absolute pure consciousness, will become visible
as an individual blessed with the specialities like knowledge, will,
desire etc.
The scriptural passage define the identity of bliss and
Brahmando not render Vijnanabhikshu’s argument conductive to
the conclusion that bliss is a mode of Prakruthi. To this rejoinder he
replies that there are also such passages in the sruti literature as give
an account of the difference between bliss and Brahman. They also
inform that bliss is not a nature of Brahman. In consonance with
this analysis of this analysis of nature of bliss Vijnanabhikshu inter-
prets both ‘not bliss-na anandam, and not devoid of bliss = na
niranandam’ respectively as ‘Brahman is not bliss’ and bliss as a
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modification of the pure Sattva adjunct is attributed to Brahman.

And consequently the scriptural mention about bliss as being expe-
rienced during the state of liberation must be construed as ‘absolute
absence of all sorrows’. Bliss as a mode may be attributed to the
Absolute, but it is definitely not its nature.
Harmonising Prakruthi and Purusha
Deviating from the path of Sankara and his followers regard-
ing the Brahman and Isvara are two entities, Vijnanabhikshu dis-
agrees with this theory and says that the both are one and same. He
accepts the fact that Prakruthi and Brahman are eternally united
and Brahman is furnished with attributes and powers of Prakruthi
and its associates. Brahman is delegated as Isvara when the abso-
lute is Sagu¸a and Savisesha, and it always is so. The deputing
Brahman as Isvara is not a grant to the mind which is in the dark
and fragile, says Vijnanabhikshu opposing the Sankarites.
Vijnanabhikshu is for the argument that Brahman and Isvara are
one and the same, viewed from two angles or in a two dimensional
one. The Brahman or Absolute when separated from its associate
Prakruthi, becomes Nirgu¸a. While this same Brahman when com-
bined with Prakruthi and its tags becomes Isvara, the omnipresent
and the omnipotent, of the Jagat.
Brahman does not reap the harvest of the actions or rather the
cosmic activities it is cause of. The Prakruthi and the selves are the
reason of these functions. He is a spectator who is unconcerned of
the pleasures and pains which belong to the tricks of Prakruthi and
selves. A Sakshin or a conscious witness is the one kindles and
energies others, not by his effort but by the effort of others. So one
can conclude that much before the process of creation only the
doctrine of Brahman exists. The Sakshitva is not assigned to Brah-
man than there will be no evidence for the process of creation and
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this process cannot be explained or it will be in the depth of igno-

rance.
The Inherent and Supernatural Brahman
Brahman is inherent in as well as is supreme to the selves and
the world. The selves are inherent in the Brahman because the selves
are the part and parcel of Brahman. It can be compared to the light
emanated from charcoal. Not only this, it also shares the nature of
Brahman. The sruti opinesone Supreme self exists in all creatures.
The Brahman as the Anatryamin leads the selves and also holds
their reins in all their circumstances. In the material world also the
indwelling of the Brahman can be felt. This is so because the world
develops from Prakruthi. The Prakruthi on the other hand is the
unrecognizable energy of the Brahman and the reins of the world is
held tight by the Brahman which controls the entrance of it into the
world. The scriptures support this by saying thus: “Isvara entered
in to the Prakruthi and the selves by His will, all is Brahman, the
inner soul of you and mine and of all the embodied ones and so
on”. So the conclusion that one reaches is that, Brahman dwells in
all, the selves and the material world irrespectively. The Brahman
is transcendent for the nature of the pure consciousness, which is
stable and unaffected by the three Gunas of the Prakruthi, making
it entirely different from the selves and Jagat.
The main quality regarded as natural or typical part of Brah-
man is consciousness. The attributes which are planned are bless-
ing and volition of Brahman. Sankara and his followers are of the
opinion that the bliss or God’s presence is the nature of Brahman.
Vijnanabhikshu contradicts it by relying on the scriptures, Sruti
and Smruti. By pointing to the writing of the scriptures, he pro-
claims that Brahman has neither attributes nor the changes of
Prakruthi. The effects of Sattva element which is attached to the
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Prakruthi cannot be in any circumstances exist in Brahman. The

scriptures relate the effects of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas- pleasure,
pain and delusion, do not belong to Brahman but to Prakruthi and
its associates. The Brahman is above all the emotional and senti-
mental feelings. The Brahman is that which nothing enters into it
nor touches it peripheral
The Brahman is compared to the leaf of lotus, which neither
gets wet nor holds water even though being in water.
Creation of the world
The theory of creation which Vijnanabhikshu takes faith in
the theory propounded in the Samkhya and adjusted it to his con-
ception of Brahman. The Samkhya upholds that Prakruthi is the
cause of the world. Prakruthi comes in contact with the Purusha as
the insects which comes to the burning lamp. This union, i.e. the
union of Prakruthi and Purusha, Prakruthi gradually moves in to
the realm of Purusha to know the experience of Purusha. The union
and knowing each other, leads to the gradual development of the
world. The combining of Prakruthi and Purusha is due to the mys-
tical experience. Vijnanabhikshu does not accept or rather defends
this explanation. He says that the two contrary and free-spirited
dogmas cannot combine for any purpose. There is a principle of
conformity which pushes both Prakruthi and Purusha to unite and
there by create the world. The conforming force or principle is none
other than the Brahman, the under section of the both. He proves
his, outlook with the help of Srutis and Smrutis. He also adds that
Prakruthi and Purusha are not free but are the components of Brah-
man and so they are born of Brahman. As the proof again he quotes
asruti. When creation takes place Brahman gives out Prakrti and
Purusha, as the sun gives heat and light. The Purusha is emanated
to undergo the advantages and disadvantages of the creation and
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Prakruthi gives out the needed results. Depending on the result of

creation Brahman combines Purusha to the Prakruthi. Thus the pas-
sive Prakruthi is activated and the outcome is the world out of nu-
merous things. So also the Brahman separates the Purusha and
Prakruthi to wind up the world. In short Vijnanabhikshu is of the
view that Brahman wake up the dormant Prakruthi and makes it
develop the world gradually. The Purusha is also made by Brah-
man to experience the result of their combined action, ties the
Purusha or lets it free again on the actions performed by the one-
ness of Prakruthi and Purusha.
Brahman is the Nimitta Karana, Adhishtana Karana and the
Upadana Karana which leads to the remarkable force to the origin
of the world. The cosmological activities are like creation, suste-
nance and destruction are the game of Brahman. As said earlier, the
Brahman remains inactive by making the Prakruthi active, which is
inherent in it. The activated Prakruthi is also the cause of the origin
of trio Gods -Brahma, Vishnu and Siva and this trio is handed the
responsibility of creating the world, sustaining it and also destruct-
ing it. The Brahma is entrusted with the creation of the world and
also the guna Rajas. The Lord Vishnu has to sustain it and the guna
Sattva is assigned to Him. Then the Lord Siva is the destructor and
Tamas is entrusted to Him. The associates or addition of these three
divine powers, on the whole is called Mahat. The associate of
Brahma is Rajasa Mahat, Vishnu’s is Sattvika Mahat and Tamasa
Mahat is of Siva. These three divine powers and their adjunct are of
the Brahman and the result of Prakruthi.
Relation of Brahman and World
The relation of Brahman and the World is the self and Brah-
man. As already stated, Vijnanabhikshu is of the view that Prakruthi
is the cause of the world, which is the component and energy of
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Brahman. So the world which is born of Prakruthi is also the part of

Brahman. During creation Prakruthi is full of activity and power
whereas, at the time of destruction Prakruthi loses all its strength
and sediments into the Brahman. The Purusha also become one
with the Brahman during the destruction. When both the Prakruthi
and Purusha incorporate with Brahman, they cannot be differenti-
ated. The undifferentiated union of the three-Brahman, Prakruthi
and Purusha is called Advaita, which Vijnanabhikshu calls as
Avibhaga.
Thus it can be said that Vijnanabhikshu considers the Brah-
man is the reason for the causation of the world. This cause is nei-
ther efficient nor material. The Prakruthi which is the adjunct of
Brahman is both the efficient and material cause. As the three forces
i.e. Brahman, Prakruthi and Purusha are non-distinct, the real ma-
terial and efficient cause of the world is Brahman. Vijnanabhikshu
points out that the state of bondage and liberation would be ren-
dered insignificant, if the world were to be taken as unreal.
Vijnanabhikshu rejects Sankaras view of the unreality of the world.
Jiva
Vijnanabhikshu refers to the view of the modern exponents
of Non-dualism that Brahman means Jiva too, since both Brahman
and Jiva are one and the same. They elucidate it with the help of an
illustration of space meaning primarily also the space in a pot. What
they would to convey is that it is due to ignorance that the indi-
vidual self is not understood to be the same as Brahman. There
exist several statements in the scriptures that show that there is iden-
tity between the absolute and the individual self. They are nothing
but consciousness. The scriptural statements about the difference
between the ultimate reality and the empirical selves are concerned;
they are to be understood to be based on the adjunctival difference
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(aupadhika bheda). Brahman is said to be different from the indi-

vidual self which is nothing but consciousness limited by the intellect
just as the great space is understood to be different from the space
limited by the pot. In reality the discriminatory knowledge which
constitutes the right knowledge immediately leading to liberation.
The multiplicity of Purusha is accepted by Vijnanabhikshu. The
divine Isvara is not reflected in Jiva because Jiva is the Amsa of that
Isvara. He has proved this in his treatise on the Sutra ‘Amso
nanavyapadesat’. It is said that Jiva as Brahman is Nitya, Vibhu and
Cit. These similarities uplift the Jiva to the exalted position of the
Brahman, as a part of it. Vijnanabhikshu with many examples as proofs,
as he expounds the Amsamsi bond between Jiva and Brahman. The
Jiva which is Nitya, also becomes the Karya of Brahman. There are
nine fold ways for the possibility of the state of effect.
He brings to agreement the srutis on the subject of Jivais cited
by the label Amsa to differentiate it from the Brahman. He interpreted
the concept Bheda on the base of Anyonyabhava which is totally
against Abheda, to connote the term non-separation. The term Abheda
is not dumped to the back or to the secondary level. This is so be-
cause of the strong support of the rules of grammar and also the ex-
amples like ‘Lavannm Jalamabhuta’, ‘Dugdham Jalamabhuta ‘etc.
Vijnanabhikshu clarifies the point, Jivahow became a compo-
nent of Brahman, which is a whole. The verbalism Amsa is explained
by him as, the word Amsa can be used to denote the whole being or
a partless one too. Vijnanabhikshu does not agree with meaning of
Amsa as Ghatakasa, a portion of a sky.
The Absolute and the selves are inseparably related to each
other in the manner of Amsa and Amsi. Vijnanabhikshu further
explains thus the sun endowed with any light in the form of its rays
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is one and non separate from them. Similarly the Absolute com-
prising several individual consciousnesses can be one and non sepa-
rate from them. The many Purushas being its parts (Amsas) are
described to be its manifold divisions by the example of rays in
what the selves are in conjunctions with their Upadhis. Just as the
rays of the sun are inseparable from it, likewise the individual selves
are inseparable from the absolute and the divisions exist in speech
only. It does not at all mean that the Absolute is one undivided
whole. Vijnanabhikshu defines Atman as a category from which
the creation issues forth and wherein, located and having lived, it
again submerges.
Vijnanabhikshu interprets the Sutra- ‘bhava eva ca’ explains
that the self is pure as the consciousness which is Brahman. As
said earlier the self born out of Brahman rejoins it. Vijnanabhikshu
never goes to the limit of identifying Jiva with Brahman. Based on
the Samkhya Yoga principles say that Jivas are multiple in num-
bers.
While discussing the theory of Brahman, Jiva or individual is
from the God. When the soul of individual attains the pure con-
sciousness, it is said to resemble the God. Even though the indi-
vidual soul emanates from the God, its individuality is safe guarded.
This individuality is used by them to plan the morality of their ca-
reer. The individual soul when starts their life or career along with
the destinies, then they are different from the Brahman. It should
not be forgotten that they once were in the whole Brahman. Though
there is unity between Brahman and individual soul, the Brahman
is always said to be the other self of the individuals and this contra-
riety cannot be removed. The contrariety that is present between
the individuals and Brahman is most obvious during the cosmic
racecourse because the world of nature is another entity in the mind
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of the individual self and they have o only bounded experiences.

During the time of destruction or Pralaya the world becomes one in
the Brahman then the Jiva also merges and there exists no indi-
vidual experiences.
The relation between Brahman and Jiva is like that son and
father. The thing that is to be noted here is that here the father is
regenerated in the son. The son in the foetus stage is in the whole or
unpartitioned energy of the father. As soon as the son comes out of
the womb of father, the same important energy can be seen in the
son, though in a different course and the activity is designed accord-
ing to the Jiva. When it is said the Jiva is a part of Brahman it does not
mean that the Jiva has anything to do with the process of creating
world or as God.
Unity of Brahman and Jiva

Self is born of Brahman, is inherent in it or stands fast to it and
dissolves in to it. While creation takes place, the self bursts out of
Brahman that to from the innermost part and during the period of
destruction the self submerges in to the Brahman. So it can be said
that self is Amsa and Brahman is Amsin. Vijnanabhikshu opines that
just as the rays of the sun which is inseparable from the sun, the
waves from an ocean, so also the self from the Brahman. The
Brahman’s energy and associate is nothing else than the self. As the
energy or the power is the base of the Brahman so also the self and
this leads to the finding that Brahman and self are both different and
non different. The self is fully covered by ignorance and the non
difference is invisible and this cover of ignorance is removed or when
knowledge holds the self then the non difference is visible.
Vijnanabhikshu considers the non difference as the inseparable na-
ture as these both have the same characteristic.
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Consciousness is the essential requisite of the self. As light which

bright up all things and all space, the consciousness has also the same
quality. When it is said “I know it”, the knowledge is the quality of
‘I’, which is not the self or a homogeneous world. The ‘I’ is that
which has many complexities like the sense, understanding etc and
also has a quality attached to it. The ‘I’, the complex existence is the
visibleness of consciousness. The happiness and sorrow are indepen-
dent matters which are brought to the limelight by the consciousness.
The sorrow and happiness are the changes of Prakruthi which is there-
fore drisya and not Darsana. The consciousness is inactive or passive
as there is no entity can function on its own.
Multiplicity of Jiva and Brahman
The numerous Jiva and Brahman are the eternal truth is be-
lieved by Vijnanabhikshu. He advocated the Advaitins. He argues
that all the numerous Jivas is single form as they are of the same class
or Jati having the same traits. So also there is no dissimilarity between
Brahman and Jiva. The Jivas are the agents of the Brahman and also
influenced by past deeds. The acts of Jivas are controlled by Buddhi.
Maya
The definition of Svaprakasatva by Citsuka is ‘Avedyatve sati
aparoksha vyavaharayogyatvam’, this is not accepted by
Vijnanabhikshu because he says that Upanishads has not defined it.
He also adds that the etymology of the word is “known by itself”,
which shows that it is not relate to human minds. This meaning is
against the scriptural testimony for the scriptures say that the ultimate
truth can be easily comprehended. The Brahman cannot be easily
understood because of Avidya, which lies in the core of the Purusha.
The Svaprakasatva is the path of knowledge or Prama. By
just erasing off Avidya does not lead to the Pramana. The meaning
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of Avidya must be comprehended because only then can this argu-

ment be proved. The meaning of Avidya, is deceptive state of mind,
it then is said to be the Buddhi status. The meaning of Avidya, it
implies the instincts of the psyche which on the other hand is the
cause of errors, and then it is connected with the Prakruthi and its
gunas. Then the destruction of Avidya is also the attribute of
Prakruthi.
The Avidya is ever considered as Tamas the result is multi-
farious. Tamas is that which wraps up the self, this is a mirage. The
Tamas is not removed from Buddhi, does not allow any changes in
the Buddhi, the reflection of Purusha cannot be seen in the Buddhi.
By taking all these points into consideration, the point that knowl-
edge erases of ignorance is to be denied. The instrument of knowl-
edge is just on outer covering and so has nothing to do with the
pure consciousness and this cannot be justified. The self does not
have any wrappings and if there is no ignorance it becomes self-
contradictory.
The world appeares as Maya or Avidya, and the statement
knowledge removes ignorance is applied then it has to be concluded
that the knowledge ruins the world. Again if the self attains libera-
tion and has no practical knowledge, then the theory of knowledge
removes ignorance is refuted. The self, if not attached to anything
will not be attached to Avidya also. The wrapping of the mind is
related to the state of mind but not to the stable pure consciousness.
The ignorance if is associated with the pure consciousness,
then there is no change of removing the association or breaking the
bond. If the relation is the result of some cause, then the causality
can be seen in the state of mind. Patanjali in the ‘Yogasutra’ opines
that the Avidya is such a state which understands the non eternal as
the eternal, impure as pure and the pleasure as sorrow. So Avidya
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should not be therefore regarded as the independent thing which is

tightly bond with pure consciousness. Knowledge is born in
Purusha and the removal of ignorance in the mental state.
The Jnana and Ajnana are seen in the scriptures and it de-
notes Sattva and Tamas. The Tamas connotes with Ajnana. The
Ajnana different entity and which cannot be separated, as is pro-
claimed by the Sankarites, is totally absurd.
During the creation the Brahman is eternal, pure, intelligent
and real. Brahman is associated with the limitation of the Pure Sattva
which is called Maya. There should be some limitation which inter-
venes the nature of Brahman and without this desire cannot be in-
culcated in Brahman. Vijnanabhikshu considers the eternality of
the connections of Brahman, Maya and their mutual association.
Thus the cycle of creation, sustenance and destruction goes round
and round. The cycle is not broken off even during the period of
dissolution. Maya can thus be considered as the limitation of Brah-
man, eternal and stable. Maya is a pure part of Prakruthi.
As said earlier when Maya is Prakruthi, it is substantive en-
tity. The two elements which flourishes the Prakruthi are Sattva
and Tamas. Sattva the positive quality takes along with it, the wis-
dom or the virtual knowledge where as Tamas has false knowledge
or illusion. The Tamas which has false knowledge along with it has
the aspect of Prakruthi, which is called Maya. Vijnanabhikshu thus
describes Maya as Trigunatmika Prakruthi, that is Prakruthi with
three Gunas. When Maya is identified with Prakruthi, it is the Tamas
side of the Prakruthi which is taken into consideration. This shows
that the Tamas part of Prakruthi cannot be separated from the whole
of the Prakruthi. One can see in the scriptures that the almighty
God has the power to efface Maya of Yogins. This statement should
not be mistaken as the effacement of Trigunatmika Prakruthi com-
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pletely. Only the Tamas side of Prakruthi is wiped off by the Yogin.
The Maya is powerful to take all who live in false knowledge or
world to the world of illusion, but she loses her power when she
approaches the creator, the God. The saying is ‘Svasrayavya-
mohakatve sati paravyamohakatvam’.
Maya is the tool whose power God takes to create the world
along with the Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. This signifies that Maya
with false identification of Prakruthi and Purusha leads to the cre-
ation. When Maya is connected with God, it implies that it is re-
stricted to Prakruthi and is known as Avidya.
Brahman is very stable and rigid. This same Brahman is as-
sociated with Maya and also becomes one with it. Sa mayi mayaya
baddhah. These points to the fact that Maya is an important part of
the Divine entity. Maya is that which is the same as the whole is.
Liberation
Vidya, says Vedantins, is the main, integral and independent
cause of liberation. Vijnanabhikshu has taken into consideration
the view of the others in this matter. According to Jaimini Karma
and Jnana is superior to Vidya and the Jnana when united with
Karma is the path to liberation. Opposing to the sayings of Jaimini,
Badarayana states that the independent cause of liberation is Vidya.
These statements are supported by the srutis. Vijnanabhikshu came
forward to put an end to these arguments or rather their different
views.
Vijnanabhikshu has classified the Sadhakas into three as, one
who wants to practice Yoga, one who is a Yoga practitioner and
who has completed his Yoga practice. For these three types of people
the means liberation are also three. They are Karmangabhutavidya
for Yogarurukshu, Karmasamuccaya for Yunjana and Pradhana
vidya for Yogarudha.
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The three-foldness of Vidya in accordance with the three-

fold Adhikaris is supported by sacred books like Vishnu Purana.
With regards to Hiranyagarbha there is Karma brahmobhayatmika
bhavana. Sanandana and others Yogarudha have Brahmabhavana.
Arurukshu has Karmabhavana. Such consideration is also found in
the Manusmruti and Bhagavatgita. The people who belong to the
third category the cause of liberation is Vidya. Vijnanabhikshu con-
cretes the above classification of Vidya relating it to Karma. He
puts forth many evidences to it. The sruti passage ‘Yadeva Vidyaya
Karothi’, ‘Vidyam Cavidyam Ca Yastadvetobhayam Saha’ is to-
tally against the idea of Vidya as an independent cause for libera-
tion of Arurukshu and Yunjana.
The state of Mukti is that where the self separates itself from
the Lingasarira and joins the Brahman without leaving any traces,
as the river and sea joins together. Here it is the non difference
which is highlighted. The difference and reality is compared to the
water of river and sea.
The different views on liberation on the Samkhya and Yoga
are pointed out by Vijnanabhikshu. The Samkhya followers say
that if the Prarabdha Karmas are over, then one can reach the stage
of liberation. Besides this Avidya too had to be broken off and still
wait for the Prarabdhas to be over or stopped.
Vijnanabhikshu is for the Samkhya
View of Liberation or Moksha
According to him one attains Moksha when Purusha returns
to the pure consciousness. The acquisition of knowledge, that too,
true knowledge, is the way to attain Moksha. Vijnanabhikshu as a
Yogi opts for the attainment of liberation by practicing the
Asamprajnatha Yoga. The practice of this Yoga leads to the draw-
ing in the intellect, Prakruthi as the cause and this in turn leads to
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the freeing of Purusha. Here the question of bliss does not arise be-
cause Purusha is going back to its natural and original state, the pure
consciousness.
Vijnanabhikshu refutes the argument that the self experiences
bliss after liberation or in the bondage of life. According to Advaitins
the bliss is the nature of liberation as well as the self too.
Vijnanabhikshu arguing against it says that the transformation of the
intellect is bliss. The greater influence of Sattva, is unable to be with
the self because it is a thing which is modified. Then self is liable to
mutation. He refutes this view to put an end to the entailment of mu-
tation in the self. This leads to the argument that bliss does not have
the nature of individual self and liberation. Only in the secondary
sense does the self attain the bliss as the matter of bliss.
The Jnana karmasamuchayavada was put forward by
Vijnanabhikshu. The Karma removes the hindrances takes the place
of the cause of knowledge. The love towards the God which is made
strong by Karma becomes the Naishkarmya which in turn leads to
the path of Samadhi. The evils or vices are destroyed by Karma which
gradually leads to the cause of liberation.
The another path to acquire liberation says, Vijnanabhikshu, is
Bhakti. The service to God is the process of listening to the name of
God, describing the virtues of God, adoring Him and finally meditat-
ing on Him. All these process require sincerity, faithfulness and lov-
ingness. The Vedantic attitude of Vijnanabhikshu gives a little scope
of indulgence in the arena of divinity. The highest point of realisation
is also the intruding into the realm of non difference and so no rela-
tion is possible with the almighty.
Bond of Samkhya and Vedanta in Vijnanabhikshu’s view
Samkhya and Yoga Philosophies are closely interlaced with
Vedanta. These relations are mentioned in the Upanishads. Certain
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topics which are in the Vedanta are strengthened by the Samkhya

and Yoga philosophies, for example, the problem of experiential
knowledge. According to Vijnanabhikshu all philosophical systems
have the base of Vedas and the Upanishads. Vijnanabhikshutries to
harmonize all the Asthika systems of philosophy. Vijnanabhikshu
relies on the Upanishads, Puranas and the Smrutis and researches
on this footage.
Vijnanabhikshu’s philosophy is Bhedabheda which is seen
in the Bhartruprapanca, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka and the
philosophies of others. This philosophy which is based on the real-
ity of the universe, its spirituality, the distinct feature of individual
soul, the manifestation of God, freedom and determinism, imper-
sonal reality, matter and pre matter, immanent teleology and so on.
The scriptures states that perceived or desired with regard to
Brahman. So Vijnanabhikshu says that Brahman is a person which
is desire or perception and this cannot be adjoined with the
Prakruthi, by quoting many passages from the Upanishad to prove
his ideology that Prakruthi is Vedic. The Upanishads lauds Prakruthi
as the cause of the world and the energy of God. The Svetasvatara
Upanishad states that Prakruthi is Maya and God as Mayavi or the
magician who holds within himself the magic power. The Prakruthi
with no special effects is ordinary and is subjected to changes. The
Sattva ride of Prakruthi is the one which is always subtle.
God is the creator of the world with the transformation of
the Prakruthi. The Samkhya’s view is that Prakruthi is because of
the inborn teleology in the servicing the Purushascomes to a stop.
The Mahat which includes Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are designated
to by the Samkhyaites as three created Gods- Brahma, Vishnu and
Siva. It should not be considered that the followers of Samkhya
believed in Nityesvara. The Yoga believes that the Sattva portion
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of Mahat is connected with the eternal power which sprouts out is

called Isvara.
Vijnanabhikshu supporting the Samkhya believers in deny-
ing the God says that it means there is no need of God for salvation.
For, he says, salvation can be accomplished by self knowledge too.
This argument of Vijnanabhikshu is not correct because the
Samkhyasutra of Vijnanabhikshu tries hard to prove the non exist-
ence of God. Besides there is no statement that can be seen Samkhya
which has been annoying to theism.Vijnanabhikshu states that the
theory of Samkhya Yoga believes inobtaining the knowing cause
of Salvation.
Coming to the philosophy of Yoga, Vijnanabhikshu is of opin-
ion that Yoga has accepted the God but has not acknowledged
whether He is partial or cruel. The God is not given the true cosmo-
logical place as it should have, i.e. the place which is considered
that Prakruthi changes and the changes are determined by its in-
born teleology in the association of Purusha. The concept of Isvara
in the Yogasutra of Patanjali, is the object of Yogic meditation as
well as blesses the devotees and other elements.
The Isvara is not controlled in His activities by those attached
to Tamas and Rajas. The Rajas and Tamas are always wavering in
and around the same place which is connected with the supreme
knowledge, desire and happiness. The God’s will is always stable
and is also eternal. This law is the representative of Prakruthi and
this is the determinant of Prakruthi.
Isvara gets into the Pradhana and Purusha is through the pas-
sage of God’s knowledge, wish and trial. This wakes up the Gunas
and the Mahat is the product. Vijnanabhikshu proclaims that the
absolute power God is not Narayana or Vishnu who are just mani-
festations of God. This keeps him aloof from the Pancaratra School
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and Madva, Vallabha and Gaudiya Vaishnavas. The reason is that

the above said school and personalities consider Narayana, Vishnu
and Krishna, to be the same as the God. Vijnanabhikshu considers
the incarnations as Lilavatara of Vishnu and God’s avatara as
Paramesvara.
Notion of World in Avibhagadvaita Philosophy
The world is created when Brahman is the Nimitta Karana or
efficient cause and the Adhishthana Karana or the substratum cause,
acclaims Vijnanabhikshu. In the sense of the substratum cause this
can also be called the Upadana Karana or the material cause.
There is a resemblance in the relation of Brahman, world and
self. The connection or association of the Brahman and world is
like the relation of Brahman and self, that is the difference and non
difference is crystal clear. Vijnanabhikshu considers, Prakruthi which
is the material cause is a component of the Brahman. The world is
the allowance of Prakruthi, so the world can also be considered as
the component of Brahman.
The world is eternal because it is the part of Brahman and it is
not illusory as told by Sankara. The Brahman is unclear before
creation, at the time of making up the world it is clear or visible and
during ruins it gets absorbed again into its womb. In this process
the destruction of Prakruthi cannot be illusory. The providence is
based on the transformation of the Prakruthi and this statement places
Vijnanabhikshu in support of Parinamavada. This argument is
against the Vivartavada of Sankara. So it is clear that Vijnanabhikshu
sticks to the Samkhya -Yoga theories.
Brahman is said to be stable and also lauded as pure con-
sciousness. As He sits on the Adhisthana kara¸a of the Jagat, he is
said to be the material cause for the making of the world. The inher-
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ent Prakruthi in Brahman is dependent on the modification of

Prakruthi, concreting the fact that the Brahman is the material cause.
The Pure Sattva limitation makes the Brahman the efficient cause
of the universe.
According to the Advaitins the world is over the absolute
because of the Maya or illusion. The Advaitins explain this as the
rope due to Maya, is thought as snake due to darkness or igno-
rance. So also the world is an illusion because of ignorance. When
the veil of this darkness or ignorance is taken off or removed then
the rope is seen as a rope and not as a snake. So is the case of the
world. When illusion or darkness or ignorance is wiped off then the
extraordinary world is denied and the glorious Supreme reality is
seen in its natural form. In short the Advaitins likens the world to
the hallucination of snake and so it is not real or is false.
The theory of creation on the basis of Samkhya philosophy
is accepted by Vijnanabhikshu. He combines it with his ideology
of Brahman. The Samkhya followers consider the Prakruthi as su-
preme and non-dependent non-conscious ideology. This is what
makes Prakruthi the material cause of the world. The unity of
Prakruthi and Purusha is due to the influence of experience and
knowledge. This can be compared as the magnet attracting the piece
of iron. The combining of the Prakruthi and Purusha, makes
Prakruthi to unroll into the world to know the experiences of the
Purushas. Vijnanabhikshu does not accept this creation of the world
along with the transcendental unity of Prakruthi and Purusha. He
argues that the two principles which are contradictory as well as
which are utmost independent can never unite or combine for ful-
filling an aim. The two principles of Prakruthi and Purusha are the
part and parcel of the Brahman. So when the time of creation is
onset then they burst out of Brahman. The Prakruthi comes out to
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undergo the result i.e. the fruits of merits and demerits. The Purusha
is supplied with the matter or the fruits for the outcome of result.
Depending up on the reaction of the Prakruthi, Brahman takes the
initiative to combine them. The result is that the passive Prakruthi
becomes hyper active and the panoramic world is the result.
The Prakruthi at the time of dissolution becomes powerless
and delicate. This Prakruthi which is inactive incorporates with the
Brahman and it cannot be differentiated. At the same time Purusha
becomes passive and embodies itself in to the Brahman. The state
of destruction leads Brahman to hold Prakruthi and Purusha in it, in
such a manner that both the Prakruthi and Purusha areinseparable
from it. The union of these three inseparable principles is called
Advaita meaning Avibhaga and not identity.
Mechanism of Knowledge in Various Philosophies
The process of knowledge has been always been a problem
for philosophers. Te very same process presupposes the existence
of a self or Soul and which is related to the act and that is the sole
agency for the process. The process of ‘I know’- such and such
things has been explained by different personalities, by different
schools of philosophy. Usually the six orthodox systems in India
faced the problem in true with their ontological and epistemologi-
cal background of each system. The philosophers were and even
now in the shade of mystery of the problem of knowledge.
The Nyaya and Vaiseshika schools describe Atman as a sub-
stance and knowledge as its adventitious quality. As all knowledge
points to an object outside itself and since the self is also an object
amongst others in the system, the self is also knowable like other
object and both knowledge and the known are revealed together in
what is known as ‘Anuvyavasaya’ or reflection up on experience.
Hus the problem of knowing the knower or knowing knowledge
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did not represent much of a problem to the Naiyayikas and

Vaiseshikas.
When we turn our attention to Purvamimasa system, the Bhatta
school describes knowledge as an act (Vyapara) of the Atman due to
which there is a certain relation with the object known. When knowl-
edge rises in the Atman ‘relating it to an object’ there is some modifi-
cation in the object as well. While knowledge reveals other objects, it
cannot know it directly as in the Nyaya School, but it can only be
inferred. The Bhatta school of Purvamimamsa also believes that the
Atman can be known in every state of knowledge as the object of the
‘aham pratyaya’.
The Prabhakara school of Purvamimamsa views Atman like
that of Nyaya Vaiseshika Atman. According to Prabhakara the Atmanis
not ‘knowable’ and he uses the Kartrkarmaviroddha’ theory or the
condition of the subject and object being the same in any act, which
Vijnanabhikshu makes use of constantly in his double reflection
theory, in order to reject the idea that the Atman is ‘knowable’. He
like Vacaspati Misra’s ‘Ciccayapattivada’ views believes that knowl-
edge as it comes in to being, also reveals simultaneously along with
it, both the object and the Atman (subject) and this is whatis known as
‘triputijnana’ in the system.
In Sankara’s Advaita Vedanta, which Vijnanabhikshu con-
stantly criticises Atman is characterised by consciousness, in fact it is
pure consciousness itself. But the Atman in its pure state is never the
knower, it is only in its immanent state as the Sakshin in association
with the antakarana or mind when it is called the Jiva, does it know.
Thus the Jiva has both the objective content or Sakshi. In this system
as well, the Atman is not knowable but being self-luminous or
swayamprakasa its presence is its revelation.
In Samkhya Yoga epistemology with which concerned in the
context of Vijnanabhikshu’s dual reflection theory also follows some-
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what the Advaita Vedanta process where Purusha can be compared

to the Sakshin of the Advaita Vedanta. While in Vedanta the pres-
ence of the witness makes the experience the knowledge possible, in
Samkhya Yoga, it is the reflection of the Purusha in the Buddhi vruttior
the modification of the intellect that makes knowledge possible in the
system.
Double Reflection Theory of Knowledge
An extensive variety of epistemology was adopted by
Vijnanabhikshu in his writings in the 16th century AD, to explain the
knowledge in different systems before him. Vijnanabhikshu who was
not satisfied with the interpretations available during his time, on Yogic
systems. Vijnanabhikshu is par excellence in the Yogic beliefs. On
this view he differs from his predecessors, even the notable Vacaspati
Misra. Vijnanabhikshu stressed more on the important point, the
mechanism of knowledge.
Samkhya is the one, on which Yoga depended much for its
ontology and epistemology. So when the subject of knowledge was
taken up in the system, it was seen that the reflection of Purusha in the
Buddhi. This was qualified by the knowledge, that too its object.
Vacaspati Misra pens ‘Ciccayapattivada’, which describes that
knowledge is the result of the reflection of Purusha to the surface of
intellect. Vijnanabhikshu vehemently criticises Misra’s this Vada.
Vijnanabhikshu argues against single reflection as the opposition be-
tween the subject and the object being the one and the same, i.e.
Kartrukarmavirodha.
Vacaspati Misra in his commentary on the Samkhyakarika,
Tttvavaisardi, says ‘the self is conscious and admits of no contact
with knowledge, pleasure etc. That self having been reflected in the
mind (buddhi) and identified with it, appears to possess knowl-
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edge, pleasure etc which actually subsist in the mind. He means

there by that it is the reflection of self in the mind which appears to
experience, pleasure, pain etc. While in fact they are the modes of
the mind only. This can be illustrated through an example. The
image of the moon in water appears to take on the characteristics of
water. If there is a movement in the water on account of a draft of
air, the image of the moon also appears to be moving and if there is
red colour in the water, red appears the moon. In the same manner,
the self appears to take on the characteristics of the mind in which it
has been reflected. It is only due to the real modes of the mind that
seems to feel serene, sad and indolent. Vacaspati Misra holds that
the agency of experience belongs to the reflected self-which im-
plies that admitting the real modes of being reflected in the self
would become cumbersome. That is what is traditionally known as
the theory of single reflection.
In Samkhya and Yoga the self is held to be devoid of any
contact or qualifications. It seems that it does not possess percepti-
bility which is an essential condition of a medium. The self being
devoid of perceptibility, cannot become the medium for the reverse
reflection of the mental modes-which is the view held by
Vijnanabhikshu. In case the self is taking to be Vacaspati Misra a
medium, it would cease to be devoid of contact and decay.
Vijnanabhikshu also point out that to mistaken identity be-
tween the self and mind which obtains in experiences such as ‘I
know, I am happy’ can be explained in the same manner as the
illusory oneness between the two tees at a distance because of some
defect in the eyes. Moreover, the objects can be cognised through
self’s contact with the modes of the mind just as the pitcher full of
water, etc. Becomes manifest on account of its contact with the rays
of the sun. It is, therefore, no use admitting the reflection of the
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modes of the mind in the self and vice versa to explain the phenom-
enon of experience and knowing, and the illusory identity between
the self and the mind.
Vijnanabhikshu holds that not only is the self reflected in the
mind but the modes of the mind, which takes shape when the inner
senses through outer senses come in contact with the object of expe-
rience, also are reflected in the self. The latter reflection
phenomenalizes the self and seems to confer experience ship on it.
However, if we accept, as Vacaspati Misra holds, only the reflection
of the self in the mind, which takes on the characteristics of te modes
of the mind and hence also the agency of experience the following
problems would crop up.
The phenomenon of bondage and liberation becomes redun-
dant as it belongs to the reflection of self and not to the real self. There
is no meaning in bondage and liberation of the reflection, it also points
out the worthlessness of efforts which man is exhorted to put in order
to attain liberation. The reflection neither is nor can conceivably be
substantial. It therefore, cannot assume the agency of any real activ-
ity. In case it is given such status, the assumption of the original self
would be rendered meaningless.
Vijnanabhikshu maintains that the motionless and the neutral
nature of the self do not present any contingency of change if the
reflection of the modes of the mind in the self is accepted. We know
that if a China rose is lying near a crystal, the crystal would be red
without undergoing any substantial change. In the same manner the
reflection of the modes in the self does not bring about any substan-
tial change in it. Likewise the self may appear to be perceiving, expe-
riencing etc without undergoing any basic change in its nature.
Vijnanabhikshu offers additional textual evidence from
Samkhyasara and Yogasutra in support of his theory. Vijnanabhikshu
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says that there is already the reflection which was formed first, that is
the reflection of the Purusha in the intellect of Purusha which is modi-
fied then the outcome of this knowledge as, “I know that pot”. Here
Vijnanabhikshu’s argument on this conclusion is the
‘Kartrukarmavirodha’ i.e. the contradiction of the oneself knowing
oneself , that too directly, the reflection which was formed first
intelligises the buddhi’s content and the second reflection is respon-
sible for making Purusha the agent of the special knowledge. On the
basis of Samkhyakarika having two ‘ivas’. Vijnanabhikshu justifies
this concept and says that this is correct.
Samkhyakarika opines that the bond of the two, the inanimate
intellect is seen as if it is conscious or active and in the same way as
the one which is the doership through qualities, the apathised Purusha
is seen as if it is the Purusha who is the doer etc. This agrees with the
statement, “experience is that of cit (Purusha) in the Samkhyasutras.
Vijnanabhikshu criticises Misra’s Ciccayapattivada, on the fol-
lowing points:-
• There is no straight forward meaning given for ‘Purusheya’
(belonging to Purusha) used by Vyasa.
• The insignificant reflection hinders the proper reflection of
the object of knowledge which is on verge on rising.
• The scriptural and traditional literature helps to establish the
active and result oriented like knowledge.
• The must for the knowledge of the Purusha in the form of ‘I’
etc is the reflection in Purusha of the intellect. The superim-
position of the intellect is absent and this ends up in the op-
position between subject and object in one knowing one-
self.
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References
Samkhya sutra, 1.1
The six systems of Indian Philosophy, Max Muller, p.10
Chadogyopanishad Sankara commentary, VI.2
Sadevasomyedamagre asit ekamevadvitiyam.
Brahmasutra Ramanujabhashyam, 1.4.23
B.N.K Sharma, Philosophy of Madhvacharya, P.103
Atmanatmanamantaro...
Kesava Kashmiri Bhatta, Vedanta Kaustubha Prabha, P.535 ya
Brahmasutra Anubhashyam,3.2.27
Shailaja Bhapat, Astudy of Vedanta in the light of
Brahmasutra, New Bharatiya book,P.192
Brahmasutra Bhaskarabhashyam, 4.4.4
Brahmaiva hi karanatmana karyatmana vyavastitham.
Ibid, 2.1.18
Isvarasya dve sakti... jivarupenavastiteh.
Ibid,2.1.27
Prakruthi Purusha samyoga Isvarena kriyate.
Brahmasutra VijnanamrutabhaÀyam 1.1.2
Bhidirvidarana ithi vibhage api bhididhathoranusasanat.
Ibid, 4.4.16
Avibhaktam ca bhuteshu avibhakthamiva sthitham.
Brahmasutra, New Bharatiya book, P.206
Jivapra nayorevam paramatmabhavat tatah
maidhunakale sthripumsorekibhavah ithi.
Ibid,P.206
History of Indian Philosophy, P.451
Brahmasutra Vijnanamrutabhashyam , 1.1.2
Eko devah sarvabhuteshu gudah.
Bruhadaranyakopanishad, 2.1.20
anandam brahmanovidvan na vibhedi kuthaschanah
Sadevasomyedamagre asit ekamevadvitiyam.
Chandogyopanishad Sankara commentary, VI.2.1
amsitvam hi sajatiyatvam sati kadacitavibhaktamiva vacyam.
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Ibid
Ibid, 2.3.50
Brahmasutra Vijnanamrutabhashyam, p.361, 4.1.6
Brahmasutra, New Bharatiya book, P.210
History of Indian Philosophy, p.472
Ibid, 3.1.4
106
CHAPTER IV
YOGASARASANGRAHA
YOGASARASANGRAHA--
TEXTUEL EXAMINATION
EXAMINATION
A man of independent ideas, Vijnanabhikshu was a great scholar

of Samkhya Yoga and Vedanta of the glorious Indian Philosophy.
He penned the Yogasarasangraha in a very simple and transparent
style. Vijnanabhikshu is of the opinion that Yoga opposes the
Upanishads on the platform of the separate and independent exist-
ence of Prakruthi as not belonging to the part of Isvara. He takes
the help of Abhyupagamavada to prove this statement. The Prakruthi
in Yoga is unrelated and it is by her wish she enters into the activity
of evolution. This is not a purposeful one and also there the will of
God is absent. It is said that in the onset of creation Prakruthi be-
come Sattvopadhi of God. This also leads to the attainment of
Kaivalya by self renouncing the God. So it can be said that God in
Yoga is neither material nor instrumental.
The Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu is a very renowned
work. This is in real a collection of theories of Yogasutras. The begin-
ning of the work is,
Varttikacaladantena madhitva yogasagaram
Udhruthyamrutasaro ayam granthakumbhe nidhiyate.
This is really an excellent idea and the lines are laden with great
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meaning. The lines say that the work Yogasarasangraha is the nectar
which is the result of churning of the ocean called Yoga. The churn-
ing rod is nothing other than the Yogavarttika, of Vijnanabhikshu.
Only a genius can have such brilliant ideas and it is none other than
Vijnanabhikshu. It can be deciphered from the above verse that
Vijnanabhikshu, in order to have absolute knowledge of Yogasutras
and Bhashyas penned the Yogavarttika.
It was after the completion of the book Yogavarttika,, the author
realised that there were a series of Sutras and so the explanation of the
subject was a very difficult task. Moreover the common man was un-
able to make out a word from it. So the author, i.e. Vijnanabhikshu
collected the essence or nectar of Yoga from his Yogavarttika, and
placed it in the jar called Yogasarasangraha. This has been done in the
order of subject matter, with the support of srutis, Smrutis and Puranas
and also by using a very simple language, Vijnanabhikshu shaped the
Yogasarasangraha. The medium of language used is very simple San-
skrit which enables the laymen to understand the essence of Yoga. The
book is a mixture of prose and poetry, i.e. the main text is put down in
prose and the references or extracts are in the style of Sutras, Slokas and
Bhashys.
Vijnanabhikshu following the pattern of Patanjali has consoli-
dated his Yogasarasangraha in four sections. The sections are designed
according to the subject matter. The first section gives a clear picture of
the form and relevance of Yoga. The Yoga is defined in a very simple
manner. The Vrutti, Nirodha, Asamprajnatha Yoga, Samprajnatha Yoga
along with its sub-divisions such as Vitarka, Vicara, Ananda and Asmita
are very beautifully explained. The four stages of Yogi is also described
here. The description of God and also the definition of God is added in
this section.
The means of Yoga is dealt in the second chapter. The practice
of Yoga and effect of Yoga which eventually leads to liberation is
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drawn beautifully with words. Yoga for house holders and the eight
limbs of Yoga are elaborately discussed.
The third section is about the Siddhis which leads to Samyama,
the self revelation, and the eight types of perception along with the
physical properties and perfections have been described in a very simple
and lucid style.
The Kaivalya or Moksha is described in the fourth section. The
Sabda and Sphota, the glory and forcefulness of mind and time are
discussed here.
A Peep into Yogasarasangraha
The Yogasarasangraha begins with a Mangala sloka. In this sloka
the author pays obeisance to God, to Patanjali and to other teachers of
Yoga through the first two lines. The third verse gives the information
that the Yogasarasangraha was penned after Yogavarttika,.
A Detailed Analysis of Yogasarasangraha
Yoga-Its diversified meanings- The term Yoga is used in diversi-
fied senses. The core sense of Yoga is the spiritual unification. The
meaning of this is that the soul is unified with the Absolute. Panini goes
to the extent of distinguishing the root ‘Yuj’ and ‘Yujir’. The ‘Yuj’
according to him is the concentration (Samadhi) and ‘Yujir’ according
to him is the sense of joining. ‘samatvam yoga uchyate’
According to Bhagavatgita the evenness of mind is Yoga and
also the skill of preserving the equality of the mind is Yoga.
‘Yoga karmasu kausalam’
The definition of Yoga coined by Patanjali is the final annihila-
tion of all mental states. Yajnavalkya states that the conjunction of the
individual and the Supreme soul is Yoga.
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‘Samyoga yoga ityukto jivatmaparamatmanoriti’

The definition of Yoga in Yogasarasangraha as ‘Yoga consists
in the suppression of the functions of the mind which leads to the
absolute abidance of the agent in his real nature.
Yoga and Mind
The Yoga is also designed to attain the control over mind. Con-
trolling the ever wandering mind is a herculean task. The system of
Yoga if followed systematically from the beginning to end, one is
sure to control one’s mind.
Characteristics of Mind- More importance is given to the study
of mind and its characteristics in the philosophy of Yoga. The main
aim of Yoga is nothing but the controlling of mind. The Yogasara-
sangraha of Vijnanabhikshu very brilliantly observes the mind and
puts down its observations. Mind is an all pervading thing according
to the philosophy of Yoga and this is stressed in Yogasarasangraha.
The most laudable quality of mind is that it can comprehend
each and every object. Along with this quality, it has the capacity to
infiltrate everywhere. The mind is sometimes the victim of the attack
of the darkness or ignorance. The power of meditations prescribed in
the Yoga overthrows the nerve which increases the rate of darkness.
This is done by channelizing the mind towards other objects by in-
creasing the inclination towards those things. The inclinations and
channelization wipes out several forms of Adharma. The concluding
part of Yogasarasangraha says that the meditation cognizances the
mind.
Functions of Mind
The functions of mind mentioned in Yogasarasangraha are
Pramanas (right knowledge), Viparyaya (misconception), Vikalpa
(fancy), Nidra (sleep) and Smruti (memory).
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Among these, right knowledge comes first. It is three fold,

Pratyaksa (perception), Anumana (inference) and Agama (verbal tes-
timony).
Pratyaksha (Perception)
This is the valid cognition through direct perception. Percep-
tion occurs when the functioning of the mind directly through the
senses.
Anumana (Inference)
It is the function of the mind due to the knowledge of the rela-
tion of a certain general characteristics to that which bears it is infer-
ence.
Agama (Right Testimony)
The function of the mind due to the knowledge of a word or the
knowledge transferred by means of the words of an accomplished
person (Apta) is right testimony. It is devoid of defects.
Viparyaya (Misconception)
Misconception is wrong knowledge. The wrong or false knowl-
edge brought about by same defect either in the object itself or in the
organ perceived is termed as misconception.
This gives the false knowledge of spirit, because all the means
of it is an erroneous perception that does not correspond to mind.
Vikalpa (Fancy)
It is defined the idea such as ‘head of Rahu’, ‘the intelligence
of Purusha’ etc. These are fanciful.
Rahu is nothing more than the head and Purusha is nothing
more than the spirit. Behind this imaginary cognition there is no real-
ity. A Yogasarasangraha mention the difference between fancy from
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misconception is that fancy is not removable by a careful observation

of the object, but the misconception has the possibility by a careful
observation.
Nidra (Sleep)
The functions of the sleep consist of the experience of pleasure
obtained in deep sleep giving rise to such ideas as ‘I have slept soundly’
and the like.
Smruti (Memory)
The past experiences that recollected refer to Memory. Memory
is brought about only by the impression which has been once experi-
enced. When an object is experienced by the senses, it produces a
residum of the object in mind. When that residum reveals by some
external cause, it is called Smruti.
Extirpating the Infatuations of the Mind
The infatuations or the destructions of the mind can be eradi-
cated by constant practice or Abhyasa and by the feeling of apathy or
Vairagya. A Yogin should resort to contradicting the mind on a single
object or rather entity or Ekatatvavalambana. This helps to distract
the mind from the vices. The devotion towards God is the best way to
bring the mind to stability says the Yogasutra and thereby controls
the destructions of mind.
A multitude of practices are there to eradicate destruction of
mind. If one with great attention resorts to any of these practices, the
mind can be cleansed. The practices are Maitri, Karuna, Mudita and
Upeksha.
The meaning of Maitri is friendliness, Karuna stands for com-
passion towards the troubled and sufferers of pain, Mudita refers to
joy that is hindered which is towards the meritorious and finally
Upeksha refers to the apathy towards the evil doers. The practice of
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any one of this principle will make the mind as clear as the freshly
painted black board. The clear mind will gradually lead to the attain-
ment of Samadhi.
The mind can be steadied by concentrating on the desired ob-
ject. The complete control of mind is when experiences the subtlest
atom and the great magnitude without any obstacles. The attainment
of complete mastery of the mind by a Yogin will lead to attain purifi-
cation beyond all means and there by salvation.
Wiping of the Psychotic Diversifications
The removal of different modifications can be achieved by
Abhyasa (practice) and Vairagya (detachment). Yogavarttika, men-
tions the similarity of the idea of the aphorism with one of the verses
in the Bhagavadgita. It is pointed out that the restriction of mental
modification depends up on the two - Abhyasa and Vairagya. Thus
there are two processes in the removal of mental modification, one is
control over mind’s attachment towards the object and the other one
is the acquirement of right knowledge. The natural flow of the mind
towards an object (Pravrutti) is removed by Vairagya and the inward
flow of the mind (Nivrutti) becomes stable by Abhyasa of Medita-
tion.
Abhyasa - Practice
Abhyasa is the effort required to become steady in one pointed
concentration. The practice or exercise means ‘the endeavour to fix
the mind’. This fixing is the final stage of meditation. The endeavour
for concentration consists in the bringing back of the mind to the
object of meditation, whenever it happens then stray away from it.
Vairagya– Dispassion
Vairagya according to Vijnanabhikshu, is by saying ‘enough’
to the object of enjoyment and desire the mere neglecting or stopping
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of the passion or attachment is not Vairagya. The word dispassioned

is suitable for the one who does not have any zeal or interest for any
object and is the one who is not interested in giving attention to any
objects.
The absence of greed with regard to objects is defined as
dispassion. The objects can be either seen (drustru) or heard
(Anusravika). When it comes to a human being the object which
causes passion are wine, women, wealth and food. The passion for
these objects can be overcome by striving hard. In short Vairagya
can be considered as the one which has a clear insight. Vairagya is
divided into two as Superior or Para Vairagya and Inferior or Apara
Vairagya. The Apara Vairagya has with it the objects that is seen or
heard. A person who detaches himself from all feelings and objects
that too in a superior level is said to have attained Superior Dispassion
or Para Vairagya. A Yogin who is said to have attained this Para
Vairagya does not need any practice for attaining Kaivalya. The at-
tainment of Para Vairagya is also the attachment of Supreme Knowl-
edge which is the must for attaining Kaivalya.
Vijnanabhikshu mentions the Apara Vairagya as that which is
the cause for the reason of the inumerable faults such as the troubles
attending the earning, guarding of object of enjoyment and the sad-
ness consequent up on the depletion of object and killing for enjoy-
ment.
The absence of desire for certain objects is Inferior Dispassion.
This is of four fold - Yatamana Sajna, Vyatireka Sajna, Ekendriya
Sajna and Vasikara Sajna.
Yatamana Sajna - The practice of looking at the faults in the
object of enjoyment which leads to Vairagya, so the desire for the
objects are controlled and reduced. This is the first stage Yatamana
Sajna.
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Vyatireka Sajna-Vijnanabhikshu mentioned this as ‘these senses

have been subjugated and these are yet to be subjugated. This dis-
criminative ascertaining constitutes the second stage.
Ekendriya Sajna- When the attraction and hatred are weakened
and all attachment to this object of external senses having been de-
stroyed, all attachment and hatred are to be submerged only in mind
is called Ekendriya Sajna.
Vasikara sajna- The Vasikara Sajna dawns when the mind is
stable and is not attracted to the presence of the objects which are
either acceptable or rejectable. When compared to the above said
Sajnas, this Sajna is stated as the state of detachment. In such a state,
the mind over powers all the objects as well as the sense organs.
Para Vairagya (Superior Dispassion)- This Vairagya is named
so because of its superior nature when compared to others.
Vijnanabhikshu is of opinion that this Vairagya is so near to the at-
tainment of Kaivalya and it is believed that for liberation such a
Vairagya is a must. When one is said to attain this Para Vairagya he is
satisfied as he has acquired the knowledge of discerning the Self and
the Not-self.
The Must Means to Abhyasa (Practice)
The means to exercise are said to be the actions or embellish-
ments of purifications. The purification of mind which is caused by
concentration is meant by the word embellishment. In Amarakosa it
is said thus, Parikarma is purification of the body, and ‘Parikarma is
ornamentation’. The peace of mind is said to be one such embellish-
ment. The peace of mind is attained when there is the absence of
foulness with regard to the object of sense.
The things that bring about the peace of mind are friendship
with good natured people, sympathising the poor and needy, happy
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and enjoy the company of the virtuous people and look down with
contempt the vicious people. The Bhagavatgita also gives the same
idea. The controlling and regulating the breath, also known as
Pranayama causes the peace of mind, but stands in the second posi-
tion.
The cognition pertaining to object is yet another embellishment.
Here the object is smell and other basic elements. Objective cognition
means that the awareness of the above said elements by the practice
of meditation slightly. The cognition of the smell is perceived in a
short span of time by concentration, that too on the tip of the nose.
Likewise the taste on the tip of the tongue, the colour at the palate,
touch at the centre of the tongue, sound at the roof of the tongue are
all perceived through his concentration. To understand more about it
one has to depend on the sastras. It can be seen that the awareness of
taste, colour, smell and the like are inclined towards the meditation.
This inclination ends up in the right knowledge and thus the mind is
made steady.
The joyous bright or the Visoka Jyotishmati forms the third
embellishment. It makes the mind tranquil. This embellishment is of
two kinds as the awareness of thinking or Buddhi and the awareness
of the spirit. The fault behind these awareness or perception spreads
out more light. The peculiarity of this embellishment is that it enlight-
ens more when compared with other perceptions.
The contemplation of beings with a mind which is dispassioned
comprises the fourth embellishment. The Yogin when concentrates
his minds on the exalted persons like Narada and the like, when his
mind empathises with the characteristics of these personalities, then
the mind of the Yogin becomes dispassioned and will be filled with
tranquillity. The thought of a person who is passionate to one make
the mind rush to passion.
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The pondering over the cognition of either dream or the deep

sleep is the fifth embellishment. The state of working cognition and
that of a dream is an obstacle to the knowledge of knowing the true
character of self and these two stages fix their concentration on im-
permanent objects. This selection of subject that is impermanent ob-
ject leads the mind to seek its real nature. When the real nature is
sought, the mind becomes dispassionate and thereby reaches tran-
quillity. This is the reason for the worldly phenomena that dream in
all srutis and Smrutis are said as, ‘know this world to be a lengthy
dream’.
The speculation on desirable objects forms the sixth embellish-
ment. Here the desirable object means the desirable forms like the
Vishnu and Siva. The natural characteristics of the mind are to draw
or predict a form of a desired object and paste it in a corner of mind.
The forms of Vishnu and Siva thus formed will be stuck in the mind
and is brought to be able to fix the mind elsewhere that is at the point
of right discernment.
Four Types of Yogins
The Yogins are classified into four based on the conscious.
The classifications are Pradhamakalpika, Madhubhumika, Prajnajyoti
and Atikrantabhavaniya. The one who perceives the matter and sense
organ, has said to attain the argumentative condition. In this stage or
condition he has not abandoned the Vikalpa in its whole sense, that
is, the words, objects and ideas conveyed by the word Vikalpa. The
second class of Yogins is non argumentative stage or condition. They
are also known as Ritanbara Prajna, that is those who have acquired
the knowledge which supports truth. The knowledge thus acquired
does not have any imposition of unreality or falsehood. This stage
named Madhumati because on the realm of knowledge it gives such
contentment and relish as that of pure honey. Prajnajyoti is the third
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in the order of classification. This stage conquers all the delicate be-
ings up to Nature. It is here the royal entry of joyous meditation
(Sananda) is seen. The fourth stage is Atikrantabhavaniya. This stage
will last as long as the completion of the Sasmita or egotistic medita-
tion. Here the Yogin waits for the stage of Kaivalya. The end of the
stage is when the cloud of virtue, Dharma Megha Samadhi is reached
through meditation.
Candidates of Meditation
Candidates of meditation are divided in to three classes, the
Low, the Medium and the High. The Low is Arurukshu, one who
attempting to climb or rise up to the steps of meditation. The medium
is Yunjana, one who is engaged in the practice. The third, the high
Yogarudha, is one who has already risen to high meditation.
Vijnanabhikshu mentions that the Yogasutra and Vyasabhashya ex-
plained the three means for these three candidates. On the order of
aphorisms, Vijnanabhikshu also described the Yogarudha as the class
first and then Yunjana and Arurukshu.
Yogarudha
Yogarudha is the one who has already gone through the initial
stages in his previous lives and at once without waiting for the pre-
liminary stage, directly enters in to the stage of meditation.
The Jadabharata is the example for Yogarudha stage. For the
attainment of meditation for this person, Abhyasa and Vairagya are
the principal means. The Bhagavatgita says that the Yogarudha is the
highest class of aspirant.
Vijnanabhikshu mentions that Yogarudha is the same as
Paramahamsa, so the practice of Yoga is the royal road to
Paramahamsaship and then to liberation.
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Yunjana
The second class aspirant Yunjana is the Vanaprastha and the
others. The most important means for these kinds of candidates is
disciplinary Yoga. The highest class of disciplinary Yoga consists in
Tapas (religious austerity), Swadhyaya (study) and Isvarapranidhana
(devotion to God). Of these Tapas or penance consists in the endur-
ing of one’s body to the opposites, like heat and cold etc. Swadhyaya
or study is the recitation of the syllable ‘Om’ (Pranava) and the sa-
cred scriptural texts that deals with liberation. Devotion to God is
considered as a means to the accomplishment of Samadhi.
Vyasabhasya mentions that, God pleased by the special kind of de-
votion (Pranidhana) favours him with the accomplishment of Samadhi
and its result, because of the Yogi’s deep desire for Samadhi.
Vijnanabhikshu opines that devotion to God consists in the offering
of one’s great actions to the great master, renouncing all desire for the
results of one’s actions etc. The meaning of the word offering (Arpana)
mentions in Bhagavatgita.
Arurukshu
The means of meditation for the Arurukshu that belongs to the
house holder etc is the means to right discernment. These are the
eight accessories of Yoga.
Eight Limbs of Yoga
The elimination of impurities has an important role in the at-
tainment of the goal of Yoga philosophy. By the practice of these
eight limbs, weakens the impurities. As the impurities become more
weakened, the light of knowledge progresses in proportions to the
rate of weakening. The eight limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga) is the
cause for the separation of impurities and also for the attainment of
Kaivalya.
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The eight limbs are Yama (restraint), Niyama (observances),

Asana (posture), Pranayama (regulation of breath), Pratyahara (with-
drawal of senses), Dhara¸a (concentration), Dhyana (meditation) and
Samadhi (oneness of the object of meditation). Among these eight
limbs, first five Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pra¸ayama, and Pratyahara
are considered as external means and last three Dharana, Dhyana and
Samadhi are the internal means for Yoga.
The Yogavarttika, says that the Pranayama is the intense prac-
tice stated for the practitioner of Yoga along with the Yama etc. The
second chapter in this book advocates the Pranayama combined with
the other limbs of Yoga such as Yama, Niyama etc.
Yama – The Restraint
Among the eight fold Yoga, Yama is the first. The restraints are
five in number, such as Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness),
Asteya (non-theft), Brahmacarya (celibacy), Aparigraha (non-gath-
ering) .
The Ahimsa implies a negative attitude to harming or killing
others in any manner. Ahimsa is most important among restraints and
it should be practiced through body, mind and speech. So the word
Ahimsa in Yoga is more rigorous than the ordinary sense of the word.
The next restraint is Satya (truthfulness). This means being truth-
ful in thought, speech and action. A student of the Yoga must have
the qualities like honesty and simplicity. Truth is the saying and act-
ing in accordance with fact. To strengthen this view, Manusmruti
says, the word Asteya (theft) denotes the keeping, enjoying or carry-
ing away of others property and the like. The abstinence from theft is
non-theft, which is a means of virtue. Vijnanabhikshu means
Brahmacarya (celibacy) the complete abstinence from sexual
intercourses either by action, word or mind with all living beings and
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at all times. The last one is the Aparigraha (non-covetousness). The

spontaneous non-accepting of gifts or any things from others even in
misfortune is Aparigraha. These are the Yamas.
Niyama (The Observances)
The second limb of Yoga is Niyama (observances). These are
Sauca (cleanliness), Santosha (contentment), Tapas (penance),
Swadhyaya (self study) and Isvarapra¸idhana (devotion to God). These
bring about the accomplishment of meditation. The first one includes
the cleanliness of mind and body. This is of two kinds, Bahya (exter-
nal) and Abhyantara (internal). The external purity is brought about
by washing with mud or water, and the internal purity consisting in
the removal of the impurities from mind such as desire, anger etc.
Santosha (contentment) means satisfaction. In this work the author
says, contentment is the mark of pleasure or satisfaction at whatever
comes to the agent naturally without any special attempt. Tapas (reli-
gious austerity) include the capacity to increase the strength of the
body and mind and make them more capable for fitting opposite
conditions or situations. The author says that the highest penance is
mortifying one’s body by means of opposite conditions such as hun-
ger, thirst etc and such penance as the Chandrayana and the like.
Swadhyaya (self study) is the is the reading of sacred book such as
Upanishads etc. and the chanting of ‘Om’ (Pranava japa) pertaining
to liberation, study as purifying mind and consisting in the repetition
of the Mahavakyas Tattvamasi etc. Isvaragita says there are three
kinds of Svadhyaya-Verbal, Upasana and Mental. Of these mental is
higher than the Upasana and it is higher than the Verbal. The Verbal
study is that, all the others hearing and catching the words. The Upasana
study is in which there is only a slight motion in the lips and so the
others cannot catch and this is very stronger than Verbal. The Mental
study is the process which, without any external movement the agent
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only surveys in his mind the subject to be learnt. The last one is the
devotion to God. This is the firm devotion to Siva by means of eu-
logy and also by ones words and actions, both bodily and mentally.
Asana (posture)
Asana (posture) the definition of ‘Asana’ is ‘both steady and
comfortable’. The most important three types of postures mentioned
in Isvaragita are Swathika, Padma and Ardha. Brahmana places the
soles of two feet up on two thighs, it forms the Padmasana. The virtu-
ous people place one foot up on the other thigh, it forms the Ardhasana
and it is a good means of meditation. Swastika is placing the soles of
the feet between the thigh and knee, it forms Swastikasana. In this
work the author has not developed into the details of postures. The
reason for this is mentioned that here the subject mentioned is Raja
Yoga and in which the postures have only secondary position. The
author also gives a detailed reference of Hatha Yoga which gives a
detailed study of all postures.
Pranayama (Regulation of Breath)
Pranayama Which means the regulation of Swasa (inhaled air)
and Praswasa (exhaled air). So the regulation of Swasa and Praswasa
is called Pranayama. The absence of both these is also known as
Pranayama. Pranayama has an important role in the prevention of
diseases. There are different kinds of Pranayamas in terms of their
techniques and the benefits availed by practicing them. The three
kinds of Pranayamas are Recaka (exhalation or expiration of the air
breathed), Puraka (inhalation and inspiration of air) and Kumbhaka
holding the air breathed in. The name of these three is Bahyavrutti,
Abhyantaravrutti and Sthambhavrutti. The Naradiya purana says that
pure or absolute Kumbhaka is the fourth Pranayama. By the learnt,
the regulation of breath is said to four kinds Recaka, Puraka,
Kumbhaka and Sunyaka. The artery (Nadi) to the right of the spinal
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cord is pingala, the sun has its deity and this is the birth place of father
(Pitruyoni). The artery to the left is ‘Ida’, the moon is the deity and it
is the birth place of God (Devayoni), between these two, there is a
fine artery Sushumna, the deity is Brahma. Recaka is one who ex-
hales air through the left Ida on account of the exhalation, Puraka is
one who fill his lungs with air by means of right (pingala). One who
exhales the air and holding it in his lungs, and sits like a jar full of
water this is called Kumbhaka. When one who has not exhales and
inhales this natural process is called sunyaka.
The process of Recaka, Puraka and Kumbhaka are followed or
rather observed as per the place, time and number, this is Desa, Kala
and Samkhya. The space is meant the space which is from the tip of
the nose to the toes through which the air which is inhaled passes
through. The air which is inhaled is exhaled through the space from
toes to the tip of the nose. The suppressed operation or the Kumbhaka
is the process that pervades from top of the head to the sole. The time
or Kala is the one which indicates the duration of Prnayama. Coming
to the place or position of Recaka is about twelve inches or angulis
which is for beyond the top of the nose. The position of the Puraka
extends from the head to the sole. Recaka and Puraka along with
their internal and external constituents the Kumbhaka. The time is for
the indication of the duration of the practice of Recaka, Puraka and
Kumbhaka. The regulation of these three kinds begins with the num-
ber twelve. The time for practice is twelve moments and the mantra to
be chanted twelve times is so defined.
Pratyahara (Withdrawal of Senses)
It is the withdrawal of senses from the objects and hold these
sense organ such as ear etc in control. The same idea is mentioned in
the Naradiya Purana also. The eight limbs of meditation start with
Yama and ending with Pratyahara consists the controlling of body,
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senses and breath. The next three Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi
which consist in the control of mind and which is the most important
part.
Dharana (Steadiness)
In this work, the definition of Dharana is fixing of the mind to a
particular place. The mind fixed on objects like place etc with steady-
ing of the mind. The word places (desa) have been mentioned in
Isvaragita, ‘in the lotus on the heart, or in the naval or at the top of the
head, the fixing of the mind to such places constitutes Dharana or Steadi-
ness.
Dhyana (Contemplation)
In the specified place there is a flow of mental function moul-
ded into the forms of concentration which is not afflicted by any
other functions; this process constitutes Dhyana or contemplation.
The example for contemplation is the contemplation of the four armed
Vishnu in the lotus of the heart, contemplation of the Caitanya in the
form of spirit etc. The Isvaragita says that’ the flow of the functions of
the mind based up on steadiness in a particular place and not afflicted
by any other functions is Dhyana or contemplation.
Samadhi (Pure Meditation)
The eighth limb of Yoga is Samadhi. This is the state in which
the form of the object of Meditation and the mind become one-pointed.
Yogasarasangraha defined the Samadhi that, when the contempla-
tion becomes free from all ideas of the contemplation, its object and
the contemplator, and subsists in the form of the object of contempla-
tion in its Absolute single purity, is the pure meditation or Samadhi.
Consequently Samadhi becomes the final stage of concrete medita-
tion.
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Samyama
The first five limbs of Yoga are the preparation of the practice
of contemplation. The last three Dharana, Dhyanaand Samadhi prac-
ticed in one object, and then it is named as Samyama.
The Close Relation of Dharana,
Dhyanaand Samadhi
Amongst the eight limbs of Yoga, the last three are more closely
allied to concrete meditation. These are tent to the purification of mind
and the first five are the external means. Even in the absence of these
five means, the Yoga become possible through the accomplishment
of these five in the previous birth, whereas Yoga become impossible
without Dharana, Dhyanaand Samadhi. These are considered as in-
ternal means to attain Sabija Samadhi. The external means are to
attain Nirbija Samadhi.
Dharan¸a, Dhyanaand Samadhi are collectively known as
Samyama. By Samyama a Yogin should move forward by concen-
trating from gross objects to subtle objects. For the accomplishment
of Samyama, a Yogin should conquer all the stages. Otherwise he
will not be able to attain Samyama in the other stages.
The knowledge of other things brought about of other things,
by the means of virtue of meditation is the trick of Samyama. This
can be compared like the sacrifice which has offerings of some things
as offerings to certain deities for the fulfilling the realisation of self or
reaching the heaven.
Without Samyama there is no other means of the perception of
the spirit. Therefore, all Yogins for spiritual knowledge should exer-
cise this very Samyama, and neglecting all others which lead to oc-
cult powers (Siddhis) such as Anima etc. This is the doctrine of Yoga
system.
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During the process of the exercise of the above Samyama there

come others such as Pratibha, Sravana, Vedana, Asvada, Adarsa and
Vada, which becomes the characteristics of the knowledge of spirit.
These should not be desired by the aspirants of spiritual knowledge,
and even if they come to him unasked, they are to be left unnoticed.
The Samyamas are naturally in the order of the perceptible, the
perception and the perceiver. Of these first the Samyama of the per-
ceptible (Grahya) is described. The perceptible are elements and these
have five forms such as the Sthula (gross), Svarupa (natural form),
Sukshma (subtle), Anvaya (concomitance) and Arthavattva (fruition).
With regard to these five forms of elements there arises Samyama
ending in direct perception of the object, hence a perception consist-
ing in the victory over all the forms of the elements.
Bodily excellence consists in beauty, freshness and toughness
of the body. So there is no obstacle in the way of the Yogi’s body.
The gross body of the ascetic is able to move through the body of a
mountain, live inside a piece of stone, water does not wet the body,
hot fire does not burn the body, and uncovering space cover his body,
so that Yogi become invisible even to man of great occult powers.
Perception is that, by means of which objects are comprehended the
senses. These also have five forms of perception (Grahanam). Svarupa
(natural form), Asmita (egotism), Anvaya (concomitance), and
Arthavattva (fruition). Through these five forms Samyama ending in
perception and then there results a perfection consisting in the con-
quest of the sense organs. These are mentioned in the Yogasutra.
Perceptions are of three kinds like the conquest Manojayitva
(velocity of the mind), Vikaranabhava (the uninstrumental percep-
tion) and the Pradhanajayitva (conquest of nature). The acquisition
or the attaining the extra ordinary mobility of the body is the
Manojayitva. The mystics or Yogis of great spiritual ability appears
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before, for their disciples whenever they wish, is because of this abil-
ity. The second perception that is the Vikaranabhava deals with the
ability of the all-pervading senses. The senses dance to the whims
and fancies of the agent. The senses might be independent or re-
moved from the body. The subjugation of nature and its effects makes
up the Pradhanajayitva. Here the agent has the freedom to operate
according to his own will. The three perceptions which is the result of
the Samyama in connection with the five senses are called
Madhupratika or honey drops.
Lastly the perception attending the Samyama with regard to
the perceiver. In this case has there is no diversity of forms. The per-
ceiver-the spirit- being of a different nature from both the cause and
the effect and devoid of properties. This particular perception is called
Visoka (sorrowless) on account of the aspirant having attained all
that is desirable, and thus being free from all kinds of sorrow. This
perception implies the capacity in the agent, like God to direct the
operations of all existence, supremacy over all phenomena etc.
Samadhi
In Yoga Philosophy, the term Samadhi indicates the ultimate
step among the eight limbs of Yoga. The particulars of Samadhi are
of two kinds, Samprajnata Samadhi (Conscious or concrete medita-
tion) and Asamprajnata Samadhi (Unconsciousness or abstract medi-
tation).
Samprajnata Samadhi is that in which the object of meditation
is properly perceived. It is the direct perception of the object, through
the suppression of all functions of mind. Samprajnata Samadhi is
defined in terms of the four characteristics named Savitarka (argu-
mentation), Savicara (deliberation) Sananda (joyous) and Sasmita
(egoistic). The four names are conventionally given to the various
forms percept on.
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The Samprajnata Samadhi is that in which the mind needs an

object for support in concentration. The objective is called Alambana
(Support factor). On the basis of this supportive factor, the Samprjnata
Samadhi is classified into four kinds. All these four levels of Samadhi
are accompanied by some supportive factor. These four levels are in
the form of the steps of a stair case. Savitarka depends on gross thought,
Savicara on subtle, Sananda depends on a more subtle support and
Sasmita depends solely on the pure ‘I- sense’, the order which are
found in the Smrutis also. In the beginning of meditation, one ought
to contemplate the embodied God, then after this the bodiless, be-
cause when the mind has been well cognisant with the gross, then
alone is it to be gradually led into subtle.
Savitarka (Argumentative)
The first level of Samadhi is Vitarka. The object of concentra-
tion can be any spiritual gross object like five elements, or any other
forms of these elements or any other object like sun, moon, God etc.
Gross object is the mental image produced by the sense perception.
This type of perception is distinct in character from that of the four
armed Vishnu by Dhruva etc.
Vicara (Deliberation)
Deliberation is the second stage in which mind leaves behind
Vitarka. In deliberation the agent has the perception of various subtle
existences ending with Prakruthi (Nature). Here the word subtle indi-
cates ‘cause’ in general and also implies Tanmatras (the primary ele-
ments), Ahamkara (self consciousness), Mahat tattva (the great prin-
ciple) and Prakruthi (nature).
Ananda (Joy)
The attainment of perception and the perception is completed
even at the subtle form of the similar object, then the vision which is
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also subtle is forsaken, when this takes place there is an extra ordi-
nary or special perception. This perception is in the form of pleasure
resulting from Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. This is in relation to
the souls aim of fulfilling the twenty four principles and this is Ananda.
Asmita (Egotism)
Asmita is the supreme level of Samprjnatha Samadhi. When
one who properly passed through the stages of Vitarka, Vicara and
Ananda, the agent has the perception of the self entirely apart from
his former experiences obtained through the character of the self as
unchangeable, all pervading and being of the form of pure intelli-
gence, this is called Asmita (egotism). The perception in this stage is
in the form of ‘I am other than my body’ etc. After this knowledge of
self, there is nothing to be known, so this is the last stage. Through the
practice of Asmita the discriminative knowledge of Purusha and
Prakruthi (Vivekakhyati) is developed.
Asamprajnata Samadhi -Abstract Meditation
Asamprajnata Samadhi is also called Nirbija Samadhi (seed-
less Samadhi). The Yogasutra gives the definition to this Asamprajnata
Samadhi. The cessation of all ideas is the state of Asamprajnata
Samadhi. There only remains the subliminal impression.
Asamprajnata Samadhi is of two kinds Upayapratyaya and
Bhavapratyaya. Upayapratyaya is that in which the abstract medita-
tion is brought about in this very region by the means prescribed in
the sastras. The Yogin achieved the Upayapratyaya through some
means. This state of Samadhi is preceded by means of such as sradha
(faith), Virya (energy), Smruti (memory) Samadhi (meditation) and
Prajna (sagacity). These are declared in the Yogasutra. Vijnanabhikshu
mentions that áraddha is the faith in the power of Yoga, Virya is the
concentration of mind, Smruti is remembering and thus contemplat-
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ing, Samadhi is the final part of Yoga, in this state mind become
concentrated without any distraction. Perception brought by conscious
meditation is Prajna. These five become the means to abstract medi-
tation, through extreme dispassion. The one who employ these five
means with great impetuousness and intensity, they consequently fol-
low abstract meditation and its effect is liberation. When there is inac-
tiveness on the part of the agent in the employment of these means,
abstract meditation and liberation are brought about by devotion to
the supreme Lord. This is in the Yogasutra.
Bhavapratyaya is the second kind of Asamprajnata Samadhi,
due to the employment of the prescribed means the spontaneous ab-
stract meditation produced by dispassion and wisdom, and belong-
ing to Beings disembodied (Videha) and resolved in to Nature
(Prakrtilaya), as well as to certain particular deities is called
Bhavapratyaya. Its cause is birth alone. The meditative sleep of
Hira¸yagarbha is the example of Bhavapratyaya. The Videha beings
such as Hiranyagarbha etc have the ability of all their functions through
their cosmological or astral bodies, and there is no need of physical
body.
The Bhavapratyaya is not possible in the case of concrete medi-
tation. The reason for that is Dharana, Dhyana and Samadhi. being
closely related to concrete meditation, when the later have been com-
pleted, concrete meditation necessarily follow in that very birth. There-
fore concrete meditation has not the divisions like Upayapratyaya
and Bhavapratyaya.
Abstract meditation is also named as Niralambana Yoga (Sup-
portless meditation), because there is no object of contemplation in
both Upayapratyaya and Bhavapratyaya. In Niralambana Yoga, all
residua are totally destroyed and hence it is also called Unseeded
(Nirbija).
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The absolute sleep of the mind constitutes the Kaivalya (Isola-

tion) of the spirit and the absolute separation from all perceptible ex-
istence constituted by pain. The Smruti says’ “the development of the
mind is its destruction and its destruction is its real development”.
In the process of liberation through real knowledge the residu-
als of real knowledge is destroyed together with the mind. Both knowl-
edge (Samkhya) and Yoga, as cause of liberation having various pro-
cess of action are present in the system, independent of one another.
This is also mentiond in Bhagavtgita. Here Samkhya perception of
Purusha is from Prakruthi and Yoga about suppression of the mind.
Thus in the case of liberation through real knowledge alone, all re-
sidual desires are destroyed together with mind.
Kriyayoga (Three Ways to Attain Yoga)
At birth very few souls are endowed with minds having an apti-
tude for Yoga. Most men have scattered mind and they follow the in-
structions in the scriptures. The second is almost same as the first, but
whatever is in contradiction to scriptures, they firmly reject it with proper
reasoning. The third is that, with the constant pursuit of knowledge they
acquire the object support in meditation from scriptures by reasoning.
The Kriyayoga is intented for a person; who is not suited to higher
practices, is advised to practice some preliminary steps of Yoga to pre-
pare himself for Samadhi. Tapas (austerity), Swadhyaya (study), and
Isvarapranidhana (devotion to God) are collectively known as Kriyayoga.
This idea is also seen in the Yogasutra. Of these Tapas denotes the
enduring of one’s body to the opposites such as fasting, cold, early
rising etc prescribed in the sastras. Practice of Tapas is required for the
removal of the impurities of the body. Svadhyaya is the recitation of the
syllable ‘Om’ (Pranava) for the treating of liberation. This also denotes
the devotional practices such as Japa etc and it is the means for the
practice of concentration and one pointedness. In Yogavarttika, there is
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a mention of the Bhakti Yoga which is also a part of Kriyayoga and it is

a form of Isvarapranidhana. Isvarapranidhana indicates by dedicating
all actions of one, to God. In this work Yogasarasangraha both offering
of one’s action makes the achievement of Samadhi. Yogavarttika states
that Pranidhana is the repetition of Pranava ‘Om’ along with the medi-
tation on Brahman. Bhagavatgita states that the meaning of the ‘offer-
ing’ ones action to God’ what a man does, either knowingly or un-
knowingly, is done by God through His Yogamaya, and consequently
the firm belief that, “I am not the doer”, all this is done by Brahma
(Brahmarpana) by the Rishis acquainted with truth.
Samapatti (Balanced State of Mind)
The Samapatti is a particular state of mind, when mind attains
stability through any disciplinary method. It is defined as the total
identification that occurs only when there is complete absence of out-
side modifications. Even though an active mind also has such identi-
fication (Samapatti), it is not a true state because the Sattva mind is
completely under the control of Rajas and Tamas. Mind is like a pre-
cious gem that assumes the form of the object of support by attaining
stability in it. Samapatti is of four kinds Savitarka (argumentative),
Nirvitarka (non-argumentative) Savicara (deliberative) and Nirvicara
(non-deliberative).
Savitarka Samapatti
This is a particular kind of Samapatti which is described as
complicated. The Yogasarasangraha states this as the perception of
the elements and the sense organs is accompanied by Vikalpa with
regard to the word, the object and the meaning of the word, then it is
called Savitarka Samapatti. In this state the Yogin has a mixed up
experiences. There are three portions in the comprehension of a word.
For example, Hari the word, Hari the meaning and Hari the idea in
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the mind. When these are mixed up or interpenetrate each other, it is

the state of Savitarka Samapatti.
Nirvitarka Samapatti
This is from which the gross perception accompanied by this is
called Nirvitarka Samapatti. In this state of Samapatti the Vikalpa or
the Superimposition (Adhyaropa) is absent. In this state, there occurs
a pure, gross or direct perception. It is the perception of the supreme
spirit devoid of qualifications or conditions. Argumentative is of two
kinds, the Apara Pratyaksha (Inferior perception) and the Para
Pratyaksha (Superior perception). The Apara Pratyaksha is tinged
with ignorance in the shape of Vikalpa (fancy) and this perception is
common to all and the superior perception is devoid of all superflu-
ous imposition (condition) and only belongs to a Yogin. This supe-
rior perception becomes possible due to Nirvitarka Samadhi.
Savicara Samapatti
The perception of the subtle existences from Prakruthi to the
tanmatras has been called Vicara. This perception along with the ex-
perience of the emanations of subtle existence like time, space etc is
termed as Savicara Samapatti. There are slight variations between
Savitarka and Savicara Samapattis. The object of Savitarka is gross
and in the case of Savicara it is subtle. Both are basically wrong no-
tions of the object.
Nirvicara Samapatti
Without the experiences such as in Savicara, it is called Nirvicara
Samapatti. These are the various forms of Samprajnatha Samadhi
mentions in Yogasarasangraha.
These four Samapattis Savitarka Samapatti, Nirvitarka
Samapatti, Savicara Samapatti and Nirvicara Samapatti are collec-
tively called Salambana Yoga (meditation with support) or Sabija
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Samadhi. They are related to a support in the form of the object con-
templated, and that they produce Samskaras. The Nirbija Samadhi is
the state of the Ultimate goal of Yoga as Kaivalya.
The Eight Perfections
As the outcome of the practice of Samyama, the person has
accomplished the eight extra ordinary powers or perfections. The
perfections are Anima (minuteness), Mahima (greatness), Laghima
(lightness), Prakamya (irresistible will), Prapti (fulfilment of desire),
Isitva (supremacy), Vasitva (control), Isita (rulership).
The power of becoming extremely minute or subtler than the
subtlest in A¸ima. In this state, the Yogin becomes invisible to every-
one and hence he should be able to enter into a diamond. It is the
ability to reducing one’s body to the size of an atom. The power to
become extremely lighter than the lightest is Laghima. The power to
become extremely great is Mahima. It is the power of enlarging one’s
body to an enormous extent. Prapti is the capacity to touch the moon
with the fingertips, even when standing on earth. It is the ability to
unresisted use of all seen and heard objects, such as heaven etc. Vasitva
makes control over all things such as the entire world. Isitva is the
rulership over production, maintenance and destruction or directing
of functions of all elements and elementals.
The attainment of these perfections is not offering any obstacle
in the path of the Yogi’s body. The earth does not obstruct the func-
tions of the body by its hardness. So the Yogin is able to move through
the mountain or enter into a piece of stone. The water does not wet
the body and the hot fire does not burn it. So it is said that he become
invisible even to men of great occult powers.
Dharma Megha Samadhi
The extreme state of Asmita perception is called Dharma Megha
Samadhi. There arises the feeling of ‘enough’ with knowledge of self
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and then follows the extreme state of dispassion which finally leads
to unconsciousness meditation. The state of Dharmamegha Samadhi
is described as the fulfilment of spirit from the attributes. This process
showers high virtue (Dharma) producing such faculties as omniscience
and the like, therefore this process of meditation is called showers of
Virtue. In this state the Yogi is called Jivanmukta (aliving adept). In
this state there arises a fulfilment of correct insight (Vivekakhyati)
Samyag Darsana.
The Ultimate Goal- Kaivalya
The ultimate goal of Yoga is considered as Kaivalya and there
is no Yogic perfection beyond this state of Kaivalya. The ultimate
goal Kaivalya means ‘solitude’, ‘detachment’ or Isolation. The word
Kaivalya means emancipation or liberation. It is otherwise called as
Moksha in Sanskrit. The system of Yoga does not use the word
‘Moksha’ but instead it uses the word Kaivalya. It is described that in
this stage of Kaivalya the self shines by itself, gets free from dirt and
becomes Isolated.
Perfection is attained when the intellect becomes as pure as the
Atman itself. When the soul realises that it is absolutely independent
and it does not depend on anything else in this world, this highest
knowledge, Kaivalya, Isolation or perfect independence comes in.
Discriminative knowledge leads to superior dispassion, and this
brings about the Absolute regression or dissolution of the attributes
which have been the accessories of the spirit and which are devoid of
its purpose, and from this regression results Absolute separation or
Isolation-Kaivalya.
In the last part of the fourth chapter, there is a mention about
various opinions regarding Kaivalya, such as in the view of Samkhya,
Vedanta, Vaiseshika, Nyaya and Neo Vedantins.
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The Samkhya doctrine is that, ‘the final aim of the spirit is the
absolute extirpation of the three kinds of pain. In Vedanta, emancipa-
tion is the non separation of the human self to the bosom of the Su-
preme self. Vaiseshika said that emancipation lies in the destruction
of all specific qualities. According to Nyaya theory, emancipation is
the absolute cessation of pain. Therefore these theories are not con-
tradictory to Yoga philosophy. The Neo Vedantins say that the abso-
lute emancipation is the attainment of eternal bliss. There cannot be
found any support to allow the assumption of this theory. Therefore,
it is contradictory to all srutis, Smrutis as well as reasoning. The
Kathopanishad says that ‘one who has attained knowledge renounces
pleasure and pain. Chandogyopanishad says that ‘pleasure and pain
do not touch one who has attained knowledge without physical body.
The Smruti says that, by means of knowledge and action a man re-
solved into the Supreme self is never touched either by pain or by
pleasure.
OBSERVATIONS
Vijnanabhikshu is an excellent Yogi and has the qualities of
Vairagya, when one understands him through and through. He, is
looking on the Yogic view interpreted by the Vedanta and Samkhya.
Vijnanabhikshu is attracted and intensely committed to his personal
philosophy and he makes it suitable to other related systems like
Vedanta and Samkhya. He places Yoga in an exalted place than the
Vedanta and Samkhya.
The difference in comprehending the Avidya by the system of
Yoga is pointed out by Vijnanabhikshu in the discussion of Viparyaya.
According toSamkhya,Purusha is real as well as unreal. On the other
hand, Yoga remarks that it is because of the reason of positive misun-
derstanding of the non-eternal, impure, agony and that which is not
the self. The self is pure eternal and happiness.
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The division of Vikalpa given by Vijnanabhikshu is entirely

different from that given by other or from that of the traditional one.
The definition of Vikalpa which is generally accepted is that knowl-
edge which is footed on words along with a corresponding object.
Vijnanabhikshu dares to define it as that which is followed by word
and the knowledge of the meaning of the word. The basis of
conceptualisation and verbalisation depends on this definition of
Vikalpa by Vijnanabhikshu. Here one can see the shades of Buddhist
influence while Vijnanabhikshu described the Vikalpa. One should
never forget the fact that there are many things parallel between Bud-
dhism and Yoga.
In Yoga, Sushupti or dreamless sleep is that which is regarded
as the minds modification. On the other hand in Vedanta this cannot
be considered are Vruitti. The Yogic view of Sushupti is accepted by
other Yogic commentators. Vijnanabhikshu does not do so. He tries
conciliate the Yogic view with the view of Vedanta. Vijnanabhikshu
goes as far as grading Sushshupti into two – Ardha Sushupti and the
Purna Sushupti.
Like in Buddhism, in Yoga also one can see fourfold truth and
its treatment. This indeed is striking. In the Sutra (1.33) the four truth
mentioned are Maitri, Karuna, Mundita and Upeksha. In Buddhism
Buddha himself has spoken of four Brahma Viharas and they are
Metta, Karuna Mudida and Upeksha.
Unlike other philosophers, Vijnanabhikshu while studying a
subject goes very deep into it, that is to its roots and this helps him to
analyse the complicated problems and contents very satisfactorily.
This daring quality and approach can be seen in his discussion on
Bhavapratyaya and Upayapratyaya.
Vyasas commentary and sutras (1-19) was interpreted as Bhava
and Pratyaya with glaring difference by Vacaspati Misra, Bhoja and
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Vijnanabhikshu. Misra considered ‘Bhava’ as Avidya and Bhoja

named it as Samsara.Vijnanabhikshu is silent on Bhoja’s interpreta-
tion but vehemently criticises Misra for considering ‘Bhava’ as Avidya.
According to Vijnanabhikshu Bhava is the ‘Janma’ and he is for the
cause of Bhavapratyaya is solely birth. One attains Yogic power by
birth itself due to the good deeds done in the previous births.
Vijnanabhikshu says that Asamprajnata Samadhi is the one and
only state which leads Kaivalya or Moksha. He condemns the Vedantic
Acaryas for their attempt to compare this state with that of Nirvikalpa
Samadhi. According to him the Nirvkalpa Samadhi of Vedantins is
the condition of Nirvicara Samapatti of Samprajnata Samadhi and is
of a low state when it is parallelised with the Asamprajnata Samadhi.
A Yogic who desires to attain the Asamprajnata Samadhi must nec-
essarily know the different kinds of Samprajnata Samadhi. Onecannot
enter the threshold of Asamprajnata Samadhi without crossing the
iron gates of Samprajnata Samadhi, as the latter is the stepping stone
of the former.
Now -a-days the Yoga and the things connected to it is in the
limelight. This has made some to turn their eyes to the works of
Vijnanabhikshu on Yoga – the Yogavarttika, and Yogasarasangraha.
The Yogasarasangraha one of the most remarkable works of
Vijnanabhikshu has some peculiarities. In this work the poetry and
prose is combined and one can see the extensive use of Smrutis,
Puranas and srutis used as quotes.
• The knowledge one gets from dispassion is worthless and
useless because it is the attained by following a wrong path.
• The mind or mental fluctuations, a great obstacle to dispassion
can be put to reins by meditation. Non – conscious state leads
one to the path of realising the knowledge of discrimination
through concentration and this is fruitful through practice.
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• The liberation according to Samkhya believers is attained

when the transmigratory existence ceases.
• The Yoga is for liberation even in the absence of supernatu-
ral power. This is possible through the glorious means of
meditation.
• In the Yoga the sound of ‘OM’ holds an important place for
the practice of the light limbs of Yoga.
• The quality of cessation is shown by Asamprajnata Samadhi
is given out as traces. Mahanidra is the mind which is im-
mersed in material cause and the outcome of it is liberation.
• The Samkhya system advocates that the evolution results
from the various interactions of the three Gu¸as and the most
prominent Guna specifies the product nature. Vijnanabhikshu
says that the Gun¸as are unsubstantial units, numerous in
number and not the Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are the only
ones and only three in number. The specific features of these
Gunas-Sattva, Rajas and Tamas-determine its designation.
The Sattva is known as for its brightness, illustrious quality
etc; the Rajas for motion, excitability etc and the Tamas has
the quality of heaviness, dullness etc. Vijnanabhikshu opines
the one has to accept the boundless number of various Gunas
which is the reason for the visibility of mind’s difference in
evolution.
• Vijnanabhikshu differs, on the matter of evolution from the
view of Vacaspati Misra and others. The general acceptance
is that the mind and eleven organs arisefrom the Ahamkara
a product of Sattvic aspect and the five Tanmatras from the
Ahamkara of Tamasa. The noteworthy thing about Sattvic
and Tamasic Ahamkara that it is devoid of activity in them
and is totally dependent on the Rajasic Ahamkara for their
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An Analytical Study
evolution. On the other hand, mind is freed from the Sattvic

Ahamkara by Vijnanabhikshu and he assigns the Rajas
Ahamkara with the ten organs and Tamas Ahamkara is in
charge of five Tanmatras.
• When the prime mover of the Gunas of Prakruthi is the dealt
with, Vijnanabhikshu is seen to differ from the traditional
theory of Samkhya. The presence of the Purusha helps the
movement of the Gunas, is advocated by the Samkhya. This
is compared to the attraction of magnet towards iron.
Vijnanabhikshu with his quick wit realised the fault of such
theories and as he was a strong theistic wanted to bring the
concept of Isvara into the theory of Samkhya. He advo-
cated that creation is the result of commotion in the equilib-
rium of the Gunas in the Prakruthi is the consequence of the
will or desire of Isvara. The desire of the Isvara brings about
the Samyoga of Prakruthi and Purusha which produces the
cycle of evolution. Here one can see the intelligent move of
Vijnanabhikshu to combine or rather reconcile the Vedantic
and Samkhya theories.
• Vijnanabhikshu says that the Samkhya exaggerates the athe-
istic sense because of Vairagya, the knowledge of Isvara is
not a must. It is possible to attain Moksha, even if one is an
atheistic, provided he has true knowledge.
• Videhalayas and Prakruthilayas return to the world after the
impressions are fructified,is advocated both by Misra and
Bhoja. Vijnanabhikshu stands firms on his belief that the
attainment of liberation is a slow process. He also says that
Bhavapratyaya paves way to liberation very slowly or gradu-
ally and the Upayapratyaya when preceded by the effort of
one will pave the way to liberation.
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Vyasa’s commentary does not give a detailed statement of

Videhalayas and Prakruthilaya returning to the world after the im-
pression are successful. It was Vijnanabhikshu who stated it.
Vijnanabhikshu was a bold and daring; man of letters, who had op-
posed Misra, the giant of intelligence and who had expressed his
comments on all the six systems of Indian philosophy.
References
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal publications, 2004, p.viii
Yah srushtvabjavishnusankaramayam .... vagmanah
kayairajnanadhvantabhaskaram.
Ibid,P.1
Yuj samadhau
Paniniyasutram, 7.1.71
Ibid
Bhagavadgita, II.48
Ibid, II.50
Yogascittavrttinirodhah.
Yogasutra, I.2
SarvaDarsana Samgraham, XV
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal publications, 2004,p.2
Pramanavi paryayavikalpanidrasmrutaya ithi
pancavidha scittavrttayah.
Ibid, P.4
Sabdajanyavruttisca sabdapramanani
Viparyaya midhyajnanamatatrupapratistam.
Yogasutra,I.18
Vikalpavruttistu raho sirah Purushasya caitanyamityadirupah
Tatah pratyakcetanadigamoapyantarayabhavasca.
Yogasutra,
Asmsayam mahabaho mano durnigraham calam.
Bhagavadgita,
Tatra abhyasah cittasya sthitho yatnah.
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal publications,2004,p.46
141
An Analytical Study
Sruti vipratipatti.....
Bhagavadgita, II.52
yato yato nischalati....
Ibid, VI.26
Tatra vairagya.... pradhamabhumika
Amarakosa, II.VI. 121, 99
Bhagavadgita, II.64,65
Trutiyam parikarma visoka jyotishmati.
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal publications, 2004, p.52
Ibid, p.42
Bhagavadgita,VI.4
Tasya ca kriyayogo mukhyatah karanam.
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal publications, 2004, p.42
Bhagavadgita
Jnanato ajnanato..... prokatam Îshibhistatvadar¿ibhih.
Yogasutra,II.29
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, parimal publications,2004,p.68
Satyam bruyat priyam bruyat.
Karmana manasa vacha sarvabhuteshu sarvada.
Sarvatra maidhunatyagam brahmacaryam prachakshate.
Isvaragita
Samasanniyamah prokta yogasiddhi pradayinah
Isvaragita
Sthirasughamasanam.
Yogasutra, II.46
Yogasutra, II.50
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, Parimal Publications, 2004,P.68
Yogasutra,II.47
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, parimal publications, 2004,p.21
Ibid, p.24
Yogasutra, II.50
Ibid, I.20
Yogasarasangraha of Vijnanabhikshu, parimal publications,2004,p.37
Ibid,P.38
Manasoabhyudayo na so manona so mahodayah.
Bhagavadgita,
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An Analytical Study
Prakrushtakriyayogasca tapasvadhyayesvarapranidhanani.
Yogasutra, II.1
Tatra tapahsastroktavratena sitoshnadi dvantvasahanam.
Svadhyayo mokshasastra namadhyayanam pranavajapo va
Yogavarttika, P.138
Yogasutra, I.23
Jnanato ajnanato... prokatam Ishibhistatvadarsibhih.
Bhagavadgita
Ibid, P.103
Dharmameghasamadhistu tadocyate tada siddhikamanatyagena....
iti vyutpatya dharmameghasamadhirityucyate.
Ibid,P.31
Ibid,P.119.1
Kathopanishad,II.12
Chandogyopanishad, VIII.12.1
143
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The picture of man who is incessantly solving the puzzle of life and
in search of the particle that makes up the universe and its essence
and gradually shed off his beastliness and rises to the peak of the
morality through the difficult path of spirituality is what Indian phi-
losophy present. All the philosophical systems of India aims at the
quest of inner soul and knowing about it. The Bhagavadgita footed
on liberal theism gives a clear insight in to the ethical and perfec-
tion in lieu with perfection. The Nyaya is the one which highlights
the logical pattern and is filled with practicality. This is even to this
day, in use. The interpretation of nature is dealt with Vaiseshika.
The speculative on science and philosophy is the concern of
Samkhya. The Yoga is the one which leads to the path of perfec-
tion. The Mimamsa is a treasure box laden with ethical, social and
religious commentaries about the supreme reality. These helps for
the growth and development of the philosophy of India -past, present
and future.
The life of Indians was on the path of change and also moulds
itself depending on the change of time. This change is not nearly
related to thoughts but also extends to the arena of physical and
social outlook. The past had been forgotten by this change. It was
the striving of the series of philosophers who strained to make the
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An Analytical Study
people think of the past and connect it to the present. This connec-
tion added fresh thoughts. The fresh thoughts forms the objectives
of philosophy which makes one experience the shackles of the mind
pulls it to the consciousness and the ultimate perfection. The inces-
sant flow of thoughts, that too philosophical helps to retrieve the
past of the Indians and also holds firm the thin, delicate and silky
thread of the inner consciousness.
The thoughts of the ancient sages and seers or philosophers,
according to an Indian thinker, are the foundation to weave the
feelings pertained to spirituality. Such thoughts or feelings, if
criticised is like defaming the culture of India. The flush and blood
of all philosophers of India has been used in order to cleanse, typify,
alter and sanctify the traditional customs. This is so because the
human feelings are founded on it. The sequential philosophers jus-
tified these multitude interpretations of pertaining to philosophy
based on the universe and the various philosophical views were
thought to have spring from one single mind.
The subject matter logic, science, philosophy and religion
are interlaced. The progress of every new thought and reform is
based on logic. The Nyaya system is of opinion that no philosophy
which is of suitable nature can be which is said to constitute on the
base of logic. The physical nature which is said to constitute must
be accepted says the Vaiseshika system. The extensive nature of
the universe, the physical world and the fallacy of scientific meta-
physics are boundary less and the Samkhya warns about the dan-
gers hidden in it. The Mimamsa both Purva and Uttara concretes
the stress on ethics and religion. The main aim of Vedanta accepts
the mind is the supreme problem. Yoga advocates the reality is
seen in the religious experience as is seen in science and also in
human life.
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The philosophy which is ancient and which had its birth in

India is the glorious philosophy of Yoga. This philosophy, even in
this modern era has not lost its lustre a bit, but can be seen increas-
ing at a high speed. The Vedic Samhitas gives an insight into the
early usage of the term of Yoga. The back ground of this study has
been set by examining the references of Yoga from the long list of
Vedic literature to classical treatises.
Vijnanabhikshu is one of the glorious sons born in the lap of
Mother India. The life of Vijnanabhikshu is full of elevation and
depression. One is in the dark as regards his place and date of
Vijnanabhikshu. No one is sure whether he was an absolute Vairagi
or not. It seems that he was interested of any honour or respect, so
he might have concealed his life. It is probably between the latter
half of sixteenth century and the start of the seventeenth century.
The date, the place of birth is but the guess of many scholars, as he
never revealed his identity.
The sixteenth century was the age of literary flourishment in
the history of India. This is so because it was during this period that
the genius Vijnanabhikshu and a man of words came forward to
put down his scholastic ideas which were filled to the brim with
creativity and independence .He adopts a style of assuage attitude
in putting down his ideas. He was a proliferous author whose writ-
ing is boundless and spreads overall system of philosophy. He has
to his credit eighteen works. The published works among these
eighteen works, Samkhya pravacanabhashya, Samkhyasara,
Yogavarttika, Yogasrasangraha, Vijnanamrutabhashya and
Isvaragita bhashya.
Vijnanabhikshu is the profounder of the system of
Avibhagadvaita or Integral non-dualism. This was the by product
of the thoughts of Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta.
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The scholastic excellence of Vijnanabhikshu can be viewed

in the Samkhyasara which is the interpretation. Vijnanabhikshu by
standing firm on the general trend of Samkhya approaches it in a
diversified and unusual ways. This merging or combining of
Samkhya and Vedanta was to reduce the glaring difference that
existed between the srutis of Upanishads and the Samkhya phi-
losophy. The Samkhya pravacanabhashya yet another book on the
interpretation of Samkhya by Vijnanabhikshu, is the explanation
of Samkhyaand seven verses marks its beginning. Vijnanabhikshu
advocates that the similarity of self and consciousness and he says
that there is non- duality in consciousness.
Vijnanabhikshu’s scholastic brilliance can be seen in writ-
ings of Puranas, besides Samkhya and Yoga philosophy. He has
given the word of explanation to the second part of the
KurmaPurana, the first eleven chapter called Isvaragita. The idea to
pen the commentary Isvaragitabhashya was because the shades of
the theme of Bhagavadgita and Isvaragita. Moreover the
Vedantadogmas is embedded in the Isvaragita. The arena of the
Vedanta was also dealt intensively by Vijnanabhikshu. The
outcomeis the Vijnanamrutabhashya. The Vijnanamrutabhashya or
the Îjuvyakhya contains the commentary of the Badaraya¸a on
Vedantasutras. Justice has been done to the term Rijuvyakhya be-
cause it is written in very transparent and also in a direct manner.
The Vedanta is approached by Vijnanabhikshu, on the basis of
Samkhya of Sankara, is counteractive to BrahÅmasutra and also to
the duality of Samkhya Yoga. The peculiarity or the extra ordinary
powers of the Brahman, Purusha and Prakruthi are all amalgam-
ated in them. This very Brahman is named differently -Isvara,
Paramesvara, Mahesvara etc. The Brahman is in reality the one and
only supreme power.
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Vijnanabhikshu’s boundless knowledge of Yoga is specified

in the books of Yoga philosophy he has penned. The Yogavarttika,
and Yogasarasangraha are the works which reveals his knowledge
of Yoga. Yogavarttika,is the explanation given by Vijnanabhikshu
on the Vyasabhashya. He not only comments Vyasa but also re-
veals the left out and misunderstood theories of Patanjali’s Yogasutra
by Vyasa. Yogavarttika, consists of Sutras Smrutis and the like
which was difficult to understand and so he wrote Yogasarasangraha
for the common man to understand and comprehend the philoso-
phy of Yoga Yogasarasangraha is considered to be the last work of
Vijnanabhikshu.
The meaning of Yoga of the ancient or Vedic period is a far
cry from the meaning understood in the modern era. This differ-
ence is seen in the system of philosophy. The philosophy of Yoga,
in the Upanishadic period was meant as a system which was to the
brim with spiritual practices which aimed at preparing human be-
ings to achieve the life’s highest achievement i.e. liberation. The
word Yoga is derived from two words having two different roots as
‘YujSamadhau’ and ‘Yujiryoge’.
The doctrine of Indian philosophy traces the similarities of
Samkhya and Yoga. The Samkhya philosophy can be seen to fo-
cus on the aspect of theory and Yoga is more concerned with the
practical aspect. The similarities of these philosophies, i.e. Samkhya
and Yoga, makes one to think that they are not two separate phi-
losophies but a single, merged into one. In the long run these two
started to exhibit their original features or in other words changed
their colours as chameleon and so was designated as two different
branches of the philosophical systems.
As said earlier as the part of study the entire history of the
Yoga, from the early sources such as Upanishads and the
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Bhagavadgita, to the present age has been skimmed and scanned.

One can see a long line of references of Yoga in the Epic, Puranas
and the like. The study of Yoga philosophy can never be started
from the Vedic origin alone but from the non Vedic origin should
also be taken into consideration Meditation the major component
of Yoga philosophy is the most essential means to attain liberation.
The Yogasutras of Patanjali are the ground on which the phi-
losophy of Yoga has been built up. The oldest and authentic com-
mentary of Yogasutra is that written by Vyasa called Vyasabhashya.
Vyasa has shown his scholastic skill in this commentary and there are
many meaning hidden deep inside the words. In order to bring out
the meanings or the inner meaning to be understood by the people
many commentaries were put down by many scholars. These sub-
commentaries have their make in the lineage of the history of litera-
ture on Yoga.
Yoga on the basis of tradition and acceptance has been divided
into Mantra Yoga, Hata Yoga, Laya Yoga and Raja Yoga. Yoga is
widely accepted and their makes this system a special one or there is
the main peculiarities Yoga to lead a disciplined life. The features
followed by him are Sauca etc. The good conduct is a must for some
philosophies and this is attained if one goes for Yogic practices.
The writings of Vijnanabhikshu on the philosophy of Yoga,
Yogavarttika, and Yogasarasangraha are par excellence. These works
points out many Yogic concepts. The element of the traditional study
of Yoga is mainly used in the Yogasarasangraha as the theoretical
aspect. The control of mind is the main theme of Yoga philosophy
and there are various paths to attain this control. The Yogasarasangraha
gives a very detailed explanation of the various types of Yogins. One
is made fit for Samadhi by following several practices like Abhaysa,
VairagyaKriyayoga etc. A very beautiful word picture of the eight
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limbs of Yoga is there in Yogasarasangraha. The practice of eight

limbs of Yoga will lead an aspirant to the ultimate aim of human life
that is Samadhi. Various types of Samadhi are explained in this as
Samprajnata Samadhi, Asamprajnata Samadhi, Dharmamegha
Samadhi etc. Yogavarttika, has been collected in the pot knows as
Yogasarasangraha.
The path of liberation is not an easy one to tread upon as it is
filled with hard rocks and thorns. To overcome the obstacle like the
opposite thoughts and its associates, its cause, results and the means
to suppress there is elaborately described in Yogasarasangraha. The
study of this treatise thoroughly will enable an aspirant to attain
Kaivalya. This works expounds Vijnanabhikshu’sinterest in the areas
of word, Sphota ,Sabda, Akasa and so on. The Yogasarasangraha
can also beconsidered as the books of quotations because one can
find a large number of these in these work. One should not misunder-
stand that in Yogasarasangraha. Vijnanabhikshu has stressed on the
theoretical aspect only, on the other hand practical side is also stressed.
Vijnanabhikshu is a strong and stanch believer and practitioner of
Yoga can be deciphered by one, when one goes through it. It can also
be concluded that Vijnanabhikshu was also a teacher of Yoga be-
cause only one who has experienced every inch of this system, is
able to put it down so beautifully.
The importance of Yoga has not lost its shine even in this twenty-
first century. The globalisation in the cultural arena has made Yoga
universally accepted one. The present status of Yoga and the sources
which have helped its growth are all examined thoroughly. The status
of Yoga today is only for physical fitness and to free the mind from
stress and strain.
One must surely, at least once in one’s life must go through
the pages of the life and works of Vijnanabhikshu. As regards the
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record of Vijnanabhikshu’s life, there are many short comings, yet

whatever is available is the treasure box of Indian philosophy. There
is a large scope for arousing curiosity when one reads the works of
Vijnanabhikshu. The works of Vijnanabhikshu is thefathom point
in the ocean of philosophy. The reader of Vijnanabhikshu must be
highly qualified or should have an aptitude and know the philoso-
phy thoroughly.
The nineteenth century orient lists have taken up as their re-
sponsibility to uncover or reveal to the world the high scholastic
ability of man about whom little is known about the personal life
.The personality is none other Vijnanabhikshu. One who goes
through the entire works of Vijnanabhikshu will surely be attracted
to the Indian philosophy and its loftiness. Vijnanabhikshu’s works
takes one to the past history of Indian philosophy and to the realm
of the web of present and past philosophy and its bonding to make
the future philosophy of India. It can be concluded that the scan-
ning and skimming of Vijnanabhikshu’s works will surely produces
a supreme person who strive to attain Kaivalya the ultimate aim of
human life.
FINDINGS
The birth of philosophers depends on the social scenario of
that particular period. So is the case of literary personalities. This is
clear to the core when the life and works of Vijnanabhikshu is taken
into consideration. There was complete emptiness in the field of
philosophical atmosphere as the breeze of Bhakti movement and
its related activities were sweeping all over the society. Even the
ideological thoughts were ignored and neglected. Vijnanabhikshu
a genius and a scholar took to his responsibility to coin knowledge
and karma and build the structure of Jnanakarmasamaccaya. To
promote this structure he combined the three philosophies Samkhya,
151
An Analytical Study
Yoga and Vedanta. He found a new philosophy of his own, based

on this union- Avibhagadvaita.
Vijnanabhikshu knows that Advaita was too complicated and
it can never be comprehended by the common man, who then was
immersed in the Bhakti and Isvara with Samkhya. When it came to
the knowledge part, he combined it with Karma. Karma is the magic
potion which hinders people from being in evil thoughts. It is said
that the reward for evil doing is unbearable. Taking all this into
consideration Vijnanabhikshu conjoined Karma and Jnana. He also
understood that teaching idealism in that society is like taking wa-
ter on lotus leaves. So he decided to impart the knowledge of self
realisation to all irrespective of caste, creed or Vedantic scholarly
intellectuals.
The proof of this is evident from his works and the writings
he selected for interpretation. Vijnanabhikshu was never a social
activist, but a Philosopher of great genius, who blended three sys-
tems of philosophy and the philosophy of Knowledge and Karma.
The idea for uniting Jnana and Karma might have aroused when
Vijnanabhikshu came to know the intelligence of common people
in the pool of devotion and not in their duties. He aimed at chang-
ing the lethargic tendency. So it can be concluded that
Vijnanabhikshu is the product of social situation.
During the period of Vijnanabhikshu many philosophers tried
their efforts to develop the philosophical systems. They found slight
difference among them. This made Vijnanabhikshu formulate
Avibhagadvaita philosophy and also the argument among the phi-
losophers sprouted out. So these also forced Vijnanabhikshu for a
new philosophy.
All the philosophy, to this date has not be researched or stud-
ied in depth. If one goes to the depth of those philosophies, the
gems of new thoughts and ideas can be found.
152
An Analytical Study
The idea of Jnanakarma samuccayavada can also be included

into Vijnanabhikshu’s philosophy. On this basis he has summarised
the three philosophies Samkhya, Yoga, Vedanta. To understand
these philosophies and its arguments, researchers should have a
thorough knowledge of these systems and have put their brains
into it. Till today no researcher has been able to go into
Vijnanabhikshu’s works through and thorough.
• Vijnanabhikshu after his Yogavarttika, thought simplify-
ing the caste ideas of Yoga, for the laymen and the result
was Yogasarasangraha.
• Yogasarasangraha was written with a view to propagate
the simplified method of Yoga.
• He classified the practitioners of yoga that is according to
will power and determination of the practitioners-as
Aruraksha, Yunjana and Yogarudha. The path of libera-
tion according to the ability of human is detailed by
Vijnanabhikshu.
• He like other philosophers has not stressed the super power
in Yogasarasangraha.
• After reading and understanding the Yogasarasangraha, it
can bedeciphered that Vijnanabhikshu was a staunch Yo-
gic scholar par excellence and a disciplined practitioner.
153
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Yogasarasangraha of

All the rights reserved. No part of this book may be produced

First printed: December, 2018

Published by ISDA Publications

Dr. O.K. Gayathri

Spirituality is the footage of Indian philosophy. The philosophers

Vijnanabhikshu had flourished during the 16th century AD. Eigh-

BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................... 154-160

The Hindu philosophical system of India is categorised as Asthika

Vyasabhasya clearly states the meaning of the word Yoga as

As a branch of religious rite Tapas and Brahmacharya is

and the psychological results were explained by Patanjali. This is

organs and even the intellect does not function is supposed to be

Yoga embedded in Epics and Puranas

Yoga or the Yoga of action, Jnana Yoga or the Yoga of knowl-

Yoga in the Philosophical Deliberations

filled with disciplines. These disciplines are so structured that it

is non intelligent is to be controlled by an intelligent force to bring

comes under the control of Avidya or ignorance, for Avidya is un-

Patanjalihas presented one of the highly acclaimed, real texts

commentary and the language used is very simple. Bhojadeva was

is the only scholar who wrote various intellectual commentaries on

Yogarajopanishad : It consists of twenty one mantras. There

The method of Raja Yoga was first introduced by Patanjali

Vyasa: Vyasa is the most popular name in ancient Sanskrit

India has given birth to many praiseworthy sons and daughters.

his works or rather on the basis of linguistic expressions in the works.

Nyaya, if so he must have been in the second half of the sixteenth

The name of Vijnanabhikshu has been mentioned in the works

It is seen that Vijnanabhikshu in his works gives reference to

no manuscript available. Thus it can be terminated that the above

Vijnanabhikshu’s Vedantic Writings

Samkhya Philosophy and Vijnanabhikshu

of Samkhya and Vedanta which stands out. Vijnanabhikshu adopts a

compliment of Purusha or rather the things which constitute Purusha

seven in number. Vijnanabhikshu who authored this book, remarks

The decision of Vijnanabhikshu to write a commentary on

is the unproductive. The Jiva is a part of God or born out of God,

The treatise on the Sutra ‘Janmadyasya yatah’ Vijnanabhikshu

According to Samkhya and Yoga, the Prakruthi is supposed

not mince towards whenever Vyasa misunderstood Patanjali. In

The third section includes of the Siddhis resulting from

The Samkhya school of Kapila is said to be the oldest of the six

Darsana. This is considered as older than Nyaya and next to

Bhagavadgita. The trio is known as Prasthanas. Vedanta system is a

tations. These divergent explanations and dogmas have paved the

Ramanuja’s Visishtadvaita School

The independent substance is God and he is depended on by

The relation between individual self and the Lord is due to

Vijnanabhikshu is the propagator of the Bhedabheda School,

and Prakruthi and its various manifestations. The Brahman is called

Brashmasutra in connection with Samkhya principles latent in the

is connected with Kala and this implies evolutionary activities ac-

the Ganges following into the ocean. Vijnanabhikshu puts forward

creation, sustaining and destructing or the activities of the world,

modification of the pure Sattva adjunct is attributed to Brahman.

this process cannot be explained or it will be in the depth of igno-

Prakruthi cannot be in any circumstances exist in Brahman. The

Prakruthi gives out the needed results. Depending on the result of

Brahman. So the world which is born of Prakruthi is also the part of

(aupadhika bheda). Brahman is said to be different from the indi-

of the individual self and they have o only bounded experiences.

Unity of Brahman and Jiva

Consciousness is the essential requisite of the self. As light which